Forensic 1

FORENSIC
PHOTOGRAPHY
First Semester 2020-2021

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Target Time Frame:2 Weeks Duration (September 7-September 21)
Approach: Distance Learning
Platform Sites:Gmail, Google Classroom, Google Meet
Alternative Access Strategy:Offline Learners – worksheets, power
point presentation, videos saved in USB.

Allotted Time Lesson Schedule for each Module

Session Topic Time

5 Lesson 3 1 and half hour
- Camera
- Exposure

Learning Outcome / Objective

At the end of this module, students should be able to:
(Session 4)
a. know the different types of Camera

CAMERA

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 It is defined as a light tight box chambered to the aperture enclosed in a shutter at the opposite
end of which is the place where sensitized material is located.
A Camera may also be defined as a light tight (proof) box with a means of forming the image- LENS
or PINHOLE, with a means of holding sensitized material at one end- FILM HOLDER, and with a means of
controlling the amount of light needed to affect the film at the other end- SHUTTER.

Other Definitions:

 Device for taking photographs: a device for taking photographs by letting light from an image fall
briefly onto sensitized film, usually by means of a lens and shutter mechanism.

 device for making pictures: a device that converts images into electrical signals for television
transmission, video recording, or digital storage

Modern cameras operate on the basic principle of the camera obscura. Light passing through a tiny
hole, or aperture, into an otherwise light-proof box casts an image on the surface opposite the aperture.
The addition of a lens sharpens the image, and film makes possible a fixed, reproducible image. The
camera is the mechanism by which film can be exposed in a controlled manner. Although they differ in
structural details, modern cameras consist of four basic components: body, shutter, diaphragm, and
lens.

Pinhole Camera

A simple camera can be built by making a pinhole in a box. Light passes through the hole and forms
an inverted, backwards image of the subject on the back of the box. The image will be somewhat dim,
but the detail sharp enough that properly placed film will produce a good photograph. However, this
kind of photography only works if the film receives absolutely no other light.

The lens, which is attached to the front of the body, is actually a grouping of optical glass lenses.
Housed in a metal ring or cylinder, it allows the photographer to focus an image on the film. The lens
may be fixed in place or set in a movable mount. Objects located at various distances from the camera
can be brought into sharp focus by adjusting the distance between the lens and the film.
The diaphragm, a circular aperture behind the lens, operates in conjunction with the shutter to
admit light into the light-proof chamber. This opening may be fixed, as in many amateur cameras, or it
may be adjustable. Adjustable diaphragms are composed of overlapping strips of metal or plastic that,
when spread apart, form an opening of the same diameter as the lens; when meshed together, they
form a small opening behind the centre of the lens. The aperture openings correspond to numerical
settings, called f-stops, on the camera or the lens.

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The shutter, a spring-activated mechanical device, keeps light from entering the camera except during
the interval of exposure. Most modern cameras have focal-plane or leaf shutters. Some older amateur
cameras use a drop-blade shutter, consisting of a hinged piece that, when released, pulls across the
diaphragm opening and exposes the film for about 1/30th of a second.

In the leaf shutter, at the moment of exposure, a cluster of meshed blades springs apart to uncover
the full lens aperture and then springs shut. The focal-plane shutter consists of a black shade with a
variable-size slit across its width. When released, the shade moves quickly across the film, exposing it
progressively as the slit moves.
The viewing system or viewfinder to enable the photographer to see, through the lens of the
camera, the scene being photographed.

EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

1. Pinhole Camera-
2. Box Camera
3. Camera Obscura

OTHER TYPE OF CAMERA

1. Roll Film Camera- cheapest and simplest to use

a. Box Camera -best for beginners, it is cheap and capable of turning out good results without too
much effort
b. Folding Camera- it has a leather bellows instead of a solid body
c. Reflex Camera- term reflex is derived from the word reflection, means that one or more mirrors
are employed to form the image you see when you look into the camera.
* 35mm Single Lens Reflex (SLR
* Twin Lens Reflex
* Miniature camera
d. German Leica
a) Range Finder
b) Single Lens Reflex

2. Press Camera

3. View Camera

4. Studio Camera

5. Graphic Camera

6. Camera Still

7. Polaroid Camera

8. Video Still CameraI

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SLR Camera Anatomy

1. Film winder 2. Shutter Speed Dial.

3. Flash Hotshoe 4. Focusing ring.

5. Film Rewind Crank 6. Film Speed Dial.

7. Flash Synch Socket 8. Lens.

9. Depth of Field Preview 10. Self Timer/Exposure Lock.

11. Aperture Ring 12. Shutter Release

The Single-lens reflex, or SLR, cameras are among the most common in use today. Singlelens reflex
means that the same lens is used for viewing and taking the photograph. The movable mirror between
the lens and the film reflects the image on a ground-glass viewing screen while the user adjusts the
focus. When the shutter release button is depressed, a spring pushes the mirror out of the way, and the
image is recorded on the film.

Single-lens reflex camera

The single-lens reflex (SLR) is a type of

camera that uses a movable mirror placed
between the lens and the film to project the
image seen through the lens to a matte
focusing screen. Most SLRs use a roof
pentaprism or pentamirror to observe the
image via an eyepiece, but there are also
other finder arrangements, such as the waist-
level finder or porro prisms.I

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The shutter in almost all contemporary SLRs sits just in front of the focal plane. If it does not, some other
mechanism is required to ensure that no light reaches the film between exposures. For example, the
Hasselblad 500C camera uses an auxiliary shutter blind in addition to its in-lens leaf shutter.

The cross-section (side-view) of the optical components of an SLR shows how the light passes through
the lens assembly (1), is reflected by the mirror (2) and is projected on the matte focusing screen (5). Via
a condensing lens (6) and internal reflections in the roof pentaprism (7) the image appears in the
eyepiece (8). When an image is taken, the mirror moves in the direction of the arrow, the focal plane
shutter (3) opens, and the image is projected in the film (4) in exactly the same manner as on the
focusing screen.

This feature separates SLRs from other cameras, as the user sees the image as it would be captured. This
aids in accurately knowing the image beforehand.

Exposure Control
Shutter Speed and Aperture Settings
The shutter is a sliding door that allows light to pass through the aperture (opening) onto the film.
Different settings on a small dial on the top of the camera determine how long the shutter will remain
open. The aperture selector is on the body of the lens. The numbers that indicate the size of the
aperture are called f-numbers or f-stops. The f-stop is equal to the ratio of the focal length of the lens to
the diameter of the opening. The shutter speed and f-stop determine the exposure—that is, the overall
amount of light that will reach the film. However, even when the amount of light is constant, the effect
may be different. Photographers experiment with different combinations to achieve various effects.

Designs
Cameras come in a variety of configurations and sizes. The first cameras, “pinhole” acameras, had
no lens. The flow of light was controlled simply by blocking the pinhole. The first camera in general use,
the box camera, consists of a wooden or plastic box with a simple lens and a drop-blade shutter at one
end and a holder for roll film at the other. The box camera is equipped with a simple viewfinder that
shows the extent of the picture area; some models have, in addition, one or two diaphragm apertures
and a simple focusing device.

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 The view camera, used primarily by professionals, is the camera closest in design to early cameras that
is still in widespread use. Despite the unique capability of the view camera, however, other camera
types, because of their greater versatility, are more commonly used by both amateurs and professionals.
Chief among these are the single-lens reflex, twin-lens reflex (TLR), and rangefinder. Most SLR and
rangefinder cameras use the 35-mm film format, while most TLR as well as some SLR and rangefinder
cameras use medium-format film, that is, size 120 or 220.

View Cameras
View cameras are generally larger and heavier than medium- and small-format cameras and are
most often used for studio, landscape, and architectural photography. These cameras use largeformat
films that produce either negatives or transparencies with far greater detail and sharpness than smaller
format film.
Rangefinder Cameras
Rangefinder cameras have a viewfinder through which the photographer sees and frames the
subject or scene. The viewfinder does not, however, show the scene through the lens but instead closely
approximates what the lens would record. This situation, in which the point of view of the lens does not
match that of the viewfinder, results in what is known as parallax. At longer distances, the effects of
parallax are negligible; at short distances, they become more pronounced, making it difficult for the
photographer to frame a scene or subject with certainty.

Reflex Cameras

Reflex cameras, both the SLR and the TLR types, are equipped with mirrors that reflect in the
viewfinder the scene to be photographed. The twin-lens reflex is box-shaped, with a viewfinder
consisting of a horizontal ground-glass screen located at the top of the camera. Mounted vertically on
the front panel of the camera are two lenses, one for taking photographs and the other for viewing. The
lenses are coupled, so that focusing one automatically focuses the other. The image formed by the
upper, or viewing, lens is reflected to the viewing screen by a fixed mirror mounted at a 45° angle. The
photographer focuses the camera and adjusts the composition while looking at the screen. The image
formed by the lower lens is focused on the film at the back of the camera. Like rangefinder cameras,
TLRs are subject to parallax.

In the SLR type of reflex camera, a single lens is used for both viewing the scene and taking the
photograph. A hinged mirror situated between the lens and the film reflects the image formed by the
lens through a five-sided prism and on to a ground-glass screen on top of the camera. At the moment
the shutter is opened, a spring automatically pulls the mirror out of the path between lens and film.
Because of the prism, the image recorded on the film is almost exactly that which the camera lens
“sees”, without any parallax effects.

Auto focus cameras use electronics and a CPU to sample automatically the distance between camera
and subject and to determine the optimum exposure level. Most autofocus cameras bounce either an
infrared light beam or ultrasonic (sonar) waves off the subject to determine distance and set the focus.

Design Comparisons

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 Folding Camera
Folding cameras, favoured for their compact design and movable
bellows, have been in use for many years. The camera’s lens is
incorporated into the bellows, which is slid back and forth along a rail to
change focus. The dark cloth covering the photographer and the box
body of the camera blocks out undesirable light, which might otherwise
interfere with the picture.

Brownie Box Camera

Box cameras like this “Brownie” were the earliest cameras used by the
general public. Relatively simple in design and operation, they consisted of a
wooden or plastic box, a drop-blade shutter, and a holding device for the
film. Modern box cameras are similar to early models, generally featuring
only one shutter speed and one opening; the very easy operation makes it a
popular camera among casual photographers.

Early SLR

Forerunner to many modern cameras, the 1937 Exacta singlelens reflex

(SLR) model featured a viewfinder, a film-winder, and precision action.

View Camera
View cameras are used for portrait and still-life photography. A geared
track, precision lenses, and a long bellows make the cameras fairly
cumbersome, but they are capable of capturing difficult subjects such as
buildings with a minimum of distortion.

Polaroid Instant Camera

The Polaroid, or instant, camera delivers a finished print directly
following exposure. Although most models are somewhat larger than
the standard personal camera, the advantage of this system is the
convenience and speed of the results. Special film used in conjunction
with the camera is designed to develop itself, and represents one of the
more recent chemical revolutions in photography.

Reflex Camera

Reflex cameras use mirrors to form an image of the scene

to be photographed in the viewfinder. The 35-mm single-
lens reflex (SLR) camera is one of the most popular
cameras on the market today because of its compact size,
speed, and versatility. Most models offer a combination
of automatic and manual options.

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Autofocus Camera
Some cameras are able to adjust themselves automatically,
focusing on the main figure in the field view. The autofocus
mechanism usually bounces infrared light beams or ultrasonic
waves off of a subject, taking rangefinding samples which are
processed electronically.

Accessorized SLR
Photographers may create a complicated-looking arrangement by
accessorizing a basic camera according to their personal taste and
desired photographic effects. Here, a tourist has added a telephoto
lens and a tripod to a basic single-lens reflex (SLR) camera in order
to capture an East African scene.

Digital Photography
In the late 20th century, new technologies began to blur the lines between photography and other
image-making systems. In some new forms of still photography, silver-halide emulsions were replaced
by electronic methods of recording visual information. I

Digital Camera Unlike conventional film cameras, photographs taken with a digital camera are stored, as the name
suggests, digitally on a memory chip. Digital cameras aimed at the amateur photography market function much as
point-andshoot cameras do, with automatic focus, automatic exposure, and built-in electronic flash. Pictures from
these cameras contain fewer pixels than those from a more expensive camera and are therefore not as sharp.
After taking pictures, image files can be transferred to a home computer, stored on disk, or sent via e-mail.

Digital Camera Anatomy

The key differences between digital and conventional photography
are the means by which the image is captured and stored. In the digital
process, instead of light-sensitive film, the camera uses a charged-coupled
device (CCD)—an electronic sensor that translates light into an electrical
signal. This signal is converted into digital data via an analogue-to-digital
converter (ADC). A digital signal processor (DSP) then adjusts the contrast and
detail, before compressing the image so that it can be conveniently stored on
the camera's memory card (Flash memory card). Images can be downloaded
directly to a computer either by using an adapter for the memory card or by
connecting a cable to the camera's serial port/universal serial bus (USB)
socket. The advantages of the digital camera are its capacity—many more
images can be accommodated than on a conventional roll of film—and its
immediacy, as a liquid-crystal display on the back of the camera allows the
user to preview and review images instantly.

Digital Camera
Unlike conventional film cameras, photographs taken with a digital camera
are stored, as the name suggests, digitally on a memory chip.

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BASIC PARTS OF THE MODERN CAMERA

1. Body or Light tight box- an enclosure devoid of light

2. Lens or Pinhole- necessary to focus rays of light that is reflected by the subject unto the film
3. Film Holder- Located at the opposite side/end of the lens of a camera, necessary to hold firmly
the sensitized material in the correct plane during exposure intervals.
4. Shutter- it is often known to be the door of the camera; it controls, when and how long will the
light fall on the film
Two types of Shutters
a. Leaf shutter- shutter that is found either between the elements in the lens; made of small
overlapping metal blades powered by a spring and generally placedeither between the lens also
known as the central plane shutter or after the lens of the camera.
b. Focal Plane Shutter- shutter is found adjacent to the film; made of black cloth of small
sheet of metal which is also powered by a spring and generally found in the film plane. When
shutter release button is pressed, leaf shutter is opened and closed again in pre-set time in the
shutter speed dial of the camera.
5. Viewing System or Viewfinder- used to determine what will be included or covered in the picture.

OTHER PARTS OF THE CAMERA

1. Film transport mechanism- moves new, unexposed film into position for next picture
2. Film Advancer- necessary so that exposed film can be transferred to the take up spool while
the unexposed film remains on the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
3. Film advance lever
4. Film rewind crank
5. Film Rewind knob
6. Take up spool

BASIC MECHANISMS OF SLR CAMERA

1. Shutter speed dial- controls the opening and closing of the shutter; regulates quantity of light
that reaches and affects the film inside the camera; a dial which sets the length of time in which
the light is allowed to enter the camera.
Cameras without SSD has a default shutter speed of:
a. 125 or 1/125 of a second without flash
b. 60 or 1/60 of a second with flash
2. Shutter release button- the “click” of the camera which releases the shutter
3. Focusing Mechanism- estimates the appropriate objects distance from the camera to form a
sharp or clear image on the photograph.
a. Focusing Ring- outer ring of the lens which is rotated or adjusted to obtain clear and
sharp photograph; it enables photographer to adjust focal range
b. Distance scale- the focus index or range of sharp focus; a set of number which
determines the appropriate depth of field
4. Diaphragm- the window, the eyes of the camera; to control how much light reaches the film;
the mechanical device in the focusing assembly that is used to adjust the aperture. The Aperture
refers to the diameter of the camera lens opening.
a. F-Stop Ring- Diaphragm ring or aperture ring. This is a narrow rotating ring on the
barrel of the lens. It is generally located close to the body of the camera.

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 b- the number indicating the size of lens opening located at the inner ring of the
focusing mechanism. The lower the f-stop, the bigger the opening of the lens.
5. ASA Dial- Film Speed Dial On the top plate usually to the left. Newer electronic cameras set the
film speed from the DX code on the film cassette itself. You may be allowed to over ride this or
maybe you won't
6. Flash Units
a. Flash terminal
b. Flash accessory shoe
c. Plane accessory shoe
d. Hot shoe
7. Timer- Self Timer
8. Cable release
Other Important Parts
These are the controls that you will have to get to grips with to get the most from your camera.
Additionally there may be other knobs and buttons on your camera which could prove useful.
 Depth of field preview control. On the front near the lens.
 Self timer
 Exposure lock
 Multiple exposure switch. Allows you to make multiple exposures on to one frame.
 Exposure compensation dial. Allows you to over ride automatic exposure settings.
 Mirror lock up.
 On/Off switch. Move to On to make your camera work. Move to Off to make it stop.
Advantages
 Many of the advantages of SLR cameras derive from viewing the scene through the taking lens.
The term Single Lens Reflex designates a type of camera which incorporates a viewing system
where the subject is seen through the lens.
 SLR cameras provided photographers with precision accuracy; they were seeing an image that
would be exposed onto the negative exactly as it was seen through the lens.
 There is no parallax error, and exact focus can be confirmed by eye—otherwise hard for macro
photography and when using telephoto lenses.
 The true depth of field may be seen by stopping down to the taking aperture.
 Because of the SLR's versatility, most manufacturers have a vast range of lenses and accessories
available.
 Compared to most fixed-lens compact cameras, the most commonly used and cheapest SLR
lenses offer a wider aperture range and larger maximum aperture (typically f/1.4 to f/1.8 for a
50 mm lens).
 Photographs can be taken in lower light conditions without flash, and allows a narrower depth
of field, which is useful for blurring the background behind the subject, making the subject more
prominent.
 This is commonly used in portrait photography.
Disadvantages
o A disadvantage of the SLR is that you cannot view a scene at the moment the shutter captures
the image.
o SLR cameras are usually heavier and larger than compact cameras because they have a
pentaprism and mirror box.

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 o The SLR's space-consuming mirror movement makes for difficulty in constructing wide angle
lenses; rear lens elements cannot be close to the film plane. Retrofocus designs are required for
wide-angle lenses; these are complex, large, and comparatively poorer in image quality.
o The reflex mirror must retract before the shutter can open, which introduces some delay. Auto
focus systems on modern SLRs introduce further delay, especially in lower light.
o The mirror's movement also causes vibration and noise, a problem when using longer lenses and
longer exposures.
o The SLR user cannot see anything outside the taking frame through the viewfinder, while with most
rangefinder systems.

Camera Automation
The degree of automation a camera can vary from none, where you have to set all the controls manually,
to fully automatic where the camera makes all the decisions and makes all the settings accordingly.

First of all we will get focusing out of the way. With focusing you have two choices, autofocus (AF) or
manual focus. There are different types of autofocus systems but basically you either have it turned on or you
don't. Although autofocus is pretty standard on new 35mm/APS cameras these days not having this feature isn't
really a drawback. AF can be quick, convenient and fairly reliable but is by no means essential.

4 modes of camera automation

 Manual. (M) You set the aperture and shutter yourself.

 Aperture Priority. (A) You set the aperture and the camera will automatically select the corresponding
shutter speed.
 Shutter Priority. (S) You set the shutter speed and the camera will automatically select the corresponding
aperture.
 Program. (P) You point the camera and it will select a suitable aperture and shutter combination.

Within 'program mode' you can have another pile of 'modes' depending on what type of subject you are
photographing. You could have;

 Action mode
 Landscape mode
 Portrait mode
 Close-up mode
 Fill-in Flash mode
 Night mode.

However, you will never find, on any camera, anywhere, no matter how much you spend and no matter how
much the sales person tells you how invaluable a cameras multitude of 'modes' and 'features' are, you will not find
a 'good picture mode' . An auto camera may simply select a shutter speed to match a pre-set aperture value or it
may perform a complex decision making task involving information regarding the type of subject, lens attached
and other data you may input. After all this calculation the camera will then adjust the shutter and aperture. And
that, basically, is all they do.

Exposure Meters

Serious photographers use exposure meters to measure the intensity of light in a given situation to determine the
proper combination of shutter speed and diaphragm aperture. Four major types of meter are in use: incident light,
reflected light, spot, and flash, although strictly speaking, spot meters are a type of reflected light meter, and flash
meters can be of either incident or reflected type.

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Incident light meters measure the intensity of light falling on a subject. To take an incident light reading, the meter
is placed alongside the subject and pointed at the camera. Reflected light meters measure the intensity of light
reflected by the subject. They are read with the meter at the camera, pointed towards the subject. Most incident
light meters can also be modified for use as reflected light meters.

Spot meters measure reflected light in an area as little as 1°, whereas the types mentioned above cover a much
broader angular range: from 30° to 50° for a reflected-light meter, to 180° for an incident light meter. Flash meters
are designed to measure only the split-second bursts emitted by flash units. Combination meters are designed with
incident-light, reflected-light, and flashmetering capability.

The TTL Lightmeter

Most, if not all, modern 35mm/APS SLR cameras come with some form of built in light metering system.
The finer points of how specific lightmeters actually measure light may vary but the basic operation is the same for
most built in systems. Once activated, usually by turning the camera on or by light pressure on the shutter release,
the light meter measures the light reflected back through the camera lens from the scene in front of it. This type of
lightmeter is known as a Reflected Light Through The Lens meter. Commonly referred to as a TTL meter.

Using a TTL meter is a fairly straight forward operation. With the meter switched on simply compose your
picture as normal and the meter will take a 'reading' from the scene. You will then be presented with information
about the necessary aperture or shutter settings that may be required. These readings are based on the amount of
light reflected back from the scene and on the sensitivity of the film you are using. You must inform the meter of
the correct film speed either by setting it manually or using DX coded film (it has a bar code on it) if your camera
supports this feature. Depending on the 'mode' you are operating your camera in you will be presented with some
information about the shutter speed, aperture f-number or both.

1. Manual Mode. What you see will vary according to the make and model of camera you are using but will
probably be along the lines of the following.
i. An illuminated plus sign (over exposure), minus sign (under exposure) or a zero (OK) symbol to
the side of the focusing screen. (The bit where you look at your picture) in the viewfinder. You
will not be able to tell how many stops over or under you are.
ii. An illuminated scale from plus to minus. Similar to the previous one.
iii. A range of shutter speeds with a symbol indicating the currently set shutter speed and a moving
needle indicating the recommended shutter speed.
iv. As above but using LED's (little red lights) instead of a needle. Steady LED for set speed and
flashing LED for recommended speed.

In manual mode you have control of both shutter and aperture and can adjust either or both
to reach the correct exposure. You are aiming to 'zero' on a plus minus system or match the two
indicators on the other.(Match-needle system)

2. Aperture Priority. The meter will indicate its chosen shutter speed, based on the aperture you have set.
This may be shown on a scale or simply as an illuminated number in the viewfinder. If you change the
aperture the shutter speed will change to compensate. Try it to see it working.
3. Shutter Priority. The meter will indicate which f-number it will select, based on the shutter speed you
have set. This will probably be shown as a number in the viewfinder. If you change the shutter speed the
camera will change the aperture to compensate. Try it to see it working.
4. Program. The meter will indicate its choice of shutter speed and aperture. Or maybe it won't.

The shutter speed and aperture are both represented by a number and to tell which one is which, and what they
mean, we are going to have a look at each of them.
Filters

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 Made of gelatin or glass, filters are used in front of a camera lens to alter the color balance of light, to
change contrast or brightness, to minimize haze, or to create special effects. In black-and-white photography, color
filters are used with panchromatic film to transmit light of the matching color while blocking light of a contrasting
color. In a landscape photograph taken with a red filter, for example, some of the blue light of the sky is blocked,
causing the sky to appear darker and thereby emphasizing clouds. Under a blue sky, a yellow filter produces a less
extreme effect because more blue light is transmitted to the film. The No. 8 yellow filter is often used for outdoor
black-and-white photography because it renders the tone of a blue sky in much the same way that the human eye
perceives it.

Conversion filters, light-balancing filters, and color-compensating filters are all widely used in color
photography. Conversion filters change the color balance of light for a given film. Tungsten films, for example, are
designed and balanced for the color temperature of amber tungsten light. Exposed in daylight, they will produce
pictures with a bluish cast. A series 85 conversion filter can correct this. Daylight film, on the other hand, balanced
for sunlight at noon, which has a greater concentration of blue wavelengths than tungsten light, will have a yellow-
amber cast when exposed under tungsten light. A series 80 conversion filter corrects this problem.

Light-balancing filters are generally used to make small adjustments in color. These pale-toned filters
eliminate undesirable color casts or add a general warming hue. Color-compensating (CC) magenta filters can
balance greenish fluorescent light for daylight or tungsten film. Another type of filter, the polarizer, is used
primarily to reduce reflection from the surface of shiny subjects. Polarizing filters are also used in color
photography to increase color saturation.

Exposure

Exposure simply means allowing light to strike your film. The tricky part is, knowing how much light you
need and how to control the amount of light reaching the film. The former is taken care of by a light meter, usually
built in to the camera, and the latter is achieved by means of the aperture and shutter controls on your camera.
You control the exposure by allowing light to pass through the aperture for a given amount of time.

Aperture and f-numbers

The aperture is a hole whose size can be varied to allow more or less light to pass through it. The size of
apertures is expressed in f-numbers. You can calculate an f-number by dividing the lens focal length by the
diameter of the aperture. The range of f-numbers follows a standard sequence with each f-number being half as
bright, passing half as much light, as the previous one. A typical aperture range may look like this:

f 1.4; f 2; f 2.8; f 4; f5.6; f 8; f 11; f 16; f 22; f 32

There are smaller and larger f-numbers but the actual numbers used are always the same and will
maintain a constant value over different lens focal lengths. This just means that f-8, for instance, will always pass
the same amount of light no matter what camera or lens you may be using. Similarly, f-16 will pass half as much
light as f-11 and f-4 will pass twice as much as f5.6. The difference in value between one full f-number and the next
is known as a 'stop'. If you change aperture from f-8 to f-5.6 you will give your film one stop more exposure. The
smaller the f-number is then the larger the aperture is and the more light it will pass. The fnumber is also used as a
guide to the light gathering abilities of a lens. Lenses with large maximum apertures (small f-number) are described
as being 'fast'.

Shutter and Shutter Speeds

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 The shutter prevents light from reaching the film until the moment of exposure, when it opens for a
predetermined time allowing light passing through the lens aperture to reach the film. Unlike the aperture, which
is always in an open position the shutter is always closed. Like the aperture, shutter values or 'speeds' follow a
standard sequence with each one being half that of the next, allowing half as much light to pass through. A typical
shutter speed range may look like this;

1sec; 1/2sec; 1/4sec; 1/8th; 1/ 15th; 1/30th; 1/60th; 1/125th; 1/250th; 1/500th; 1/1000th; 1/2000th

Shutter speeds are expressed in seconds or fractions of a second. Slow shutter speeds run into seconds
while fast shutter speeds will be shorter than 1/500th of a second. In normal photography shutter speeds will
probably fall into the range 1/60th to 1/1000th of a second. As you may have worked out, changing from one
shutter speed to the next changes the exposure by one 'stop' in much the same way as changing the aperture.

The Shutter and the Aperture

Of the various controls on your camera the aperture and shutter controls are the ones which are going to
give a lot of control over the content of your finished photographs. It is important to understand from the outset
what they are each responsible for and how they affect each other. In a nutshell, the shutter controls movement,
which can be subject movement or camera movement (shake), and the aperture controls how much of the scene
(from front to back) will be in sharp focus. This area of sharpness is known as the 'depth of field'. Depth of field is
actually influenced by two factors: Aperture and focused distance.

Juggling

Much of the use of aperture and shutter is juggling one with the other. If you want a lot of depth of field
you will have to select a small aperture. To counter this you will have to select a shutter speed that will;

 Give you the correct exposure.

 Be sufficiently fast enough to freeze movement within the scene.
 Be fast enough to prevent camera shake.

If you want to capture fast movement you will have to select a reasonably fast shutter speed. To counter
this you will have to select an aperture which will;

o Give you the correct exposure.

o Be small enough provide sufficient depth of field.

Camera Shake.

When you take a photograph you capture a moment in time. The faster the shutter speed is the shorter
the moment will be. If you use a fast enough shutter speed the moment will appear frozen and without
movement. When you are choosing a shutter speed you will have to take into account two separate types of
movement:

 subject movement. This is anything within the picture area that is moving or may move during
exposure.
 camera movement or 'camera shake'. This is movement of the camera during exposure.

Movement appears as blurring of the image. Subject movement will only affect the part or parts that
actually move during exposure while camera shake will affect the whole image to the same degree.

 An individuals ability to hold a camera steady.

 The focal length of the lens in use at the time.
 Magnification. If you are shooting close-ups camera movement is magnified along with your subject.
Film speed
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 In order for your light meter to come up with a suitable combination of aperture size and shutter speed it
needs to know how sensitive to light a particular film is. A film's sensitivity is known as its ' speed' and is expressed
as an ASA/ISO number. The higher the number the more sensitive it is and consequently the less light it needs to
form an image. The lower the number the less sensitive it is and the more light it will require. Sensitive films are
said to be 'fast' and will have a speed of 400 ASA/ISO or above. Films with low sensitivity are said to be 'slow' and
will have a speed of less than 100 ASA/ISO. General purpose films suitable for everyday use fall into the 100-400
ASA/ISO range with 100-200 being the most popular.Like shutter speeds and aperture sizes, film speeds follow a
standard sequence.

25; 50; 100; 200; 400; 800; 1600; 3200

Film speed goes up in steps just like shutters and apertures. Each one is twice as sensitive as the next. As
far as exposure goes all you really need to know about film is its speed. It is very important that you set the correct
film speed on your light meter before you start. Most modern cameras read the film speed from a magnetic strip
on the film cassette and set the meter accordingly (DX coding). Otherwise you will have to set it yourself using
whatever method your camera/meter is equipped with.

Over and Under Exposure

Giving your film more exposure than necessary will result in overexposure. Pictures will be pale or light
with poor washed out colors. Giving your film less exposure than necessary will result in under exposure. Pictures
will be dark with poor detail in shadow and dark areas.

You will have realized by know that there are three factors involved in controlling exposure.

1. Film speed. Once set you do not alter on the same roll of film.
2. Aperture. Which you can increase or decrease.
3. Shutter speed. Which you can also increase or decrease.
They in turn share another common factor, which crops up a lot in photography, the 'stop'. Changing
either of them by one full setting will always half or double the exposure the film receives. Increasing one
and decreasing the other by the same number of 'stops' gets you the same exposure.

Here is what will happen when you press the shutter release button:
 The mirror will flip up out of the way.( SLR) That is the clunk you hear.
 The aperture will 'stop down' to the selected value.
 The shutter will open then close.
 The mirror will come back down.
 The film is wound on by one frame and the shutter is reset. Automatically if the camera has a winder or
manually, by you, if it doesn't.

Choosing and Using Shutter Speeds

Your choice of shutter speed will have a controlling effect on how movement will be captured in the finished
photograph. Too slow a shutter speed will result in blurring of the subject while too fast a shutter speed can
sometimes cause a scene to look unnaturally static. In choosing a shutter speed you will have to consider several
factors.

 Camera movement.
 Subject movement.
 How much movement you want to show.
 Aperture setting.

Subject movement

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 The most important aspect of choosing a shutter speed is getting one fast enough to freeze movement.
You can use these values as a basis for working out shutter speeds for other situations you may encounter. This is a
rough guide only and there is no substitute for practice.

Still Life Shutter speed will not affect a subject which is completely static
Landscape Landscapes are fairly static but wind will move clouds, grass, leaves etc. 1/30th
of a second if you want it still. Less if you want a bit of life in it.
Street scene. 1/60th - 1/125th of a second.
Your holiday photos 1/60th - 1/125th of a second.
Person walking. 1/125th - 1/250th of a second.
Person running. 1/500th - 1/1000th of a second.
American football, soccer, 1/250th - 1/1000th of a second and lots of practice.
rugby etc.
Car, approx. 30 mph. 1/1000th -1/2000th of a second.
Motocross 1/500th of a second and over and lots of practice.
F1 / Indy car. 1/1000th of a second and over plus lots of practice.
It is probably worth mentioning that subject movement is also relative to the distance from the camera. That
means something moving at a fixed speed will appear to move faster the closer it is to the camera / larger in the
viewfinder. On top of that, movement is more apparent travelling across your field of view than it is moving
towards you.

Activity for module III. ( FC- 102 – Forensic Photography )

Name: ________________________________________________________ Score:____________

I.Multiple Choice:

1. It is shutter mechanism of a camera which is responsible in controlling the lens opening.

a) Shutter b) Focal plane shutter

c) Leaf shutter d) Speed of the film

2.It is responsible in the opening and closing of the shutter for purposes of projecting or recording
images in the film.

a) Shutter b) Focal plane shutter

c) Leaf shutter d) Shutter speed

3. How many controls a manual SLR camera has ______________.

a) two b) three

c) four d) five

e) None of the above

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4. One which is responsible in forming image/s in the film.

a) The body or light tight box b) Shutter speed

c) Film-holder d) Lens

5. One which is responsible in controlling the amount of light needed to affect the film at the other end.

a) The body or light tight box b) Shutter speed

c) Film holder d) Lens

6. It is next in the system process of the cross-section side view of an SLR camera after the light reflected
by the mirror.

a) Light passes through the lens assembly b) Via condensing lens

c) Projected on the matte focusing screen d) Internal reflections in the roof pentaprism

7. Under the law of the lens, the higher the number of the shutter speed _________________________.

a) the higher the number the lens opening b) The minimum lens opening

c) The maximum the number the lens opening d) The lower the number the lens opening

8. If your shutter speed is 1000, the suggested lens opening is__________________.

a) f# 5.6 b) f# 4

c) f# 2.8 d) f# 2

e) f# 1.4

9. If your shutter speed is 500, the suggested lens opening is ___________________.

a) f# 5.6 b) f# 4

c) f# 2.8 d) f# 2

e( f# 1.4

10. If your shutter speed is 250, the suggested lens opening is __________________.

a) f# 5.6 b) f# 4

c) f# 2.8 d) f# 2

e) f# 1.4

11. If your shutter speed is 125, the suggested lens opening is ___________________.
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a) f# 5.6 b) f# 4

c) f# 2.8 d) f# 2

e) f# 1.4

12. If your shutter speed is 60, the suggested lens opening is _________________.

a) f# 5.6 b) f# 4

c) f# 2.8 d) f# 2

e) f# 1.4

13. A Polaroid camera can produced a black and white photograph in ___________ seconds.

a) 5 b) 10

c) 15 d) 20

14. A Polaroid camera can produced a colored photograph in _______________.

a) one minute b) two minutes

c) three minutes d) four minutes

e) five minutes

15. When the digital camera was in its manual mode, the police photographer should set-up
_________________________.

a) speed of the film b) lens opening only

c) Shutter speed only d) the camera accessories

e) both the lens opening and the shutter speed

16. When the digital camera was in its Aperture priority ( AP ), the police photographer should set-
up_____________________.

a) speed of the film b) lens opening only

c) shutter speed only d) the camera accessories

e) both the lens opening and the shutter speed

17. When the digital camera was in its Shutter priority ( S ), the police photographer should set-up
_____________________.

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a) speed of the film b) lens opening only

c) shutter speed only d) camera accessories

e) both the lens opening and the shutter speed

18. When the digital camera was in its Program operations, the camera is designed to be
_________________.

a) manual operations b) semi-automatic operations

c) automatic operations d) Selective operations

19.The determination of the speed of the film depends on its______________.

a) Number b) grade

c) rating d) all of the above

20. A positive, converging, convex lens produces what kind of image/s?

a) Clear image b) Sharp images

c) Virtual image/s of the subject d) Real image/s of the subject

e) All of the above

21. A negative, diverging, or concave lens produces what kind of images could be produced from the
subject?

a) Clear image b) Sharp image

c) Virtual image/s d) Real image/s

e) All of the above

22. In chromatic aberration the defects of the lens is concern with _______________.

a) Size of image b) length of image

c) color of image d) Height of image

e) all of the above

23. The standard time to develop a film to be negative or a negative to be a positive print is
____________.

a) one minute b) one and half minutes

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c) two minutes d) five minutes

24. A gamma rays is intended to use in photography when the medium of light is ________________.

a) transparent b) translucent

c) transmitted d) opaque material

25. Varifocal lens has ____________________________.

a) multiple optical elements b) single optical elements

c) Standard optical element d) non – standard optical elements

Gudluck……..

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