Forensic Photography

Introduction
 Forensic photography plays a very crucial role in criminal investigations. The
photographs taken at the crime scenes creates a permanent record of the scene and
evidence found there, which both investigators and prosecutors rely on and assists the
courts in the administration of justice.
 It is for this primary reason that one who will pursue career in forensic photography must
have a broad knowledge on its theoretical background before going into continuous
actual practice to gain experience and establish his credibility and competency.
Commercial Photography
 For beauty and artistry
Press Photography
 For news, visual impact, and sensationalism
Forensic Photography
 Exactness, faithfulness, and truthfulness

Photography
 Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light” and “Grapho”
means “writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to draw”.
 Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some sensitized
material with the aid of a camera, lens and its accessories and the chemical process
required in order to produce a photograph.
Sir John F. W. Herschel
 Coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to William Henry Fox Talbot.
William Henry Fox Talbot
 The author of Calotype or Talotype System; a complete process of photography which
used a negative.
 Known as the Father of Modern Photography
Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre
 He developed the Daguerre System which process a good quality of prints though
reproduction is not possible because of non used of negative
 Known as the Father of Modern Photography
Forensic
 Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people
gathered for public discussion.
 When the word forensic was used in conjunction with other science it connotes a
relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the
word legal.
Forensic Photography

1
  Is the application of principles of photography to law or administration of justice
Police Photography
 Is the application of the principles of photography in relation to the police work
 Also known in its old usage as Black and White Photography
Photograph
 It is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.
 Positive result of the photography
 Picture and photograph are not the same for a picture is a generic term; it refers to all
kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a product of
photography.
Picture
 Derived from the Latin word “picture” or “pictus” which means to paint
 It is a design or representation made by various means such as painting, drawing, or
photography
Negative
 A material showing a negative (latent) photographic image on a transparent material used
for printing positive picture as a result of chemical process

Brief History of Photography

Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham)
 Invented the first pinhole camera, also known as the Camera Obscura in 1826
Joseph Nicephore Niepce
 A French inventor who made the first successful photograph in 1826 known as
Heliography
Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre
 Revealed a successful process of developing photograph in 1839 which gains wide
acceptance and his photographs are called Daguerre Type
 Each photograph is unique because there are no negatives being used in the process
which makes reproduction impossible
William Henry Fox Talbot
 In 1839, he developed the first practical process that produced negative from which prints
could be made
 The process is called Talotype or Calotype
 1839 is known as the birth year of the photography
George Eastman
 Founder of the Eastman Kodak Company in New York which introduce the flexible, roll-
up film in 1880’s and later a hand-held roll-up film camera
 A camera that is easy to carry and use
 His company offered service for processing of film
 This marks the popularity of photography as a hobby
Dr. Harold Edgerton
 Developed the electronic flash in 1930’s which makes it as one of the most important
developments in photography
Edwin Howard Land
 In 1947, he developed the instant film and his Polaroid Land Camera

2
  In just a matter of second, image are readily formed in an instant film after shoot has been
made

Development of Electronic Photography

1800's
 Discoveries of electricity and magnetism led to the invention of electric telegraph.
1843The first Facsimile (fax) machine was patented.
1920
 Photograph can now be transmitted across Atlantic through underwater telegraph cable.
The first digital transmissions of photograph.
1950
 Both the United States and former Soviet Union were engaged in a space race. The US
government now became a major transmit images from manned and unmanned
spacecraft. 1964 Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 spacecraft was launched and was able to make
the first electronic photo of Mars. RCA television camera attached to a leg of the Apollo
11 Lunar Lander takes the first picture on the moon surface.
 Charge-Coupled device (CCD), works of Willard Boyle and George Smith, began to
record image electronically. In 1970's CCD camera were being made for industrial uses
and later adapted for astronomy and space exploration.
1980's
 Sony Corporation of Japan introduced a consumer electronic camera (the Mavica-
magnetic Video Camera).This camera can record images on two-inch floppy disks which
can be played on a television or video monitor.
1990
 DCS-100, a digital camera house in a modified Nikon SLR body was introduced by
Kodak. This is the first digital camera designed as a full professional system. This was
very expensive and had to be attached to an external hard drive. Improvements were later
made. In the same year. Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) was
introduced which is less expensive that CCD or DCS.
2000's
 Digital Cameras greatly improved. Their image quality was equal to or better than that of
film. The spread of digital later outsell film cameras.

Legal foundation of Photographic Evidence:

A. For Black and White Photographs
 1859 - Daguerreo Type was use in civil case, Lueo vs. US (regarding the authenticity of
photographs in comparing signatures)
 1874 - In criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence, Underzook vs.
Commonwealth
B. For Colored Photographs
 1943 - Civil litigations Green vs. City and County of Denver Colorado, involving spoiled
meat in violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public.
 1960 - In criminal case, State vs. Conte, showing the graphic wound of the victim

Uses of Photography

3
 1. Personal Identification
 Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is police
work.
 Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police work as a
supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system.
Mug shot Photography
 It is the process of taking photographs of the suspects in full length, half body, right and
left side views, and two quarter views.
2. For Communication
 Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of communication
considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph.
3. For Record Purposes
 Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.
Different Views in photographing
a. General View
 Taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of the
crime scene.
b. Medium View
 Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This
view will best view the nature of the crime.
c. Close-up View
 Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is
design to show the details of the crime.
d. Extreme Close-up View
 Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as
Photomacrography and photomicrography.
4. For Preservation
 Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation purposes.
Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through photograph the
initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly.
5. For Discovering and Proving
 Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as:
a. The use of Magnification
Photomicrography
 Taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to the ocular
of a compound microscope so as to show a minute detail of the physical evidence.
Photomacrogaphy
 Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extended tube
lens (macro lens) to the camera.
 Macrophotography used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
Microphotography
 It is the process of reducing into small strips of film a scenario. It is first used in
filmmaking.
Telephotography
 It is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a long focus and
Telephoto lens.

4
 b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to show
something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone.
6. For Court Exhibits
 Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they
satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A
question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its
relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving
reference as to where it came from.
 Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit.
 Either Exhibit 1, 2, 3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc. for the prosecution.
Rule 130 – Rules of Admissibility
A. Object/Real/Autoptic Proference Evidence
Section 1 Object as evidence - Objects as evidence are those addressed to the senses of the court.
When an object is relevant to the fact in issue, it may be exhibited to, examined or viewed by the
court
B. Documentary Evidence
Section 2 Documentary Evidence - Documents as evidence consist of
writings, recordings, photographs or any material containing letters, words, sounds,
numbers, figures, symbols, or their equivalent, or other modes of written expression offered as
proof of their contents. Photographs include still pictures, drawings, stored images, x-ray films,
motion pictures or videos
7. Crime Prevention
 With the use of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic
equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing
them from initially occurring.
8. Police Training
 Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police training
as well as in other agencies.
9. Reproducing and Copying
 With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be made
those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow other experts or
person to examine the specimen without compromising the original.

Essentials of Photography
1. Light
 It is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000
miles per second.
2. Camera
 A light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the
sensitized material.
3. Lens
 It is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light coming
from the object to form the image.
4. Sensitized material

5
  Composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being
transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes.
(Film and Photo Paper).
5. Chemical Process
 It is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent image and
a positive image be made resulting to what we called Photograph.

I. LIGHT
 It is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000
miles per second.
Theories of Light
1. The Wave Theory (Christiaan Huygens)
 Light travels in a form of wave
 The difference in the wavelengths results to different colors of light

2. Corpuscular Theory (Sir Isaac Newton)

 Light consist of stream of extremely small particle called corpuscles
 The difference in the size of corpuscle results to different colors of light

3. Electro Magnetic Wave Theory (James

Clerk Maxwell)
 Light waves are of the same character as the
electromagnetic waves, that are caused
by a rapidly osci11ating electric
current.

4. Quantum Theory (Albert Einstein)

 It states that light travels in bundles of energy, and each bundle is known as a photon that
behaves like a particles rather than a continuous wave

Light Wavelength

6
  It is the distance measured between two successive crest or through of wave and it is
expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom.

Millimicron
 Is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter
Angstrom
 Is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a
millimeter.

Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: Reflected,
Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT).

Reflected
 The action of the light once the light hits a glossy object such as mirror and it bounce
back

Absorbed
 When the light hits a dark colored object and prevent it from either bouncing or passing
through
Transmitted
 When the lights hits a transparent object which would allow the light to pass through

Sir Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a
mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism
(Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow,
green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also said of have a
wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.

Production of Colors
1. Absorption
 Colored compounds absorb visible light and this absorption is responsible for their color.

7
  When light is absorbed it does not pass through or reflect from a material. It remains in
the material as another form of energy.

2. Dispersion
 Colors may arise from differences in the refractive or bending power of a transparent
medium of light to different wavelength

3. Fluorescence
 Is the ability of certain chemicals to give off visible light after absorbing radiation which
is not normally visible

4. Interference
 Colors can be produced by light waves in thin film

5. Scattering
 Molecules and small particles in the atmosphere change the direction of light rays,
causing them to scatter. Scattering affects the color of light coming from the sky, but the
details are determined by the wavelength of the light and the size of the particle

8
Other Light Actions
a. Refraction
 Bending of light when it hits a certain medium which affects its velocity

b. Diffraction
 The light action when light falls bends and falls around the object

c. Dispersion
 Spread of light into various color of different wavelength after it has refracted

Types of Light
 Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.
a. Visible Light
 Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is the
type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
9
b. Invisible Light
 Lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the retina of the
human eye such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red lights.

Photographic Rays

a. X-ray
 Light with the
wavelength
between .01 to
30 millimicrons.
 It was incidentally
discovered by
Conrad Welhelm Roentgen.
 This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography.
 Can be used in examination of fractures, dislocation, haemorrhage, and foreign object
inside the body
b. Ultra-Violet Ray (Before the Violet)
 Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers
 Appears before the violet color of the visible light
 Can be used in examination of erasure, invisible writing, latent prints, and fibers
c. Visible Light (V,B,G,Y,O,R)
 It is the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for
ordinary photographing purposes
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
 Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to
1000 millimicrons.
 It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and
charred documents or for black out photography. (Sometimes referred to as heat rays).

Primary Colors
 Blue, Green, and Red
Secondary Colors
 Cyan, Yellow, and Magenta
 Blue + Green = Cyan
 Green + Red = Yellow
 Red + Blue = Magenta

Light Source
A. Natural Light
 Are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man such as sunlight,
moonlight, starlight, and bioluminescence light.
1. Bright Sunlight
 object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object appears gloss

10
 2. Hazy Sunlight
 Object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds
that cover the sun
3. Dull Sunlight
 Object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.

Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright
sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being photograph.
Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the reflected light coming
and not coming from the source should likewise be considered.

B. Artificial Light
 Otherwise known as man-made light such as fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and
photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous Radiation
a. Photoflood Lamp
 Is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a reflector at the
back which focuses the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
b. Flourescent Lamp
 Are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both ends is
mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector
 This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in photographing.
c. Incandescent Bulb
 These are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the electrical
charge that produces the light.
 Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of
electrical consumptions.
d. Infrared Lamp
 Infrared lamps are commonly used in radiant heating for industrial processes and building
heating. Infrared LEDs are used for communication over optical fibers and in remote
control devices. Infrared lamps are also used for some night vision devices where visible
light would be objectionable.
e. Ultra-Violet Lamp
 UV radiation is widely used in industrial processes and in medical and dental practices
for a variety of purposes, such as killing bacteria, creating fluorescent effects, curing inks
and resins, phototherapy and suntanning.

2. Short Duration type

a. Flash bulb
 Are chemical lamps, as it generates lights by the rapid combination of metal in oxygen.
The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are
thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows
through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that
ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense light.
b. Electronic Flash

11
  Produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes in a gas
filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or
condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and because of this,
subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photogra
Concurrent light
 Light that is scattered
Coherent light
 Light that is aligned such as laser light
Hologram
 The formation of image trough the use of laser light
LASER
 Light Amplified by Stimulating Emission of Radiation

II. SENSITIZED MATERIAL

 It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective
support.
Silver Halides
 The substance present in the emulsion surface of the sensitized material which actually
react to the light

Parts of the Sensitized Material

1. Emulsion
 It is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver grains which is
the one sensitive to light.
2. Anti Halation Backing
 Is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents halation.
3. Base
 Support the emulsion

Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film
 Usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black
and white photography. Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.
2. Colored Film
 Can be divided into two: the Negative type and the reversal type of colored film. The
former is usually having names ending in color while the word chrome represents the
latter.
 Examples of Negative Type are Kodakcolor, Fujicolor, and Agfacolor,
 Examples of Reversal Type are Kodachrome, Fujichrome, and Agfachrome.

B. According to Spectral Sensitivity

Spectral sensitivity

12
  It is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of the light
course.
1. Blue – Sensitive Film
 Sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.
2. Orthochromatic Film
 Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green
3. Panchromatic Film
 Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red
 Sensitive to all colors of the visible light
4. Infrared Film
 Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.

Film Speed (Emulsion Speed)

 This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
1. ASA (American Standards Association)
 This is expressed in arithmetic value system.
 ASA 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600
 The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.

2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen)

 Expressed in Logarithmic value system.
 Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc
 Used in the same principle as the ASA.
.
3. ISO (International Standard Organization)
 Expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.

III. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

 Is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and
become the photograph

Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
1. Silver Chloride paper
 Used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the
negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and gives blue-black tones when properly
developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper
 Used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of the most ideal photo paper
used for police photography. Will give a black tone when properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper
 Used both for projection and contact printing. Slow emulsion.

B. According to Physical Characteristics

B.1. Weight
1. Light Weight

13
  Designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of consideration. Intended
for purposes, which involves folding
2. Single Weight
 Papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted on solid and fine details
necessary in the production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes.
3. Double weight
 Generally used for large prints because they stand up under rough treatment.

B.2. Surface Texture

1. Glossy Paper
 Designed for fine details and brilliant image formation.
2. Semi-Mate Paper
 Obscure the fine details
3. Rough Paper
 Used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is necessary.

B.3. Color
1. White
 Better used in police photography.
2. Cream
 Preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is desired.
3. Buff Papers
 Prepare for tone prints

C. According to Contrast (Grade)

1. Velox No. 0
 Used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1
 Used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2
 Used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3
 Used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4
 Used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is
useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.

IV. CAMERA
 Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material
 Basically, camera can produce image with its four basic parts such as light tight box, lens,
and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.

Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Light Tight Box
 A box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.

14
 2. Lens
 Designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the
film.
3. Shutter
 Designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the Sensitized Material
 Located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to
prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image
5. View Finder
 Designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the
given lens

Other Parts of a Camera

1. Viewing System
 Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the photographer the
entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material
2. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob)
 Designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to the take up spool and the
unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
3. Shutter Speed
 It is the part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film thus, affecting
the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a fraction
of a second.
 1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.
 The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering
than that of the right number
 Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person
provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening is made in order to maintain
normal exposure.

4. Lens Aperture
 The ratio between the diameters
of the whole lens in relation to the
focal length of the lens. It is the
light gathering power of the
lens. Otherwise known as
lens opening or relative aperture and
it is expressed in F-number.
 f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16
 The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the
greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized
material.
 If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens in
which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.

15
 5. Focusing
 It is the mechanism of a
camera designed to
control the degree of
sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the distance
from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or clear image.

Types of Focusing Device

1. Range Finder (Coincidence or Split Image Type)
 Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a
single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving the
focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single
object.
 Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the
object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is
already focused
2. Ground Glass
 This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in focused
the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.
3. Scale Bed
 Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his
estimation do this.

Types of Camera
1. View Finder Type
 Considered the smallest and simplest type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera (SLR)
 Type of camera best suited for police work
3. Digital Single Lens Reflex Camera (DSLR)
 Captures the image digitally, on a memory card.
4. Twin Lens Reflex Camera
 A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other for forming the image
5. View or Press Type
 considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for movie making
6. Polaroid
 Type of camera that produce a positive print immediately
7. Pin Hole Camera
 A small type of camera without a lens, made from a box with a small hole in one of its
side
Lens

16
  It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the quality of
the image to be formed.
 A medium or system which converges or diverge light rays passing through it to form an
image.
 Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and change the
direction of light.
 Daniel Barbaro was the first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.

Classification of Lenses
A. According to the type of image to be produced
1. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens)
 Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is
capable of bending the light together and forms the image inversely.
2. Negative or Concave Lens (Diverging Lens)
 Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms
the virtual image on the same side of the lens.

B. According to Degree of Corrections

1. Meniscus Lens
 Lens that has no correction.
2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens
 Lens corrected of distortion
3. Anastigmatic Lens
 Correcting astigmatism
4. Achromatic Lens
 Correcting chromatic aberration
5. Apochromatic Lens
 Correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration

Inherent Lens Defects

1. Spherical Aberration
 Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens producing an image that is
sharp in the center and blurred at the side.

2. Coma (Lateral Aberration)

17
  Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred
while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp.

3. Curvature of Field
 The relation of the images of the different point is incorrect with respect to one another.

4. Distortion
 Is a defect in shape not in sharpness
 It can either be Pincushion distortion (curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).

5. Chromatic Aberration
 Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens refracts rays of short
wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue
rays Chromatic Aberration to a shorter focus than the red.

18
 6. Astigmatism
 Is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis is not equally
magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.

7. Flares
 Flare happens as a result of reflections internally in the lens.

Lens Characteristics
1. Focal Length
 Is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to focus at infinite
position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus (Less than 35 mm)
 With focal length not longer than the diagonal half of the negative. Useful in taking
photograph at short distance with wider area coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus (35 mm to 70 mm)
 With focal length approximately equal but not longer than twice the diagonal half of the
negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens (70 mm and above)
 With focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long
distance photographing but with narrow area coverage.
d. Zoom Lens
19
  Lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted continuously by the
movement of one or more elements in the lens system.
2. Relative Aperture
 the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field
 Is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus
when the lens
b. Hyperfocal Distance
 Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm
opening will gives the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing
 Is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image
 The one that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.

Filters
 A homogenous medium made up of plastic or glass which absorbs and transmits different
light rays passing through it
 Its basic purpose is to subtract light rays of varying wave length
Types of Filter
1. Correction Filter
 Used to change the responses of the film so that all colors are recorded at approximately
the relative brightness values by the eye
2. Contrast Filter
 Used to change the relative brightness so that the two colors which would otherwise be
recorded nearly the same will have different brightness in the picture
3. Haze Filter
 Use to eliminate or reduce effects of serial haze
4. Neutral Density Filter
 Used for recording the amount of transmitted without changing the value
5. Polarizing Filter
 Used to reduce or eliminate too much reflections on highly reflective surfaces

V. CHEMICAL PROCESS
 The process of making the latent image visible and permanent

Photo Enlarger

Development
 Use of either D-76 (5-6 minutes), Dektol
(90 seconds), or Universal Solution
 It is the process necessary for reducing the
silver halides to form the image
20
  Elon, Hydroquenone is used as the main developing agents
Stop Bath
 Normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as a
means to prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer
Fixation
 Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from the
emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
 Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver
halides.

Other chemicals used

1. Acetic Acid and Boric Acid
 Serves as neutralizer
2. Sodium Sulfate
 Serves as the preservative
3. Potassium Bromide
 Restrainers or hardener
4. Sodium Bicarbonate and Borax Powder
 Serves as accelerator

Other process or adjustments during developing

1. Dodging
 Is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging.
2. Cropping
 Is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing.
3. Vignetting
 Is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on the
dodging board
4. Dye toning
 Is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.
5. Burning-In
 Refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes of
making a balance exposure.

21