1.

1 Introduction to Police Photography

Photography

• It was derived from two Greek words: phos (light) and graphos (draw/chart/sketch).
• A science or an art of obtaining images on a sensitized material by the action of electromagnetic
radiation or rays through the use of a camera and its accessories and the chemical process involved
therein.

As an art: The skill of reproducing images of beautiful things

As science: Involves capturing images by letting light react on the sensitized surface of film with the aid of
camera and the chemical process involved therein.
negative — inverse (dark colors become light and vice versa) requires skills (mad skillz)

Elements of Photography

• Images (or subject)

• Sensitized materials
• Light
o Natural light (sun, moon, stars, fireflies)
o Artificial light (flashlight, light bulb, alternative light sources )
• Camera — mechanical device used to capture images
• Chemical — The science which deals with the study of the principles of photography and the
preparation of photographic evidence and its application to police work.

Objectives of Police Photography

• To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.

• To help in keeping the police officer's memory accurately as possible as to where he find things.

Uses:

• Identification
• Communication and micro film files
• Evidence
• Court exhibits
• Reproduction or copying
• Personnel training
• Crime and fire prevention hazard
• Public relations

Primary ways of using photography in police work

• as a means of identification
• as a method of discovering, recording, and preserving evidence
• as a way to present, in the courtroom, an impression of the pertinent elements of a crime
• as a training and public relations medium for police programs.

1.2 Significance of Photography in Police Work

1. Identification

- The very first use of photography in police work. Photographs are used to identify criminals, missing
persons, lost or stolen property, licenses, anonymous letters, bank checks, laundry marks, and the civilian or
personnel fingerprint identification files.

2. Communication and Micro film files

- Includes report files, accident files, transmission of photos, photographic supplements to reports with
modern day electro-photography machines.

3. Evidence

- Photographs serve as evidence of the crime scene, traffic accidents, homicides, suicide, fires, objects of
evidence, latent fingerprints, evidential traces can frequently be improved by contrast control
(lighting/film/paper filters), by magnification (photomicrography/photomicrography), or by invisible radiation
(infra-red/ultra-violet/x-ray).
 4. Offender Detection

- Photographs are used in surveillance, burglar traps, confessions, re-enactments of crime.

5. Court Exhibits

- through demonstration enlargements, individual photos, projections slides, or motion pictures.

6. Reproduction or Copy

- questionable checks and documents, evidential papers, photographs, official records and notices.

7. Personnel Training

- Photographs and film relating to police tactics, investigation techniques, mob control and catastrophe
situation.

8. Crime and Fire Prevention Hazards

- through lectures, security clearance detection devices, photos of hazardous fire conditions made when
prevention inspections are made.

9. Public Relations

- Film pertaining to safety programs, juvenile delinquency, traffic education, public cooperation and civil
defense.

NOTE: In general, then, there are four primary ways of using photography in police work: (1) as a means of
identification; (2) as a method of discovering, recording, and preserving evidence; (3) as away to present, in
the courtroom, an impression of the pertinent elements of a crime; and (4) as a training and public relations
medium for police programs.

Forensic Photography - The process of photographing crime scene or any other objects for court
presentation.

Importance:

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of
examination by the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the photograph.
2. A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record which is always available especially in court
presentation or in court proceeding.
3. Used as an aid by the investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene they have
investigated several months ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.
4. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to solve crimes.

1.3 Different Types of Photography and its Applications

1. Macrophotography - Photographing objects directly enlarged on the negative and magnified

from one to nine times.
2. Photomicrography - The art of photographing minute objects when magnified by means of a
microscope and enlarge from 10 times and up.
3. Infra-red photography - The art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by
means of infra-red light.
4. Ultra-violet photography - The art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by
means of ultra-violet lights or filters. It involves two methods: ultra-violet lamp and ultra-violet
filter.
5. Microphotography - A very small photograph as encountered in microfilming or with the use of
microfilm.
6. X-ray photography - The process of photographing or recording the internal structure of the
body.
7. Astrophotography – Specialized type of photography that entails recording images of
astronomical objects and large areas of the night sky.
8. Flash photography - Applied to the technique whereby exposures are made with illumination
from one or more photographs.
 9. Mug shot photography - It is usually used for personal identification which is the first use of
photography in police work.
10. Thermo photography - A kind of photo where we use laser beam radiation using laser beam film.
11. Aerial photography - A kind of photography applied for photo mapping.
12. Underwater photography - photographing things underwater.
13. Night photography - Technique used to capture images at night.
14. Panoramic photography - It involves using specialized equipment or software, that captures
images with elongated fields of view. It is sometimes known as wide format photography.

1.4 Basic Principles of Photography

Principles of Photography

1. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.

2. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.
3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights must be
excluded.
4. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material
inside a camera.
5. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the eyes.
6. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
7. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is depended on the quantity and quality of
the exposing light.
8. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development.
9. Too little light will produce a transparent or white shade.
10. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

1.5 History of Photography

Personalities Contributions

A famous Greek Philosopher who invented the first pinhole camera that was known late
Aristotle Camera Obscura (Italian word for darkroom chamber) which is literally translated as Da
box.
(347-322BC)

An Arabian Scholor who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or shuttere
window of a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene outside onto the
Alhazen
wall. He used this in observing the solar eclipse by entering a dark room with a pinhole o
(965-1039) to avoid harming the eye. He was considered to be the one who invented the camera

An artist and scientist who in his Pseudo Science Magic had made use of the Camera O
and replaced the hole with a lens which made the image brighter and sharper. He wa
Jean Babtiste Forta who introduced the lens.

A German Scientist who discovered Silver Nitrate when he exposed it to light it turned pu
got interested in his finding and, that fair later, he discovered that the evening action w
Johann Heinrich Schulze due to heat but light. He finally concluded that Silver Nitrate is sensitive to light and cap
producing images.

He discovered that Silver Chloride is more sensitive that Silver Nitrate and thus, more cap
Thomas Wedgewood
recording and producing images.
(1802)

In 1816, near Chalon-Sur-Saone, France, he experimented by combining photosensitive

with Lithography to facilitate his endeavor in printmaking. By 1822, he claimed some su
Joseph Nicephore Niepce
achieving what he called Points de Vue. He took the world’s very first photograph calle
(1816) Heliography.

Louise Jacques Mande A Parisian painter and theater designer who continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect
Daguerre photographic process. He invented the principle of Silver plate photograph and using t
(1838-1839) Daguerro type that produces one of a kind picture on metal which was presented by Fr
Scientific Academy. He invented the Daguerro type in Paris.

Personalities Contributions

When the American Civil War broke out, he was able to preserve the scene with the use
Mathew Brady camera.

He is the Father of Modern Photography. He invented the Calotype which produces a n

William Henry Fox Talbot
picture on paper, the light on the image was recorded as dark and dark as light.
(1839)

He coined the word Photography. He then suggested negative and positive in the follo
years. He pointed out images with a solution of hyposulfite of soda (hypo or sodium thio
John Herschel which he had discovered in 1819.

He pioneered the wet colodian process which took place of the Collotype known as co
Frederick Scott Archer type process.

He introduced the use of the lens in the camera.

Daniel Barbaro

An English philosopher, Mathematician and Physicist who discovered and proved that th
Sir Isaac Newton strongest light is white light. He defended his theory by allowing white light (sunlight) to p
through a prism thus refracting and diffracting the light onto its component parts.
(1666)

He successfully introduced the plate with gelatin. The roll film came and new brands of
Maddaox (1884) with different lens and mechanism were placed in the market.

He popularized the small cheap portrait wherein anyone could afford a picture of himse
Andre Adulphe Eugene herself.
Disderi

He took the first Aerial photographs of Paris from a free balloon in 1858.
Nadar

He discovered the use of Hydroquinone as a developing agent in 1880 in England.

Sir William Abney

Founder of Budha Co., who introduced the use of roll film made of celluloid materials fo
George Eastman (1889) a portable camera.

He discovered X-ray photography which later became the basis of Radiograph used by
Wilhelm Roentgen(1895) doctors in measuring the heartbeat and to see the other structure of the body.

David Octavious Hill and

Both used photographic portraits in printing.
Robert Adamson

Personalities
Contributions

Aloh Roemer
James Clark Maxwell
Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor
(1848)
Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evard
Odelbercht (1864)
Alphonse Bertillon (1882)
Dr. R.A. Reis (1902)
Victor Baltazard (1910)
Edwin Land (1947)
Gabriel Lippman (1908)
Thomas Sutton
D.A. Woodward (1857)
Personalities
Wothly
He measured the speed of light in 1676.
A British scientist who discovered the wavelength structure of light after 20 years of
research. He likewise researched on colors.
He introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen as a binding medium.
He introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface.
He first advocated the used of photography for the identification of criminals and the
documentation of evidence and crime scenes. Early photographs of accused and arre
persons were beautifully posed as example of the Victorian photographers at 20 to 30
years. Later, every major police force in England and the United States has Rogues Galle
which became an integral part in almost all police departments.
He initiated anthropometric measurements of personal identification and was also involv
various means of documentation by photography which developed into a fine science
Criminalistics when he photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of cont
photography to demonstrate erasures on documents.
A German scientist who contributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic scienc
established the world’s earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic community
the Swiss police.
He developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge cases wh
as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.
He introduced Polaroid – one-step photography.
He won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing colors photographic
based on the phenomenon of interference, also known as Lippman plate.
He invented the first Single Lens Reflex Camera.
He first constructed an enlarger. It was a cumbersome object. The sun was collected by
of a convex lens, and the camera has to be turned with the sun. This design became the
model for a number of solar cameras. The picture shows an advert for his cameras, and
medal that he had been awarded to him at a major exhibition.
Contributions
He made a few improvements to Woodward's solar camera, and exhibited portraits alm
life size. Wothly's solar camera was a monstrosity! The condenser had a diameter of 1 m
The heat of the condensed rays of sun was such that one had to have water troughs bu
 First ever reference to an enlarging process can be attributed to DraperLinks to an exter
In 1840 he wrote: "Exposures are made with a very small camera on very small plates. The
Draper (1840)
subsequently enlarged to the required size in a larger camera on a rigid stand.

Louis Jules Duboscq (1817- He made an apparatus for enlarging by electric light, and showed it to the Paris Photog
1886) Society in 1861.

They made the simple daylight enlarger.

Griffin and Sons

Steven Sasson An American Electrical Engineer who invented the digital camera

Important Dates

Significant Dates Event

Italian scholars used the camera as a drawing apparatus. Instead of using a dar
16th century they used box with a lens and placed a mirror.

Camera Obscura was built-in with convex lens.

17th century

Thomas Wedgewood and Humphey Davy produced photograms.

1800

The birth year of modern photography, the year when the Science of Photograp
1839 became a public knowledge.

The year when photography was already well-developed. It was used as an art
1850 concerned with landscape, portraiture and architectural presentation.

The year when colored films, sensitized materials and different brands of cameras
1835 in different types and model sold in the market.

In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in photogra
1859 was used to demonstrate evidence in a California case. Enlarged photographs o
signature were presented in a court case involving forgery.

Significant Dates Event

Full corrected lens were introduced.

1890

A plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent s
1906 of gray.

Lummiere color process was introduced. A panchromatic film was used but with
1907 green and red filter.

Color process came out together with electronic flash.

1935

LASER was invented making possible Holograms – tri-dimensional pictures.

1960
 Colored photography has matured as an artistic medium.
1970

Sony unveiled the firs consumer camera to use a charge-couple device for imag
eliminating the need for film. The Sony Mavica saved images to disk, the images
1981 displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital.

Arrival of true digital cameras.

1988

1990 Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital cameras.

Definition of Terms

Photograms - Photographic image produced by placing the subject directly into the photographic paper and
then exposing it to light. As a result, a silhouetted image is produced

Charge-coupled device - a light-sensitive integrated circuit that stores and displays the data for an image in
such a way that each pixel (picture element) in the image is converted into an electical charge the intensity of
which is related to a color in the color spectrum.

2.1 Basic Concepts

Light:

• A form of radiant electromagnetic energy which travels in wave motion.

• It is a wavelength of radiant energy capable of visual detection.
• It is a radiant energy which emanates from heat.
• It travels at speed of about 186, 000 miles per second in air or 300, 000 km/sec in an open space but
they differ in wavelength and frequency

Qualities of Light in Wave Motion

1. velocity of travel
2. wavelength
3. frequency

Wavelength Theory

• The wavelength of the light is the most pertinent, particularly in the design of lens.
• It is best illustrated by the dropping of a stone in a pond of still water. The series of wave which
travels outward from the center point are just like light waves that travels in all direction from a
source with equal velocity.
• This theory may be used to illustrate reflection, interference, refraction, diffraction and polarization.

Inverse Square Law

• Illumination is reduced as distance increases.

• As applied to light, the principle that the illumination of a surface by a point of light is proportional to
the square of the distance from the source to the surface.

Dodging - The process used in printing by covering some light that strikes the printing paper in order to give the
same amount of light available.

Bracket - Using three exposures with the use of the manual control if in doubt of the amount of light appropriate
for one shoot.

Fogging - It is the accidental exposure of the film to light.

2.2 : Lecture Notes on the Different Types of Light

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• A colored band that is formed when light is allowed to pass through a prism.
• It includes different energies such as cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light,
infrared rays, heat rays, Hertzian waves, and the alternating current oscillations.
Four Photographic Rays of Modern Photography

1. X-rays – 01 to 30 nm
2. Ultra-violet rays – 30 to 400 nm
3. Visible light – 400 to 700 nm
4. Infra-red rays – 700 to 1000+ nm

General Types of Light

1. Visible light – lights with a wavelength of 400 to 700 nm.

2. Invisible light – lights with a shorter or longer wavelength.

White Light

When all the wavelengths between 400 to 700 nm are presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity, we
get the sensation or perception of colorless or white light. If a narrow beam of white light is allowed to pass
through a prism it will bend the light of shorter wavelength more than those with longer wavelength thus
spreading them out into visible spectrum. These are the color of the rainbow.

If we divide the wavelength of visible light into nearly equal quantity, we will produce blue, green and
red colors.

Three Primary Colors of Light

1. red
2. green
3. blue

Secondary Colors

1. yellow
2. cyan
3. purple magenta

2.3: Lecture Notes on the Properties and Qualities of Light

Properties of Light

1. Reflection. It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.

1. Regular reflection – happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.
2. Irregular reflection – occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.
2. Refraction. The bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
3. Diffraction. The bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.
4. Interference. Color can be produced by interference of light waves in thin film like in soap bubbles
or a film of oil floating in water. The light refracted from the top surface of such a film undergoes a
reversal phase but the light reflected from the bottom surface does not undergo this type of
change.
5. Rectilinear. The nature of light that normally travels in straight line.
6. Absorption. The nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surfaces.
7. Filtration. The character of light to be altered from its colorless into its visible state.
8. Polarization. The process by which the vibration of light are confined to a definite plane where the
speed of light can be measured.
9. Fluorescence. This happens when molecules of the fluorescent material absorbs energy at one
wavelength and radiate it at another wavelength.

Qualities of Light

1. Intensity – it refers to the strength of light which varies according to the output of the light source
and the distance from the source.

2. Direction – when there is a single source, the direction is clearly defined. Where there are multiple
sources, or the light is diffused as on a cloudy day, the direction is less evident or totally absent.

3. Color - Light varies in color depending upon its source and the substance through which it
passes. Natural sunlight has a different color mixture from incandescent lighting or electronic flash,
and the color of sunlight itself varies depending upon the atmospheric conditions and time of the
day. The following are the characteristics of color: hue, saturation and brightness.

2.4 : Lecture Notes on the Sources of light

Kinds of objects as to how they behave to light

 1. Transparent object. Allows sufficiently visible light to pass through them that the object on the other
side may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent object. Allows light to pass, however, diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side
may not be clearly distinguished.
3. Opaque object. So greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very
difficult if not impossible.

Sources of Light

1. Natural light.
1. Bright sunlight - A lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and
uniform or distinct shadow.
2. Hazy sunlight - Objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
3. Dull sunlight - Objects in open space cast no shadow.
2. Artificial light.
1. Continuous radiation - Those that can give illumination continuously.
2. Short duration (flash unit) - It gives a brief flash of light produced by burning a metallic wire
(flash bulb) or an electrical discharge trough gas-filled tube (electronic flash).

Definition of Terms

Camera - A light proof box with a means of forming an image, with a means of holding a sensitized material
and with a means of regulating the amount of light that enters the camera at a given time. An optical
instrument that records images that can be stored directly, transmitted to another location, or both. These
images may be still photographs or moving images such as videos or movies.

Circle of Confusion - Overlapping circle patches of light representing each patch of light on the subject. This
circle of confusion represents unsharp images, but the human eyes see them as acceptably sharp.

Depth of Field - It refers to the distance between the nearest object and the farthest object that appears to be
focused when the lens is focus in infinity.

Film Speed Control - This control is utilized by manipulating the ASA/ISO/DIN dial of the camera. Basically, the
shutter and the f/numbers are both controlling the system of the rays of light that enters. However, the effects
in making photographs are different. In an automatic setting camera, the camera has a sensor that reads or
determines the ASA number of the film loaded.

Focus - It is the means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form sharp or clear images.

Hyper focal distance - This is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm
opening which will give the maximum depth of field.

Parallax - It is the difference between what is seen through the viewfinder and what is exactly recorded on the
film.

Relative Aperture - The speed of light gathering power of lens equal to the duration of the focal length to the
diameter of its lens pupil or the relative brightness of the image produced by the lens as compared with the
brightness of the object.

3.2: Lecture notes on the Early Forms of Camera

1. Pinhole camera -
A camera of single design and construction, usually home-made consisting of a box having a small
aperture functioning as a lens at one end, the image being projected o the film at the other end.

2. Box camera -
A simple camera s little more than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and a shutter. The pinhole was
replaced by the lens to enable the photographer to gather more light to be recorded.

3. Camera Obscura -
A box used for sketching large objects which literally means dark chamber. It contains a mirror set
at 45° angle. A double convex lens like in a photographic camera is placed in the front end. The
image of the objects is transmitted through the lens and appears on the mirror. The mirror reflects it
upward to a ground glass screen on the top of the box. There it can be sketched easily.

4. View camera. The biggest and the most sophisticated among the different types of camera. This is
a version of press cameras; they have removable lenses which can be focused by moving either
the front or the rear of the camera, and are equipped with long bellows. The back can be moved
or swing both vertical and horizontal axes and its lens board raised, lowered or tipped. This flexibility
enables the photographer to control the image formed by the lens. Practically useless for candid or
action photography however useful in the reproduction of small objects.

5. Press camera. A camera loaded with sheet film. They are traditional of folding bellows design with
a lens standard in an extendable baseboard. IT can also be loaded with roll film and 70 mm film
magazines and often coupled with range finders.
3.3: Lecture Notes on the Types of Camera

Types of Camera

Reflex camera.

• Single lens reflex camera. The term single lens means that only one lens is used for both viewing the
scene and taking photograph of it, thereby preventing parallax.
• Twin lens reflex camera. Employs two separate lenses – one for viewing and one for focusing, and
the second usually mounted under the first, transmit the light to the focal plane for recording. The
camera has permanently fixed lenses and an automatic parallax adjustment. Its two lenses focus in
unison so that the top screen shows the image sharpness and framing as recorded on the film in the
lower section.

Polaroid Still camera. This camera is restricted in its uses but is ideal in instant photograph when there is no
requirement for enlargements.

Underwater camera. This is designed for underwater photography.

Panoramic camera. Used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by encompassing a 120°, 180°, 360°
view of one exposure.

Still video camera. Images can be stored on video tapes equipment with a floppy disc – a disc that can hold
about 50 images or more.

Compact Camera. This is a camera which have appropriate dimensions for putting them into the pocket of a
jacket instead of a special camera bag.

3.4: Lecture Notes on the Main Parts of a Camera

MAIN PARTS OF A CAMERA

1. Lens. A disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two spherical surfaces capable of forming
an image.
2. Shutter. An adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light reaching the film by varying
the length of time. Light is allowed to be recorded on the film. This is a control by which you can
determine how long in time the lens will remain open for light to be recorded on the film. The
control ring will be of two types: mechanical and electronic. Remember, if the shutter speed is
controlled electronically there is a considerable drain on camera batteries when using long time.

• Blade or between the lens shutter. It is made up of overlapping blades powered by a

spring. Located between the aperture and the lens or in between the lens. It will give speed up to
1/500th of a second. They have a delayed action fitted.
• Focal plane shutter. It consists of two metal blinds that open progressively or made of a black cloth
and generally located very near the focal plane. These shutters are preset; it has to be cocked
before release. It can be set and synchronize at all speed.

Note: At first the shutter is manufactured as a separate accessory which could be filled in front of the lens or
more rarely between the lens. In time cameras were manufactured with the shutter included as part of the lens
assembly or the camera body.

3.5 Important Controls in the Camera

Focusing Control. The most important control in the camera.

Focusing Ring. A large knurled ring around the barrel of the lens, when turned, the lens will either move away or
toward the camera body, depending upon the direction of rotation until ring cannot be turned further.

At this stopping point, all distant objects are in focus regardless of difference in their distance, is termed
as infinity focus or simply infinity. When the lens is set in infinity, the lens-to-film distance is at the shortest
distance to bring the most distant objects into focus.

Stamped on the surface around the focusing ring are series of number called distance scales. It indicates the
distance the camera is focused.

Shutter speed control. It controls the length of time reduced by the light ray to reach and affect the film inside
the camera. The common shutter speed exhibited on the shutter speed dial are 1, ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/15, 1/30, 1/60,
1/125, 1/250, 1/500, 1/1000, 1/2000, 1/4000, 1/8000, T/B. The shutter speed can stop the movement of an
object.

T stands for time. Pressure on the shutter release button causes the shutter to open. It will remain open until the
shutter release button is pressed a second time to close it.

B stands for bulb. When you press the shutter release button with the setting B, the shutter remains open as long
as the shutter is pressed down. For long exposure, this is usually required in dim places to permit enough light to
accommodate to make satisfactory pictures.
Aperture or Diaphragm control. An adjustable mechanism device in the lens assembly which controls the
amount of light passing through the lens to the film. The diaphragm works like the pupil of the eye. It maybe
enlarged or contracted. If it is enlarged, it allows more light to enter. The adjustment is done by moving the
ring of the diaphragm toward the desired size of the opening. It is generally represented by number known as
f/stops.

3.6: Types of Focus

1. Scale bed type or focusing scale. These distances correspond to the distance from the camera lens
to the subject. To focus with this method, one has to use a measuring device and actually
measures the distance from the lens of the camera to the subject. Whatever distance was
measured, will be the setting of the marker or pointer of focus.
2. Microprism or range finder type. These are finely etched prisms which break up the image. They
are brought together as you focus.

• Split image. Two prism which splits your image in half as you focus both halves rejoins to form a
clear image.
• Co-incident image. This is usually used on compact cameras with a fixed lens.
• Ground glass type. A ground glass screen is a matt glass.
The whole of the image on the screen will progressively become sharp. It is found at the back of the
camera or in the case of modern cameras, also coupled with the viewfinder. The point of focus is
where the image is sharpest. It may also be a combination of three.

3.7 Parts of a Camera

1. Lens. A specially shaped piece of glass which reflects light from outside onto the back of the
camera and creates a reversed, upside down image on the film at the back of the camera.
2. Focusing ring. Moves the lens back and forth which allows the photographer to create a sharp
image of the subject.
3. Diaphragm or aperture. A small opening in a camera usually circular in shape and usually varies in
the form of iris diaphragm that regulates the intensity of light which passes through the lens.
4. Shutter speed dial. It will control the length of time when light is allowed to strike the sensitized
material.
5. Shutter. An adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light reaching the film by varying
the length of time light is allowed to pass through the lens.
6. Shutter release button. A part of the camera which when pressed will keep the shutter in open
position.
7. View finder or window. A viewing instrument attached to a camera, used to obtain proper
composition.
8. Film holder. It holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always located at the opposite side of the
lens.
9. Accessory light shoe or hot shoe. It is where the flash bulb is inserted for indoor photography.
10. ISO/ASA/DIN Dial. A camera device in which when adjusted it will conform with the sensitivity of the
film to light.
11. Exposure counter or frame counter. A device indicating the number of exposures made.
12. Distance scale. A device that shows the approximate distance from the optical center of the lens
to the point of focus on the object.
13. Film rewind lock. A device that secure the film for any accidental rewinding.
14. Back cover release knob. A device used in opening the back cover for film reloading.
15. Lens lock release lever. A device used to secure the lens.
16. Data display. Often a liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view settings such as film speed
exposure, and shutter speed.
17. Lens cap. It covers and protects the lens during storage.
18. Sprocket teeth. As part of the film transport mechanism, this is where the sprocket holes will be
engaged in.
19. Take up spool. This is a metal or plastic cylinder, generally located on the right side of the camera,
looking from behind. There will be either a notch, gears or both on the cylinder. In film cameras, the
take-up spool pulls the film along so unexposed film can be placed behind the shutter. Film
attaches to either the notch or gears, allowing the spool to advance film as it turns.
20. Flash Button. Pressed with the flash down, this button releases the flash head to pop up.
21. Mode dial or camera dial. It is a dial used on digital cameras to change the camera's mode.

1. Manual modes

• P: Program mode offers the photographer partial control over shutter speed and aperture
• A or Av: Aperture Priority: AKA Aperture value allows the photographer to control the aperture, while
the shutter speed and ISO sensitivity are calculated by the camera.
• S or Tv: Shutter Priority AKA "Time value" allows the photographer to control the shutter speed, while
the aperture and ISO sensitivity are calculated by the camera.
• Sv: Sensitivity value allows the photographer to control the ISO sensitivity, while aperture and shutter
speed are calculated by the camera (this is a Pentax DSLR feature)
• M: Manual mode allows the photographer to control shutter speed, aperture and ISO
independently.
 • U: User mode (like program with preset)

2. Automatic modes

• Action or sport mode increases ISO and uses a fast shutter speed to capture action.
• Landscape mode uses a small aperture to gain depth of field.
• Portrait mode widens the aperture to throw the background out of focus. The camera may
recognize and focus on a human face.
• Night portrait mode uses an exposure long enough to capture background detail, fill in flash to
illuminate a nearby subject.
• Others: Fireworks, Snow, Natural light/Night snapshot, Macro/Close-up, and Movie mode.

1. Light Meter. It determines the proper exposure under various light conditions. It is usually connected
to the diaphragm and/or shutter in such a way that a correct exposure is automatically produced
when the shutter is tripped.
2. Self-timer. It is used for delayed release of the shutter.

3.8 : Lecture Notes on the Parts and Functions of a Digital SLR Camera

Parts and Functions of a Digital SLR Camera

1. AE-L/AF-L Button. It stands for “Auto Exposure-Lock and Auto Focus-Lock” and its primary function is
to lock camera exposure and/or focus.

1. Auto Exposure Lock. Lock the exposure to a value you are comfortable with.
2. Auto Focus Lock. It can be used to stop the camera from making the lens reacquire
focus when you recompose.
2. Viewfinder diopter adjustment. A small dial or knob adjuster connected to the viewfinder. The diopter
allows you to adjust the viewfinder sharpness to match your own eyesight. The diopter adjustment
controls the focus of the viewfinder only, it does not change the focus of the camera lens. Adjacent to
 the top right side of the viewfinder eyepiece, this dial adjusts the optical viewfinder to accommodate
eyeglass wearers. (Range is -1.7 to +0.5 diopters.)
3. Mode dial or camera dial. It is a dial used on digital camerasLinks to an external site. to change the
camera's mode.

1. Manual modes
2. Automatic modes

4. Command Dial.
It is located on the back of the camera, in the upper right hand corner, directly under your right
thumb. Command Dial controls the shutter and aperture settings, and both ambient and flash exposure
compensation. In Playback mode, the Command Dial lets you rapidly scroll through previously-
captured images.
5. Playback button.
Just off the top left corner of the LCD monitor, this button displays the most recently captured
image, putting the camera into Playback mode. Once an image is displayed, the left/right arrow keys
or the Command Dial navigate through the other images saved on the memory card. This button also
dismisses the image display. (The camera also drops out of playback mode immediately if you touch
the shutter button.)
6. Menu button.
Below the Playback button, this button displays or dismisses the LCD menu system.
7. Thumbnail button.
Just below the Menu button, this button either zooms out from a magnified view or shows either
a four or nine-image index view of images in the current folder on the memory card. The chosen display
mode remains selected indefinitely, even if the camera is turned off. To return to normal viewing from
the thumbnail display, press the Magnify button. When a thumbnail view is activated, you can scroll a
cursor through the thumbnail images very rapidly with the rocker pad.
8. Quality / i / Reset Button:
In the bottom left corner of the rear panel, this button zooms in on images displayed in playback
mode. Pressing the button repeatedly increases the magnification level, up to a limit of 19x at the
largest image size. (Zoom magnification is limited to 15x or 10x on smaller images, basically always
taking you in to the same pixel scale on the LCD display.) The OK button in the center of the Multi-
Selector cancels zoomed display.
9. Memory card door
10. Multi Selector button.
Just to the right of the LCD monitor on the back panel, this rocker pad with its center OK button
is the primary user interface for changing camera settings. In Shooting mode, the left and right arrows
change the selected AF point among the three arrayed horizontally across the focusing screen.
11. Delete button.
In the lower right hand corner, underneath the Multi Selector, this button deletes individual
images in playback mode, with a confirmation screen to give you the opportunity to change your
mind.
12. Power dial.
Surrounding the Shutter button on the top right of the camera, this dial turns the camera on and
off.
13. Shutter release button.
In the center of the Power dial, on the top of the camera, this button sets focus (when in auto
focus mode) when halfway pressed and fires the shutter when fully pressed. You can choose whether or
not the Shutter button also locks exposure, via an option on the Custom Settings menu. When an image
is displayed on the LCD monitor, halfway pressing the Shutter button dismisses the display and
immediately switches the camera to shooting mode.
14. Exposure Compensation / Aperture Setting Button.
Behind and to the right of the Shutter button on the top of the camera, pressing this button while
turning the Command Dial sets the Exposure Compensation from -5 to +5 exposure equivalents (EV) in
one-third step increments. In Manual exposure mode, pressing this button and rotating the Command
Dial sets the lens aperture.
15. Shooting Information Button / Reset Button.
Pressing this button in any capture mode calls up or dismisses the Shooting Information display on
the camera's rear panel. Pressing and holding down this button and the Quality / i / Reset button
simultaneously resets the camera to its default settings.
16. Flash Button.
Pressed with the flash down, this button releases the flash head to pop up.
17. Lens release button.
Right next to the lens mount, at about the 3 o'clock position (viewed from the front), this button
releases the lens from its mount when pressed, so you can rotate and remove it.
18. Hot shoe
19. USB Port
3.9: Analogue vs Digital Camera

Advantages of Digital Camera

1. instant review of pictures

2. minimal ongoing costs for those wishing to capture hundreds of photographs
3. permanent storage on digital media is considerably cheaper than film
4. photos may be copied from one digital medium to another
5. pictures need not to be scanned before viewing on a computer
6. ability to print photos using a computer and consumer-grade printer
7. ability to embed meta data within the image file
8. ability to capture and store hundreds of photographs on the same media device
9. it include AV-out connector and cable to allow the reviewing of photographs to an audience using
a television
10. anti-shake functionality
11. ability to use same device to capture video as well as still images
12. ability to convert the same photo from color to sepia to black and white

Considerations

1. Changing computer technology may make digital photographs inaccessible in the future.
2. Use of digital photographs in court proceedings.
3. Difficulty of demonstrating an image’s authenticity.
4. It requires batteries that need to be recharged or replaced frequently which means photographer
needs access to electrical outlets.
5. It is much more sensitive to moisture and extreme cold.

Types of Digital Camera

1. Camera phones.
o Cameras built right into the phone.
o It has zoom ability.
o Some even come with a flash or light source.
o They are usually shipped with software and cables that enable you to download your
photographs onto your computer.
 2. Compact cameras.

• Far more popular.

• It has an LCD screen to compose and review your photographs which enables you to compose
your picture using both eyes.
• Navigation buttons next to the screen allow you to bring up any picture you have taken, zoom in to
ensure it is in focus, erase it or review tiny thumbnails or each of your images.
• Modes can be set up.

3. Digital SLRs
It behaves like their film-based counterparts with the same body but with different electronics on
the inside.

3.10: HOW A CAMERA WORKS

Basic Steps.

1. Turn on the camera

2. Load the film.
3. Set the film speed.
4. Set the aperture setting.
5. Set the shutter speed selector dial. Turn the shutter speed selector dial to the speed desired.
6. Focus the lens and frame your picture.
7. Press the shutter release button.
8. If the end of the film is reached, it will rewind automatically. However, the photographer may
rewind the film manually by pressing the film rewind lock found at the back of the camera.

Film Loading

1. Open the camera back.

2. Load the film by aligning the film ledger on the orange dot reference.
3. Close the camera back.

Note:

If the film was loaded properly, number 1 will register on the frame counter found on the data display.

Holding the Camera

1. Hold the camera steady.

2. Press down the shutter release button

4.1: Lecture Notes on Lens

Lens. A system of one or more pieces of glass bounded by spherical surfaces the center of which is at a
common axis termed as lens axis.

Two Main Types of Lens According to Shape

1. Convergent or Positive or Convex Lens. It is always thicker at the center and thinner at the
side. Light passing through it are bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting
at a certain point. It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming
from.
2. Negative or Concave or Biconcave Lens. It is always thinner at the center and thicker at the
sides. Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point. It
produces a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.

Three Basic Categories of Lens

1. Normal lens (35 mm to 70 mm). One with a focal length equal to the diagonal measure of the
image area. The normal lens is usually standard equipment on a camera, and is intermediate
between wide angle and telephoto lens. The picture angle is 45° up to 75° which corresponds to
the viewing angle of the human eye.
2. Wide angle lens. It has a shorter focal length than the normal lens and as a result, it covers a picture
angle 60° wider than normal lens. It enables photographing a widely extended scene from a close
proximity or within a confined area. In police work, the wide angle lens should be used under
restricted conditions when the photographer is able to cover the desired picture area with a longer
focal length.
3. Telephoto lens or long focus lens. It has a longer focal length and provides a close-up image of a
distant subject. In contrast to the wide angle lens, the telephoto covers a smaller field of view and
a shallower depth of field. Production of a flat composition, far objects appear enlarged while near
object do not appear proportionally large.
Main Groups of Camera Lens

1. Simple Miniscus Lens. This is usually found in simple or box camera comprises a single piece of glass
with one side convex and other side concave. It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from
inherent defects of lenses.
2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens. It is a combination of two achromatic lens with almost the same focal
length. This is corrected from some kind of lens defect but not an astigmatism defect.
3. Anastigmatic lens. A lens which is free from astigmatism or other types of lens defect.
4. Achromatic lens. A lens which is partly corrected from achromatic aberration.
5. Process lens. A saucer-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color correction and has
the ability to produce the best definition of image in the photographs.
6. Fixed Focus lens. A lens used in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short focal length and
greater depth of field.

Special Types of Lens

1. Macro lens. The word macro was derived from a Greek word which means to “enlarge”. In
photographic terms, a macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot few
inches from a subject.
2. Zoom lens. Allows quick adjustment to give a wide or narrow field of vision. It can be moved back
and forth while other elements stay in place which gives the same effect as if the camera itself was
moving towards or away from the subject.

Forms of Optical Aberration

1. Spherical aberration.
The focusing at different points of rays passing through different parts of spherical lens. It occurs
because light hitting the outer part of the lens is bent more sharply and comes to a focus sooner
than passing through the middle. The image is blurred.
2. Chromatic aberration.
The failure of different colored light rays to focus after passing through a lens, focusing of light of
different colors at different points resulting in a blurred image. In chromatic aberration, colored
fringes surround the image because light of different colors is brought to different focal points by a
lens.
3. Astigmatism. The ability of the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the same
plane of focus in the image. It occurs at the edge of image, the image appears elliptical or cone-
shaped because of an irregularity in the curvature of the lens.
4. Coma. It occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing through different circular zones
is brought to a focus at different distances from the film plane. A spot of light appears to have tail
rather like a comet.
5. Curvature of Field. A curved, concave or saucer shaped image of an object which has a flat
surface. The image distance is different for different points of the object due to their different
distance from the axis.
6. Distortion. Inability to produce the same enlargement in the image formed by the edges of the lens
as in that part formed by the center of the lens.
7. Flare or optical flare. A result of double reflection from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits self as a misty,
hazy or cloudy semi-circular path of light.
8. Mechanical flare. Bright spot on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of the lens such
as the stops, shutter, lens mount or from inside the camera itself.
9. Light loss. Most corrected lenses are coated with a substance which will reduce one type of flare
and which will also increase the optics inability to transmit light, thus reducing light loss.
10. Stray light. It can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens shade placed on the front of
the lens or shield.

4.2 : Filters

FILTERS

• These are discs of glass or negative which when placed in front of the camera lens stop one or
another color of light from passing through in striking the film.
• Usually they are used only for black and white photography and even then should not be used for
most police photography.
• These are usually made of glass or gelatin materials placed in front of or before the lens.
• These are used to change the composition of available light before allowing it to strike the film.
• A transparent colored medium employed to regulate either the color or the intensity of the light
used to expose the film.

Circular polarizers

• These are specifically designed for use with auto-focus SLR cameras.
• They will also work on manuals systems without problems.

Linear polarizers
 • These are used with most video and manual focus photo cameras.
• They are not recommended for auto focus SLR cameras.

Uses of Filters in Photography

1. Clear Filter. It is also known as window glass filters or optical flats, are completely transparent, and
ideally perform no filtering of incoming light at all. The only use of a clear filter is to protect the front
of the lens.
2. UV Filter. This is used to reduce haziness created by ultraviolet light. A UV filter is mostly transparent
to visible light, and can be left o the lens for nearly all shots. UV filters are often used for lens
protection, much like clear filters.
3. Color Correction. A major use is to compensate for the effects of lighting not balanced for the film
stock’s rated color temperature. The use of these filters has been greatly reduced by the
widespread adoption of digital photography, since color balance problems are now often
addressed with software after the image is captured, or with camera settings as the image is
captured.

1. Color conversion filters. These are with odd reference number which is yellowish or
orange, for lowering the color temperature of the light. Filters with even numbers are
bluish and raise the color temperature. These set filters change a particular light source
by the amount required for a particular film type.
2. Color compensating filters. These are best bought as gelatins of various tints and
strengths. These allow you to “fine tune” adjustments towards warmer or colder results
due to batch variations, working conditions, non-standard light sources.
2. Color subtraction filters. These work by absorbing certain colors of light, letting the remaining colors
through. They can be used to demonstrate the primary colors that make up an image. They are
perhaps most frequently used in the printing industry for color separations, and again, use has
diminished as digital solutions have become more advanced and abundant.
3. Contrast enhancement. Filters are commonly used in black and white photography to manipulate
contrast. For example a yellow filter will enhance the contrast between clouds and sky by
darkening the latter.
4. Polarizer

Types of Filters

1. Blue filters. These can be used effectively when photographing blood in black and white. When
used outdoors, it will make the sky or any blue objects appear white in the photograph.
2. Green filters. Used in place of the blue filter for photographing blood often they work better than
the blue filter.
3. Yellow filters. It can be used to photograph white cars. The details of the car will stand out. Yellow
filters also cut through haze to certain extent and can be used with good results to photograph an
accident on a hazy day.
4. Ultraviolet filter. It is not a filter for ultraviolet photography rather it is a filter which screen out the
violet end of the spectrum. When placed in front of a lens, it will not only improve most of the police
photographer’s work but it will also prevent his lens from being scratched.
5. Special 18A deep purple filter. It is the correct filter for ultraviolet photography. These are often
used in photography; its short wavelength gives better definition of the fine details.
6. Polarizing filter. It is used to cut down light transmission. They do no otherwise affect the color or
tonal quality of the scene. It polarizes reflected light from a non-metallic surface such as water and
reduced reflection in the photograph. It is the only filter than can increase the blue saturation in the
sky in a color photograph.

Filter Classification

1. contrast
2. correction
3. haze
4. sky
5. polarizing filter

General Types of Filters

1. Light balancing filter. A filter used to change the color quantity of the exposing light in order to
secure proper color balance for artificial light films.
2. Color compensating filter. This is used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result
obtained with color films and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of the exposing energy.
3. Neutral density filter. This filter is used when the light is too bright to allow the use of the desired f-
number or shutter speed with a particular film.
 4. Polarizing filter. This is used to reduce or minimize reflections on subjects like water, glass, and highly
polished surfaces.

Special Application of Filters

1. To introduce deliberate departures from normal color balance either to enhance a particular color
for mood and preference of the photographer.
2. For critical work with films that are not ordinary like infrared rays or in ultraviolet fluorescence
method.
3. To correct undesirable overall tint of color especially in color positive film or transparency.
4. To modify the color balance of transparencies which show overall tint.
5. To balance light sources used in color printing.
6. To compensate for particular absorption like in taking photographs under water, or through tinted
windows.

5.1: Basic Concepts of sensitized materials

Film

• It is a cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are suspended capable of recording light.
• Its primary function is to record the image that is focused upon it by the lens of the camera.

Photographic paper

• A type of light sensitized material that produces a positive result or photographs after development
which is the final result of photography.
• A material suspended with emulsion.

Film Speed

• It is determined by the ASA number of the film that ranges from ASA 25, 50, 80, 100, 200, 400, 800,
1000 or 2000.
• This implies that the higher the ASA number, the more sensitive the film is when exposed to light.
• Lower ASA film are very good or commonly used in document photography purpose which is
commonly used in a dim or well lighted room, records images in split second and could record
moving objects.

Exposure index - It refers to the film rating or the number of the exposed film.

Graininess - It is the granular appearance of the enlarged image.

Silver Halide Crystals

• It carry minute specks of metallic silver – so called sensitivity specks with amount in mass to about
1/1, 000, 000, 000 part of the silver halide crystal.
• It is a compound of silver with fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine crystal.
• Electric charge on the specks attract silver ions from the neighboring silver halides, and as the silver
ions accumulate, they become metallic silver, causing the speck to grow halides (e.g. bromide) ions
at the same time migrate to the surface of the silver halide crystal and are absorbed by the gelatin
emulsion.

5.2: Kinds of film

1. Ordinary film or panchromatic film. It is sensitive to all colors especially blue and violet. It is suitable
for general use in the preparation of black and white photographs.

Classes of Panchromatic film

1. Process panchromatic film or short scale. Low in speed and high in contrast.
2. Fine grain panchromatic film or long scale. It permits short exposures under average
lighting condition and has the advantage of fine grain structure.
3. High speed panchromatic film. It was originally intended for photographing an object or
subject under adverse lighting conditions.

1. Blue sensitive film. A film especially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light.
2. Orthochromatic or Kodalith film. Sensitive to all colors except red. Good for fingerprint
photography or document (high contrast).
3. Minicopy film.
4. Polaroid film. A special type of sensitized material that produces a photograph immediately after
exposure.
5. Color film. All film ending COLOR.
 1. Color negatives – for prints, ends in the word “COLOR”.
2. Color transparency – for slides, ends in the word “CHROME”.

1. Color infra-red film. A special type of film which is sensitive to infra-red radiation. It is also sensitive to
violet and blue green. It is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In
investigative photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents. In the
discovery of old or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the skin, and in the
construction of camera traps.
2. X-ray film. A material which is sensitive to the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Basic Film Sizes

1. 110 film – it is very small, not good for enlargement

2. 35 mm film – use for 35 mm adjustable cameras and widely use today.
3. 120 and 220 roll film – used by medium format cameras.
4. 4x5 inch film – sharp photographs are possible as it requires less magnification.

General Types of Emulsion

1. Monochromatic film. Because of its limited color sensitivity, it has no use in regular photography. It is
used primarily for recopying.
2. Orthochromatic film. These are sensitive to the ultraviolet, violet, blue, green, and yellow portions of
the spectrum. They do not accurately reproduce the relative brightness of a subject as seen by the
naked eye. It is available in sheet film only and it is not used in regular police photography.
3. Panchromatic film. These are sensitive to all color of the visual spectrum to assist in the selection of
the correct film for any kind of work. These are divided based on color sensitivity.

Type A Panchromatic. It produces the various tones and hues of the subject in tones of gray with brightness
range approximately the same as that seen by the naked eye.

Type B Panchromatic. Only differs in speed. Its subclasses include:

1. Long scale – used in portraiture, press, illustrative continuous tone copy, general outdoor and indoor
photography.
2. Short scale – generally called process pan used for copy work when complete tonal separation is
required.

Black and White Film

Layers of a Black and White Film

1. Emulsion. It consists of crystals of light-sensitive compound (silver nitrate) evenly distributed

throughout plastic base material. Silver halide emulsions are universally sensitive to the ultraviolet
radiations and some wavelengths of blue light. Gelatin is universally used as the medium that holds
the crystals in the emulsion.
2. Gray or anti-halation backing. It prevents whatever light that passes through the emulsion and
reflected by the base back to the emulsion which forms a “halo”.
3. Base. These are made of plastic material. They serve as a support to the emulsion.

Characteristics of Black and White Films

1. Emulsion speed. The different indicators of emulsion speed are as follows:

1. ASA (American Standard Association) rating – expressed in arithmetical value.
2. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating – expressed in logarithmic value.
3. ISO (International Standard Organization) rating – expressed in the combined
arithmetical and logarithmic values.
2. Spectral sensitivity. The different classifications of films as according to its spectral sensitivity are:
1. Blue sensitive film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only.
2. Orthochromatic film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only.
3. Panchromatic film – sensitive to ultraviolet radiation to blue, green and red light or all
colors.
4. Infra-red film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays to blue, green, red light and infra-red rays.
3. Granularity or graininess. This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after
development of an exposed film. The sizes of the metallic silver grains are dependent on the
emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is used in processing. The rule is:
The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain and conversely, the higher the
emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger are the grains. Likewise, a film developer will produce
a finer grain than a paper developer when used for film processing.

Color Films

It consists of seven (7) layers. A multi-layer emulsion coated on same support or base.
The top emulsion is sensitive to blue light only.

Since green and red light passes through it without effect, the blue light alone makes the exposure.

A yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion absorbs and unused blue light and prevents it from
reaching the two lower emulsion layer. The yellow color in the filter layer has no permanent effect on the
appearance of the film because it is destroyed during processing.

The middle emulsion is sensitive to green light but not to red light.

Like all emulsions, the middle layer is also sensitive to blue light but the blue light cannot reach it.

The exposure in this layer is therefore made by green light alone.

The bottom layer is sensitive to red light but its sensitivity to green light so low as to be negligible.

Hence, the exposure in this layer is made by red light alone. These three emulsion layers are coated on a film
base which has an anti-halation backing.

5.3: Characteristics of a photographic papers

Photographic Papers

Modern photographic papers are basically composed of a light sensitive coating (emulsion) on a paper
base or support. The emulsion suspended on a gelatin is generally made of silver halide salts.

To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical solution and water during processing and washing, as well
as the variety of degree in humidity and temperature, the base is made of wood pulp.

Characteristics of a photographic paper

1. Emulsion speed
1. chloride paper – has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing
2. bromide paper – has a fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or
enlarging
3. chloro-bromide paper – a multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and
enlarging
2. Exposure and development latitude
1. Exposure latitude – generally, photographic papers do not have wide exposure latitude
so exposure must be critical at all times.
2. Development latitude – papers that do not change appreciable in contrast and image
tone with reasonable variations in development has good latitude. For best quality, the
developing time should be as near as those prescribed by the manufacturer.
3. Contrast grade or range. In black and white printing, it is often necessary to adjust the paper
contrast so they can yield a natural scene result from negatives with density range that are either
too low or too high. Some papers are available in several contrast range or grade while others
have built-in contrast control effected by the use of a filter on the enlarging lens or one the enlarger
light source.
4. Physical characteristics
1. Surfaces of photographic papers vary in surface texture or degrees gloss or sheen. They
are the glossy and smooth, semi matte or silk, and the matte or the rough surface.
2. Base weight or thickness. Under this category, we have the light weight, single weight,
medium weight, and the double weight.
3. Color maybe “cold” or white with a very slight blue cast, and the “warm” or “cream”
where the white light has a slight yellow brown line.

Photographic papers for color printing

These are essentially similar to the film used in the camera except that the emulsion layers are coated on
a paper base and contain couplers which are colorless. Colored couplers are not used because the print
would then be unsuitable for direct viewing.

Printing a negative in complementary colors on a non-reversal print reverses both the tone scale and the
color of the negative. Thus, the final result is a positive reproduction within the accuracy limits of the
photographic processes of the tones and colors of the original subject.

Photographic papers both colored and black and white are supplied in rolls or sheet in varying lengths
or sizes.

6.1: Chemical Processing

Chemical Processing

After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during printing, the
next step would generally be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps are development,
stop-bath and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color development, stop-fix, and stabilizer.

Development
The process by which a latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In black and white emulsion, the image is
composed of grains of black metallic silver. In color emulsion, the developed silver is replaced with cyan,
yellow, and magenta dye. In this process, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduces exposed
silver halide crystals to form grain of metallic silver.

Stop-bath

It halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the contamination of the
developer and fixer from each other.

Fixation

It makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing. In this processing
stage, the unexposed and underdeveloped silver halide crystals are dissolved and removed from the emulsion
of the photographic material.

Film Processing

It can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment. Panchromatic materials must be
handled in total darkness. Other materials like blue films and panchromatic printing papers are handled under
a safelight.

Equipment for film processing

1. tank or tray
2. developing reel
3. opener for film cartridge (pliers)

Some .35 mm films have reusable cartridge that can be snapped open by hand but others can only be
opened with a pair of pliers.

1. scissor
2. thermometer
3. timer
4. funnel
5. photographic sponge
6. film clips for drying
7. three glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions
8. three beakers

Small format films like the .35 mm is best developed in cylindrical daylight-developing tank that accommodates
a spiral reel. The tank and the reel can be stainless steel or made of hard plastic. These tanks usually have a
light-tight lid with provision for pouring solutions in and out while covered so that only one tank is required for
the entire process.

Metal reels have a center clip of book to hold one end of the film, the remaining length slips into the grooves
created by the spiral. Metal reels come in a fixed size.

The plastic reel is loaded by simply pushing the film into the spiral from the outer end. It has a flange that moves
with back and forth action after the film had been engaged on the outside guide slots, the back and forth
movement feeds it smoothly into the grooves. Plastic reel can be adjusted to accommodate different film size.

Film Processing Procedure

Tank Method of Film Development

1. Mix the developer, stop bath and the fixer according to instructional manuals. Then bring it to
temperature which is 20-21º C or 68-70º F.
2. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissor, reel and the tank so they can be readily located in
the dark.
3. In complete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off the cap opposite the end, where
the long spool core protrudes. Extend the film then remove it from the tips in the spool core. Then
reel it.

Reeling Procedure

1. Hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one hand while the other hand
holds the reel.
2. Engage the film’s end at the center clip or hook of the reel.
3. Slightly squeeze the film width by pressing between the thumb and the forefinger so it
narrows just enough to fit into the reel.
4. Turn the reel with the other hand to pull the film onto the reel.
5. Do not apply excessive pressure with the hand holding and squeezing the film.
6. Let the film pass freely, it will straighten out full width in the spiral space of the reel.
2. After the reeling of the film is done, place it inside the daylight developing tank then cover it. White
light can now be opened. Remove the lid cover of the tank and pour the film developer slowly until
 the tank is full. Invert the tank then agitate it for a few seconds. Timer should start now. Intermittent
agitation should be made during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes, pour out or drain the
developer.
3. Put in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds drain out stop-bath. Next
is to pour in the fixing bath. Agitation should also be done often and after 15 to 2 minutes, drain the
fixer from the tank.

Note: Used developer, stop-bath, and fixer can be used again and again but instead of pouring them back in
the bottles of fresh or unused solutions, pour them in a separate container so it will not contaminate the fresh or
unused solutions.

1. Wash the negative for several changes or preferably in running water for another 15-20 minutes.
2. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse it in water then
squeeze it to remove the excess water. Wipe the negative with the sponge slowly to remove the
water adhering on the negative. This must be done on both side of the negative. Water that
adheres on the surface of the negative can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
3. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.

Tray method of Film Development

1. The developer is placed on a tray.

2. In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold on end of the film and immerse the
film in the developer in the tray making sure that the film is thoroughly dipped until the whole length
of the film is evenly wet.
3. Timer will start now.
4. With see-saw or pulling up or down motion, move the film from one end to the other then back,
continuously, until the developing time of 4-5 minutes is done.
5. Then transfer it to the stop bath for 10-15 seconds with the same motion.
6. Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute same motion for about 5 minutes then you can
now open the white light.
7. Continue the fixing until the required time is finished.
8. Next will be the washing and drying of the negative.

This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has a long contact with air during
the procedure which can cause aerial fog. Besides, it is more tedious and tiring especially with a 36-exposurre
film.

6.2 : Photographic Printing

General Types of Photographic Printing

1. Contact Printing

The procedure of exposing photographic printing while it is pressed in contact with the negative being
reproduced. This is the simplest and the most economical method of photographic printing.

In terms of print quality, it can surpass enlargements in tonality because there is no scattering of image
forming lights as this can be in projected beams of an enlarger.

It usually looks sharper because there is no lens in the printing system to add its aberrations in the print
making process and also because details that may be slightly out of focus are not enlarged so the unsharpness
is not apparent.

2. Projection printing

This type of printing where the image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a print
material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment used is the enlarger.

The basic or essential parts of an enlarger are:

1. Baseboard and its vertical column

2. Lamphouse
3. Condenser or diffuser
4. Lens
5. Focusing knob
6. Red filter
7. Electrical cord or switch

The essential accessories of an enlarger are:

1. Negative carrier
2. Easel or paper holder
3. Timer for consistent and repeatable exposure

Note:
 There are different sizes of enlargers. The size of the enlarger is dependent on the size of the negative it is
capable of accepting. There is the 8 mm for microfilms, the 35 mm which is now the most common and
popular, the 120 mm, or the bigger negative sizes like 4”x5”.

The most common light sources for enlargers are:

1. Tungsten lamp
2. Halogen lamp
3. Mercury vapor lamp
4. Fluorescent lamp sometimes referred to as “cold light” because it is somewhat diffused illumination.
This is generally used in portrait work.

Equipment Used in Photographic Enlarging and Printing

1. Enlarger
2. Metal, plastic or bamboo tongs preferably with rubber ends to hold the prints.
3. Three plastic or metal trays – one each for the developer, stop-bath and the fixer. The size of the tray
is determined by the largest print size.
4. Bigger tray or tank for washing prints
5. Three galloon size bottles for storing mixed solution.
6. Three beakers
7. Clips for drying
8. Paper cutter
9. Timer
10. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves

Enlarging Procedures for Black and White Negative

1. Clean both sides of the negative then place it in the negative carrier with the emulsion (dull side)
facing the lens of the enlarger or downward position. Insert the negative in the enlarger.
2. Adjust the masking guides of the easel in accordance with the intended size to be printed.
3. Turn on the red light (safelight) then turn off the white light.
4. Switch on the enlarger then adjust the lens of the enlarger to its widest aperture. This will allow the
brightest image on the easel.
5. Adjust focusing by rotating the focusing knob. For desired size of the image, adjust the elevating
knob. For bigger magnification, pull the enlarger down, then tighten the elevating knob
securely. Focus may now be finely readjusted.
6. Switch off the enlarger’s light. Close down the lens aperture two or three times from its optimum
aperture.
7. If this is the first time that the negative is being printed, make a series of test strips or trial exposures
on strips of photographic papers exposed at different exposure time generally 2 seconds interval
each. Make sure that the photographic papers are placed in the easel emulsion side up when
making the exposure.
8. Process the test strips by immersing it in the developing solution for 1 to 1 ½ minutes. Slip the exposed
photographic paper into the developing solution to wet them evenly. Agitate it continuously by
either moving the print or by rocking the tray. When the developing time is finished, lift off the print,
drip dry it before transferring it to the next solution. Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10 to 15
seconds then in the fixing bath for a minute or so. Examine the test strip under a white light to
determine which of the exposure time is the best and if the contrast of the print is alright. Otherwise,
repeat the exercise whether shorter or longer exposure time is needed.
9. When the right exposure had been selected, make a full print. Process it then evaluate the print for
over-all quality. Consider for possible cropping, or local exposure control.
10. Current fixing bath only require 10-15 minutes fixing time. Formerly it was 20 to 30 minutes.
11. Wash the prints in running water for another 20-30 seconds.
12. Dry the prints.

Developer Formulation

The typical components of black-and-white developer are:

1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservative
4. Accelerator or activator
5. Restrainer

Various chemicals can serve this function. Chemicals chosen are determined whether it is slow or fast
acting, produce high, normal, or low contrast, achieves maximum emulsion speed, creates the fine grain or
acts in a number of ways.
D-76 Film Developer Formula

Water - 750 ml

Elon - 2 grams

Hydroquinone - 5 grams

Sodium sulfite - 100 grams

Borax (granules) - 2 grams

Water to make - 1 liter

Dektol – Paper Developer

Water 52°C to 125°F - 500 ml

Elon - 311 grams

Hydroquinone - 12 grams

Sodium sulfite - 4.5 grams

Sodium Carbonate - 67.5 grams

Potassium bromide - 1 gram

Water to make - 1 liter

This is a stock solution. To use, take 1 part stock solution and add 2 parts of water.

Stop-bath Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid.

Fixing Bath Formula

The chemical components of a fixing bath are:

1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservatives
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener

A typical fixer formula:

Water - 600 ml

Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) - 240 grams

Sodium sulfite (anhydrous) - 15 grams

Acetic acid (28%) - 480 ml

Boric acid (crystals) - 7.5 grams

Potassium alum (fine granular) - 15 grams

Water to make - 1 liter

The fixing bath is recommended generally for both films and photographic papers.

7.1: Digital Photography

Digital Photography

• A form of photography that uses digital technology to make images of subjects.

• Digital photographs can be displayed, printed, stored, manipulated, transmitted, and archived
using digital and computer techniques without chemical processing.
• It is one of several forms of digital imaging.

Digital Images

• These are created by non-photographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners and
radio telescopes.
• It can also be made by scanning conventional photographic images.

Features

1. Sensor. It read the intensity of the light as filtered through different color filters.
2. Storage. Digital memory devices store the digital image information, either as RGB color space or
as raw data. Nearly all digital cameras now use built in and/or removable solid state flash memory.
 3. Multifunctionality and connectivity. A digital memory device is usually used for storing images,
which may then be transferred to a computer later. It can take pictures, and may also record
sound and video. It can be used as webcams. Some can use the PictBridge standard to connect
to a printer without using a computer. It can display pictures directly on a television set.
4. Performance metrics. Quality of a digital image is the sum of various factors, many of which are
similar to film cameras.
1. Pixel count – created by marketing organizations of digital camera manufacturers
because consumers can use it easily to compare camera capabilities.
2. Resolution – provides an indication of the amount of detail that is captured. It is simply
based on the number of pixels produced by the image sensor.
3. Dynamic range – the range of luminosity which can be reproduced accurately.
5. Sensor size and angle of view. Cameras with digital sensors that are smaller than the typical 35 mm
film size will have a smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal
length. Angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.
6. Digital camera backs. Most digital cameras are built to operate as a self-contained unit. This is
especially so at the lower-end, for these cameras usually include zoom lens and flashes that cannot
be changed. Scanning and multi-shot camera backs are usually used only in studios to take
pictures of still objects.

Advantages of Digital Camera

1. instant review of pictures

2. minimal ongoing costs for those wishing to capture hundreds of photographs
3. permanent storage on digital media is considerably cheaper than film
4. photos may be copied from one digital medium to another
5. pictures need not to be scanned before viewing on a computer
6. ability to print photos using a computer and consumer-grade printer
7. ability to embed meta data within the image file
8. ability to capture and store hundreds of photographs on the same media device
9. it includes AV-out connector and cable to allow the reviewing of photographs to an audience
using a television
10. anti-shake functionality
11. ability to use same device to capture video as well as still images
12. ability to convert the same photo from color to sepia to black and white

Considerations

1. Changing computer technology may make digital photographs inaccessible in the future.
2. Use of digital photographs in court proceedings.
3. Difficulty of demonstrating an image’s authenticity.
4. It requires batteries that need to be recharged or replaced frequently which means photographer
needs access to electrical outlets.
5. It is much more sensitive to moisture and extreme cold.

Analogue vs. Digital

Types of Digital Camera

1. Camera phones.
o Cameras built right into the phone.
o It has zoom ability.
o Some even come with a flash or light source.
o They are usually shipped with software and cables that enable you to download your
photographs onto your computer.
2. Compact cameras.

• Far more popular.

 • It has an LCD screen to compose and review your photographs which enables you to compose
your picture using both eyes.
• Navigation buttons next to the screen allow you to bring up any picture you have taken, zoom in to
ensure it is in focus, erase it or review tiny thumbnails or each of your images.
• Modes can be set up.

3. Digital SLRs

• It behaves like their film-based counterparts with the same body but with different electronics on the
inside.

7.2 : Videography

Videography

• It refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic media

• The term includes methods of electronic production and post production.
• It is the equivalent of cinematography but with images recorded on electronic media instead film
stock
• It covers many more fields than just shooting video with a camera including digital animation (such
as Flash, gaming, web streaming, slideshows, remote sensing, spatial imaging, medical imaging,
security imaging, and in general the production of most bitmap and vector based assets.

Advantages

• Video gives immediate results without the need for processing.

• Video can be used more than once simply by recording over previous recordings.
• Visual movement allows the viewer to accurately perceive the scene as it is shown.
• Sound may be included.

Video camera - It is attached to a separate recorder or playback unit.

Video camcorder - It has built-in recorder or playback unit.

Crime Scene Videography

• It is valuable as an overview for presentation in court as well as a moving analysis of the scene.
• It allows for a documented perspective of the crime scene which cannot be captured in reports,
interviews, or photographs.

Considerations

• Prior to videotaping, the investigator should walk the designated videographer through the scene.
• Videos should begin with an overall general view of the scene.
• If the scene is indoors, then the video should include an overall pan of the outside of the location.
• The tape should then include a brief preamble by the investigator which includes the narrator’s
name, the case number, time, date, location of the incident, and a concise description of all rooms
and evidence to be viewed in the tape.
• Upon completion of this introduction, audio should be disabled as to not bias the jury and
videotaping of the scene should begin with a general overview of the crime scene and adjoining
areas.
• The only exception to this is the inclusion of explanation of what a given piece of evidence is.
• However, care must be taken not to say anything that could emotionally bias a jury as doing so can
result in the judge denying the videotape as evidence.
• Upon initiation of crime scene video analysis, the cameraman should use close-up and wide angle
views to show the location of evidence, relevance of evidence, and the scene layout.
• Slow camera movements such as zooming and panning should be used while videotaping.
• Close-ups of small items of evidence should include a scale to illustrate the size of the item.
• No personnel should be present in the video whatsoever and the content must be relevant to the
case and not produce a level of emotional bias that would be unacceptable to a given judge
deciding on the admissibility of the evidence.
• Ideally, camera work should be accomplished by a professional trained to walk through the crime
scene without disturbing any evidence.
• Furthermore, videotaping does NOT replace crime scene photography. Rather, it acts as a more
graphical representation of different aspects of the scene.
8.1: Significance of Photography

Significance of Photography in Police Work

In modern scientific crime detection, photography is indeed, an excellent aid of the investigator. The
investigator could not just rely on his memories and therefore need an artificial recorder for him to remember all
the things and facts that he had investigated. Aside from the notes of the investigator, he needs a camera
because there are things which require accurate descriptions of subjects or objects being investigated, hence
photographs will serve the purpose.

The first application of photography in law enforcement was confined to the problems of personal
identification. The photographers of the criminal was taken and used to supplement the classification made
under the Bertillon system of personal identification.

Five Legal Methods of Preserving the Crime Scene

1. photography
2. sketching
3. notes taking or description
4. manikin method
5. preservation in the mind of the witness

Basic Importance of Crime Scene Photography

1. Refresh memory.
2. Preserve time and event.
3. Save money and effort.

Importance of Photography in Law Enforcement

1. The utmost use of it is for record purposes. Photography will record the scene of the crime
permanently.
2. Photography can preserve all perishable evidence.
3. Photography can be used in the identification of physical evidence.
4. Photography is necessary in the interrogation of suspects. A series of photographs will show the
action or reactions of the suspects at the time he made a confession.
5. Photography can provide a system or technique in making visible things that cannot be seen by the
naked eye.
6. Photography can be useful in the determination of the truth respecting a matter of fact. Evidence
that cannot be brought inside the court room can be presented by means of photographs.

Crime Scene Photography

Crime Scene. A place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence found thereat.

Objectives of Crime Scene Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.

2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where he find things.
3. To help in securing or obtaining confession, description and information to the case.

Importance of Crime Scene Photography

1. For identification of persons, documents, fingerprints, shoe prints and splashes of blood.
2. Preservation of evidence in court.
3. Described better than words.
4. Proves statement.
5. Record things you may fail to notice.

Note: Upon arrival at the crime scene, photograph the whole area before anything is moved. Take shots from
different angles to show the whole area.

8.2: SOP's Crime Scene Photography

Procedures on taking photographs (PNP Criminal Investigation Manual)

a. Overall photos of the scene are taken to show the approach to the area, street signs, and street light
locations in relation to the actual scene, street addresses, and identifying objects at the scene. Pictures should
also be taken of every room in the house, even if their relationship to the crime scene is not readily apparent.
b. Photograph the scene in a clockwise pattern before altering the body's position or any other evidence within
the scene. Photograph the scene from at least 2 opposite corners, but from all four corners is even better. This
way, nothing is missed or hidden from view by intervening objects.
c. Photograph the body and the immediate vicinity around the body. If you have a camera boom, take
pictures from ceiling height down of the victim
and any other evidence. This perspective often shows things missed when viewed from the ground or eye level.
d. Keep a photo log.
SOP’s in Crime Scene Photography

1. Obtain photographs of crime scene early in the investigation preferably before anything has been
moved.
2. Photograph from several angles so the proper dimensions may be shown.
3. When dimensions are important, use some sort of scale (ruler) in the photograph so that
enlargement or reduction may be measured.
4. Record in your note data concerning the photographs including directions and distances from the
principle objects in the crime scene. Sketches maybe helpful also.
5. For special equipment call on the laboratory.

Procedures at the Crime Scene

1. General view or long range view

2. Medium view or mid range view
3. Close-up view
4. Extreme close-up view

Guidelines in Taking Photographs of a Crime Scene

1. Establish shot – this is an over-all view from extreme to the other. It shows where we are – a busy
intersection, a farm, a residential area, an airport, a factory, or even at the middle of a jungle.
2. The building – the next photograph should show the building in which the crime was
committed. This shows whether it is a private home, a factory, a small shop, a hotel, or a garage,
usually two photographs will be needed of the front and back of the building.
3. The entrance – this is usually the door, but it maybe a window in a house breaking robbery. If there
is a gate and a door, take photograph one for each entrance.
4. The hallway – the camera now shows us what we would observe immediately after we enter the
building. It should show the location of the other doors or rooms through which we must pass to get
to the room in which the crime was committed.
5. The room – this maybe a bedroom, an office or a bathroom. The most difficult problem is to include
the entire area sometimes like in the building shots, two photographs from opposite corners will be
enough. A wide lens is used. However, the investigator’s note should also be carefully marked with
the information.
6. Close-up – the number and types of close-up photograph will of course depend upon the kind of
crime. In general, close ups should be made on:

• Object attacked – this maybe a person, safe cash box or a display counter. The purpose of these
pictures is to show the amount and kind of damage the method of attack.
• The weapon or tools used – the photographer must be careful here to show a reference point in
every picture. It shows which are right, left, up, down, north, south, etc.
• Significant clues – these maybe fingerprint, blood stain, footprints, skid marks, tool marks, broken
glass, or any other physical evidence, fingerprint in particular should be photographed after dusting
but before lifting.

Items of Physical Evidence to be photographed

1. All materials which serve to establish the fact that the crime has been committed or the corpus
delicti.
2. Physical evidence which would connect the suspect to the crime. Any marks such as fingerprint,
shoe or foot print, splashes of blood, hair strands, etc.
3. Evidence relating to the manner in which the crime was committed or the modus operandi of the
criminal.
4. Objects which might provide clue to the identity of the perpetrator.
5. Clues which would connect the suspect to the crime.

Note: Shoe print or tire impression should be photographed before the addition of a scale or label.

8.3: Duties and Responsibilities of a Crime Scene Photographer

1. In responding to SOCO/FLW requests, he should be well-equipped with all the necessary equipment
and materials such as camera with wide angle and normal lens, tripod, flash unit, floodlight,
measuring tools, data board, pencil and rolls of film.
2. Check and ensure the serviceability of his equipment.
3. Responsible in looking after his security as well as his equipment.
4. Record the detail of SOCO/FLW responded including the type of camera and film used.
5. After the operation, he should immediately process the exposed film and print the negative for filing
and presentation in court.
6. He should strictly observe the procedures applicable in every crime scene to include measurement
and case identification.
8.4 : Investigative Photography

Suicide Case - We should not conclude in responding such cases. It needs thorough examination and
investigation.

Suicide by Hanging

Strangulation by hanging is the most common form of suicide. But the investigator must not assume that
the victim found hanging is suicide. Photograph the subject at a distant from four views showing the full body,
and the move in closer and show the knot and bruise marks. If it is suicide by shooting, take note of the color of
the body (discoloration).

Note: Do not untie the knot, just cut it.

Suicide by shooting

Photograph both entrance and exit wounds. Place identification alongside each wound as well as ruler
for measuring the entrance wound. Exit wound is always larger than the diameter of the bullet. Usually the
hairs surrounding the entrance would be singeing and the skin be burned to reddish or a graying-brown
color. Also, if that shot is fired from range of less than eight inches, a smeary black residue may be evident. If
possible, photograph close-ups of the wound in color to show these various discolorations.

Robbery case

Photograph the general view of the crime scene.

The point of entry begins with a distant shot and work yourself through it. Take close-up shots on the
possible entry and exit to include the pathways. Each room in the house or building which was disturbed
should be photographed.

Take some shots of all the furniture or articles which show as evidence of being ransacked.

Determine his possible point of exit. Usually the burglar may leave something at the crime scene
especially when he is surprised by someone such as hat, gloves and scarf or cigarette butts.

Homicide

When photographing the scene of a homicide case, the forensic photographer relates what he has to
show - the manner by which the homicide occurred, views of the rooms with all possible entrance and exit.

He must show whether there is any evidence of struggle and try to show what happened inside prior to
the crime. Obvious evidence such as cigarette butts, blood stains or broken glass should not be overlooked.

The circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the body. Take close-up shots of the
wounds, bruises, weapon used and the place where it was taken.

Photographing the Corpse

In photographing the corpse on the scene, several pictures of the conditions at the time of discovery
including the environment of the corpse must be taken from various photographic directions.

Shows when photographing the general condition of the corpse as if being deformed as a whole.

When photographing the damaged parts of a corpse, consider the range of photographing the
damaged part clearly. Take some close-up shots from several directions if possible to clarify their relation.

Sex Offense Examination

The crime of rape may be taken as a typical type of offense. There must be a written permission from
the victim and the photograph must be taken in the presence of their parents or guardians or medico legal
officer. The indication of the victim’s effort to resist as bruises or black and blue marks and evidence of the
presence of either or both parties at the scene must be photographed.

Photographing the victim

Evidence of resistance of the criminal act is of particular importance in sex offenses. Verify the hair, neck
including marks and discoloration of the body in the genital, the conditions of specifically affected parts, and
presence of foreign hair, fibers and biological stains. Bite mark wounds should be photographed at twelve to
twenty four hours intervals for the proceeding several days.

The Suspect

The suspect’s body may show evidence of physical struggle such as scratches or bruises and foreign
hairs that may be discovered by the physician. The garments of the suspects may reveal bloodstains, semen,
hair strands, etc.

Mug Shot Photography

The camera should be attached to a tripod facing the plain white background with two flood lamps,
one on each side at approximately 45 º angles to light the subject. The other two lamps are similarly set at
each side of the back of the subject to eliminate or remove the shadow. The subject is placed at the
background barefooted, without eyeglasses and holding at breast level the title board with corresponding
name and other data. The front whole body, half body shot, front right and left side view, right and left side
quarter from head to elbow.

9.1 : Lighting methods

Lighting Methods for Copy and Evidence Close-up Photography

Since most laboratory photography is made with steady burning lights (quartz lamps, photoflood
lamps, fluorescent lamps, etc.) it is relatively easy to choose the best lighting method for photographing a
specific item of evidence. All you need to do is try different lighting methods while looking in the
camera’s viewfinder, and select the method that gives the best results. The following lighting methods are
effective for photographing various evidence subjects.

1. 45-degree lighting

• 45–degree lighting uses one or more lights positioned at 45–degree angles.

If only one light is used, a white or silver
reflector can be placed on the opposite side of the evidence to reflect
some of the light back toward the evidence, reducing shadows.
• 45–degree lighting is used for photographing the average item of evidence
where the objective is to show the item’s shape and size.

2. Direct Reflective lighting

• In direct reflective lighting, the light is reflected directly off the subject into
the lens.
• his is done by placing the subject at a 10–degree angle from the lens to the
film plane and placing the light source at a 10–degree angle from the
subject.
• The light source reflects at a 20–degree angle into the lens.

3. Oblique lighting

• Oblique lighting uses a light source positioned at a low angle.

• Oblique lighting is usually used to show detail by creating shadows
on the surface of the evidence.
• Oblique lighting is commonly used when photographing impressions,
tool marks, and certain types of fingerprints.
• A very low oblique angle of lighting can be used to photograph
dusty footwear impressions and indented writing.

4. Bounce lighting

• Bounce lighting uses light bounced off a white or reflective surface.

• The bounce surface may be positioned at different locations (above
or to one side of the subject) to create the desired effect.
• This usually produces even non–glare lighting with low contrast.

5. Diffused lighting

• Diffused lighting uses an opaque material placed between the light source and the subject to
soften the light.
• This usually results in even lighting with reduced reflections and hot spots.
• The opaque material can be as simple as a section of a white bed sheet
or an empty water bottle, or can be a commercial device designed for
laboratory photography.
• Diffused lighting is usually used for photographing evidence with shiny or
reflective surfaces.
6. Transmitted lighting

• Transmitted lighting uses light that shines through the evidence toward the camera’s
lens. The background becomes shadow–free.
• The angle of the transmitted lighting can be adjusted from 90–degrees to 45–
degrees for the desired effect.
• Transmitted lighting is used for photographing transparent or translucent subjects. It is
effective in photographing evidence such as a fingerprint on a drinking glass.

7. Front directional or axial lighting

• Front directional lighting allows you to send light straight down onto the
evidence.
• A clear piece of glass is placed between the subject and lens at a 45–degree
angle.
• The light source is positioned parallel to the film plane and 45–degrees to the
glass.
• While the light is transmitted through the glass, some is reflected downward
directly on the subject.

Other variations of lighting

Two or more of the lighting methods described above can be used together for lighting evidence. For
example, when photographing a broken piece of glass you might use a combination of transmitted lighting
and diffused 45–degree lighting.

Also, mirrors and white or silver reflector cards can be used to reflect light into shadow areas when using
the lighting methods described above. Other devices, such as small spot lights and fiber optic lighting, can
be utilized to light small areas.

9.2 : Nighttime and Low-Light Photography

Night Photography — Using Low Light Techniques

• Slow Shutter Speed (long exposures) [any movement in the frame of the scene you are capturing
will cause motion blur.]
o shutter speed is actually the time duration to keep the shutter blades in the camera
open to allow light through the aperture to the sensor. It is measured in fractions of a
second.

• Shutter, Aperture And ISO

• larger aperture
 • ISO (get exposure triangle) - amplifies the sensor’s photo sites to brighten up the image, the
higher your ISO value

Flash

• Front curtain sync - the default mode on most camera flash and off-camera flash. This fires the
light at the beginning of the shot, freezing the motion at that point of the exposure. [Issue: red-
eye effect]

9.3 : Painting with light

Forensic photography takes place at a variety of locations, weather conditions, and times of the
day. Nighttime situations tend to occur often and create a challenge for any photographer.

Painting with light is a solution to provide excellent images of the evidence and their location within a
large scene. The process uses external light sources to illuminate the entire scene during a long shutter-speed
exposure setting. Additionally, this process allows the photographer to use a low ISO setting to capture great
details and a small aperture to achieve a maximum depth of field.

The process begins by securing the camera to a solid tripod and framing your scene and image. In M
(manual mode) set the camera shutter speed to “B” (bulb). If this is not available, set the camera shutter speed
to the longest exposure available. Adjust the ISO very low, 50 or 100 ISO, and adjust the aperture to f/22 or f/32,
or the smallest you have available. You will want to use a cable release, remote trigger, or the timer on your
camera to activate the shutter. These will eliminate any camera shake that would occur by depressing
the shutter release button. The next step is to use your external flash to illuminate the entire scene and if possible
minimize any secondary lights from vehicles or emergency lighting. An external flash unit that has a high guide
number will provide enough illumination. These flash units can be expensive; however, they are multipurpose
and can be used in everyday photographic needs. It is also recommended to obtain an external power
source to support the amount of output and length of time required to create a successful image by painting
with light.

The process for illuminating the scene with an external flash is completed by first activating the camera
shutter. You will then quickly go to the subject that is the farthest distance from the camera and trigger the
external flash at subjects within the scene. As you are activating the flash unit, move back and forth through
the scene as well in the direction toward the camera. When triggering the flash unit, you will want to always
shield the flash output from shining directly into the camera lens. As you are walking back towards the camera,
the new flash exposures overlap and expose the shadow area created by the individual and new areas of the
scene. This process can be completed by a single individual or by multiple people with many external flash
units. If multiple individuals are working together to illuminate the scene, try not to flash onto another individual.

The result would be a “ghost” image of the individual who the flash shines upon. A great part of digital
photography is the immediacy of viewing the newly created “painted with light” image. It is recommended to
practice this process prior to using it within an active investigation scene and also try to use the equipment you
would normally take to an investigation site so you are familiar with how your camera and flash units work
together to create an amazing “nighttime” image.
Creating effective lighting

When deciding upon which lighting effect would be best to provide the greatest information
to the investigator, one must consider a few items.

1. Analyze the scene and subject of interest.

2. Determine what is to be emphasized.
3. Choose the appropriate lighting style or multiple lighting styles in a single or multiple
images.

Effective lighting is the product of knowledge, skills, and using the correct lighting technique and continuously
practicing and honing your skills.

Depending on the subject, effective lighting can be rather easy to achieve or extremely challenging. Start by
evaluating the situation and evidence for documentation then develop a strategy to light the
subject. One of the best ways to go about determining what is best is to remember KIS—“Keep It Simple.” It is
easy to overthink and complicate the process. Remember, the lighting
enhances the subject and it should not be the main characteristic of the photograph. Many times it is very
useful to use a single light source and method. In addition to a light’s brightness and color temperature, the
physical size of the light guide is an important characteristic for artificial light photography. Additionally, a light
should be proportionally sized to an object’s size. As a rule of thumb, small subjects benefit from using small
lights and larger subjects may benefit from larger lights. This may not always be available, but one may wantt
to take it into consideration when purchasing additional lights or making modifications to an existing light.

The lighting of forensic evidence does not have to be complicated. Using some practical and proven strategies
makes it possible to produce highly effective and detailed images. The object of evidence and the scene will
determine the quality of light and lighting style to support the evidence. The ability to control light and
understand lighting style characteristics will make a forensic photographer more effective and valuable.

Here are some images showing the application of painting with light technique in crime scene documentation.
9.4: Bloodstain Photography

Photographing Blood Spatter (Sectoring)

Large patterns of evidence such as blood-spatter patterns must be documented to show the entire pattern, as
well as to provide the details necessary to determine the angle and direction of the pattern. Using a technique
called sectoring where the subject is divided up into smaller sections then re-documented close-up allows the
photographer to record the overall look of the pattern as well as provide greater detail.

Scales, anchored to immovable objects such as the wall and floor, should be placed near the pattern. Then
the entire pattern is documented in place. A wide-angle lens may be used for this part of the technique;
however, it must not be used for the close-up shots. The spatter pattern is then divided into even sectors and
marked. The sectors should be approximately 1.5 to 2 feet across. Mark each sector with its own unique
identifier, such as letters or numbers/
It will be easier to document if the sectors are the same dimensions (rectangular) as the image. Be sure not to
divide any impression evidence that is in the pattern such as handprints or fabric impressions.

The pattern should now be re-photographed to show the location of the sectors. The scales should remain in
place for the remainder of the photographs.
Photograph each sector close-up leaving enough room for overlap. Be sure to keep the camera perpendicular
to the evidence. Include a more precise scale in each sector. Ideally, the pattern should be shot using a
tripod, as it makes completing the entire pattern much easier. It will also allow all individual sectors to be shot at
the same distance, which makes scaling the photographs easier. Be sure when documenting the individual
patterns that they are all shot with the film plane parallel to the subject. Do not tilt the camera up (or down) to
photograph sectors above or below the height of the tripod or other support.

Bloodstain and Chemiluminescence

Chemical testing was also performed on the laundered clothing mentioned in the previous case example.
Because the bloodstains were already dilute and some of them could not be seen with the naked eye, luminol
was chosen as a presumptive test. Luminol is a very sensitive chemical that reacts with blood to produce a
blue-colored chemiluminescence. Chemical luminescence is a chemical reaction that produces light. The
observation and photographic documentation of the chemiluminescence must take place in a darkened
environment because the luminescence is weak and is not easily detected in an ambient light environment.

Shutter speeds can vary, but usually should not exceed 30 seconds; the chemiluminescent reaction starts to
diminish significantly after 30 seconds. The camera must be placed on a tripod and it is recommended to use a
shutter release cable or a timer delay to avoid camera vibrations. The following guidelines serve as a good
starting point for luminol photography:

• The camera is set up and secured to the tripod.

• First, manually focus in ambient light or first autofocus, and then
move the selector to manual focus. The camera autofocus will not
work properly in a completely darkened room.
• The exposure setting could be manual or aperture priority depending the accuracy of the aperture priority in
low light environments.
• A typical manual exposure starting point would be
• Aperture: f5.6
• Shutter speed: 30 seconds
• ISO: 100
• Rear curtain flash.

A rear curtain flash is a camera setting that should be found on any quality DSLR camera. With the rear curtain
flash selected, the flashfires as the shutter is about to close, as opposed to when it first opens.
A sync cord should be used to remove the flash from the camera. The exposure compensation on the flash
should be lowered to underexpose the image. The flash should also be directed at the ceiling or a corner of the
room away from the evidence. Doing so, the illumination from the flash is bounced off a wall or ceiling and
provides just enough illumination to visualize the background without overwhelming the chemiluminescence.
Photographing luminol in this manner is critical for placing any possible bloodstains detected in context with the
crime scene or evidence.

Figure 3.25 (A) Bloodstains on white 100% cotton. The bloodstain pattern was allowed to dry for a period of 30
minutes prior to being laundered. (B) The same shirt as in (A) after being laundered, recorded with normal flash
photography. The only residual evidence of the bloodstains was the appearance of several faint brown stains.
The highlighted area in red was the region chemically treated with luminol, which appears in (D). (C)
Laundered shirt photographed with 430 m illumination and a yellow barrier filter over the camera lens.
Compared to (A). much of the original pattern can be visualized with the ALS Image recorded with a Nikon
D200 camera using the following exposure settings: f4.5, 20 seconds, and ISO 100. (D) The section of the
laundered shirt that was highlighted in B was treated with luminol No pattern could be recognized, this only
provided an indication that blood could be present. The negative control did not react to the luminol.
Figure 3.27 gives another illustration of luminol photography. In a homicide case, the victim was assaulted and
stabbed by a roommate. Subsequent to the assault, the subject in the case removed his bloodstained clothing
and showered. The bathroom of the homicide scene was carefully examined for bloodstain evidence. Faint,
visible, and dilute red/brown stains were apparent when the shower was examined with light from a high-intensity
source. The shower was systematically processed with luminol, small sections at a time. The camera was set up
and focused prior to spraying the chemical; after the lights were turned off, the chemical was sprayed and the
shutter opened. A positive luminol reaction was observed on the floor of the shower as depicted in Figure 3.27.
When using luminol, a systematic testing approached is critical to proper documentation. It is important to set up
the camera equipment prior to any treatment with luminol because the initial chemiluminescent reaction will
have the highest luminous intensity. Subsequent treatments of an area that already contains dilute blood with
luminol will only dilute that blood further, and the luminous intensity of the reaction will rapidly decrease as blood
is diluted past the sensitivity limits of the reagent.

9.5 : Macrophotography and Photomicrography

A teleconverter is a secondary lens that can be located between the lens and the camera body.
Teleconverters increase the focal length of the lens by a multiplier, creating a larger image of the subject while
not affecting the working distance.

Teleconverters reduce the aperture of a lens, allowing less light to pass through the lens, which leads to
slower speeds. The ability to maintain the amount of working distance is advantageous for forensic
photographers because the increased working distance allows for adjustments and composition of the
evidence such as arranging to light while keeping a safe distance from the subject matter.

Teleconverters are most commonly used with telephoto lenses so, for example, a 300mm f/2.8 with a
1.4x teleconverter will transform into a 420mm lens at f/4. The lens will lose one stop of speed. If a 2x
teleconverter is used on the same lens, it becomes a 600mm lens with an f/5.6 reducing its aperture two stops. It
is important to consider the type of teleconverter that will be purchased. If the teleconverter is not designed to
work with the lens and camera system, the autofocus and other electronic elements may not be able to
communicate with one another and will not operate properly. Teleconverters may slightly degrade the quality
of the image produced when compared to a true macro lens by itself. This degradation is minor and is much
less noticeable in macro photography primarily because macro lenses are engineered to create crisp sharp
images throughout the entire lens.

3. Extension Tubes and Bellows

Extension tubes and bellows increase the distance between the lens and sensor of the camera. The
farther the lens is from the sensor, the closer the focusing distance and the greater the magnification. Extension
tubes are made in differing lengths and can be mounted together to increase the length. The most common
single extension tube lengths are 12mm, 20mm, and 36mm, though each manufacturer produces additional
lengths that can reach 250mm and beyond. Depending upon the type of extension tube, some automatic
camera features may be lost.

While extension tubes offer only fixed lengths, a bellows is adjustable allowing varying lengths. The bellows are
relatively easy to operate with some practice. Magnification is controlled by the length of the bellows, and
focus is controlled by the distance of the lens to the subject. For optimal quality, it is best to use lenses
manufactured for macro and close-up photography since they are designed for the shorter working distances
required. A normal camera lens can be used for macro photography by using a reverse mounting ring. The ring
attaches to the filter thread on the front of the lens and makes it possible to mount the lens in reverse.
Close-up and Macrophotography Depth of field

The depth of field (DoF) of an image is the range of sharp focus from the front or an image or foreground to
the most distant region in the scene called the background. As image magnification increases, DoF decreases,
therefore shallow DoF is inherent in close-up and macro photography. To maximize the DoF in a macro image,
align the camera and lens to the object’s primary plane of interest. After establishing the proper reproduction
ratio on the lens, align the camera to be parallel to the plane of the subject. Move either the camera or
subject to create this alignment. When at an active investigation site, do not touch or move the subject of
interest.

Close-up and Aperture Selection and Diffraction

Selecting the proper aperture needed for taking close-up images is

not the same as is found in routine photography where the DoF is
increased by selecting a small aperture. During close-up
photography, as you get closer to reproduction ratios near 1:1, the
smaller apertures ƒ/16‒ƒ/22 will produce diffraction. Diffraction is
dependent upon the characteristics of the object and the total
magnification, and leads to softness in the image. Unfortunately, a
larger aperture does not provide adequate DoF needed to
completely share information about the subject. A forensic
photographer must determine the best aperture considering each
of these image characteristics when selecting an aperture and its
role in affecting the image attributes of evidence. When doing
routine photography, the rule of thumb is that two-thirds of the DoF
will fall behind the focusing area and one-third will be in front of the
focus area. When doing close-up photography, the DoF is nearly an
equal distribution of focus in front and behind the selected object
focus. This makes the selection of where to place focus important.
Exposure compensation

When using close-up lenses, extension tubes, or bellows, the increase from the lens to the camera’s sensor
produces a light loss.
As the magnification/reproduction ratio increases, light loss also increases and less light is available for
composing, focusing, and creation the exposure. This can lead to images that are underexposed or dark.
Modern DSLR cameras have a highly adaptable through-the-lens (TTL) metering system that adjusts for light loss
and determines the correct exposure. Be cautious as shutter speeds can be longer and even subtle vibrations
can cause blur in images.The imaging sensor’s location within the camera body can be found by locating the
circle 0 symbols on the camera body. This is typically located on the top of the camera near the center or rear
part of the camera body just before the back.

Image Magnification

Calculating magnification or reduction of an image is done by dividing the image size by the object size.
Magnification = image size (i)/object size (o), M = i/o. A second method is to use the viewfinder as a
rudimentary scale. Because a full-frame sensor’s dimensions are 1 in. (24mm) × 1.5 in. (36mm), there is a built-in
1 in. ruler on the viewfinder’s short dimension. The viewfinder can be used to quickly evaluate the object’s size
and compared
it to the viewfinder width. Magnification (M) is calculated with the equation, M = i/o. The imaging sensor
represents the image (i) and the object (o) is the measured and recorded as(o). For example, if an object (o)
were .25 in., and the imaging sensor and viewfinder is 1 in.
(i), the equation can be solved this way:
M = 1 in./.25 in.
This situation describes an image magnification of 4. The equation can be calculated using
millimeters as well.

10.1: Evidence Photography

Evidence Photography

1. A permanent record is made of the original appearance of the object.

2. The photographs can be used in place of physical evidence to supplement the case report.
3. Each article is preserved from unnecessary handling which might cause the evidence to deteriorate
or otherwise become altered.

Basic Requirements of a Photograph admitted as Evidence in Court

No matter how extensive the photographic efforts are at the crime scene, photographs must stand the
test of legal admissibility. The general standards used to review the credibility of the photographs are:

1. accurate representations
2. free of distortion
3. material and relevant
4. unbiased

10.2: Rules on Electronic Evidence

Admissibility of photographic evidence in court

What is evidence?

• Evidence is the means, sanctioned by these rules, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth
respecting a matter of fact. (Rule 128, section 1.)
ADMISSIBILITY OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY AS EVIDENCE IN COURT
Digital photography is being increasingly recognized and used in law enforcement as an efficient tool that
enables instant viewing and distribution of images that aid in criminal investigations. The major concern about
digital photography is its admissibility as evidence in court, since it can be manipulated with computer
software.

Traditional film-based photography, however, can also be manipulated, either in the course taking the original
photograph or in developing the film. Under current rules of evidence, any partly seeking to introduce a film-
based photograph must demonstrate its relevancy. Also, in order to prove the content of a picture, courts
generally require the original, defined as the negative or any print there from.

Many people fear that digital photographs can become altered more easily than film-based images and that
supposed original images recorded on a camera's light-sensitive chip can be manipulated.

To alleviate fears that digital photographs can elude confirmation of authenticity under current rules of
evidence, law enforcement agencies should attempt to establish standard operating procedures that include,
at least, the preservation of and accountability for the original image on a camera chip, prior to processing via
computer software and a printer, with subsequent evidence of how the image was processed prior to
admission into evidence.

As judges and attorneys become aware of the potential abuses of digital photography and familiar with the
associated technology, any abuses will be detected and any images without enough authentication will be
excluded, while authentic images will be entered into evidence.

As stated in Rules on Electronic Evidence Rule 11 - Audio, Photographic, Video and Ephemeral Evidence.
Section 1 Audio, photographic and video evidence of events, acts or transactions shall be admissible provided
is shall be identified, explained or authenticated by the person who made the recording or by some other
person competent to testify on the accuracy thereof.

PHOTOGRAPHS AS EVIDENCE
A PHOTOGRAPH may serve as:

• Documentary evidence (for physical evidence and other evidence that can’t be presented in the
court room)

• A SILENT witness

• The deciding factor in a conviction or acquittal of the suspect when no other form of real evidence
is available

• Secondary or supporting evidence to earlier evidence already presented

• A REAL EVIDENCE and not as DOCUMENTARY evidence

“When a document is presented to prove its existence or condition (not its contents), It is offered not as
Documentary, but as REAL EVIDENCE”

“A document may be considered real or object evidence depending upon the PURPOSE for which it is offered.
If the object of an examination is the age, the signatures thereon, the physical features or conditions of
document itself, the document is considered real or object evidence which the court may view for such
purpose; but if the document is presented to prove its CONTENT, it is a documentary evidence.”

The Power of Physical Evidence

“Physical Evidence is the evidence of the HIGHEST ORDER; It speaks more eloquently than a HUNDRED
WITNESSES.”

• People vs. Sacabin, 57 SCRA 707; People vs. Ison, 173 SCRA 118

“Where testimonies CONFLICT, the physical evidence is important in the determination of the truth”

• People vs. Aquino, 54 SCRA 409

Digital photographs serve as powerful, efficient tools for law enforcement. The ability to take a picture and
instantly view and distribute it helps officials in their efforts to serve and protect their communities. Agencies
should not become hindered by those in the legal system reluctant to stay in step with advances in technology.
As one commentator stated, “Fear about manipulation of digital images is exaggerated, perhaps because of
the perceived novelty of the technology - (FBI law enforcement Bulletin)
10.3 : Legal Issues on Photographic evidence

https://batasnatin.com/law-library/remedial-law/evidence/1089-rule-130-rules-of-court-admissibility-of-
evidence.html

Legal Aspects of Visual Evidence

Because it is often impractical, if not impossible, to take the jury to the scene of the crime or incident, the next
best alternative is to bring the scene into the courtroom. For more than 130 years, the best method has been
photographic documentation of the scene. Forensic photography is the accepted methodology, and
because of its success, the legal foundation for admissibility has been significantly simplified.
There are two basic requirements for the admissibility of photographs.
First, someone must have personal knowledge to testify as to the accuracy of the depiction of the subject in
the photograph. Second, someone must identify the equipment used as well as its capability of producing a
true and accurate representation. In recent years, it has been my experience that this process has become less
complex. Generally, all that is required is confirmation by a witness that he saw the object or subject at the
scene and, further, that the photographic documentation is a fair and accurate representation.

Historical Foundation

For the most part, the requirement for accurate photographic representation includes photographs, slides,
videotapes, movies, and x-rays. The acceptance of this broad medium as evidence in court has been well
established.

The first photographs (Daguerreotypes) were used in a civil case by the Supreme Court in Lueo vs. United
States, 23 Howard 515 (1859), to decide the authenticity of photographs in comparing signatures. The first
recorded criminal case introducing photographs as identification evidence was Udderzook vs.
Commonwealth, 76 Pa. 340 (1874). Color photographs were introduced in civil litigation in Green vs. City and
County of Denver, 3 Colo. 390, 142 P.2d 277 (1943), involving color photographs of spoiled meat in violation of
the health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public. Criminal cases have shown the
importance of color since the 1960s, in a case that depicted the graphic wounds of the victim, State vs. Conte,
CRC Press LLC157 Conn. 209, 251 A.2d 81 (1968).

Slides have been admissible since the notable State vs. Sheppard case, 100 Ohio App. 345, 128 N.E. 2d 471
(1955), upheld in a rehearing, 352 U.S. 955 (1956). Color slides depicted the victim’s wounds. Motion pictures
were accepted in 1916, Duncan vs. Kieger, 6 Ohio App. 57. The use of videotapes as evidence of defendants’
statements and confessions has been upheld as early as 1969, Parramore vs. State, 229 So. 2d855 (Fla., 1969).

Points of Objection

The main goal of any challenge would address the fair and accurate representation of the
photographic evidence.

Accuracy of Color

The true color reproduction may be a point of contention if the color is a critical issue. Questions may be
directed at the lighting, filters, and processing, any or all of which can alter the color balance. Use of a
standard color balance bar in the corner of the photograph allows comparison with the original bar used to
produce the photograph.

Alterations of Negatives and Prints

Any deliberate attempt to alter the photographic evidence is inexcusable and, to the untrained eye,
difficult to detect. Usually the deception is one of two types. One is eliminating evidence such as scars, cracks,
or defects from
photographs by filtering. The second is through the use of double exposure; objects or people can be added
to a photograph with multiple negatives. Careful scrutiny of the highlights and shadows in the photograph or
negative can reveal these attempts at deception.

Computer Generated Images

Today’s computer technology brings with it new enhancement capabilities to apply to problem
photographs. It also brings the chance of misunderstanding because of many individuals’ fears of the
unknown. It is imperative that supporting testimony from the computer imaging expert provides the proper
foundation for acceptance of this type of evidence.
Enlargements

For the normal viewing distance for 35 mm format film, 8 × 10 enlargements are the standard. However,
to avoid a challenge for cropping important evidence from a negative, use full frame enlargements which are
8 × 12. If larger prints are used (poster size, 24 × 30) the objection may be that the subject is larger than life-size
and therefore not a fair and accurate representation. It may be necessary during the laying of the foundation
to explain the purpose of the enlargement, thus avoiding some objections.

Errors in Printing

The most common printing error is the reversed print. Complex negatives or those without obvious
indicators such as lettering can be very misleading. The normal combination of photographs and diagrams
used for orientation of the jury to the scene could be totally confusing to even the most astute juror if a critical
photograph was reversed. To avoid potential problems with admissibility, always have the negatives available
in court for comparison purposes.

Equipment

Cross-examination about your camera and accessory equipment is rare today. In the past 16 years, I
have been questioned only once about my camera equipment. The best way to avoid confusion and
objections is to know your equipment. It is also a good idea to have your equipment with you in court.
The best evidence is demonstrative in nature — if you get the opportunity, show it to the jury.

Inflammatory Photographs

Photographic documentation that shows graphic details of gruesome wounds, injuries, or deceased
victims may raise objections on the grounds that it may prejudice the jury. The relevancy and factual content
are important to the admissibility of graphic photographic evidence. Nudity is another area where proper
foundation will avoid unnecessary objections. In a series of rape assaults on college women, the photographic
documentation of puncture wounds to the breasts was admissible based on the fact that the weapon (a
sharpened screwdriver) responsible for wounds inflicted on four different women was a common modus
operandi of the defendant.

Lighting

The use of lights in many disciplines of photography is for artistic purposes and can produce very
interesting yet deceptive results. Forensic photography uses available lighting in every applicable situation.
There are, however, many indoor or night situations where electronic flash and floodlighting are necessary. Fire
scenes are typically shot with several flash techniques because of the tendency for charring to absorb light (fill-
in, cross-lighting, painting). It is advisable to photograph the situation in both available light and with flash to
show the necessity of auxiliary light.

Marking Photographs

The use of a particular photograph to emphasize a point with more than one witness is often done by
marking the photograph. The marks may consist of lines, arrows, numbers, circles, and so forth to draw attention
to a particular point in the photograph. To preserve the integrity of the photograph, it may be helpful to use
clear acetate overlays on which the witnesses can make their marks. Another method would involve duplicate
prints of the subject, one to be used for marking by the witnesses.

Another type of mark that may be objectionable is a defect in the negative that produces artifacts on
the print. These marks can appear as light or dark spots or even clouded images. If the photograph is critical, it
will be necessary to produce the negatives for review by your adversaries. To counter their argument that it is
not a true and accurate representation, you might point out that no photograph is an exact representation
considering that it is only two dimensional.

Misleading Photographs

In addition to objections that arise over color, optical distortions, markings, or time lapse are several
other areas relevant to objectionable content of photographic documentation. Some photographs may be
confusing to a
juror if unnecessary or irrelevant objects are crowding the photograph. Likewise, if the photograph is taken too
close, segregating the object from the rest of the scene, it can be just as misleading. Therefore, it is suggested
that additional overall photographs be taken for orientation to the overall picture.

A single photograph portraying one point of view, particularly when related to subject material over a
period of time, could be misinterpreted by jurors. For example, an intersection where a pedestrian-vehicle
accident occurred was shown in a photograph as having relatively light pedestrian traffic. The correct
photographic series showed the actual time frame when the accident occurred — some three to four hours
later than the single photograph of the same intersection.
 Photocopies (sometimes referred to as laser copies) produced on color photocopying machines
appear as very good likenesses at first glance. However, the limited quality of color shading is most noticeable
and the paper (typically bond) cannot compare with photographic paper. Recently, an adversary attempt
was made in court to substitute 8 1/2 × 11 color enlargements from a color photocopier for 8 × 10 color prints.
These enlargements were initially introduced and marked into evidence several days prior to the court date.
You can imagine the surprise I created when I announced that what was handed to me for identification was
not a photograph enlargement but rather nothing more than a color photocopy.

I proceeded to point out three obvious indicators: first, the paper was typical bond, not photographic
glossy or matte finish; second, the copy size was 81/2 × 11, not 8 × 10; and finally, the color was flat with no
graduation or tone. If enlargements are used in court, the negatives or slides used to make them should be
made available.

Optical Illusions

Avoid using excessively wide-angle lenses (greater than 28 mm), which create fishbowl distortions at the
edges of photographs. Telephoto/zoom lenses are useful in many instances, for example, in surveillance, where
close-up identification is desirable, but you must avoid subjects in the foreground, as they can detract from the
objective by appearing closer in the photograph than they actually were. Also, consider the composition of
your photograph in relation to accuracy.

Vertical lines will appear longer than horizontal lines of the same length. Lighter-shade objects will
appear larger than dark objects. If the photograph is to fall within the guidelines of a true and accurate
representation, do not let distortion detract from your objective to present the truth.

Scale of Reference

When the photographic evidence portrays size or distance, it is suggested that two photographs of the
same subject be taken — one as it is found and a second with a scale of reference. The scale can be a
standard ruler, yardstick, tape measure, or specifically designed rule, usually six to seven inches in length,
marked in both inches and millimeters and blue or gray in color. A scale of reference photographed with
bloodstain evidence is far more effective in differentiating between high-velocity (diameter less than 1 mm)
and castoff blood spatter.

Sight Perspective

If the photograph depicts an observation made by a particular witness, be sure the photograph was
taken from that person’s perspective. It is important to take the photograph as near as possible to the same
angle and eyesight level as the witness. This is particularly important in motor vehicle accidents, in which the
sight perspective of a driver or pedestrian can be very important because of any obstructions.

Time Frame

The lapse of time between the event and when the photographs were taken is subject to objection
based on time of day, weather conditions, time of year, or changes of appearance in the scene caused by
actions of individuals (moving furniture in a room, construction or demolition of buildings, etc.).

If a substantial period has elapsed, additional care may be required to lay the foundation for admission
of the photographs as relevant. The witness must show that the photograph is fair and accurate in aiding his
testimony.

Presentation Strategy

The primary purpose of photographic evidence is to aid the jury in relating witness testimony to other
forms of physical evidence. The objective in preparing demonstrative evidence for court is to have it viewed by
jurors while testimony is given. All too often the photographic evidence is taken for granted, and the normal 3 ×
5 prints are passed among the jurors during testimony. Not only is this confusing to the jurors, but it can be very
distracting to the witness. There are several alternative techniques to maximize the effectiveness of
photographic evidence.

Enlargements are routinely accepted. One method of presentation I encourage my client to promote is
allowing me to walk before the jury slowly with each enlarged photograph as I testify to its content and
relevancy. Occasionally, a juror will stop you for a moment or ask you to point out the subject you are
addressing. Such evidence stays with them long after you have left the courtroom and they have retired to
deliberate. The original print (and sometimes negatives) should also be available for comparison of content
and accuracy.

An alternate technique with enlargements is to mount poster-size photographs on a stiff backing

material (foam-core board, illustration board) and display them on an easel near the jury. The witness can then
direct the juror’s attention to points of interest during testimony. The disadvantage is the lack of personal
contact with the jury developed with the previous technique.

Presentation of slide transparencies in court has become widely accepted.

The advantage of a large photograph directing everyone’s attention to one visual display at a time
may be outweighed only by problems with courtroom dynamics. Older courtrooms may not allow adequate
darkening for proper viewing of slides. More recent courtroom design, however, has provided for proper room
darkening as well as strategically mounted screens for optimum viewing. An important footnote to proper
preparation is always have a backup projector and spare bulbs for the unexpected failure. One additional
suggestion — for the convenience of the jurors, have a set of prints made from the slides that can be passed
around later during deliberation.

Modern photographic documentation brings the technology of videotape into the courtroom with ever-
increasing frequency and great success. When properly prepared and introduced, nothing is closer to the truth
than a moving documentation, particularly with audio backup. It is as close to lifelike as our technology has
come, keeping everyone’s attention directed to one subject at the same time.
The latest introduction to the field of demonstrative evidence is computer graphic enhancement of
photographic images. This technique, while relatively new in its application to the area of forensic
photography, has been accepted in several judicial proceedings. It is important to lay proper foundation for
the accuracy of the work and the expertise of the individual who produced the work. The three-dimensional
capabilities of this medium hold tremendous promise for the areas of accident and crime scene reconstruction.
This author and associates are presently involved in researching and collecting
data for the potential use of this technique in fire scene reconstruction.

Summary

The technology of modern photographic equipment has significantly reduced the margin of error in producing
court-acceptable photographs. If you read the owner’s manual provided with your camera, use the suggested
film speed (ISO), and practice, you should encounter little concern about the acceptability of your work in
court. There are times and situations where special techniques for photographing evidence may require
additional testimony to lay the foundation for its admissibility.

The need may arise for additional explanation of methodology, equipment, and technician’s experience. This is
often the case with techniques such as microscopy, macro photography, ultraviolet photography,
photogrammetry, and videography.

Remember, whatever your level of experience, do not ever testify to something you did not do or do not know.
Even if the photographic documentation is accurate in every respect, if you did not prepare it or do not have
first-hand knowledge of the subject, it can be ruled inadmissible if you are found to be untruthful in your
testimony