A.

Definition of Terms:
1. Photography = Derived from the Greek
word “Phos” or “Photos” which means
“light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” or
“Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir John
F. W. Herschel coined the word
photography when he first wrote a letter
to Henry Fox Talbot.
= Is the art and science of reproducing
image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a
camera, Lens and its accessories and the
chemical process required in order to
produced a photograph.
2. Forensic = Derived from the
Latin word “Forum” which means
“a market place” where people
gathered for public discussion.
= When used in conjunction with
other science it connotes a
relationship to the administration of
justice. It is sometimes used
interchangeably with the word legal.
3. Police Photography = Is the application of
the principles of photography is relation to
the police work and in the administration
of justice.
4. Photograph = Is the mechanical and
chemical result of Photography. Picture
and photograph are not the same for a
picture is a generic term is refers to all
kinds of formed image while a photograph
is an image that can only be a product of
photography.
 B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Personal Identification
= Personal Identification is
considered to be the first
application of photography is
police work. Alphonse Bertillion
was the first police who utilized
photography in police work as a
supplementary identification in
his Anthropometry system.
2. For Record Purposes
= Considered to be the utmost used of
photography in police work.
3. For Preservation
= Crime scene and other physical
evidence requires photograph for
preservation purposes. Crime scene
cannot be retain as is for a long period of
time but through photograph the initial
condition of the scene of the crime can
be preserved properly.
4. For Discovering and Proving
-Photography can extend human vision in
discovering and proving things such as:
a. The use of Magnification
Photomicrography = Taking a
magnified photograph of small object
through attaching a camera to the
ocular of a compound microscope so
as to show a minute details of the
physical evidence.
 Photomacrogaphy = Taking a
magnified(enlarged)
photograph of small object by
attaching an extended tube lens
(macro lens) to the camera.
Microphotography = is the
process of reducing into a small
strips of film a scenario. It is
first used in filmmaking.
An animal hair viewed through the
polarized light microscope

Photomicrograph
Photomacrograph
 Macrophotography= used
synonymously with photomacrography.

Telephotography = Is the process of

taking photograph of a far object
with the aid of a long focus and
Telephoto lens.
 B. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray,
Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to show
something which may not be visible with
the aid of human eye alone.
5. For Court Exhibits
= Almost all evidence presented in
court before formally be accepted
requires that they satisfy the basic
requirements for admissibility which
is relevancy and competency. A
question of relevancy is usually
proved by proving the origin of the
evidence and its relation to the case
and this is usually supplemented by
photograph of the evidence giving
reference as to where it came from.
 Evidence presented in court once
accepted became known as Exhibit.
Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense or
Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.
6. Crime Prevention
= with the used of video camera (hidden
camera) and other advanced
photographic equipment crimes are being
detected more easily and even to the
extent of preventing them from initially
occurring.
7. Police Training
= Modern facilities are now being used as
instructional material not only in police
training as well as in other agencies.
8. Reproducing and Copying
= With the use of photography any
number of reproduction of the evidence
can be made those giving unlimited
opportunity for its examination and even
allow other experts or person to examine
the specimen without compromising the
original.
 C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that
travels in a form of a wave with the speed of
186, 000 miles per second.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block
unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching
the sensitized material.
3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the
camera that collect the reflected light coming
from the object to form the image.
4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly
sensitized chemical compound which is
capable of being transformed into an image
through the action of light and with some
chemical processes. ( Film and Photo
Paper).
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary
for reducing silver halides into a form so as
a latent image and a positive image be made
resulting to what we called Photograph.
E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES
AND CLASSIFICATION
Light is defined as an
electromagnetic energy with the speed
of 186,00 miles per second. Its wave
travel is said to be characterized in
certain extent based on velocity,
wavelength and frequency of the
number of vibration of the wave per
second.
 Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be
characterized as either: Reflected, Transmitted or
Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a
mirror and it bounce back. Transmitted when the
light hits a transparent glass which would allow the
light to pass through its medium and Absorbed when
the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it
from either bouncing or passing through.
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which
men see as white light is actually a mixture of all
colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we
allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the
Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with
colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet
colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also
said of have a wavelength of between 400-700
millimicron or nanometer.
Dispersion causes separation of colors
when light is refracted by a prism.
 Reflection = is the bouncing of light. It is the
one generally used in recording images in
photography.
 Refraction = is the bending of light cause by
its passage to an object affecting its velocity.
 Defraction = is the action of light when it
falls around the object just like when the
moon covers the sun.
Refraction/Reflection
 1. Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and
invisible light.
a. Visible Light
= Is the type of light that produces different
sensation when reach the human eye. It is the type of
light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the
human eye.
b. Invisible Light
= lights in which their wavelength are either too
short or too long to excite the retina of the human eye
i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.
 2. Photographic Rays
1. X-ray ()
=Light with the wavelength between .01
to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by
passing an electric current through a
special type of vacuum tube. It was
incidentally discovered by Conrad
Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light
works in the principle of shadow
photography.
 Other uses of x-ray
 Internal photography (shadow method)
 Examination of fracture (associated to
bone continuity)
 Dislocation ( problems with joints)

 Hemorrhage

 Foreign object inside the body

Elbow and Hand X-ray
2. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)
= Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400
nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi
colored background, documents that are altered,
decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible
writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.
 Application of U.V. light
 Erasure (mechanical or chemical – Ink
eradicator)
 Invisible writing (sympathetic ink)
 Contact writing
 Fibers (animal- bluish, plant – yellowich)
 Blood and semenal stain
 Watersoaked document
 Latent prints
Light Rays
3. Visible Light
= Is the type of radiation having a wavelength
of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary
photographing purposes.
Different application of visible light
Direct light examination = designed to provide
support light in photographing.
Side light examination = used in erasure
Oblique light examination = light comes from one
side at a very low angle use in erasure and
indented writing.
Transmitted light examination = light comes from
the back or bottom. Used in examination of
watermarks, fiber arrangement and sequence of
strokes.
4. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
= Considered as the photographic rays
with the longest wavelength ranging from
700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to
take photograph of over-written
documents, obliterated writing, and
charred documents or for black out
photography. Sometimes referred to as
heat rays).
 Uses of Infra-red (heat rays)
 Obliteration ( smeared over writing) = the blotting
or smearing over of writing using Superimposing
Ink.
 Addition
 Interlineation or insertion = addition of sentence
of paragraph of page.
 Charred document = partially burned or brittle
document
 Surveillance photography
 Night vision
 Sending signals ( T.V. components and others)
Image of two human bodies in mid-infrared
("thermal") light (false-color)
 3.Light Source
A. Natural Light = are those light which come to
existence without the intervention of man e.i.
Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform
shadow and the object appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or
bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds that cover the
sun.
3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to
thick clouds covering the sun.
 Natural Sources

Sunlight Lightning

Fire fly/ Bioluminescence

Fire Stars

Growing Quasar Nebula Antarctic krill Aequorea victoria

 3.Light Source
Daylight may still be classified as: open
space bright sunlight, under shade bright
sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and
cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the
appearance of the object being photograph.
Factors such as atmospheric vapor,
atmospheric dust and quality of the reflected
light coming and not coming from the source
should likewise be considered.
 3.Light Source
B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made
light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and
photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous radiation
a. Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized
light or Spot light. It is a light with a reflector at the back which
focus the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is
500 watts.
b. Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the
walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both
ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the
reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more
than it is used in photographing.

Assorted types of
fluorescent lamps.
Top, two Compact
fluorescent lamps,
bottom, two regular
tubes. Matchstick
shown for scale.
 c. Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire
filament connecting two wires which sustain the
electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody
likewise commonly uses this although it is more
expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.

1. Outline of Glass bulb

2. Low pressure inert gas (argon, neon, nitrogen)
3. Tungsten filament
4. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
5. Contact wire (goes into stem)
6. Support wires
7. Stem (glass mount)
8. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
9. Cap (sleeve)
10. Insulation (vitrite)
11. Electrical contact
Incandescent Bulb: Cross sectional appearance
 3.Light Source
2. Short Duration type
a. Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by
the rapid combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be
used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically.
There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical
contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it
becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that
ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense
light.
b. Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous
electrical in charges between two electrodes in a gas filled
glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in
capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second
and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion
can be arrested or stopped in the photographs.
Synchronization = the timing between the shutter and flash which
is a problem usually encountered in using a flash bulb.
 1909 flash-lamp
1903 view camera
Canon 430 EX
 Concurrent light – light that is
scattered
 Coherent light = light that is
aligned such as laser light
 Hologram = the formation of image
trough the use of laser light
 4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
= It refers to the film and photographic paper that
basically composed of emulsion containing Silver Halides
suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or
reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic
paper which contains the silver grains which is the one
sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can
be composed of Three layers ( Blue, Green and Red) with
filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = Is the one designed to hold
back the light and prevents halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion
Photographic Film
 I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film = usually represented by
a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and
generally used in black and white photography.
Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan
X-plus.
2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the
Negative type and the reversal type of colored
film. The former is usually having names ending
in color while the word chrome represents the
latter.
e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red
film, Orthochromatic film and Panchromatic film.
B. According to Spectral Sensitivity
Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film
emulsion to the different wavelength of the light course.
1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and
Blue Color.
2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up
to the green. ( popular in the marker as
KODALITH FILM) Hermann Wilhelm Vogel in
1873
3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to
red (sensitive to all colors of the visible light)

4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red

light.
FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is
expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the
number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in
Logarithmic value system. Used in the same principle as
the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed
as combination of ASA and DIN rating.
II. Photographic Paper
Is that sensitized material that will record the visible
image in the final development and become the
photograph.
 Types of Photographic Papers
A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the
size of the positive print is the same as the size of the
negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black
tones when properly developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and
enlarging process. This is one of the most ideal photo paper
used for police photography. Will give a black tone when
properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for
projection and contact printing. Slow emulsion.
4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast
range in one paper it uses a special chlorobromide emulsion
that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to
different colors of light.
 Types of Photographic Papers
B. According to Physical Characteristics
b.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness
is not of consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be
mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in
ordinary photographic purposes.
3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up
under rough treatment.
b.2. Surface Texture
a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brillant image formation.
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than
detail is necessary.
b.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when
warmth effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints
 Types of Photographic Papers
C. According to Contrast (grade)
1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast
negative or extremely exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over
exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast
(under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to
compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is
useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.
6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.
 5. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering
device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the
sensitized material.

Basically, camera can produce image

with its four-(4) basic parts such as light
tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of
sensitized material.
 19th century studio
Camera Obscura
camera, with bellows for
focusing
 Essential Parts of a Camera
1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light
out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the
reflected light from an object to form an image
on the film.
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during
which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at
the opposite side of the lens designed to hold
firmly the sensitized material to prevent the
formation of the multiple or blurred image.
5. View finder – designed to determine the field
of view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the given lens
Human Eye and the Camera

Cross-section view of SLR system:

1 - Front-mount lens (4-element Tessar design)
2 - Reflex mirror at 45-degree angle
3 - Focal plane shutter
4 - Film or sensor
5 - Focusing screen
6 - Condenser lens
7 - Optical glass pentaprism (or pentamirror)
8 - Eyepiece (can have diopter correction
ability)
 Types of Shutter
 The focal plane shutter operates as close to the film plane as
possible and consists of cloth curtains that are pulled across
the film plane with a carefully determined gap between the
two curtains or consisting of a series of metal plates moving
either vertically or horizontally across the film plan. As the
curtains or blades move at a constant speed, exposing the
whole film plane can takes much longer than the exposure
time. For example an exposure of 1/1000 second may be
achieved by the shutter curtains moving across the film
plane in 1/50th of a second but with the two curtains only
separated by 1/20th of the frame width. When
photographing rapidly moving objects, the use of a focal
plane shutter can produce some unexpected effects. Focal
plane shutters are also difficult to synchronize with
electronic flash and it is often only possible to use flash at
shutter speeds below 1/60th second although in some
modern cameras that can be as fast as 1/100second/
 The Copal shutter or more precisely the in-lens shutter is
a shutter contained within the lens structure, often close
to the diaphragm consisting of a number of metal leaves
which are maintained under spring tension and which are
opened and then closed when the shutter is released. The
exposure time is determined by the interval between
opening and closing. In this shutter design, the whole
film frame is exposed at one time. This makes flash
synchronization much simpler as the flash only needs to
fire once the shutter is fully open. This disadvantage of
such shutters is their inability to reliably produce very
fast shutter speeds and the additional cost and weight of
having to include a shutter mechanism for every lens.
Shutter
 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
A. Viewing System
Is that part of the camera which provides the means of
showing to the photographer the entire scene coverage
that can be recorded in the sensitized material.
B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob)
=designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side
or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be
the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
C. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which
regulates the time exposure of the film thus, affecting
the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It
is usually expressed in a fraction of a second.
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125
1/250 1/500 etc.
Shutter Speed
 2X Shutter Speed

1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60

1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.
2X Lens Opening
f 2.8 f-4
f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16
ASA rating
10 20 30 40 50 100 200 400 800
1000 2000
DIN
9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
 Standard Combination
Bright Sunlight = 1/125 , f- 11
Hazy Sunlight = 1/125, f-8
Dull Sunlight = 1/125, f- 5.6
 F 4, 1/125 = f-5.6, 1/250
2x
2x

 F 4, 1/250 = f-5.6, 1/125

 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
The speed number in the left is always two times
powerful in terms of light gathering than that of the
right number
Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can
stop or “freeze” the action of a person provided that
necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in
order to maintain normal exposure.
C. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter
of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of the
lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens.
Otherwise known as lens opening or relative
aperture and it is expressed in F-number.
f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16
 OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening
and the bigger the lens opening the greater the
volume of air that will passed through the lends and
reach the sensitized material.
If the objective of a photographer is obtain the
widest possible coverage of the lens in which objects
are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller
lens opening.
6. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed
to control the degree of sharpness of the object to
be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating
the distance from the camera and that of the object
that will make a sharp or clear image.
 Types of focusing device
1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)
Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image
focusing. In this type of focusing a single object will
appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving
the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or
superimposed to form a single object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image
in split or two parts once the object in not in focus once the
two parts of the image has been united then the object is
already focused
2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera,
once the object is not in focused the object will be viewed to
be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.
3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the
camera control based on his estimation do this.
 TYPES OF THE CAMERA
1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the
smallest and the simplest type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of
camera best suited for police work due to
its interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of
camera with dual lens, one for focusing
and the other for forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the
biggest and expensive type of camera, used
for movie making
 View Camera

Ebony Field Camera

Monorail cameras like this

Linhof are very versatile
photographic instruments.
Many press cameras could be fitted
with rangefinders for handheld use
Leica M7 rangefinder

A great TLR — the Rolleiflex

35 mm SLR
5. LENS
= It is the image-forming device of the lens
that actually has a greater effect on the
quality of the image to be formed.
= a medium or system which converge or
diverge light rays passing through it to
form an image.
= Can be a glass or transparent material,
which permit light to pass through and
change the direction of light.
Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use
of lens in the camera.
Lens
 CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens)
Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center and
thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light
together and forms the image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens)
Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the center and
thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the same
side of the lens.
2. According to Degree of Corrections
a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism
and chromatic aberration
 INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to
focus light passing the side of the lens producing
an image that is sharp in the center and blurred
at the side.
2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) =
Inability of the lens to focus light that travels
straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while
the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the
is transmitted sharp.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images
of the different point are incorrect with respect
to one another.
4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in
sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion
(curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
 
   
                          

Severe lens flare in

a CCTV camera Astigmatism
 INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the
lens to focus light of varying wavelength.
The lens refracts rays of short wavelength
more strongly than those of longer
wavelength and therefore bringing blue
rays to a shorter focus than the red.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in
which the horizontal and vertical axis are
not equally magnified. Inability of the lens
to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
8. Flares = condition of the lens producing
multiple images.
For an achromatic doublet,  Chromatic aberration of a
visible wavelengths have single lens causes different
approximately the same wavelengths of light to have
focal length differing focal lengths.
Illustration of Chromatic Aberration

On right top is corner

detail in a photograph
taken with a higher
quality lens; bottom is a
similar photograph taken
with a wide angle lens
showing severe visible
chromatic aberration, the
effect is pronounced on
the right side of the
building's roof, where a
long blue streak is
visible.
 LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical
center of the lens is set to focus at infinite position. As
according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not
longer than the diagonal half of the negative. Useful in
taking photograph at short distance with wider area
coverage. (less than 35 mm)
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length
approximately equal but not longer than twice the
diagonal half of the negative. ( more than 35 less than 70)
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer
than twice the diagonal half of the negative. Best used in
long distance photographing but with narrow area
coverage. ( More than 70 mm)
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or
that which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of
one or more elements in the lens system.
From top left clockwise: 28 mm,
50mm, 70 mm and 210mm.
 LENS CHARACTERISTICS
2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power
of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured
from the nearest to the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest
distance at which when a lens is focused
with a given particular diaphragm opening
will gives the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance
in order to form a sharp image. The one that
controls the degree of sharpness of the object.
Lens Aperture/Opening

A large (1) and a small (2)

aperture

Aperture mechanism of Canon

50mm f/1.8 II lens
Diagram of decreasing apertures, that is, increasing
f-numbers, in one-stop increments; each aperture
has half the light gathering area of the previous one.
The actual size of the aperture will depend on the
focal length of the lens.
Depth of field
 6. CHEMICAL PROCESS
The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.
a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal
Solution)
= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides
to form the image.
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents
b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount
of dilute acetic acid that serves as a means to prevent
contamination between the developer and the acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver
halides are dissolved or removed from the emulsion surface
and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that
dissolves unexposed silver halides.
 Dektol – 1 to 1 ½ minutes ( 60 to 90 seconds)

 D -76 = 5 to 6 minutes

 Universal 1 to 2 minutes

 Fixing = 20 to 30 minutes
 A cut-away illustration
of a typical light-trap
tank used in small scale
developing.
 Other chemicals used
Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as
neutralizer
Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative
Potassium Bromide = restrainer or
hardener
Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder =
serves as accelerator
Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted
portion of the negative during enlarging.
Cropping = is the process of omitting an object
during the process of enlarging and printing.
Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image
towards the side through skillful adjustment on
the dodging board.
Dye toning = is the process designed in changing
the color tone of the photograph.
Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a
desired portion of the negative used for purposes
of making a balance exposure.
 Condenser – a glass or plastic place after
the light bulb of the enlarger design to
ensure even distribution or illumination of
the light towards the film
 Lamp house = the one that house the bulb
 Filter = designed to hold the light.
 Filter = to subtract the light
 Magenta ------filter ----red color is transmitted .
What light is absorb?
 What is the color of the filter

 Latent print is dusted with black power in a

green background.? What color filter should be
use in order to enhance the color of the
background
 Latent print dusted with gray powder on a
yellow background. What color filter will
enhance the color of the background in relation
to the latent print
To lighten the background – use the sane color as the
background.
To darken the background – use the opposite color
of the background.
 R
 O O
R
 Y Y
 G
 B
 V

V
G
B