COLOURS

black, adj
being of the achromatic color of maximum darkness; having little or no hue owing to absorption of almost all incident light
black leather jackets

blue, adj
of the color intermediate between green and violet; having a color similar to that of a clear unclouded sky
October's bright blue weather

brown, adj
of a color similar to that of wood or earth

dark, adj
devoid of or deficient in light or brightness; shadowed or black
sitting in a dark corner

gold, adj
having the deep slightly brownish color of gold
the gold dome of the Capitol

green, adj
of the color between blue and yellow in the color spectrum; similar to the color of fresh grass
a green tree

grey, adj
of an achromatic color of any lightness intermediate between the extremes of white and black
the little grey cells

light, adj
(used of color) having a relatively small amount of coloring agent
light blue
orange, adj
of the color between red and yellow; similar to the color of a ripe orange

pink, adj
of a light shade of red

purple, adj
of a color intermediate between red and blue

red, adj
of a color at the end of the color spectrum (next to orange); resembling the color of blood or cherries or tomatoes or rubies

silver, adj
having the white lustrous sheen of silver
a land of silver rivers where the salmon leap

yellow, adj
of the color intermediate between green and orange in the color spectrum; of something resembling the color of an egg yolk

CITY
airport, noun
an airfield equipped with control tower and hangars as well as accommodations for passengers and cargo

bridge, noun
a structure that allows people or vehicles to cross an obstacle such as a river or canal or railway etc.

corner, noun
the intersection of two streets
standing on the corner watching all the girls go by

crossing, noun
a junction where one street or road crosses another

fountain, noun
a structure from which an artificially produced jet of water arises

market, noun
a marketplace where groceries are sold

park, noun
a piece of open land for recreational use in an urban area
they went for a walk in the park

pavement, noun
walk consisting of a paved area for pedestrians; usually beside a street or roadway

playground, noun
yard consisting of an outdoor area for children's play
road, noun
an open way (generally public) for travel or transportation

roundabout, noun
a road junction at which traffic streams circularly around a central island

route, noun
an established line of travel or access

signpost, noun
a post bearing a sign that gives directions or shows the way

square, noun
an open area at the meeting of two or more streets

station, noun
a facility equipped with special equipment and personnel for a particular purpose
he started looking for a gas station

subway, noun
an electric railway operating below the surface of the ground (usually in a city)

tunnel, noun
a passageway through or under something, usually underground (especially one for trains or cars)
the tunnel reduced congestion at that intersection

underground, noun
an electric railway operating below the surface of the ground (usually in a city)

zoo, noun
the facility where wild animals are housed for exhibition
 COUNTRYSIDE

area, noun
a particular geographical region of indefinite boundary (usually serving some special purpose or distinguished by its people or culture or
geography)
it was a mountainous area

bay, noun
an indentation of a shoreline larger than a cove but smaller than a gulf

beach, noun
an area of sand sloping down to the water of a sea or lake
they went swimming at the beach

canal, noun
long and narrow strip of water made for boats or for irrigation
The Panama Canal

cliff, noun
a steep high face of rock
he stood on a high cliff overlooking the town

desert, noun
arid land with little or no vegetation

earth, noun
the loose soft material that makes up a large part of the land surface
they dug into the earth outside the church
farm, noun
workplace consisting of farm buildings and cultivated land as a unit
it takes several people to work the farm

field, noun
a piece of land cleared of trees and usually enclosed
he planted a field of wheat

forest, noun
the trees and other plants in a large densely wooded area
they camped in the forest

harbour, noun
a sheltered port where ships can take on or discharge cargo
Sydney Harbour

hill, noun
a local and well-defined elevation of the land
they loved to roam the hills of West Virginia

island, noun
a land mass (smaller than a continent) that is surrounded by water
Great Britain is an island

lake, noun
a body of (usually fresh) water surrounded by land
The Greeat Lakes of North America

land, noun
the solid part of the earth's surface
the plane turned away from the sea and moved back over land
motorway, noun
a broad highway designed for high-speed traffic

mountain, noun
a land mass that projects well above its surroundings; higher than a hill
The Rocky Mountains

ocean, noun
a large body of water covering a significant part of the earth's surface
The Indian Ocean

port, noun
a place (seaport or airport) where people and merchandise can enter or leave a country

quay, noun
wharf usually built parallel to the shoreline

railway, noun
line that is the commercial organization responsible for operating a system of transportation for trains that pull passengers or freight
The National Railway Company

rainforest, noun
a forest with heavy annual rainfall

region, noun
a large indefinite location on the surface of the Earth
penguins inhabit the polar regions
river, noun
a large natural stream of water (larger than a creek)
the river was navigable for 50 miles

rock, noun
a lump or mass of hard consolidated mineral matter
he threw a rock at me

sand, noun
a loose material consisting of grains of rock or coral

sea, noun
a division of an ocean or a large body of salt water partially enclosed by land
The North Sea

seaside, noun
the shore of a sea or ocean regarded as a resort

sky, noun
the atmosphere and outer space as viewed from the earth

soil, noun
material in the top layer of the surface of the earth in which plants can grow (especially with reference to its quality or use)

stream, noun
a natural body of running water flowing on or under the earth

valley, noun
a long depression in the surface of the land that usually contains a river
village, noun
a community of people smaller than a town

waterfall, noun
a steep descent of the water of a river

wood, noun
the trees and other plants in a large densely wooded area

EDUCATION

absent, adj
not being in a specified place

advanced, adj
farther along in physical or mental development
the child's skeletal age was classified as `advanced'

arithmetic, noun
the branch of pure mathematics dealing with the theory of numerical calculations

art, noun
the creation of beautiful or significant things
art does not need to be innovative to be good

bell, noun
a hollow device made of metal that makes a ringing sound when struck

biology, noun
the science that studies living organisms
board, verb
live and take one's meals at or in
she rooms in an old boarding house
lodge and take meals (at)

break, noun
a time interval during which there is a temporary cessation of something

chemistry, noun
the science of matter; the branch of the natural sciences dealing with the composition of substances and their properties and reactions

class, noun
a body of students who are taught together
early morning classes are always sleepy

college, noun
a complex of buildings in which an institution of higher education is housed

composition, noun
an essay (especially one written as an assignment)
he got an A on his composition

corridor, noun
an enclosed passageway; rooms usually open onto it

course, noun
education imparted in a series of lessons or meetings
he took a course in basket weaving
curriculum, noun
an integrated course of academic studies

degree, noun
an award conferred by a college or university signifying that the recipient has satisfactorily completed a course of study

desk, noun
a piece of furniture with a writing surface and usually drawers or other compartments

dictionary, noun
a reference book containing an alphabetical list of words with information about them

diploma, noun
a document certifying the successful completion of a course of study

drama, noun
a dramatic work intended for performance by actors on a stage

economics, noun
the branch of social science that deals with the production and distribution and consumption of goods and services and their management

educate, verb
give an education to
We must educate our youngsters better

elementary, adj
of or pertaining to or characteristic of elementary school or elementary education
the elementary grades

essay, noun
an analytic or interpretive literary composition
geography, noun
study of the earth's surface; includes people's responses to topography and climate and soil and vegetation

handwriting, noun
something written by hand
she recognized his handwriting

history, noun
the discipline that records and interprets past events involving human beings
he teaches Medieval history

homework, noun
preparatory school work done outside school (especially at home)

intermediate, adj
around the middle of a scale of evaluation

IT, noun
the branch of engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to retrieve and store and transmit information

laboratory, noun
a workplace for the conduct of scientific research

lesson, noun
a unit of instruction
he took driving lessons

mark, verb
assign a grade or rank to, according to one's evaluation
mathematics, noun
a science (or group of related sciences) dealing with the logic of quantity and shape and arrangement

music, noun
the sounds produced by singers or musical instruments (or reproductions of such sounds)

notice, noun
an announcement containing information about an event

photography, noun
the act of taking and printing photographs

physics, noun
the science of matter and energy and their interactions
his favorite subject was physics

qualification, noun
an attribute that must be met or complied with and that fits a person for something
her qualifications for the job are excellent

qualify, verb
prove capable or fit; meet requirements

school, noun
a building where young people receive education
the school was built in 1932

science, noun
a particular branch of scientific knowledge
the science of genetics
study, verb
be a student; follow a course of study; be enrolled at an institute of learning

subject, noun
a branch of knowledge

technology, noun
the practical application of science to commerce or industry

ENTERTAINMENT

CD, noun
a digitally encoded recording on an optical disk that is smaller than a phonograph record; played back by a laser

CD-Rom, noun
a compact disk that is used with a computer (rather than with an audio system); a large amount of digital information can be stored and
accessed but it cannot be altered by the user

DVD, noun
a digital recording (as of a movie) on an optical disk that can be played on a computer or a television set

act, verb
perform on a stage or theater

actor, noun
a theatrical performer

actress, noun
a female actor
admission, noun
the fee charged for entrance to a show

advertisement, noun
a public promotion of some product or service

audience, noun
a gathering of spectators or listeners at a (usually public) performance
the audience applauded

ballet, noun
a theatrical representation of a story that is performed to music by trained dancers

book, verb
arrange for and reserve (something for someone else) in advance

camera, noun
equipment for taking photographs

cartoon, noun
none
a film made by photographing a series of cartoon drawings to give the illusion of movement when projected in rapid sequence

channel, noun
a television station and its programs
a satellite TV channel

circus, noun
a travelling company of entertainers; including trained animals
he ran away from home to join the circus
classical music, noun
traditional genre of music conforming to an established form and appealing to critical interest and developed musical taste

comedian, noun
a professional performer who tells jokes and performs comical acts
an actor in a comedy

comedy, noun
light and humorous drama with a happy ending
a comic incident or series of incidents

commercial, noun
a commercially sponsored ad on radio or television

concert, noun
a performance of music by players or singers not involving theatrical staging

costume, noun
the attire worn in a play or at a fancy dress ball
he won the prize for best costume

dance, noun
a party of people assembled for dancing

disco, noun
popular dance music (especially in the late 1970s); melodic with a regular bass beat; intended mainly for dancing at discotheques

display, noun
something shown to the public
the museum had many exhibits of oriental art on display
documentary, noun
a film or TV program presenting the facts about a person or event

drama, noun
a dramatic work intended for performance by actors on a stage

entrance, noun
the act of entering
she made a grand entrance

exhibition, noun
a collection of things (goods or works of art etc.) for public display

festival, noun
an organized series of acts and performances (usually in one place)
a drama festival

film, noun
a form of entertainment that enacts a story by sound and a sequence of images giving the illusion of continuous movement

folk music, noun

the traditional and typically anonymous music that is an expression of the life of people in a community

hero, noun
the principal character in a play or movie or novel or poem

interview, noun
the questioning of a person (or a conversation in which information is elicited); often conducted by journalists
my interviews with teenagers revealed a weakening of religious bonds
jazz music, noun
a genre of popular music that originated in New Orleans around 1900 and developed through increasingly complex styles

magazine, noun
a periodic publication containing pictures and stories and articles of interest to those who purchase it or subscribe to it
it takes several years before a magazine starts to break even or make money

magic, noun
any art that invokes supernatural powers
an illusory feat; considered magical by naive observers

music, noun
(music) the sounds produced by singers or musical instruments (or reproductions of such sounds)

news, noun
a program devoted to current events, often using interviews and commentary

newspaper, noun
a daily or weekly publication on folded sheets; contains news and articles and advertisements
he read his newspaper at breakfast

opera, noun
a drama set to music; consists of singing with orchestral accompaniment and an orchestral overture and interludes

orchestra, noun
a musical organization consisting of a group of instrumentalists including string players
seating on the main floor in a theater

performance, noun
a dramatic or musical entertainment
they listened to ten different performances
play, noun
a dramatic work intended for performance by actors on a stage
he wrote several plays but only one was produced on Broadway

poem, noun
a composition written in rhythmical lines

pop music, noun

music of general appeal to teenagers; a bland watered-down version of rock'n'roll with more rhythm and harmony and an emphasis on
romantic love

programme, noun
an announcement of the events that will occur as part of a theatrical or sporting event

quiz, noun
an examination consisting of a few short questions

recording, noun
the act of making a record (especially an audio record)
she watched the recording from a sound-proof booth

review, noun
an essay or article that gives a critical evaluation (as of a book or play)

rock music, noun

a genre of popular music originating in the 1950s; a blend of black rhythm-and-blues with white country-and-western

romantic, adj
expressive of or exciting sexual love or romance
row, noun
an arrangement of objects or people side by side in a line
a row of chairs

scene, noun
the place where some action occurs
the police returned to the scene of the crime

screen, noun
a white or silvered surface where pictures can be projected for viewing

series, noun
a serialized set of programs

stage, noun
a large platform on which people can stand and can be seen by an audience
he clambered up onto the stage and got the actors to help him into the box

star, noun
a performer who receives prominent billing

studio, noun
workplace consisting of a room or building where movies or television shows or radio programs are produced and recorded

television, noun
an electronic device that receives television signals and displays them on a screen

thriller, noun
a suspenseful adventure story or play or movie
venue, noun
the scene of any event or action (especially the place of a meeting)

video, noun
a recording of both the visual and audible components (especially one containing a recording of a movie or television program)

ENVIRONMENT

climate, noun
the weather in some location averaged over some long period of time

gasoline / petrol, noun

a volatile flammable mixture of hydrocarbons (hexane and heptane and octane etc.) derived from petroleum; used mainly as a fuel in internal-
combustion engines

litter, noun
rubbish carelessly dropped or left about (especially in public places)

pollution, noun
undesirable state of the natural environment being contaminated with harmful substances as a consequence of human activities

rubbish, noun
worthless material that is to be disposed of

traffic, noun
the aggregation of things (pedestrians or vehicles) coming and going in a particular locality during a specified period of time
 FOOD AND DRINK

apple, noun
fruit with red or yellow or green skin and sweet to tart crisp whitish flesh

bake (v), verb

cook and make edible by putting in a hot oven

banana, noun
elongated crescent-shaped yellow fruit with soft sweet flesh

barbecue, noun
a rack to hold meat for cooking over hot charcoal usually out of doors

bean, noun
any of various edible seeds of plants used for food

biscuit, noun
any of various small flat sweet cakes (`biscuit' is the British term)

bitter, noun
the property of having a harsh unpleasant taste

boil (v), verb

immerse or be immersed in a boiling liquid, often for cooking purposes

bowl, noun
a round vessel that is open at the top; used chiefly for holding food or liquids;
bread, noun
food made from dough of flour or meal and usually raised with yeast or baking powder and then baked

breakfast, noun
the first meal of the day (usually in the morning)

buffet, noun
a meal set out on a buffet at which guests help themselves

butter, noun
an edible emulsion of fat globules made by churning milk or cream; for cooking and table use

cabbage, noun
any of various cultivars of the genus Brassica oleracea grown for their edible leaves or flowers

cake, noun
baked goods made from or based on a mixture of flour, sugar, eggs, and fat

can, noun
airtight sealed metal container for food or drink or paint etc.

candy, noun
a rich sweet made of flavored sugar and often combined with fruit or nuts

canteen, noun
restaurant in a factory; where workers can eat

carrot, noun
deep orange edible root
cauliflower, noun
a plant having a large edible head of crowded white flower buds

celery, noun
widely cultivated herb with aromatic leaf stalks that are eaten raw or cooked

cereal, noun
a breakfast food prepared from grain

cheese, noun
a solid food prepared from the pressed curd of milk

chicken, noun
a domestic fowl bred for flesh or eggs; believed to have been developed from the red jungle fowl

chips, noun
strips of potato fried in deep fat

chocolate, noun
a food made from roasted ground cacao beans

cocoa, noun
a beverage made from cocoa powder and milk and sugar; usually drunk hot

coconut, noun
large hard-shelled oval nut with a fibrous husk containing thick white meat surrounding a central cavity filled (when fresh) with fluid or milk

cod (fish), noun

major food fish of Arctic and cold-temperate waters
coffee, noun
a beverage consisting of an infusion of ground coffee beans
he ordered a cup of coffee

cook, verb
prepare a hot meal

cookie, noun
any of various small flat sweet cakes (`biscuit' is the British term)

corn, noun
tall annual cereal grass bearing kernels on large ears: widely cultivated in America in many varieties; the principal cereal in Mexico and Central
and South America since pre-Columbian times

cream, noun
the part of milk containing the butterfat

cucumber, noun
cylindrical green fruit with thin green rind and white flesh eaten as a vegetable; related to melons

cup, noun
a small open container usually used for drinking; usually has a handle
he put the cup back in the saucer

curry, noun
(East Indian cookery) a pungent dish of vegetables or meats flavored with curry powder and usually eaten with rice

dessert, noun
a dish served as the last course of a meal
diet, noun
a prescribed selection of foods

dinner, noun
the main meal of the day served in the evening or at midday
dinner will be at 8

dish, noun
a particular item of prepared food
she prepared a special dish for dinner

drink, verb
take in liquids
The patient must drink several liters each day

duck, noun
small wild or domesticated web-footed broad-billed swimming bird usually having a depressed body and short legs

eat, verb
take in solid food
She was eating a banana

egg, noun
oval reproductive body of a fowl (especially a hen) used as food

fish, noun
the flesh of fish used as food
in Japan most fish is eaten raw

flour, noun
fine powdery foodstuff obtained by grinding and sifting the meal of a cereal grain
fork, noun
cutlery used for serving and eating food

fresh, adj
not canned or otherwise preserved
fresh vegetables

fruit, noun
the ripened reproductive body of a seed plant

fry, verb
cook on a hot surface using fat
fry the pancakes

glass, noun
a container for holding liquids while drinking

grape, noun
any of various juicy fruit of the genus Vitis with green or purple skins; grow in clusters

grill, noun
a framework of metal bars used as a partition or a grate
he cooked hamburgers on the grill
ham, noun
meat cut from the thigh of a hog (usually smoked)

honey, noun
a sweet yellow liquid produced by bees
hungry, adj
feeling a need or desire to eat food
a world full of hungry people

jam, noun
preserve of crushed fruit

jug, noun
a large bottle with a narrow mouth

juice, noun
the liquid part that can be extracted from plant or animal tissue by squeezing or cooking

knife, noun
tool used as a cutting instrument; has a pointed blade with a sharp edge and a handle

lamb, noun
the flesh of a young domestic sheep eaten as food

lemon, noun
yellow oval fruit with juicy acidic flesh

lemonade, noun
sweetened beverage of diluted lemon juice

lettuce, noun
edible leaves of any of various plants of Lactuca sativa

loaf, noun
a shaped mass of baked bread that is usually sliced before eating
lunch, noun
a midday meal

meat, noun
the flesh of animals (including fishes and birds and snails) used as food

melon, noun
any of numerous fruits of the gourd family having a hard rind and sweet juicy flesh

menu, noun
a list of dishes available at a restaurant
the menu was in French

microwave, noun
kitchen appliance that cooks food by passing an electromagnetic wave through it; heat results from the absorption of energy by the water
molecules in the food

milk, noun
a white nutritious liquid secreted by mammals and used as food by human beings

mushroom, noun
fleshy body of any of numerous edible fungi

cooking oil, noun

any of a group of liquid edible fats that are obtained from plants

omelette, noun
beaten eggs or an egg mixture cooked until just set; may be folded around e.g. ham or cheese or jelly

onion, noun
bulbous plant having hollow leaves cultivated worldwide for its rounded edible bulb
orange, noun
round yellow to orange fruit of any of several citrus trees

pan, noun
cooking utensil consisting of a wide metal vessel

pasta, noun
shaped and dried dough made from flour and water and sometimes egg

pastry, noun
a dough of flour and water and shortening

pea, noun
seed of a pea plant used for food

peanut, noun
pod of the peanut vine containing usually 2 nuts or seeds; `groundnut' and `monkey nut' are British terms

pear, noun
sweet juicy gritty-textured fruit available in many varieties

pepper, noun
pungent seasoning from the berry of the common pepper plant of East India; use whole or ground

pie, noun
dish baked in pastry-lined pan often with a pastry top

pizza, noun
Italian open pie made of thin bread dough spread with a spiced mixture of e.g. tomato sauce and cheese
plaice, noun
flesh of large European flatfish

plate, noun
dish on which food is served or from which food is eaten

potato, noun
an edible tuber native to South America; a staple food of Ireland

raisin, noun
dried grape

rice, noun
grains used as food either unpolished or more often polished

roast, verb
cook with dry heat, usually in an oven
roast the turkey

salad, noun
food mixtures either arranged on a plate or tossed and served with a moist dressing; usually consisting of or including greens

salt, noun
white crystalline form of especially sodium chloride used to season and preserve food

sandwich, noun
two (or more) slices of bread with a filling between them

saucer, noun
a small shallow dish for holding a cup at the table
sausage, noun
highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings

slice, noun
a serving that has been cut from a larger portion

snack, noun
a light informal meal

soup, noun
liquid food especially of meat or fish or vegetable stock often containing pieces of solid food

sour, adj
having a sharp biting taste

spinach, noun
dark green leaves; eaten cooked or raw in salads

spoon, noun
a piece of cutlery with a shallow bowl-shaped container and a handle; used to stir or serve or take up food

steak, noun
a slice of meat cut from the fleshy part of an animal or large fish

strawberry, noun
sweet fleshy red fruit

sugar, noun
a white crystalline carbohydrate used as a sweetener and preservative
sweet, adj
having or denoting the characteristic taste of sugar

tart, noun
a pastry cup with a filling of fruit or custard and no top crust

taste, noun
the sensation that results when taste buds in the tongue and throat convey information about the chemical composition of a soluble stimulus
the candy left him with a bad taste

tea, noun
a beverage made by steeping tea leaves in water
iced tea is a cooling drink

thirsty, adj
feeling a need or desire to drink
after playing hard the children were thirsty

toast, noun
slices of bread that have been toasted

tomato, noun
mildly acid red or yellow pulpy fruit eaten as a vegetable

turkey, noun
large gallinaceous bird with fan-shaped tail; widely domesticated for food

vanilla, noun
any of numerous climbing plants of the genus Vanilla having fleshy leaves and clusters of large waxy highly fragrant white or green or topaz
flowers
vegetable, noun
any of various herbaceous plants cultivated for an edible part such as the fruit or the root of the beet or the leaf of spinach or the seeds of
bean plants or the flower buds of broccoli or cauliflower

vegetarian, noun
eater of fruits and grains and nuts; someone who eats no meat or fish or (often) any animal products

HEALTH

accident, noun
an unfortunate mishap; especially one causing damage or injury

ache, noun
a dull persistent (usually moderately intense) pain

ambulance, noun
a vehicle that takes people to and from hospitals

aspirin, noun
the acetylated derivative of salicylic acid; used as an analgesic anti-inflammatory drug (trade names Bayer, Empirin, and St. Joseph) usually
taken in tablet form; used as an antipyretic; slows clotting of the blood by poisoning platelets

balance, verb
be in equilibrium
He was balancing on one foot

bandage, noun
a piece of soft material that covers and protects an injured part of the body
bend, verb
bend one's back forward from the waist on down

clean, verb
make clean by removing dirt, filth, or unwanted substances from
Clean the stove!

diet, verb
follow a regimen or a diet, as for health reasons
He has high blood pressure and must stick to a low-salt diet

dressing, noun
a cloth covering for a wound or sore

earache, noun
an ache localized in the middle or inner ear

emergency, noun
a sudden unforeseen crisis (usually involving danger) that requires immediate action
he never knew what to do in an emergency

fever, noun
a rise in the temperature of the body; frequently a symptom of infection

flu, noun
an acute febrile highly contagious viral disease

gym, noun
athletic facility equipped for sports or physical training
headache, noun
pain in the head caused by dilation of cerebral arteries or muscle contractions or a reaction to drugs

hospital, noun
a medical institution where sick or injured people are given medical or surgical care

hurt, verb
be the source of pain
Does your leg hurt?

injure, verb
cause injuries or bodily harm to

medicine, noun
(medicine) something that treats or prevents or alleviates the symptoms of disease

operate, verb
perform surgery on

operation, noun
a medical procedure involving an incision with instruments; performed to repair damage or arrest disease in a living body
they will schedule the operation as soon as an operating room is available

pill, noun
a dose of medicine in the form of a small pellet

recover, verb
get over an illness or shock

sore, noun
an open skin infection
stress, noun
(psychology) a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense

tablet, noun
a dose of medicine in the form of a small pellet

wound, noun
an injury to living tissue (especially an injury involving a cut or break in the skin)

HOBBIES AND LEISURE

barbecue, noun
a rack to hold meat for cooking over hot charcoal usually out of doors

camera, noun
equipment for taking photographs (usually consisting of a lightproof box with a lens at one end and light-sensitive film at the other)

camp, verb
live in or as if in a tent
Can we go camping again this summer?
establish or set up a camp

campsite, noun
a site where people on holiday can pitch a tent

chess, noun
a board game for two players who move their 16 pieces according to specific rules; the object is to checkmate the opponent's king
club, noun
a formal association of people with similar interests
he joined a golf club

collection, noun
a publication containing a variety of works

collector, noun
a person who collects things

computer, noun
a machine for performing calculations automatically

cruise, noun
an ocean trip taken for pleasure

dancing, noun
taking a series of rhythmical steps (and movements) in time to music

doll, noun
a small replica of a person; used as a toy

drawing, noun
the creation of artistic pictures or diagrams
he learned drawing from his father

fan, noun
an enthusiastic devotee of sports

fiction, noun
a literary work based on the imagination and not necessarily on fact
gallery, noun
a room or series of rooms where works of art are exhibited

guitar, noun
a stringed instrument usually having six strings; played by strumming or plucking

hire, verb
engage or hire for work
They hired two new secretaries in the department

jogging, noun
running at a jog trot as a form of cardiopulmonary exercise

join, verb
become part of; become a member of a group or organization

model, noun
a person who poses for a photographer or painter or sculptor
the president didn't have time to be a model so the artist worked from photos

museum, noun
a depository for collecting and displaying objects having scientific or historical or artistic value

music, noun
an artistic form of auditory communication incorporating instrumental or vocal tones in a structured and continuous manner

painting, noun
creating a picture with paints
he studied painting and sculpture for many years
picnic, noun
any informal meal eaten outside or on an excursion

playground, noun
yard consisting of an outdoor area for children's play

quiz, noun
an examination consisting of a few short questions

sculpture, noun
a three-dimensional work of plastic art

sightseeing, noun
going about to look at places of interest

slide, noun
plaything consisting of a sloping chute down which children can slide

sunbathe, verb
expose one's body to the sun

tent, noun
a portable shelter (usually of canvas stretched over supporting poles and fastened to the ground with ropes and pegs)
he pitched his tent near the creek

HOUSE AND HOME

DVD, noun
a digital recording (as of a movie) on an optical disk that can be played on a computer or a television set
window, noun
a framework of wood or metal that contains a glass windowpane and is built into a wall or roof to admit light or air

alarm clock, noun

a clock that wakes a sleeper at some preset time

antique, noun
any piece of furniture or decorative object or the like produced in a former period and valuable because of its beauty or rarity

apartment, noun
a suite of rooms usually on one floor of an apartment house

armchair, noun
chair with a support on each side for arms

balcony, noun
a platform projecting from the wall of a building and surrounded by a balustrade or railing or parapet

basement, noun
the lowermost portion of a structure partly or wholly below ground level; often used for storage

basin, noun
a bathroom sink that is permanently installed and connected to a water supply and drainpipe; where you can wash your hands and face

bath, noun
a relatively large open container that you fill with water and use to wash the body

bathroom, noun
a room (as in a residence) containing a bathtub or shower and usually a washbasin and toilet
bed, noun
a piece of furniture that provides a place to sleep
he sat on the edge of the bed

bedroom, noun
a room used primarily for sleeping

bell, noun
a hollow device made of metal that makes a ringing sound when struck
a push button at an outer door that gives a ringing or buzzing signal when pushed

bin, noun
a container; usually has a lid

blanket, noun
bedding that keeps a person warm in bed
he pulled the blanket over his head and went to sleep

brick, noun
rectangular block of clay baked by the sun or in a kiln; used as a building or paving material

bucket, noun
a roughly cylindrical vessel that is open at the top

bulb, noun
electric lamp consisting of a transparent or translucent glass housing containing a wire filament (usually tungsten) that emits light when heated
by electricity

candle, noun
stick of wax with a wick in the middle
carpet, noun
floor covering consisting of a piece of thick heavy fabric (usually with nap or pile)

ceiling, noun
the overhead upper surface of a covered space
he hated painting the ceiling

chair, noun
a seat for one person, with a support for the back
he put his coat over the back of the chair and sat down

chimney, noun
a vertical flue that provides a path through which smoke from a fire is carried away through the wall or roof of a building

cloakroom, noun
a room where coats and other articles can be left temporarily

clock, noun
a timepiece that shows the time of day

coal, noun
fossil fuel consisting of carbonized vegetable matter deposited in the Carboniferous period

computer, noun
a machine for performing calculations automatically
a machine for performing calculations automatically
an expert at calculation (or at operating calculating machines)

cooker, noun
a utensil for cooking
corkscrew, noun
a bottle opener that pulls corks

corridor, noun
an enclosed passageway; rooms usually open onto it

cottage, noun
a small house with a single story

cupboard, noun
a small room (or recess) or cabinet used for storage space

curtain, noun
hanging cloth used as a blind (especially for a window)

cushion, noun
a soft bag filled with air or a mass of padding such as feathers or foam rubber etc.

desk, noun
a piece of furniture with a writing surface and usually drawers or other compartments

dish, noun
a piece of dishware normally used as a container for holding or serving food
we gave them a set of dishes for a wedding present

dishwasher, noun
a machine for washing dishes

door, noun
a swinging or sliding barrier that will close the entrance to a room or building or vehicle
he knocked on the door
downstairs, adv
on a floor below
the tenants live downstairs

drawer, noun
a boxlike container in a piece of furniture; made so as to slide in and out

dustbin, noun
a bin that holds rubbish until it is collected

duvet, noun
a soft quilt usually filled with the down of the eider

entrance, noun
something that provides access (to get in or get out)
they waited at the entrance to the garden

fan, noun
a device for creating a current of air by movement of a surface or surfaces

fence, noun
a barrier that serves to enclose an area

flatmate, noun
an associate who shares an apartment with you

floor, noun
the inside lower horizontal surface (as of a room, hallway, tent, or other structure)
they needed rugs to cover the bare floors
freezer, noun
electric refrigerator in which food is frozen and stored for long periods of time

fridge, noun
a refrigerator in which the coolant is pumped around by an electric motor

furnished, adj
provided with whatever is necessary for a purpose (as furniture or equipment or authority)
a furnished apartment

furniture, noun
furnishings that make a room or other area ready for occupancy
they had too much furniture for the small apartment

garage, noun
an outbuilding (or part of a building) for housing automobiles

garden, noun
a plot of ground where plants are cultivated

gas, noun
a fossil fuel in the gaseous state; used for cooking and heating homes

gate, noun
a movable barrier in a fence or wall

grill, noun
a framework of metal bars used as a partition or a grate
he cooked hamburgers on the grill
hall, noun
an interior passage or corridor onto which rooms open

handle, noun
the appendage to an object that is designed to be held in order to use or move it
he grabbed the hammer by the handle

hedge, noun
a fence formed by a row of closely planted shrubs or bushes

hi-fi, noun
equipment for the reproduction of sound with high fidelity

house, noun
a dwelling that serves as living quarters for one or more families
he has a house on Cape Cod

housewife, noun
a wife who manages a household while her husband earns the family income

housework, noun
the work of cleaning and running a house

iron, noun
home appliance consisting of a flat metal base that is heated and used to smooth cloth

kettle, noun
a metal pot for stewing or boiling; usually has a lid

kitchen, noun
a room equipped for preparing meals
ladder, noun
steps consisting of two parallel members connected by rungs; for climbing up or down

lamp, noun
a piece of furniture holding one or more electric light bulbs

landlady, noun
a landlord who is a woman

landlord, noun
a landowner who leases to others

laptop, noun
a portable computer small enough to use in your lap

laundry, noun
workplace where clothes are washed and ironed

lavatory, noun
a room or building equipped with one or more toilets

lawn, noun
a field of cultivated and mowed grass

living-room, noun
a room in a private house or establishment where people can sit and talk and relax

lock, noun
a fastener fitted to a door or drawer to keep it firmly closed
lounge, noun
a room (as in a hotel or airport) with seating where people can wait

machine, noun
any mechanical or electrical device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of human tasks

microwave, noun
kitchen appliance that cooks food by passing an electromagnetic wave through it; heat results from the absorption of energy by the water
molecules in the food

mirror, noun
polished surface that forms images by reflecting light

neighbour, noun
a person who lives (or is located) near another

oven, noun
kitchen appliance used for baking or roasting

pan, noun
cooking utensil consisting of a wide metal vessel

pillow, noun
a cushion to support the head of a sleeping person

plant, noun
(botany) a living organism lacking the power of locomotion

property, noun
something owned; any tangible or intangible possession that is owned by someone
that hat is my property
radio, noun
an electronic receiver that detects and demodulates and amplifies transmitted signals

refrigerator, noun
white goods in which food can be stored at low temperatures

rent, noun
a payment or series of payments made by the lessee to an owner for use of some property, facility, equipment, or service

roof, noun
a protective covering that covers or forms the top of a building

room, noun
an area within a building enclosed by walls and floor and ceiling
the rooms were very small but they had a nice view

roommate, noun
an associate who shares a room with you

rubbish, noun
worthless material that is to be disposed of

seat, noun
any support where you can sit (especially the part of a chair or bench etc. on which you sit)
he dusted off the seat before sitting down

sheet, noun
bed linen consisting of a large rectangular piece of cotton or linen cloth; used in pairs
shelf, noun
a support that consists of a horizontal surface for holding objects

shower, noun
a plumbing fixture that sprays water over you
they installed a shower in the bathroom

sink, noun
plumbing fixture consisting of a water basin fixed to a wall or floor and having a drainpipe

sofa, noun
an upholstered seat for more than one person

stairs, noun
a flight of stairs or a flight of steps

step, noun
support consisting of a place to rest the foot while ascending or descending a stairway
he paused on the bottom step

switch, noun
control consisting of a mechanical or electrical or electronic device for making or breaking or changing the connections in a circuit

table, noun
a piece of furniture having a smooth flat top that is usually supported by one or more vertical legs
it was a sturdy table

tap, noun
a faucet for drawing water from a pipe or cask
telephone, noun
electronic equipment that converts sound into electrical signals that can be transmitted over distances and then converts received signals back
into sounds
I talked to him on the telephone

toilet, noun
a plumbing fixture for defecation and urination

towel, noun
a rectangular piece of absorbent cloth (or paper) for drying or wiping

toy, noun
an artifact designed to be played with

upstairs, noun
the part of a building above the ground floor

vase, noun
an open jar of glass or porcelain used as an ornament or to hold flowers

wall, noun
an architectural partition with a height and length greater than its thickness; used to divide or enclose an area or to support another structure
the south wall had a small window

LANGUAGE

advanced, adj
farther along in physical or mental development
the child's skeletal age was classified as `advanced'
answer, noun
a statement (either spoken or written) that is made to reply to a question or request or criticism or accusation
I waited several days for his answer

argue, verb
present reasons and arguments
have an argument about something
give evidence of
The evidence argues for your claim

ask, verb
inquire about
I asked about their special today
make a request or demand for something to somebody
She asked him for a loan

beginner, noun
someone new to a field or activity

chat, verb
talk socially without exchanging too much information

communicate, verb
be in verbal contact; interchange information or ideas
He and his sons haven't communicated for years

communication, noun
the activity of conveying information
they could not act without official communication from Moscow
elementary, adj
easy and not involved or complicated
an elementary problem in statistics

email, verb
communicate electronically on the computer

grammar, noun
the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics)

interpret, verb
restate (words) from one language into another language

joke, noun
a humorous anecdote or remark intended to provoke laughter
he told a very funny joke

letter, noun
a written message addressed to a person or organization
mailed an indignant letter to the editor

mean, verb
denote or connote
`maison' means `house' in French

meaning, noun
the message that is intended or expressed or signified
what is the meaning of this sentence
mention, verb
make reference to
His name was mentioned in connection with the invention
make mention of

message, noun
a communication (usually brief) that is written or spoken or signaled
he sent a three-word message

pronounce, verb
speak, pronounce, or utter in a certain way
She pronounces French words in a funny way

pronunciation, noun
the manner in which someone utters a word
they are always correcting my pronunciation

question, noun
a sentence of inquiry that asks for a reply
he asked a direct question

say, verb
express in words

sentence, noun
a string of words satisfying the grammatical rules of a language
he always spoke in grammatical sentences

shout, noun
a loud utterance; often in protest or opposition
speak, verb
exchange thoughts; talk with

tell, verb
let something be known
Tell them that you will be late

translate, verb
restate (words) from one language into another language
I have to translate when my in-laws from Austria visit the U.S.

translation, noun
a written communication in a second language having the same meaning as the written communication in a first language

vocabulary, noun
a language user's knowledge of words

word, noun
a unit of language that native speakers can identify
words are the blocks from which sentences are made

NATURE

animal, noun
a living organism characterized by voluntary movement

autumn, noun
the season when the leaves fall from the trees
beach, noun
an area of sand sloping down to the water of a sea or lake

bird, noun
warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrates characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified as wings

branch, noun
a division of a stem, or secondary stem arising from the main stem of a plant

bush, noun
a low woody perennial plant usually having several major stems

cave, noun
a geological formation consisting of an underground enclosure with access from the surface of the ground or from the sea

cliff, noun
a steep high face of rock
he stood on a high cliff overlooking the town

climate, noun
the weather in some location averaged over some long period of time
the dank climate of southern Wales

coal, noun
fossil fuel consisting of carbonized vegetable matter deposited in the Carboniferous period

coast, noun
the shore of a sea or ocean
continent, noun
one of the large landmasses of the earth
there are seven continents

countryside, noun
rural regions

desert, noun
arid land with little or no vegetation

dolphin, noun
any of various small toothed whales with a beaklike snout; larger than porpoises

duck, noun
small wild or domesticated web-footed broad-billed swimming bird usually having a depressed body and short legs

earth, noun
the 3rd planet from the sun; the planet we live on

elephant, noun
five-toed pachyderm

environment, noun
the area in which something exists or lives

field, noun
a piece of land cleared of trees and usually enclosed
he planted a field of wheat
fish, noun
any of various mostly cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates usually having scales and breathing through gills
the shark is a large fish

flood, noun
the rising of a body of water and its overflowing onto normally dry land

flower, noun
a plant cultivated for its blooms or blossoms

forest, noun
the trees and other plants in a large densely wooded area

freeze, verb
be very cold, below the freezing point
It is freezing in Kalamazoo

giraffe, noun
tallest living quadruped; having a spotted coat and small horns and very long neck and legs; of savannahs of tropical Africa

hill, noun
a local and well-defined elevation of the land
they loved to roam the hills of West Virginia

lake, noun
a body of (usually fresh) water surrounded by land

land, noun
the solid part of the earth's surface
the plane turned away from the sea and moved back over land
leaf, noun
the main organ of photosynthesis and transpiration in higher plants

lion, noun
large gregarious predatory feline of Africa and India having a tawny coat with a shaggy mane in the male

monkey, noun
any of various long-tailed primates

moon, noun
the natural satellite of the Earth

mountain, noun
a land mass that projects well above its surroundings; higher than a hill

mouse, noun
any of numerous small rodents typically resembling diminutive rats having pointed snouts and small ears on elongated bodies with slender
usually hairless tails

nature, noun
the natural physical world including plants and animals and landscapes etc.
they tried to preserve nature as they found it

planet, noun
(astronomy) any of the nine large celestial bodies in the solar system that revolve around the sun and shine by reflected light; Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto in order of their proximity to the sun

plant, noun
a living organism lacking the power of locomotion
pollution, noun
undesirable state of the natural environment being contaminated with harmful substances as a consequence of human activities

rabbit, noun
any of various burrowing animals of the family Leporidae having long ears and short tails; some domesticated and raised for pets or food

rainforest, noun
a forest with heavy annual rainfall

range, verb
a large tract of grassy open land on which livestock can graze
they used to drive the cattle across the open range every spring

river, noun
a large natural stream of water
the river was navigable for 50 miles

rock, noun
a lump or mass of hard consolidated mineral matter
he threw a rock at me

sand, noun
a loose material consisting of grains of rock or coral

scenery, noun
the appearance of a place

shark, noun
any of numerous marine carnivorous fishes with tough skin covered with small toothlike scales
sky, noun
the atmosphere and outer space as viewed from the earth

soil, noun
material in the top layer of the surface of the earth in which plants can grow

spring, noun
the season of growth
the emerging buds were a sure sign of spring

star, noun
(astronomy) a celestial body of hot gases that radiates energy derived from thermonuclear reactions in the interior

stone, noun
a lump or mass of hard consolidated mineral matter

summer, noun
the warmest season of the year; in the northern hemisphere it extends from the summer solstice to the autumnal equinox
they spent a lazy summer at the shore

sun, noun
the star that is the source of light and heat for the planets in the solar system
the Earth revolves around the Sun

sunlight, noun
the rays of the sun

sunrise, noun
the first light of day
sunset, noun
the time in the evening at which the sun begins to fall below the horizon

tiger, noun
large feline of forests in most of Asia having a tawny coat with black stripes; endangered

tree, noun
a tall perennial woody plant having a main trunk and branches forming a distinct elevated crown

valley, noun
a long depression in the surface of the land that usually contains a river

waterfall, noun
a steep descent of the water of a river

wild, noun
a wild primitive state untouched by civilization
he lived in the wild

wildlife, noun
all living things (except people) that are undomesticated
chemicals could kill all the wildlife

winter, noun
the coldest season of the year; in the northern hemisphere it extends from the winter solstice to the vernal equinox

zebra, noun
any of several black-and-white striped African equines

PERSONAL FEELINGS
able, adj
have the skills and qualifications to do things well
able teachers

afraid, adj
filled with regret or concern; used often to soften an unpleasant statement
I'm afraid I won't be able to come

amazed, adj
filled with the emotional impact of overwhelming surprise or shock
an amazed audience gave the magician a standing ovation

amazing, adj
surprising greatly
she does an amazing amount of work

amusing, adj
providing enjoyment; pleasantly entertaining
an amusing speaker

angry, adj
feeling or showing anger
angry at the weather

annoyed, adj
aroused to impatience or anger
annoyed about being left out

anxious, adj
eagerly desirous
causing or fraught with or showing anxiety
spent an anxious night waiting for the test results

ashamed, adj
feeling shame or guilt or embarrassment or remorse

awful, adj
causing fear or dread or terror
the awful war

bored, adj
tired of the world
bored with life

boring, adj
so lacking in interest as to cause mental weariness
a boring evening with uninteresting people

bossy, adj
offensively self-assured or given to exercising usually unwarranted power

brave, adj
possessing or displaying courage; able to face and deal with danger or fear without flinching
Familiarity with danger makes a brave man braver but less daring

brilliant, adj
of surpassing excellence
a brilliant performance
calm, adj
not agitated; without losing self-possession
spoke in a calm voice

challenging, adj
stimulating interest or thought
a challenging hypothesis

cheerful, adj
being full of or promoting cheer; having or showing good spirits
her cheerful nature

clever, adj
mentally quick and resourceful
a clever child

confident, adj
having or marked by confidence or assurance
a confident speaker

crazy, adj
bizarre or fantastic
had a crazy dream

cruel, adj
able or disposed to inflict pain or suffering

curious, adj
eager to investigate and learn or learn more (sometimes about others' concerns)
a curious child is a teacher's delight
delighted, adj
greatly pleased

depressed, adj
filled with melancholy and despondency

difficult, adj
not easy; requiring great physical or mental effort to accomplish or comprehend or endure
a difficult task

disappointed, adj
disappointingly unsuccessful

dizzy, adj
having or causing a whirling sensation; liable to falling
had a dizzy spell

easy, adj
posing no difficulty; requiring little effort
an easy job

embarrassed, adj
feeling or caused to feel uneasy and self-conscious
too embarrassed to say hello to his drunken father on the street

embarrassing, adj
causing to feel shame or chagrin or vexation
the embarrassing moment when she found her petticoat down around her ankles

excited, adj
excessively affected by emotion
none

fantastic, adj
extraordinarily good or great
a fantastic trip to the Orient

fit, noun
a display of bad temper
he had a fit

fond, adj
having or displaying warmth or affection

frightened, adj
thrown into a state of intense fear or desperation

funny, adj
arousing or provoking laughter

generous, adj
willing to give and share unstintingly
a generous donation

gentle, adj
soft and mild; not harsh or stern or severe
a gentle reprimand

glad, adj
showing or causing joy and pleasure; especially made happy
glad you are here
guilty, adj
responsible for or chargeable with a reprehensible act
guilty of murder

hard, adj
not easy; requiring great physical or mental effort to accomplish or comprehend or endure

healthy, adj
having or indicating good health in body or mind; free from infirmity or disease
a rosy healthy baby

intelligent, adj
having the capacity for thought and reason especially to a high degree
is there intelligent life in the universe?

jealous, adj
suspicious or unduly suspicious or fearful of being displaced by a rival
a jealous lover

lazy, adj
disinclined to work or exertion

lucky, adj
having or bringing good fortune
my lucky day

mad, adj
marked by uncontrolled excitement or emotion

merry, adj
full of or showing high-spirited merriment
miserable, adj
very unhappy; full of misery
he felt depressed and miserable

negative, adj
characterized by or displaying negation or denial or opposition or resistance; having no positive features
a negative outlook on life

noisy, adj
full of or characterized by loud and nonmusical sounds
a noisy cafeteria

normal, adj
being approximately average or within certain limits in e.g. intelligence and development
a perfectly normal child

old-fashioned, adj
out of fashion

ordinary, adj
not exceptional in any way especially in quality or ability or size or degree
ordinary everyday objects

original, adj
being or productive of something fresh and unusual; or being as first made or thought of
a truly original approach

patient, adj
enduring trying circumstances with even temper or characterized by such endurance
a patient smile
personal, adj
concerning or affecting a particular person or his or her private life and personality
a personal favor

pleasant, adj
affording pleasure; being in harmony with your taste or likings
we had a pleasant evening together

positive, adj
characterized by or displaying affirmation or acceptance or certainty etc.
a positive attitude

punctual, adj
acting or arriving or performed exactly at the time appointed
she expected guests to be punctual at meals

realistic, adj
aware or expressing awareness of things as they really are
a realistic description

reasonable, adj
showing reason or sound judgment

relaxed, adj
without strain or anxiety
gave the impression of being quite relaxed

reliable, adj
worthy of reliance or trust
a reliable source of information
rich, adj
possessing material wealth
her father is extremely rich

rude, adj
socially incorrect in behavior

sad, adj
experiencing or showing sorrow or unhappiness
feeling sad because his dog had died

satisfied, adj
filled with satisfaction
a satisfied customer

serious, adj
concerned with work or important matters rather than play or trivialities
a serious student of history

skilled, adj
having or showing or requiring special skill
only the most skilled gymnasts make an Olympic team

slim, adj
being of delicate or slender build

smart, adj
showing mental alertness and calculation and resourcefulness
special, adj
unique or specific to a person or thing or category

strange, adj
being definitely out of the ordinary and unexpected; slightly odd or even a bit weird
a strange fantastical mind

strong, adj
having strength or power greater than average or expected
a strong man

stupid, adj
lacking or marked by lack of intellectual acuity

sure, adj
having or feeling no doubt or uncertainty; confident and assured

surprised, adj
taken unawares or suddenly and feeling wonder or astonishment
surprised by her student's ingenuity

terrible, adj
causing fear or dread or terror

tired, adj
depleted of strength or energy
tired mothers with crying babies

typical, adj
exhibiting the qualities or characteristics that identify a group or kind or category
a typical American girl
unable, adj
not having the necessary means or skill or know-how
unable to get to town without a car

unusual, adj
not usual or common or ordinary
a scene of unusual beauty

well, adj
in good health especially after having suffered illness or injury
appears to be entirely well

wonderful, adj
extraordinarily good or great

 SERVICES

bank, noun
a building in which the business of banking transacted
the bank is on the corner of Nassau and Witherspoon

cinema, noun
a theater where films are shown

dentist, noun
a person qualified to practice dentistry

doctor, noun
a licensed medical practitioner
I felt so bad I went to see my doctor
gallery, noun
a room or series of rooms where works of art are exhibited

garage, noun
a repair shop where cars and trucks are serviced and repaired

hairdresser, noun
someone who cuts or beautifies hair

hotel, noun
a building where travelers can pay for lodging and meals and other services

library, noun
a building that houses a collection of books and other materials

museum, noun
a depository for collecting and displaying objects having scientific or historical or artistic value

post, noun
the delivery and collection of letters and packages

restaurant, noun
a building where people go to eat

theatre, noun
a building where theatrical performances or motion-picture shows can be presented

SHOPPING
advertise, verb
make publicity for; try to sell (a product)
The company is heavily advertizing their new laptops

bill, noun
an itemized statement of money owed for goods shipped or services rendered
he paid his bill and left

book, verb
arrange for and reserve (something for someone else) in advance

buy, verb
obtain by purchase; acquire by means of a financial transaction
The family bought a new car

cash, noun
money in the form of bills or coins
there is a desperate shortage of hard cash

change, noun
the balance of money received when the amount you tender is greater than the amount due
I paid with a twenty and pocketed the change

cheap, adj
relatively low in price or charging low prices
it would have been cheap at twice the price

cheque, noun
a written order directing a bank to pay money
complain, verb
express complaints, discontent, displeasure, or unhappiness
My mother complains all day

cost, verb
be priced at
These shoes cost $100

credit, noun
money available for a client to borrow

dear, adv
at a great cost

deposit, noun
a partial payment made at the time of purchase; the balance to be paid later

exchange, noun
the act of changing one thing for another thing

hire, verb
engage or hire for work
They hired two new secretaries in the department

inexpensive, adj
relatively low in price or charging low prices

luxury, noun
something that is an indulgence rather than a necessity
money, noun
the most common medium of exchange; functions as legal tender
we tried to collect the money he owed us

order, verb
make a request for something
Order me some flowers

pay, verb
give money, usually in exchange for goods or services
I paid four dollars for this sandwich

price, noun
the amount of money needed to purchase something
the price of gasoline

receipt, noun
an acknowledgment (usually tangible) that payment has been made

reduced, adj
well below normal (especially in price)

rent, verb
let for money
We rented our apartment to friends while we were abroad

reserve, verb
arrange for and reserve (something for someone else) in advance
reserve me a seat on a flight
save, verb
accumulate money for future use
He saves half his salary

sell, verb
exchange or deliver for money or its equivalent
He sold his house in January

SPORT

athlete, noun
a person trained to compete in sports

athletics, noun
a contest between athletes

ball, noun
round object that is hit or thrown or kicked in games
the ball travelled 90 mph on his serve

baseball, noun
a ball game played with a bat and ball between two teams of nine players; teams take turns at bat trying to score runs
he played baseball in high school

basketball, noun
a game played on a court by two opposing teams of 5 players; points are scored by throwing the ball through an elevated horizontal hoop

bat, noun
a club used for hitting a ball in various games
boxing, noun
fighting with the fists

champion, noun
someone who has won first place in a competition

coach, noun
(sports) someone in charge of training an athlete or a team

competition, noun
an occasion on which a winner is selected from among two or more contestants

court, noun
a specially marked horizontal area within which a game is played
players had to reserve a court in advance

cycling, noun
the sport of traveling on a bicycle

dancing, noun
taking a series of rhythmical steps (and movements) in time to music

diving, noun
a headlong plunge into water

enter, verb
become a participant; be involved in
enter a race

fishing, noun
the act of someone who fishes as a diversion
fitness, noun
good physical condition; being in shape or in condition

football, noun
any of various games played with a ball (round or oval) in which two teams try to kick or carry or propel the ball into each other's goal

game, noun
a contest with rules to determine a winner
you need four people to play this game

goal, noun
a successful attempt at scoring
the winning goal came with less than a minute left to play

golf, noun
a game played on a large open course with 9 or 18 holes; the object is use as few strokes as possible in playing all the holes

gymnastics, noun
a sport that involves exercises intended to display strength and balance and agility

hit, noun
the act of contacting one thing with another

hockey, noun
a game resembling ice hockey that is played on an open field; two opposing teams use curved sticks try to drive a ball into the opponents' net

jogging, noun
running at a jog trot as a form of cardiopulmonary exercise
kick, verb
strike with the foot

locker, noun
a storage compartment for clothes and valuables; usually it has a lock

motorcycling, noun
riding a motorcycle
motorcycling is a dangerous sport

net, noun
game equipment consisting of a strip of netting dividing the playing area in tennis or badminton

racket, noun
a sports implement (usually consisting of a handle and an oval frame with a tightly interlaced network of strings) used to strike a ball in various
games

riding, noun
the sport of siting on the back of a horse while controlling its movements

rugby, noun
a form of football played with an oval ball

running, noun
traveling on foot at a fast pace

sail, verb
travel on water propelled by wind
I love sailing, especially on the open sea
score, noun
a number that expresses the accomplishment of a team or an individual in a game or contest
the score was 7 to 0

season, noun
a period of the year marked by special events or activities in some field
he celebrated his 10th season with the ballet company

shorts, noun
trousers that end at or above the knee

skiing, noun
a sport in which participants must travel on skis

squash, noun
a game played in an enclosed court by two or four players who strike the ball with long-handled rackets

stadium, noun
a large structure for open-air sports or entertainments

surfing, noun
the sport of riding a surfboard toward the shore on the crest of a wave

swimming, noun
the act of swimming
it was the swimming they enjoyed most

team, noun
a cooperative unit (especially in sports)
tennis, noun
a game played with rackets by two or four players who hit a ball back and forth over a net that divides the court

track, noun
a course over which races are run

trainer, noun
one who trains other persons or animals

volleyball, noun
a game in which two teams hit an inflated ball over a high net using their hands

TECHNOLOGY

CD player, noun
a device for playing a digitally encoded audio an optical disk

CD-Rom, noun
a compact disk that is used with a computer (rather than with an audio system); a large amount of digital information can be stored and
accessed but it cannot be altered by the user

DVD, noun
a digital recording (as of a movie) on an optical disk that can be played on a computer or a television set

IT, noun
Information Technology - the branch of engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to retrieve and store and
transmit information

access, noun
(computer science) the operation of reading or writing stored information
address, noun
the code that identifies where a piece of information is stored

airmail, noun
letters and packages that are transported by aircraft

calculator, noun
a small machine that is used for mathematical calculations

chat, verb
talk socially without exchanging too much information

click, noun
depression of a button on a computer mouse

computer, noun
a machine for performing calculations automatically

connect, verb
join by means of communication equipment
The telephone company finally put in lines to connect the towns in this area

delete, verb
wipe out digitally or magnetically recorded information

dial, verb
operate a dial to select a telephone number
You must take the receiver off the hook before you dial
digital, adj
of a circuit or device that represents magnitudes in digits
digital computer

directory, noun
(computer science) a listing of the files stored in memory (usually on a hard disk)

electronic, adj
of or relating to electronics; concerned with or using devices that operate on principles governing the behavior of electrons
electronic devices

email, noun
(computer science) a system of world-wide electronic communication in which a computer user can compose a message at one terminal that
can be regenerated at the recipient's terminal when the recipient logs in

enclosed, adj
closed in or surrounded or included within
the enclosed check is to cover shipping and handling

engaged, adj
unavailable for use by anyone else or indicating unavailability

envelope, noun
a flat (usually rectangular) container for a letter, thin package, etc.

equipment, noun
any instrument needed for an undertaking or to perform a service

fax, verb
send something via a facsimile machine
Can you fax me the report right away?
headline, noun
the heading or caption of a newspaper article

internet, noun
a computer network consisting of a worldwide network of computer networks that use the TCP/IP network protocols to facilitate data
transmission and exchange

invent, verb
come up with (an idea, plan, explanation, theory, or principle) after a mental effort

invention, noun
the creation of something in the mind

keyboard, noun
device consisting of a set of keys on a piano or organ or typewriter or typesetting machine or computer or the like

laptop, noun
a portable computer small enough to use in your lap

laser, noun
an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation; an optical device that produces an intense monochromatic beam of
coherent light

machine, noun
any mechanical or electrical device that transmits or modifies energy to perform or assist in the performance of human tasks

message, noun
a communication (usually brief) that is written or spoken or signaled
he sent a three-word message
mobile phone, adj
a portable telephone

mouse, noun
a hand-operated electronic device that controls the coordinates of a cursor on your computer screen as you move it around on a pad; on the
bottom of the device is a ball that rolls on the surface of the pad
a mouse takes much more room than a trackball

network, noun
an interconnected system of things or people
he owned a network of shops

online, adj
connected to a computer network or accessible by computer

operator, noun
an agent that operates some apparatus or machine
the operator of the switchboard

parcel, noun
a wrapped container

phone, noun
electronic equipment that converts sound into electrical signals that can be transmitted over distances and then converts received signals back
into sounds
none

postage, noun
the charge for mailing something
postcard, noun
a card for sending messages by post without an envelope

print, verb
reproduce by printing

printer, noun
a machine that prints

program, verb
write a computer program

ring, verb
get or try to get into communication (with someone) by telephone

screen, noun
a white or silvered surface where pictures can be projected for viewing

software, noun
(computer science) written programs or procedures or rules and associated documentation pertaining to the operation of a computer system
and that are stored in read/write memory
the market for software is expected to expand

switch, noun
control consisting of a mechanical or electrical or electronic device for making or breaking or changing the connections in a circuit

telephone, noun
electronic equipment that converts sound into electrical signals that can be transmitted over distances and then converts received signals back
into sounds
I talked to him on the telephone
text, noun
the words of something written
there were more than a thousand words of text

TRAVEL

abroad, adv
to or in a foreign country
they had never travelled abroad

accommodation, noun
the act of providing something (lodging or seat or food) to meet a need

aeroplane, noun
an aircraft that has a fixed wing and is powered by propellers or jets

airline, noun
a commercial enterprise that provides scheduled flights for passengers

airport, noun
an airfield equipped with control tower and hangars as well as accommodations for passengers and cargo

ambulance, noun
a vehicle that takes people to and from hospitals

announcement, noun
a public statement containing information about an event that has happened or is going to happen
the announcement appeared in the local newspaper
arrival, noun
the act of arriving at a certain place
they awaited her arrival

arrive, verb
reach a destination; arrive by movement or progress
She arrived home at 7 o'clock

backpack, noun
a bag carried by a strap on your back or shoulder

bag, noun
a flexible container with a single opening
he stuffed his laundry into a large bag

baggage, noun
cases used to carry belongings when traveling

bicycle, noun
a wheeled vehicle that has two wheels and is moved by foot pedals

board, verb
get on board of (trains, buses, ships, aircraft, etc.)

boat, noun
a small vessel for travel on water

border, noun
a line that indicates a boundary
brochure, noun
a small book usually having a paper cover

bus, noun
a vehicle carrying many passengers; used for public transport
he always rode the bus to work

cab, noun
a car driven by a person whose job is to take passengers where they want to go in exchange for money

cabin, noun
small room on a ship or boat where people sleep

canal, noun
long and narrow strip of water made for boats or for irrigation

capital city, noun

a seat of government

car, noun
a motor vehicle with four wheels; usually propelled by an internal combustion engine
he needs a car to get to work

charter, noun
a contract to hire or lease transportation

check-in, noun
the act of reporting your presence (as at an airport or a hotel)

coach, verb
a vehicle carrying many passengers; used for public transport
crossing, noun
a path (often marked) where something (as a street or railroad) can be crossed to get from one side to the other

currency, noun
the metal or paper medium of exchange that is presently used

customs, noun
money collected under a tariff

cycle, noun
a wheeled vehicle that has two wheels and is moved by foot pedals

cyclist, noun
a person who rides a bicycle

delay, verb
cause to be slowed down or delayed
Traffic was delayed by the bad weather

depart, verb
go away or leave

departure, noun
the act of departing

destination, noun
the place designated as the end (as of a race or journey)
direction, noun
a line leading to a place or point
he looked the other direction

dollar, noun
the basic monetary unit in many countries; equal to 100 cents

double room, adj

a room large enough for two

drive, verb
operate or control a vehicle
drive a car or bus

due, adj
owed and payable immediately or on demand
payment is due

duty-free, adj
exempt from duty
duty-free liquor

embassy, noun
a diplomatic building where ambassadors live or work

euro, noun
the basic monetary unit of most members of the European Union (introduced in 1999); in 2002 twelve European nations (Germany, France,
Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, Greece, Austria, Finland) adopted the euro as their basic unit of money
and abandoned their traditional currencies
fare, noun
the sum charged for riding in a public conveyance

ferry, noun
a boat that transports people or vehicles across a body of water and operates on a regular schedule

flight, noun
an instance of traveling by air

fly, verb
travel in an airplane
she is flying to Cincinnati tonight

foreign, adj
of concern to or concerning the affairs of other nations (other than your own)
foreign trade

fuel, noun
a substance that can be consumed to produce energy
more fuel is needed during the winter months

gate, noun
passageway (as in an air terminal) where passengers can embark or disembark

guest, noun
a visitor to whom hospitality is extended

guesthouse, noun
a house separate from the main house; for housing guests
guide, noun
someone employed to conduct others

guidebook, noun
something that offers basic information or instruction

harbour, noun
a sheltered port where ships can take on or discharge cargo

helicopter, noun
an aircraft without wings that obtains its lift from the rotation of overhead blades

hitchhike, verb
travel by getting free rides from motorists

hotel, noun
a building where travelers can pay for lodging and meals and other services

hovercraft, noun
a craft capable of moving over water or land on a cushion of air created by jet engines

hydrofoil, noun
a speedboat that is equipped with winglike structures that lift it so that it skims the water at high speeds

immigration, noun
migration into a place (especially migration to a country of which you are not a native in order to settle there)

inn, noun
a hotel providing overnight lodging for travelers
interpreter, noun
someone who mediates between speakers of different languages

jet, noun
an airplane powered by one or more jet engines

journey, noun
the act of traveling from one place to another

lorry, noun
a large truck designed to carry heavy loads

luggage, noun
cases used to carry belongings when traveling

map, noun
a diagrammatic representation of the earth's surface (or part of it)

motorcycle, noun
a motor vehicle with two wheels and a strong frame

motorway, noun
a broad highway designed for high-speed traffic

nationality, noun
people having common origins or traditions and often comprising a nation
immigrants of the same nationality often seek each other out

overnight, adj
lasting, open, or operating through the whole night
overtake, verb
travel past

parking lot, noun

space in which vehicles can be parked

parking space, noun

space in which a vehicle can be parked

passenger, noun
a traveler riding in a vehicle (a boat or bus or car or plane or train etc) who is not operating it

passport, noun
a document issued by a country to a citizen allowing that person to travel abroad and re-enter the home country

petrol, noun
a volatile flammable mixture of hydrocarbons derived from petroleum; used mainly as a fuel in internal-combustion engines

pilot, noun
someone who is licensed to operate an aircraft in flight

railway, noun
line that is the commercial organization responsible for operating a system of transportation for trains that pull passengers or freight

reservation, noun
something reserved in advance (as a hotel accommodation or a seat on a plane etc.)

reserve, verb
arrange for and reserve (something for someone else) in advance
reserve me a seat on a flight
ride, verb
sit and travel on the back of animal, usually while controlling its motions
Did you ever ride a camel?

road, noun
an open way for travel or transportation

roundabout, noun
a road junction at which traffic streams circularly around a central island

route, noun
an established line of travel or access

sail, verb
travel on water propelled by wind or by other means

scooter, noun
a wheeled vehicle with small wheels and a low-powered gasoline engine geared to the rear wheel

ship, noun
a vessel that carries passengers or freight

sightseeing, noun
going about to look at places of interest

signpost, noun
a post bearing a sign that gives directions or shows the way

speed, noun
distance travelled per unit time
subway, noun
an electric railway operating below the surface of the ground (usually in a city)

suitcase, noun
a portable rectangular container for carrying clothes

taxi, noun
a car driven by a person whose job is to take passengers where they want to go in exchange for money

terminal, noun
station where transport vehicles load or unload passengers or goods

tour, noun
a journey or route all the way around a particular place or area
they took an extended tour of Europe

tourist, noun
someone who travels for pleasure

traffic, noun
the aggregation of things (pedestrians or vehicles) coming and going in a particular locality during a specified period of time

train, noun
public transport provided by a line of railway cars coupled together and drawn by a locomotive
express trains don't stop at Princeton Junction

tram, noun
a wheeled vehicle that runs on rails and is propelled by electricity
translate, verb
restate (words) from one language into another language
I have to translate when my in-laws from Austria visit the U.S.

translation, noun
a written communication in a second language having the same meaning as the written communication in a first language

trip, noun
a journey for some purpose (usually including the return)
he took a trip to the shopping center

tunnel, noun
a passageway through or under something, usually underground (especially one for trains or cars)
the tunnel reduced congestion at that intersection

unleaded, adj
not treated with lead
unleaded gasoline

vehicle, noun
a conveyance that transports people or objects

visa, noun
an endorsement made in a passport that allows the bearer to enter the country issuing it

voyage, noun
a journey to some distant place

windscreen, noun
transparent screen (as of glass) to protect occupants of a vehicle
WEATHER

blow, verb
be blowing or storming
The wind blew from the West

centigrade, adj
of or relating to a temperature scale on which the freezing point of water is 0 degrees and the boiling point of water is 100 degrees

cloud, noun
a visible mass of water or ice particles suspended at a considerable altitude
the clouds moved across the sky

cloudy, adj
full of or covered with clouds
cloudy skies

cold, adj
having a low or inadequate temperature or feeling a sensation of coldness
a cold climate

cool, noun
the quality of being at a refreshingly low temperature
the cool of early morning

dry, adj
free from liquid or moisture; lacking natural or normal moisture or depleted of water; or no longer wet
dry land

fog, noun
droplets of water vapor suspended in the air near the ground
foggy, adj
filled or abounding with fog or mist

forecast, noun
a prediction about how something (as the weather) will develop

frost, noun
ice crystals forming a white deposit (especially on objects outside)

gale, noun
a strong wind moving 45-90 knots; force 7 to 10 on Beaufort scale

hot, adj
used of physical heat; having a high or higher than desirable temperature
a hot August day

ice, noun
water frozen in the solid state
Americans like ice in their drinks

icy, adj
extremely cold

lightning, noun
abrupt electric discharge from cloud to cloud or from cloud to earth accompanied by the emission of light

mild, adj
moderate in type or degree or effect or force; far from extreme
a mild winter storm
rain, noun
water falling in drops from vapor condensed in the atmosphere

shower, noun
a brief period of precipitation
the game was interrupted by a brief shower

snow, noun
precipitation falling from clouds in the form of ice crystals

storm, noun
a violent weather condition with winds 64-72 knots (11 on the Beaufort scale) and precipitation and thunder and lightning

sun, noun
the star that is the source of light and heat for the planets in the solar system
the sun contains 99.85% of the mass in the solar system

sunny, adj
bright and pleasant weather

sunshine, noun
the rays of the sun

temperature, noun
the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment

thermometer, noun
measuring instrument for measuring temperature

thunder, noun
a booming or crashing noise caused by air expanding along the path of a bolt of lightning
wet, adj
covered or soaked with a liquid such as water
a wet bathing suit

wind, noun
air moving (sometimes with considerable force) from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
trees bent under the fierce winds

WORK AND JOBS

CV, noun
a summary of your academic and work history

actor, noun
a theatrical performer

actress, noun
a female actor

apply, verb
ask (for something)
She applied for college

architect, noun
someone who creates plans to be used in making something (such as buildings)

army, noun
a permanent organization of the military land forces of a nation or state
artist, noun
a person whose creative work shows sensitivity and imagination

assistant, noun
a person who contributes to the fulfillment of a need or furtherance of an effort or purpose
my invaluable assistant

athlete, noun
a person trained to compete in sports

banker, noun
a financier who owns or is an executive in a bank

boss, noun
a person who exercises control over workers

businessman, noun
a person engaged in commercial or industrial business (especially an owner or executive)

businesswoman, noun
a female businessperson

butcher, noun
a retailer of meat

cameraman, noun
a photographer who operates a movie camera

candidate, noun
someone who is considered for something (for an office or prize or honor etc.)
canteen, noun
restaurant in a factory; where workers can eat

captain, noun
an officer holding a rank below a major but above a lieutenant

career, noun
the particular occupation for which you are trained

carpenter, noun
a woodworker who makes or repairs wooden objects

chef, noun
a professional cook

chemist, noun
a health professional trained in the art of preparing and dispensing drugs

clerk, noun
an employee who performs clerical work (e.g., keeps records or accounts)

colleague, noun
an associate that one works with

comedian, noun
a professional performer who tells jokes and performs comical acts

company, noun
an institution created to conduct business
he only invests in large well-established companies
conference, noun
a prearranged meeting for consultation or exchange of information or discussion (especially one with a formal agenda)

consulate, noun
diplomatic building that serves as the residence or workplace of a consul

contract, noun
a binding agreement between two or more persons that is enforceable by law

cook, noun
someone who cooks food

crew, noun
the men and women who man a vehicle (ship, aircraft, etc.)

dancer, noun
a performer who dances professionally

dentist, noun
a person qualified to practice dentistry

department, noun
a specialized division of a large organization
you'll find it in the hardware department

designer, noun
a person who specializes in designing architectural interiors and their furnishings

detective, noun
a police officer who investigates crimes
diploma, noun
a document certifying the successful completion of a course of study

director, noun
someone who controls resources and expenditures

diver, noun
someone who works underwater

doctor, noun
a licensed medical practitioner
I felt so bad I went to see my doctor

employ, verb
engage or hire for work

employee, noun
a worker who is hired to perform a job

employer, noun
a person or firm that employs workers

employment, noun
the state of being employed or having a job
they are looking for employment

engineer, noun
a person who uses scientific knowledge to solve practical problems

factory, noun
a plant consisting of one or more buildings with facilities for manufacturing
farm, noun
workplace consisting of farm buildings and cultivated land as a unit
it takes several people to work the farm

farmer, noun
a person who operates a farm

fireman, noun
a member of a fire department who tries to extinguish fires

greengrocer, noun
a grocer who sells fresh fruits and vegetables

grocer, noun
a retail merchant who sells foodstuffs (and some household supplies)

guard, noun
a person who keeps watch over something or someone

hairdresser, noun
someone who cuts or beautifies hair

housewife, noun
a wife who manages a household while her husband earns the family income

housework, noun
the work of cleaning and running a house

instructor, noun
a person whose occupation is teaching
interpreter, noun
someone who mediates between speakers of different languages

journalist, noun
a writer for newspapers and magazines

judge, noun
a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice

laboratory, noun
a workplace for the conduct of scientific research

labourer, noun
someone who works with their hands; someone engaged in manual labor

lawyer, noun
a professional person authorized to practice law; conducts lawsuits or gives legal advice

lecturer, noun
someone who lectures professionally

librarian, noun
a professional person trained in library science and engaged in library services

manager, noun
someone who controls resources and expenditures

mechanic, noun
someone whose occupation is repairing and maintaining automobiles
model, noun
a woman who wears clothes to display fashions

musician, noun
someone who plays a musical instrument (as a profession)

newsagent, noun
someone who sells newspapers

novelist, noun
one who writes novels

nurse, noun
one skilled in caring for young children or the sick (usually under the supervision of a physician)

occupation, noun
the principal activity in your life that you do to earn money

office, noun
place of business where professional or clerical duties are performed
he rented an office in the new building

officer, noun
any person in the armed services who holds a position of authority or command

operator, noun
an agent that operates some apparatus or machine
the operator of the switchboard
owner, noun
(law) someone who owns (is legal possessor of) a business
he is the owner of a chain of restaurants

pension, noun
a regular payment to a person that is intended to allow them to subsist without working

photographer, noun
someone who takes photographs professionally

physician, noun
a licensed medical practitioner

pilot, noun
someone who is licensed to operate an aircraft in flight

poet, noun
a writer of poems

policeman, noun
a member of a police force

policewoman, noun
a woman policeman

politician, noun
a leader engaged in civil administration

porter, noun
a person employed to carry luggage and supplies
postman, noun
a man who delivers the mail

president, noun
an executive officer of a firm or corporation

priest, noun
a clergyman in Christian churches who has the authority to perform or administer various religious rites

profession, noun
the body of people in a learned occupation
the news spread rapidly through the medical profession

professional, noun
a person engaged in one of the learned professions

professor, noun
someone who is a member of the faculty at a college or university

programmer, noun
a person who designs and writes and tests computer programs

publisher, noun
a person engaged in publishing periodicals or books or music

qualification, noun
an attribute that must be met or complied with and that fits a person for something
her qualifications for the job are excellent

quit, verb
give up or retire from a position
reporter, noun
a person who investigates and reports or edits news stories

retire, verb
go into retirement; stop performing one's work or withdraw from one's position
He retired at age 68

retirement, noun
the state of being retired from one's business or occupation

sailor, noun
any member of a ship's crew

salary, noun
something that remunerates

salesman, noun
a man salesperson

saleswoman, noun
a woman salesperson

scientist, noun
a person with advanced knowledge of one or more sciences

secretary, noun
an assistant who handles correspondence and clerical work for a boss or an organization

servant, noun
a person working in the service of another (especially in the household)
shopkeeper, noun
a merchant who owns or manages a shop

soldier, noun
an enlisted man or woman who serves in an army
the soldiers stood at attention

staff, noun
personnel who assist their superior in carrying out an assigned task
the hospital has an excellent nursing staff

steward, noun
an attendant on an airplane

taxi driver, noun

a person whose job is to take passengers where they want to go in exchange for money

teacher, noun
a person whose occupation is teaching

trade, noun
the commercial exchange (buying and selling on domestic or international markets) of goods and services
Venice was an important center of trade with the East

unemployed, noun
people who are involuntarily out of work (considered as a group)

wage, noun
something that remunerates
wages were paid by check
workman, noun
an employee who performs manual or industrial labor

ADVERBS

Use:
Adverbs can be used to describe verbs. They describe HOW you do something.
Examples: She walks quickly; He sings nicely.

Form:
1) You can make many adverbs by adding –ly to an adjective.
slow -> slowly; loud -> loudly
If an adjective ends in ‘y’, change it to an ‘i’.
heavy -> heavily; funny -> funnily
Add ‘ally’ to adjectives ending in ‘ic’.
Physical -> physically; energetic -> energetically
2) Some adverbs are irregular, and do not end in ly.  These include:
good -> well She dances well.
hard -> hard He works hard.
fast -> fast He runs fast.
late -> late He arrives late.

3a) Usually, the adverb goes after the verb it describes.

She talks quietly NOT She quietly talks.
He runs fast. NOT He fast runs.

3b) If the verb has a direct object WITHOUT A PREPOSITION the adverb should go after the object.
You sang that song nicely. NOT You sang nicely that song.
He did the job well. NOT He did well the job.

3c) If the verb is followed by a preposition and an object, you can put the adverb in different places.
He quickly walked to the shop.  
He walked quickly to the shop.
He walked to the shop quickly.

4) Adverbs are NOT used to describe the following verbs. These verbs use adjectives.
Be I am quiet.  NOT I am quietly.
Seem It seems strange. NOT It seems strangely.
Look That looks nice. NOT That looks nicely.
Smell That smells good. NOT That smells well.
Sound That sounds great. NOT That sounds greatly.
Feel That feels funny. NOT That feels funnily.

5) Some words end in ‘ly’ but they are not adverbs. Friendly is an example. Friendly is an adjective. We can say ‘She is friendly’ but not ‘She
talks friendly’. There is no adverb for friendly, but we can say ‘She talks in a friendly way’. Elderly and lonely are also adjectives, not adverbs.
Kindly and early are adjectives and adverbs.
BOTH, EITHER, NEITHER

Use:

1) Both
Both means two of two things.
I have two cats. I like both of them.

2) Neither
Neither means not one or the other of two things.
Neither of my cats is grey.
Remember to use a singular verb after neither.
Neither of the dogs are dangerous. => Neither of the dogs is dangerous.

3) Either
Either means one or the other.
There are two cakes. Please have one. You can have either one.

Form:

1) You can use both, neither and either directly before a noun.
Both supermarkets are good.
Neither supermarket sells electrical goods.
We can go to either supermarket, I don’t mind.

2) Both, neither and either are often used with ‘of’. But you must always use a determiner (the, my, these, those, his etc) before the noun.

Both of children like chocolate cake. => Both of the children like chocolate cake.
However, you don’t have to use of with both.
Both of the children like chocolate cake.
Both children like chocolate cake.

3) You can use both, neither and either+ of + object pronoun(you, them, us).

Both of them wore white dresses. 

Neither of us was late. 
Have either of you got a pen?

4) You can use both ... and ...; neither ... nor ..., and either ... or ....
Examples:
Both James and Diana work here.
Neither James nor Diana works here.
You can ask either James or Diana.

BROADER RANGE OF INTENSIFIERS: SO, SUCH, TOO, ENOUGH

Grammar: So, such, too, enough

Too
Use:
Too means there is a lot of something. It shows a negative opinion.
It’s too hot = It is very hot and I don’t like it.

Form:
You can use too before an adjective.
It’s too cold. My trousers are too small.

You can also use it before an adverb,

You walk too fast. James speaks too quietly.
Before a noun, use too much (uncountable nouns) or many (countable nouns).
I ate too much food.
I ate too many sandwiches.

You can also use too much after a verb.

I ate too much.
Paul drinks too much.

Enough
Use:
Enough means you have what you need.
We have enough food for everyone = everyone has some food.
We don’t have enough chairs for everyone = some people don’t have chairs.

Form:
Write enough before a noun.
We have enough chairs.

But write it after an adjective or verb.

Are you warm enough?  He’s qualified enough. She isn’t tall enough to be a model.

You don’t work hard enough. Are you sleeping enough?

Sentences with enough are sometimes followed by to + verb infinitive.

I’m not tall enough to reach the book.
I haven’t got enough money to buy that coat.

So
Use:
So means very.
It’s so hot!
Form:
So is generally used before an adjective or an adverb.
He’s so funny! He plays the piano so well!

However, in modern English, it is increasingly being used before nouns and verbs.
That dress is so last year! (= That dress is last year’s fashion)
I’m so going to shout at him when I see him! (so = really)

So can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was so hot that I couldn’t sleep.

Such
Use:
Such also means very. Such is used before an adjective and noun.
They are such nice children. 

Form:
A / an, if necessary, go after such, not before.
That’s a such pretty dress. => That’s such a pretty dress!

Like So, Such can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was such a nice day that we decided to go to the park.

Common mistakes

1) Some students use too with a positive meaning. But use so or very here
It’s too hot! I love the summer! => It’s so hot! I love the summer!
2) Some students write enough in the wrong place.
Do we have sugar enough? => Do we have enough sugar?

3) Some students use so / such…that incorrectly.

It was so hot that the sun was shining.
This sentence is not correct because ‘the sun was shining’ is not a direct result of ‘It was so hot’. The hot day did not cause the sun to shine.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

Superlatives

Use:
Use the superlative form to describe something that is greater than any other thing.
The Amazon is the longest river in the world.
Helen is the most intelligent student in the class.

Form:
1)            Write the before all superlatives.

2)            If an adjective is short and has one syllable, add est to the end. If it ends in e already, just add st.
                tall          =>           the tallest                           nice        =>           the nicest
                thick      =>           the thickest                        late        =>           the latest

2)            If an adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant, write the consonant again, then write est. But never write a w twice.
                big          =>           the biggest                         new       =>           the newest (NOT newwest)
                thin        =>           the  thinnest                      slow       =>           the slowest (NOT slowwest)
                slim        =>           the slimmest

The biggest cat in the world is the lion.

3)            If an adjective has two syllables and ends in y, change the y to i and add est.
                funny    =>           the funniest                       silly         =>           the silliest
               
It’s the silliest film I’ve ever seen!

4)            For other adjectives with two or more syllables, DON’T add est. Write most before the adjective.
                interesting          =>           the most interesting      surprising            =>           the most surprising
                               
                It’s the most interesting book I’ve ever read.

5)            Some adjectives have irregular superlative forms. These are listed below.
                good      =>           the best
                bad        =>           the worst
                far          =>           the furthest

6)            a) In is often (but not always) used after a superlative adjective to describe where this statement is true.
                London is the biggest city in England.
                Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

                My brother is the tallest person in my family.

QUESTIONS TAGS

Use:
Use question tags in two situations.
1) You are not sure if something is true, so you want to check. In this case, your voice should rise when you say the question tag.
                                                      ↗                                     
You’re not going now, are you?
               
2) You know something is true. You want to include/involve another person in the conversation. In this case, your voice should fall when you
say the tag. It does not sound like a question.
                                                             ↘
He doesn’t live here now, does he?

Form:
Question tags are either:
1) positive statements with short, negative questions at the end.
These tags check something that you believe is true.
It’s Monday today, isn’t it?

2) negative statements with short, positive questions at the end.

These tags check something that you believe is false.
It’s not raining, is it?

Make question tags this way:

1) If there is an auxiliary verb or a modal verb, write it in the opposite form (positive or negative) at the end of the sentence. Then write the
subject pronoun of the sentence.
Ian’s nice, isn’t he?
Laura hasn’t arrived yet, has she?
I can’t do anything to help, can I?
We won’t be late, will we?

Caution:
CAUTION: Use aren’t with I’m in questions tags.
I’m a bit careless, aren’t I?                           NOT       I’m a bit careless, am not I?

2) In present and past simple sentences, use do, does or did in the question tag.
Brian and Cathy don’t eat meat, do they?
Your dad lives abroad, doesn’t he?
Your friends enjoyed themselves, didn’t they?
3) Use a positive question tag after never.
Miles never goes out, does he?

Second Conditional

Use:      
The second conditional structure is used to talk about imaginary situations and the consequences.
                Example: If I had a car, I could visit my friend.
                (But the truth is, I do not have a car, and I cannot visit my friend).            

The second conditional structure is also used to talk about imaginary abilities and the consequences.
                Example: If I could fly, I wouldn’t need a car.
                (But the truth is, I cannot fly, and so I need a car.)

Form:
1)  Make the second conditional in this way.

If I past simple , I would / wouldn’t verb

you you ‘d (infinitive form)
he he could / couldn’t
she... she...

Example:             If we had more money, we would buy that house.

Or

I would / wouldn’t verb if I past simple

you ‘d (infinitive form) you
he could / couldn’t he
she... she...

Example:             She’d be more successful if she worked harder.

2)  The verb to be can use were for all subjects. This is particularly true in the sentence: If I were you…
If I were you, I’d buy a bicycle.  

However, this rule is often overlooked.

If he were more careful, he wouldn’t break everything.  =>
If he was more careful, he wouldn’t break everything.

3)  To talk about imaginary abilities, use could.

If I could + verb (infinitive) , I would / wouldn’t verb

you you ‘d (infinitive form)
he he
she... she...

Example:             If I could help you, I would!

4)  Notice that the infinitive verb after the modal verbs is not necessary if the meaning is clear. Don’t contract modal verbs when there is no
infinitive verb present.

If I could pay, I’d...   =>   If I could pay, I would...

Common errors:
1) Many students write would after If
If I would have a lot of money, I would buy that car!       
=>           If I had a lot of money, I would buy that car!       
2) Many students forget to use could to talk about abilities.
                If I played the drums, I’d join a band.
=>           If I could play the drums, I’d join a band.         

Third Conditional

Use:      
Use the third conditional to talk about past events. Use it to describe what could have happened (event ‘b’) as a result of something else (event
‘a’). However, neither event a nor event b happened. Therefore the third conditional describes hypothetical, imaginary situations.

If I had been at home yesterday, I’d have got your phone call.
(But, I was not at home, and I didn’t receive your call.)

The third conditional is often used to criticise:

                If you had worked harder, you wouldn’t have failed the test.
                (But you didn’t work hard and you failed the test).
Or it can be used to express regret:
                If I hadn’t spent all my money, I could’ve bought a computer.
                (But I spend all my money and I couldn’t buy a computer).
Or it can be used to express relief:
                If I we’d taken that route, we’d have been stuck in the traffic jam for hours!
                (But we didn’t take that route, and we didn’t get stuck)

Form:
a) Make the third conditional structure this way:

      would have  
If past perfect , would’ve past participle
(had + past participle) ‘d have
 (hadn’t + past participle) wouldn’t have
EVENT A EVENT B

If you’d told me that Anna had put on weight, I wouldn’t have congratulated her on becoming pregnant.

Or:

         
I / you / he / she / we / it past perfect
/ they would have     (had + past participle)
would’ve (hadn’t + past participle)
‘d have past participle if

wouldn’t have
EVENT B EVENT A

Jim wouldn’t have made those mistakes if you had trained him properly.

b) You can also use may have / may not have, might have / might not have or could have / couldn’t have to describe less certain possibilities
rather than certain consequences.
You  might have had an accident if you’d driven home in the snow last night.

c) Sometimes the if clause is implied but not spoken.

                ‘I’d have helped.’
means  ‘I’d have helped if you’d asked me.’
                ‘I wouldn’t have said that.’
means  ‘I wouldn’t have said that if I’d been there.’
Common Mistakes
Some students write would after if. Would does not go in the If clause, it goes in the other clause.
If I would have seen Sally, I’d have told her the news.  →               If I had seen Sally, I’d have told her the news.

CONNECTING WORDS EXPRESSING

Use:
Connectives join two clauses, and show the relationship between them.
The relationship can show:

 a contrast Although, but, even though, however, despite, in spite of

 a cause because, because of, as a result of, due to
 an effect so, consequently, as a result, thus, therefore

These words cannot be used interchangeably. They may be located in different places with in the sentence, and they may use a different
grammar.

Form:
a) Connectives showing Contrast
Compare these sentences with the same meaning:

i It is sunny but temperatures are low.

Never start a sentence with But. You can use but after a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is needed.

ii Although it is sunny, temperatures are low. / Even though it is sunny, temperatures are low.

Note how Although and Even though are located in a different part of the sentence from But. Although and Even though go before the known
clause, whereas but goes before the unknown clause. The two clauses are separated with a comma. The order of clauses can be reversed.

Temperatures are low, even though / although it’s sunny.

iii It is sunny. However, temperatures are low.

Note how however starts a sentence and is followed by a comma. It may also be seen after a semi-colon (;). Consequently, it is usually seen in
longer sentences.

iv Despite the sun, temperatures are low.

In spite of the sun, temperatures are low.

Note the position of Despite and In spite of before the known clause. The order of clauses can be reversed:
Temperatures are low despite / in spite of the sun.

Also note that these words are followed by a noun, not a verb clause. You can also use the –ing form of the verb in these sentences.

Despite  / In spite of it being sunny, temperatures are low.

b) Connectives showing a Cause

Compare these sentences with the same meaning.

i I arrived late because the traffic was bad.

Because the traffic was bad, I arrived late.

Note you can ONLY start a sentence with Because if there are two clauses in the sentence.

Because we were late. INCORRECT

Because we were late, we missed the start of the show. CORRECT

Starting a sentence with Because is more formal than using it in the middle of a sentence, and is most commonly used in writing, not speaking.

ii I arrived late because of the bad traffic.    OR Because of the bad traffic, I arrived late.
I arrived late due to the bad traffic.      OR Due to the bad traffic, I arrived late.
I arrived late as a result of the bad traffic. OR As a result of the bad traffic, I arrived late.
Note how these expressions are followed by a noun, not a verb clause.

c) Connectives showing Effect

Compare these sentences with the same meaning.

i We were late so we missed the beginning of the show.

Never start a sentence with So. So can follow a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is needed.

ii We were late and thus we missed the beginning of the show.

We were late and consequently we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and as a result we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and therefore we missed the beginning of the show.

Consequently, As a result, Therefore and Thus are more formal than So. They are common in formal sentences. They often start a sentence,
but they can be joined to the previous sentence with and.

Common Mistakes:
1. Some students begin sentences with But and So.
Joe went to university. But he didn’t like it. → Joe went to university, but he didn’t like it.
2. Some students write a sentence with because and only one clause.
I went to the shop. Because I needed some bread. → I went to the shop because I needed some bread.
3. Some students do not use nouns when they needed to.
I went indoors due to it was cold outside. → I went indoors due to the cold weather outside.

EMBEDDED QUESTIONS

Use:
Whenever you use an introductory phrase before a question, you must change the word order in the question.
Introductions include:
Can you tell me...? Do you know...? I don’t know... I’m not sure...   I wonder...  I can’t remember...
What’s the time?  =>Can you tell me what the time is?
Where did he go? =>I don’t know where he went.

Form:
1) If the question has an auxiliary verb, swap the positions of the auxiliary verb and the subject. You can also do this in sentences with the verb
to be.

Example:   When can you get here?   

Can is the auxiliary verb and you is the subject.  Swap their positions when you add an introduction.
Do you know when you can get here?

Other examples:
Where has he gone?      =>I don’t know where he has gone.
What are they doing?   =>I don’t know what they’re doing.
What time is it?    =>Have you any idea what time it is?

You cannot contract the verb if it is the last word in the sentence.
Do you know what time it’s?      =>Do you know what time it is?

2) If the question is in the present or past simple, remove do / does / did from the question. Change the verb ending so that the verb is in the
correct tense.

Example:
Where did he go? =>Did you see where he went?
What time do you get up? =>Can you tell me what time you get up?
Where does she work? =>I wonder where she works.

3) If a question does not have a question word (Where, What, Why etc.) use if or whether before the question.
Example:
Does he live here? =>Do you know if he lives here?
Are they coming to the party?    =>Do you know whether they are coming to the party?

FUTURE CONTINUOUS

Use:
a) Use the future continuous to talk about an event that will already be in progress at a specified time in the future.

This time next week, I’ll be driving to my parents’ house.

Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:
By ..., This time next week...,  In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple.

When you arrive, I’ll be driving home.

By the time I get home, you’ll probably be having a bath.

b) The future continuous can be used instead of the present continuous for future plans.

Will you be going to Jane’s party?

Yes, but I’ll be getting there a bit late, because I’m going to a meeting after work.

c) We can also use the future continuous to make a guess about something that is in progress at the moment.
Don’t phone Richard now, he’ll be having dinner.
Oh no, I forgot about the dinner! It’ll be burning, I know it!
These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to talk about what we assume is happening at the moment.
Form:
a) You can make the future continuous with will or going to. Make the future continuous this way:

Positive and Negative

I will be verb + ing
you won’t be
he / she it am / are / is    going to be
we
they

Questions

Will I be verb + ing?

Won’t you
Am he / she it going to be
Is we
Are they

b) Remember that some verbs are not used in continuous tenses.  These include verbs connected with possession: possess, own, belong, likes
and dislikes: like, love, hate and other abstract verbs: seem, be, cost, want.

MODALS

Using Modals for Recommendations

Use:
The following modals can be used to give recommendations.

must Must  can be used to give a strong recommendation.

You must see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.

have to You can also use have to for recommendations, but must is more common. Have to is generally used to talk about rules and things
beyond your control.
You have to see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.
should Should and ought to are used to give a suggestion.
You should try haggis while you are in Scotland.

could Could is used to give an option.

You could stay in a hotel, or you could stay at a guest house.

don’t have to Don’t have to is used to say that something isn’t necessary.
You don’t have to get a taxi; the metro is really fast and efficient.

shouldn’t Should is used to warn someone gently against doing something.

You shouldn’t walk home alone after dark.

mustn’t Mustn’t is used to warn someone strongly against doing something.

You mustn’t go to that part of the city – it’s dangerous.

Form:
Must, should and could are modals. Modals follow the following rules.
1) Do not add ‘s’ to the third person singular.
He must. NOT He musts
2) To form a negative, add not after the verb.
I shouldn’t. NOT I don’t should
3) To form questions, invert the modal verb and the subject.
Must you? NOT Do you must?
4) Modals are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I should go. NOT I should to go.   / I should coming.
Past Modals for Deduction

Use and Form:

The following modals can be used to guess what happened in the past.
must have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They must have got out under the gate. There is no other way out.’

may have + past participle verb

might have + past participle verb
could have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They may have got out under the gate, or they might have escaped through this hole in the fence.’

may not have + past participle verb

might not have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are
correct.
‘Where’s John? Why isn’t he at the meeting?’
‘He may not have got the message.’ / ‘He might not have received the message.’
NOTE: may not is not contracted to mayn’t, and might not is rarely contracted to mightn’t.

can’t have + past participle verb

couldn’t have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They can’t have got out under the gate. I fixed that yesterday.’

NOTE: you cannot use: mustn’t have + past participle verb to make deductions about the past.

Common Mistakes:
1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can.
Maybe I left my book at home. → I may have left my book at home.
I think Robin went to the restaurant without us. → Robin must have gone to the restaurant without us.

2. Note that could have has the same meaning as might have and may have.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might / could have got stuck in traffic.

    However, in the negative form the meaning is not the same.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might not have got your message. (NOT could not)
= Maybe he didn’t get your message.

  Couldn’t have has the same meaning as can’t have.

Why is Tom late?
I’m not sure! He can’t / couldn’t have forgotten about the party! 
= I’m sure he didn’t forget.

Have to is a regular verb.

1) Use Do / Does / Did to form questions.
Do you have to go? NOT Have you to go?
2) Have to is followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I have to go.
3) Use don’t / doesn’t / didn’t to form negative sentences.
I don’t have to go. NOT I haven’t to go.

Common Mistakes:
1. Many students use to after modal verbs.
You must to visit the museum. → You must visit the museum.
2. Some students write the question and negative form of have to incorrectly.
You haven’t to take the bus → You don’t have to take the bus.
Have you to go now? → Do you have to go now?

MODALS

May Might and Adverbs of Probability

May and Might

Use:
Use May and Might to talk about what will possibly happen in the future. May and Might mean maybe will. They can refer to the future or the
present.
Examples: I might have a pen in my bag.  ( = present use) 
She may arrive tomorrow. ( = future use)

Form:
May and Might are modal verbs, like can, will and should, so they follow the same rules.
1) Do not add ‘s’ to the third person singular.
He may come. NOT He mays come.
She might stay. NOT She mights stay.

2) To form a negative, add not after may and might.

He may not come.  She might not stay.

3) To form questions, invert may/might and the subject. However, questions with might are not common.
Might he be late? 

4) May can be used with ‘I’ or ‘we’ to make requests. However, can and could are more common.
May I have some chocolate? May we go to the party?
5) May and Might are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I might go. NOT I might to go.
She might stay. NOT She might staying.

Will + adverbs of probability

Use:
You can use will and won’t with different adverbs to show how probable a future event is.

I’ll possibly go to the party.

I’ll probably go to the party.
I’ll definitely go to the party.
I’ll certainly go to the party.

Form:
Note that will / ‘ll is used before the adverb, but won’t is used after the adverb.

I’ll probably see you later.

I probably won’t see you later.

Should have

Use:      
1)            Should have can be used to express regret about the past –  to wish that something in the past had happened in a different way:
                I should have studied for my exam!
                (I didn’t study for my exams. I failed. Now I wish that the past was different.)

2)            Should have can also be used to talk about something you expected to happen, but it didn’t happen (or it didn’t happen until later).

                The letter should have arrived by now, but it hasn’t come yet.
                (I was expecting a letter, but it isn’t here).          
                Here’s the bus! It should have been here twenty minutes ago.
                (The bus is late. It has just arrived).        

Form:

should have + past participle You should have phoned

I should’ve me.
You
He / She / It shouldn’t have + past participle You shouldn’t have done
We that.
They

Modals for Deduction

Use and Form: 

The following modals can be used to make guesses about a present situation.

must + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He must be in the bathroom.’
may + infinitive
might + infinitive
could + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He may be in the bathroom, or he might be in the kitchen, or he could be outside.’

may not + infinitive

might not + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He may not be at work today.’

NOTE: Do not use could not here.

can’t + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘Where’s John? Is he in the kitchen?’
‘No, he can’t be. I was in there a minute ago.’

NOTE: you cannot use: mustn’t + infinitive to make deductions about what is not true.
 

Common Mistakes:
1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can.
Maybe your bag is in the classroom.        =>           Your bag might be in the classroom.

Past continuous

Use:
1) Use the past to ‘set the scene’ of a story before describing what happened.
    ‘It was raining. I was walking in the park. Some kids were playing football nearby. Suddenly…’

2) Use the past continuous to talk about an action which happened for some time in the past and was then interrupted. Use the past simple
tense to talk about the interruption.

    I was cooking dinner when suddenly there was a knock at the door.

3) Use the past continuous to talk about events that were in progress at a certain time.

    At 5 o’clock yesterday afternoon, I was driving home from work.

Note the difference in meaning:

When James got home, I cooked dinner:-  I started cooking AFTER he got home.
When James got home, I was cooking dinner: - I started cooking BEFORE he got home.

Form:
Positive

 
I was
verb+ing
You were

He / She / It was

We / They were

Negative
  
I wasn’t
verb+ing
You weren’t

He / She / It wasn’t

We / They weren’t

Question

 
Was I
verb+ing   ?
Were you

Was he / she / it

Were we / they

Spelling Rules:
If a verb ends in e, delete the e before you add –ing.
have   =>I was having lunch.

If a verb ends in one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant (except w and y).
get     =>He was just getting up.
play    =>We were playing.

Common mistakes
1) Some students remember the verb be but forget ‘ing’.
I was watch television.   =>I was watching television.
2) Some students make spelling mistakes.
I was studing.  =>I was studying.

We were eatting   =>We were eating.

Past Perfect

Use:      
a) The past perfect is a narrative tense. This means it is used when telling a story about the past.
It is used in the same paragraph as verbs in the past simple tense, and is often used in the same sentence as a past simple verb.

The past perfect describes an event which happened before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want to say the events in the
order they happened.

Example:
A sentence with the events in the order they happened:
John went to the shop on the way home from work, so he got home late.
Both verbs are in the past simple.

A sentence in which the events are NOT in order:

John got home late because he had gone to the shop on the way home from work.
The event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense.

b) The past perfect is also used in other structures such as:

I wish:                                   I wish I had cleaned the house!
Third Conditional:            If I had practiced harder, we might have won the competition.

Form:
    
I
you had past participle
he / she / it
we hadn’t
they

Write any adverbs between had and the past participle.

The film had already started.
The post had just been delivered

Past simple

Use:
Use the past simple to talk about finished events in the past. Use it to tell stories, jokes and anecdotes.

Form:
1)            Many past tense verbs are formed by adding -ed to the end of the verb.
want      =>           wanted
start       =>           started

If a verb ends in e, just add d (liked, hoped).

If a verb ends in y, delete y and add ied (studied, carried). But don’t do this if the verb ends in a vowel + y (played, NOT plaied. stayed, NOT
staied)

But a lot of past tense verbs are irregular. You need to learn each one separately. Here are some examples.
have      =>           had                        make     =>           made
take       =>           took                       sit           =>           sat
get         =>           got                         feel        =>           felt
Past simple verbs are the same for all persons.
I went; you went; he went; she went; they went; we went...    

2)            Form negatives this way:

I, you, he , she, we, they... didn’t infinitive verb

know, see, go

Don’t use the past verb in negative sentences.

I didn’t had dinner.         =>           I didn’t have dinner.

3) Form questions this way:

Did I, you, he , she, we, they... infinitive verb

know, see, go

Common mistakes:
Some students use the past verb in questions.
Did you saw the film?     =>                           Did you see the film?

Prepositions and prepositional phrases of place

Use:
Use prepositions of place to describe where something is.
  

 
The ball is in the box.
The ball is under the box.
The ball is on the box.
   

   
The ball is over the box.
The ball is next to the box. The ball is between the two
boxes.
     

 
   
The ball is near (to) the box.
The ball is in front of the box. The ball is behind the box.

 
In is also used in these situations:
Countries, cities, villages We live in France / in Paris / in Madrid.
It’s the highest building in the world.
the world
They have a cottage in the mountains / in a valley.
mountains and valleys
She works in a bank.
buildings
Don’t swim in the sea / the river / the lake.
water
He lives in the middle of Paris / in the city centre.
the middle / centre
Which film was that actor in? I read about it in the newspaper.
books / films / newspaper

On is also used in these situations:

walls, ceilings, doors, floor: She hung the picture on the ceiling / the wall / the door.
There’s a dirty mark on the page / table
surfaces
There’s a label in on the box / bottle
the front / side/ back
The school is on the left.
left / right
Jim’s office is on the second floor.
Floors
What’s on the menu? Did you buy everything on the list?
lists / menus
I live on Jackson street. The nearest gas station is on the motorway. The post box is on the way to work.
roads
He lives on the coast. London is on the River Thames.
natural lines and borders

At is also used in these situations:

the top / bottom (of a page) Sign your name at the top / bottom.
Turn left at the traffic lights / roundabout / end of the street.
Directions:
Wait at the traffic lights / corner / tree.
Position (next to something)
I wrote my name at the front / back of the book.
the front / the back
What happened at the beginning / end of the film?
the beginning / the end
I met him at a party / conference / football match
events
I’ll meet you at the airport / the station / home
buildings
 

Common mistakes:
1. Some students miss out part of the prepositional phrases.
I live next a small shop. => I live next to a small shop.
I parked the car in front of the building.
I parked the car in front the building. =>
2. Some students add a second preposition where it is not necessary.
Your bag is behind of the door.=> Your bag is behind the door.
Prepositions of Time

Use:
Use prepositions of time before days, months, years and other time words.

AT:

Use before:
Times: We’re leaving at 3 o’clock
Lunchtime / bedtime: He’s arriving at lunchtime.
Night: I can’t sleep at night.
The weekend: See you at the weekend!
Festivals: We went away at Easter.

IN:

the morning / afternoon / evening: See you in the morning!

Months: My birthday’s in June.
Seasons: We always go on holiday in summer.
Years: He was born in 1996.

ON:

Dates: We arrived here on 4th August.

Days of the week: Let’s go to the zoo on Saturday.
Single day events: We always eat out on Christmas Day.

Use ON before a day + morning/ afternoon/ evening/ night. See you on Tuesday night!

Don’t use a preposition before: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday.

Present Perfect Continuous

Use:
Use present perfect continuous in two situations.
1) You started something in the past and you are still doing it now.
I’ve been working all morning (and I’m still working now).

2) You have just finished doing something. The effects of this activity can still be seen.
I’ve been gardening, so my hands are dirty.
               
Form:
Form the present perfect continuous in this way.

Positive and Negative

have / haven’t
I, you, we, they ‘ve /’ve not been verb + ing

  has / hasn’t
‘s / ‘s not
he, she, it

Examples:           You’ve been eating chocolate. I’ve not been sleeping well.

Questions
 I, you, we, they
Have been verb + ing?
he, she, it
Has

Examples:           Have you been drinking? Has Emily been seeing her ex-boyfriend?

Present Perfect vs Past Simple

Present Perfect
Use: 
1) The present perfect tense is often used to tell up-to-date news.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby!’

But you cannot use the present perfect with phrases relating to finished time.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby yesterday!’
So, to ask about and give more details, you need to use the past simple.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby!’
‘When did she have it?’
‘She had it last night!’

2) The present perfect can be used with phrases relating to unfinished time, such as:
this week, today, this year
I’ve seen Roger twice this week.
That’s the second time I’ve seen that film this year.

3) The present perfect is often used in sentences with these words:

just, yet, already, ever, never
I’ve just finished the report.
Karen has finished the book already.
I haven’t finished the report yet.
I’ve never been to Spain. Have you ever been?

4) The present perfect is used to describe periods of time that start in the past and continue until the present. It is often used with for and
since.
I’ve lived here for five years.
James has worked here since last summer.

The present perfect and past simple may appear in the same sentence:
I’ve lived here since I was a child.
Tom has been unemployed since he left the factory.

Past Simple
Use: 
The past simple can be used with phrases relating to finished time, such as:
yesterday, last week, last month, in 2010, two weeks ago

Jemma left the company six weeks ago.

I emailed Tony last week.

Form:
Present Perfect

Positive

have / ‘ve
I  / you / they / we past participle
he / she / it has / ‘s

Negative
I / you / they / we haven’t / ‘ve not
past participle
he / she / it hasn’t / ‘s not

Questions

Have you / they / we

past participle?
he / she / it
Has

Past Simple

Positive

I  / you / they / we /
he / she / it past tense verb

Negative

I  / you / they / we /
he / she / it didn’t infinitive verb

Questions

Did
you / they / we / infinitive verb?
he / she / it
Comparatives

Use:
Use reported speech to talk about what another person said in the past.

Eve:                       ‘I went to the party on Friday night’.

James:                  ‘Eve said that she had gone to the party on Friday night’.
               
Form:
1) When reporting speech, the verb in the sentence may shift to a past tense.

am / is / are changes to was / were

“I am fine.”    She said that she was fine.
present simple changes to past simple
“I like it.”   He said he liked it.
present continuous changes to past continuous
“She’s sleeping.”   He said that she was sleeping.
will changes to would
“I’ll be there.”    You said that you’d be there.
can changes to could
“I can come to the meeting.”    You said that you could come to the meeting.
past simple changes to past perfect
“I did the shopping.”   Tom said that he had done the shopping.
present perfect changes to past perfect
“I’ve read that book.”   I told him that I’d read the book.
past continuous changes to past perfect continuous
“She was walking home alone.”    He said that she had been walking home alone.
present perfect continuous changes to past perfect continuous
“I’ve been working,”    I told him that I’d been working.

2) To report speech, use He / She / I said (that) ...

 You can also use He / She told me (that)...; I told him / her (that)...
 
3) Don’t use quotation marks (“) when reporting speech.

4) References to times in the past also may need to change when using reported speech, if that time is no longer the same.

this morning / week / month → that morning / week / month

yesterday → the previous day
last week / month → the previous week / month
ago → earlier / previously
tomorrow → the following day
next week / month → the following week / month

Simple passive

Use:      
The passive voice is used:
a) When the object of a sentence is more important than the subject
The city was destroyed by the volcano.
b) When the subject of the sentence is unknown.
This cheese was made in Canada.

 It is common in formal and scientific writing.

Form:
You can use the passive voice in all tenses. Use the correct form of be + the past participle of the verb.

  Past participle
Present Simple: The workers collect the rubbish of
I am   Wednesdays.
 you / they / we are =>  The rubbish is collected on Thursdays.
It / She / he is  
 
Past Simple: taken People built the castle over 800 years ago.
you / they / we were given =>  The castle was built over 800 years ago.
I / It / She / he was built
made
 
eaten
Present Perfect: Someone has taken my book!
brought
I / you / they / we have been =>  My book has been taken!
cooked
It / She / he has been
left...
 
Past Perfect: When we arrived at the airport, someone had
I / you / they / we / it / she / he had been resold our tickets.
=>  When we arrived at the airport, our tickets
had been resold.
 
Modals You must wear a hard hat in this area.
I / you / they / we / it / she / he can be =>  Hard harts must be worn in this area.
will be
 would be
must be
should be
could be

To mention who caused the action, use by.

The bins were emptied by the cleaning staff.

be going to

Use:
Use be going to to talk about your personal plans for the future.

I’m going to see my sister at the weekend.

Are you going to marry Paul?

Form:
1)  The form of the positive and negative sentences and questions is shown below.

Positive

   
I am / ‘m
going to verb (infinitive form)
you are / ‘re

he / she / it is / ‘s
we are / ‘re

they are / ‘re

Negative

   
I ‘m not
going  to verb (infinitive form)
you aren’t    OR   ‘re not

he / she / it isn’t OR     ‘s not

we aren’t    OR   ‘re not

they aren’t    OR   ‘re not

Questions

   
Am I
going  to verb (infinitive form) ?
Are you

Is he / she / it

Are we
Are they

2)  The short reply to a ‘be going to’ question is ‘Yes, I am’, ‘Yes, she is’ etc. You cannot contract these short sentences.
Yes, he’s. =>  Yes, he is.

The short negative replies are:

No, I’m not.
No, you’re not / No, you aren’t.     
No, he’s not / No he isn’t. No, she’s not / No she isn’t. No, it’s not / no it isn’t.
No, we’re not / No, we aren’t.
No, they’re not / No, they aren’t.

Common mistakes:

1)  Some students forget to add the verb ’be’ before ‘going to’.

I going to see my friends tonight.   =>  I’m going to see my friends tonight.

2) Some students forget to invert the subject and be in questions.

What time you are going to leave? =>  What time are you going to leave?