UNIT ONE: COMPUTER HEALTH AND SAFETY

CONTENT:
1. Ergonomics and computer related disorders
2. Computer related disorders/illnesses and methods to prevent them.
3. Appropriate health and safety practices while using a computer system
4. The negative effects of electronic devices on the environment
5. Proper care and maintenance of computer equipment and accessories.

C1 – WHAT IS ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the design of safe and comfortable working environments to fit the employee
in order to optimize performance. This includes furniture design and the design of parts of the
computer like the keyboard and mouse.

C2 – COMPUTER RELATED DISORDERS AND HOW TO PREVENT THEM

There are various health problems associated with the regular use of computers, hence,
employees must be mindful of the regulations surrounding health and safety. The various
disorders that may occur include:

A. Back problems
Many computer users suffer serious back problems. This is probably due to a poor
posture or an awkward position while sitting at a computer.

Solutions
 A fully adjustable chair should avoid poor posture.
 Footrests can reduce these problems.
 Screens should tilt and turn to a position that avoids awkward movements.
B. Eyestrain
Eyes can become strained after staring at a computer screen for a long time,
particularly if working in bad light, in glare or with a flickering screen.

Solutions
 Screen filters can remove a high percentage of the harmful rays emitted from a
computer screen.
 Use screens that do not flicker.
 Take regular breaks - do not work for more than one hour without a break.
 Lighting must be suitable and blinds fitted to windows to reduce glare.

C. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) OR Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) is damage to the fingers, wrists and other parts of the
body due to repeated movements over a long period of time.

Solution
 To prevent RSI, make sure your posture is correct, use wrists rests and have a
five-minute break from typing every hour.
 D. Ozone irritation
Health experts have suggested that ozone emitted from laser printers can lead to
breathing problems.

Solution
 It is recommended that laser printers should be situated at least one metre
away from where people are sitting and there should be good ventilation in the
area.

C3 – APPROPRIATE HEALTH AND SAFETY PRACTICES WHILE USING A

COMPUTER SYSTEM

1. Check that furniture is comfortable and suitable: for example, an adjustable chair

and a desk with adequate space.

2. Good posture is essential for all computer users. You should adopt a natural and
relaxed position, providing opportunity for movement, from which you can assume a
number of alternative positions.
3. Provide suitable computer equipment that can be used without straining: for
example, large, clear and adjustable displays screen (visual display unit or VDU).

4. Ensure that there is adequate lighting, while at the same time the screen is free from
glare.

5. Check other aspects of the working environment: for example, temperature,

humidity and noise.

6. It is recommended that operators take regular postural/stretching breaks to reduce

intense periods of repetitive movement and the maintenance of a fixed posture as it
can give rise to fatigue-related complaints.
7. Train employees to understand the health and safety risks and how they can look
after themselves. Make sure that employees know how to adjust and use their
workstation so that they have the right posture and technique. Ensure employees are
able to assess their own workstations, and to report any health problems.
C4 – THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES ON THE
ENVIRONMENT

There are several effects of electronic device usage on the environment.

1. Large Amount of Energy Consumption: some persons never turn of electrically

devices which waste electricity, that could have been saved and reduce the amount of
electricity produced by burning fossil fuels.

2. Harmful Materials – Most electrical devices are made with harmful chemicals
and/or materials such as mercury, lead and PCV (Polyvinyl Chloride). This harm
affects people's health and results in large economic expenses.

3. Improper Waste Management– These devices when discarded improperly can

cause water contamination and air pollution because of the chemical and materials
used to manufacture them. Additionally, pieces of hardware such as keyboards,
monitors, mice etc are all made out of plastic which is usually not recyclable.

C5 – PROPER CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER EQUIPMENT AND

ACCESSORIES

Proper Shutdown, Power Outages, and Power Surges

Shut your computer down when leaving for the day. The longer you have it on, the
more strain you are putting on your computer's hardware. Always run your computer
on a UPS as this will help protect it from electric surges. 

Clean Your Computer

Do not use Windex, alcohol, or ammonia to clean LCD screens. Microfiber or very
soft cloths are the best options for cleaning LCD screens. Clean computer keyboard
using a can of compressed air, and spray a cloth with disinfectant to wipe down the
key surfaces. Never spray disinfectant directly onto the keyboard as the liquid could
damage the components beneath the keys.

Be Careful With Food and Drinks

Keep your drinks away, and don’t eat directly over the computer. Liquids and
electronics never mix, and crumbs under the keys are an open invitation for insects.

Be patient. And Don't Run Too Much at Once

Every program requires a bit of your CPU. Try not to run too many programs and tabs
at once. Close any programs and tabs you don't need to avoid freezing your computer.

Keep Your Computer Cool  

Avoid extreme heat to prevent overheating. Computers operate best in the same
temperatures that you do.

Use Antivirus and a Firewall

It's important to use an antivirus and a firewall program that's updated to stop people
and programs from downloading malicious code and viruses to your computer from
the Internet.

Check the connections

Make sure that the cable between the monitor and the video card is firmly attached at
each end and not crimped or pinched. 
 UNIT 2: FOUNDATIONS OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

CONTENT

1) The Computer

2) History of Computer Development (Project)

a) First Generation
b) Second Generation etc.
3) Types of Computers
a) Mainframe computers
b) Supercomputers etc.
4) Hardware components of a Computer
a) Types of Software
5) Hardcopy vs. Softcopy

Input devices

a) What it is and basic examples

7) Output Devices
b) What it is and basic examples such as Printers, Monitors etc.
c) Types of Printers e.g Impact vs. Non-impact
8) Central Processing Unit
9) Primary and Secondary Storage

Purpose Computer System

Computers are used to make our life easier. Computers are used to store large volumes of
data (e.g. in companies, schools or university library), manage financial records (e.g. banks,
insurance companies, payroll department and accounting departments), track purchases and
sales (e.g. supermarkets, pharmacies, stores), access information from the Internet(e.g.
researching for school based assignment and for general knowledge), communicate with
family and friends ( e.g. Face book chat, Instant Messengers, Skype), monitor devices &
machines ( e.g. In a Chemical Plant, Manufacturing Plant) and to earn a living (e.g. to
provide online services such as shopping online).
Computers are widely used because of their ability to process large volumes of data in a
relatively short time with 100% accuracy consistently and store that information for future
use.
 Definition of Terms

Computer: A computer is an electronic device that accepts data (input), manipulates data
(processing), holds processed data (storage) and display a result or information (output).

Computer System: A computer system refers to all the hardware and software working
together to process data.

Computer Hardware: This refers to the physical components of a computer system that can
be seen and touched.

Computer Software: This is the set of electronic program instructions or data a computer
processor reads in order to perform a task or operation.

Data: This refers to raw unorganized facts that need to be processed.

Information: This refers to data that has been processed, organized, structured or presented
in a given context so as to make it useful

The difference between Data and Information

Data is simply facts or figures — bits of information, but not information itself. When data
has been processed, interpreted, organized, structured or presented so as to make them
meaningful or useful, they are called information. Information provides context for data.

For example, a list of dates — data — is meaningless without the information that makes the
dates relevant (dates of holiday).

Types of Computers

Since the advent of the first computer different types and sizes of computers are offering
different services. Computers can be as big as occupying a large building and as small as a
laptop or a microcontroller in mobile & embedded systems.

The four basic types of computers are as under:

1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe Computer
 3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer

Supercomputer

The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like NASA
uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space exploration
purpose. The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire
building.

Purpose of Supercomputers

Space Exploration: Supercomputers are used to study the origin of the universe, the dark-
matters. For these studies scientist use IBM’s powerful supercomputer “Roadrunner” at
National Laboratory Los Alamos.

Earthquake studies: Supercomputers are used to study the Earthquakes phenomenon.

Besides that supercomputers are used for natural resources exploration, like natural gas,
petroleum, coal, etc.

Weather Forecasting: Supercomputers are used for weather forecasting, and to study the
nature and extent of Hurricanes, Rainfalls, windstorms, etc.

Nuclear weapons testing: Supercomputers are used to run weapon simulation that can test
the Range, accuracy & impact of Nuclear weapons.   

Mainframe Computer

Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite
expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes
to run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large
air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-computers are the fastest computers with
large data storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks
educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data about
their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
 Minicomputer

Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called as
“Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a disk with
not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers & Mainframes. These
computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments of a large company or
organizations use Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production
department can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process.

Microcomputers

Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are all
types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing
computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers. The
Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment, education and
work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung,
Sony & Toshiba.

Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Netbooks,
Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of Microcomputers.

Basic Functions of a Computer

Every computer system was designed to perform the following basic functions:
Input- Any information that is put into the computer to be processed is referred to as input. A
variety of devices can be used to enter information into a computer system. These include
keyboards, mice, scanners, microphones and many others. Such devices are called input
devices.

Processing- The process function of the computer system includes taking input or stored data
and converting it into usable information. This function is carried out by the computer’s
Central Processing Unit (CPU).

Output- This refers to information that has been processed by a computer system. Output can
be viewed or heard through output devices such as a monitor, speakers or a hard copy print
out.

Storage- Storage is the capability of a device to hold or retain information. This storage can
occur before or after processing.
 The Hardware Components of a Computer System

Input Devices
This refers to peripherals that are used to accept data and enter it into the computer. Input
devices are essential in order to use a computer. These devices allow users to interact with the
applications that the computer displays. The most commonly used or primary input devices
on a computer are the keyboard and mouse.

Output Devices

An output device is any peripheral that receives data from a computer, usually for display,
projection, or physical reproduction. Output devices produce data in different forms including
audio, visual and hard copy. Output devices are all peripheral hardware
connected to a computer using cables or wireless networking.
NB. A peripheral is a device that is connected to and controlled by the central processing
unit (CPU).
Control Unit: The Control Unit directs or “controls” all of the operations of the processor.
It’s responsible for extracting program instructions from memory and
decoding them.
Arithmetic Logic Unit: This is what performs mathematical operations, logical operations
and decision-making operations of the Processor.

Types of Input Devices

Keyboard: A keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a computer.
Keyboards allow you to input letters, numbers, and other symbols into a
computer that can serve as commands or be used to type text.

Mouse: The mouse is the most popular pointing device. Generally, it has two buttons called
the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A
mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Optical Mark Reader: Optical mark reader is a special type of optical scanner used to
recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of
 a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for
checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Optical Character Reader: Optical Character Recognition is a technology that enables users
to convert different types of documents, such as scanned paper documents,
PDF files or images captured by a digital camera into editable and searchable
data. 

Magnetic Ink Card Reader: The magnetic ink card reader input device is generally used in
banks this is because there are large numbers of cheques to be processed every
day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition .The main advantages of the magnetic ink card reader is that it is
fast and less error prone.

Touchpad: This is a device typically found on laptop computers. It works like a mouse or
trackball, except it's a flat panel you move your finger across. The motion of
your finger registers as cursor movement on the screen. Many touchpads now
enable gestures to scroll through documents or zoom in on a photo. Buttons
are typically below the touchpad.Scanner: These devices allow a user to
input a photograph or document into the computer. By placing a piece of
media in a scanner, you can create an image file that can be opened and
manipulated on the computer.

Joystick: Joysticks are most commonly used when playing games. Originally, they
consisted of a single movable stick and a button or two, allowing you to control a game
character's movements. Modern joysticks group a number of sticks and buttons together,
allowing you to control complex movements with a couple of finger flicks.

Headsets: Headsets are a combination of an earphone and a microphone. Combined with

voice-recognition software, headsets allow you to dictate data and commands
directly into other software programs on your computer. You hold the
microphone up to a source such as person's mouth, and it registers the sounds
and inputs them into audio recording applications. This will let you do many
things for example recording a song to talking to someone on Skype.
Point of Sale Machine: A point of sale terminal (POS terminal) is an electronic device used
to process card payments at retail locations. A POS terminal generally does the following:

 Reads the information off a customer’s credit or debit card

 Checks whether the funds in a customer’s bank account are sufficient
 Transfers the funds from the customer’s account to the seller’s account (or at least,
accounts for the transfer with the credit card network)
 Records the transaction and prints a receipt

Barcode Reader: Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the
form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling
goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be
embedded in a stationary scanner.

Types of Output Devices

Printer: A printer is an external hardware output device that takes the electronic data stored
on a computer or other device and generates a hard copy of it. Printers are one of the
most popular computer peripherals and are commonly used to print text and photos.
The most common types of printers used in offices include laser printers, inkjet
printers, dot matrix (impact) printers and plotters.

There are two types of printers: 1. Impact

2. Non- Impact

An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print image by pressing
an inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer or pins.

A non- impact printer prints characters and graphics on a piece of paper without striking the
paper, because these printers do not hammer against the paper they are much quieter.

Types of Impact Printers

 Dot-Matrix Printers: A dot matrix printer has a print head through which the tips of nine
wires project, forming a vertical column of dots. The wire tips strike a ribbon which touches
the paper, producing horizontal patterns of dots that form letters, numerals, lines and other
characters. Because the printer can control the placement of individual dots, the mechanism
can produce simple graphics such as line drawings and bar codes.

Daisy-wheel printer: Daisy wheel printers are roughly the size of a typewriter, and were
early substitutes for typewriters. The print mechanism uses a set of molded characters
arranged around the circumference of a circle; each letter sits at the end of a thin metal or
plastic stalk, so the whole set resembles the petals of a daisy. A mechanism moves the daisy
wheel back and forth across a page; as it does, the wheel rotates, moving the appropriate
letters into place as a electric hammer strikes the character. The printer manufacturers
designed the daisy wheels to be replaceable; you could print using characters of different
fonts by changing the wheel.

Line printer: The line printer is an impact printer that prints one entire line of text at a time.
In business where enormous amount of material are printed, the character-at-a-time printers
are too slow; therefore, these users need line-at-a-time printers. Line printers, or line-at-a-
time printers, use special mechanism that can print a whole line at once; they can typically
print the range of 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute. Drum, chain, and band printers are line-at-
a-time printers.

Drum printer: Drum printers share features with chain printers; both print at high speeds, As
the drum rotates, electric hammers strike the paper, forcing it against a ribbon that sits
between the paper and the drum. The print drum is quieter than a chain, as the drum makes no
noise as it rotates. As with the chain printer, it prints only the characters on the drum.

Chain printer: A chain printer has a set of metal characters and numbers arranged in a
continuous loop, resembling the blade of a chainsaw. Behind the paper, a row of hammers
strike the characters as they come around on the chain. The chain mechanism has print speeds
up to several hundred lines per minute, faster than a dot matrix. The chain printer is also more
expensive than a dot matrix, as it is more complicated mechanically. Its character set is
limited to whatever the chain contains

Band printer: A type of impact printer which contains a metal band with character shapes
imprinted on it. During output, the band rotates horizontally past the paper, and a hammer
strikes the band opposite the appropriate character, pressing it through an inked ribbon and
onto the paper.
 Types of non- impact printers

Inkjet Printer: Inkjet printers are the most common type of consumer printers. The inkjet
technology works by spraying very fine drops of ink on a sheet of paper. As the paper is fed
through the printer, the print head moves back and forth, spraying thousands of these small
droplets on the page.

While inkjet printers used to lack the quality and speed of laser printers, they have become
almost as fast as laser printers and some can even produce higher-quality images.

Laser Printer: A laser printer is a printer that uses a focused beam or light to transfer text
and images onto paper. Once the pattern has been created on the drum, it is coated with toner
from a toner cartridge. The toner is black in most cartridges, but may be cyan, magenta, and
yellow in color laser printers. Because laser printers do not use ink, they have less image
smearing problems than inkjet printers and are able to print pages faster.

Advantages and disadvantages of Impact and Non-Impact Printers

Type of Printer Advantages Disadvantages

Impact Printer  They are reliable and can
be used in harsh conditions
and environments such as
heat, cold and dust.
 Impact printers are the
lowest-cost printing
technology.
Non- Impact Printer  Does not generate noise
during printing.
 Prints at a faster pace and
with a higher quality than
the impact printer.
 They are relatively
slow.
 The resolution is
very low therefore it
does not produce
very high quality
images.
 These printers cost
more to purchase and
to operate.
 The cost to maintain
these printers are
high.

Continuation of output devices

Projector: A projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer and
reproduce them onto a screen, wall, or other surface. The surface projected onto is
generally large, flat, and lightly colored. For example, you could use a projector to
show a presentation on a large screen so that everyone in the room can see it.
Projectors can produce either still (slides) or moving images (videos).

Speaker: A computer speaker is a hardware device that connects to a computer to generate

sound.

Monitor: The most common computer output device is the monitor or computer screen.
Monitors create a visual display for you to view from processed data. They come in a
variety of screen sizes and visual resolutions.

Difference between Hardcopy and Softcopy Output

Soft copy is an electronic display of digital information, such as files viewed on the pc
monitor,

cell phone or tablet. A digital JPG file, a digital Word document, an email attachment are all

examples of soft copy. Once soft copy is printed or burned, they are referred to as hard copy.

The term hard copy itself describes something touchable, physical and tangible. And copy
means

the result of a production or information. So the collective meaning of hard copy is,
production

of any record or information in a physical object or form. A hard copy output is a printed
copy of

information from a computer. Sometimes referred to as a print out, a hard copy is so-called

because it exists as a physical object. Printed books, newspapers, magazines,

documents, etc. all are kinds of hard copy. Hard copy is an older way of keeping the record in

physical form. Soft copy means a data or information which can be stored in any kind of
digital

memory. It is an intangible form of preserving the material. You can see the record but
cannot
touch it. Monitors or others display screens are used to see the soft copy results.

Central Processing Unit and its Components

CPU stands for Central processing unit. It is also known as microprocessor or processor. A
CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes. Regarding
computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. The CPU is
consisted of thin layers of thousands of transistors. Each transistor receives a set of inputs and
produces output. Transistors hold a key role in functioning of CPU as they make computer
able to count and perform logical operations which is called processing. It processes the
instructions that it collects by decoding the code in programs.

There are four important functions of the Central Processing Unit:

1. Fetch: Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor
takes this address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking
which instructions the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode: All programs to be executed are translated to into assembly instructions.
Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to
the CPU. This step is called decoding.
3. Execute: While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do
calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump
to a different address.
4. Store: The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the output data
is written to the memory.

Components of the Central Processing Unit

The main components of CPU help it in performing various functions. The components of a
CPU work together, and their making or manufacturing determine the complexity of
operations as well as how fast they can be carried out.

The components of the Central Processing Unit are as follows:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit: There is electronic circuitry in arithmetic logic unit which
executes all arithmetic and logical operations. It performs arithmetic calculations like as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as well as comparisons. The unit can
compare numbers, letters, or special characters. There can be more than one Arithmetic logic
unit in a CPU, and these ALUs can also be used for the purpose of maintaining timers that
help run the computer.
2. Control Unit: The control unit is a component of the computer’s central processing unit
that directs operations of the processor. It tells the computer’s memory, arithmetic /logic unit
and input and output devices how to respond to a programme’s instructions.

3. Memory Unit: This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit
supplies information to the other units of the computer when needed.
 System and Application Programmes

System Software

System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's hardware
and application programs. These programmes are dedicated to managing the computer.
Without system software installed in a computer, users would have to type every instruction
they want the computer to perform.

Types of Operating Systems

Windows 8 – this is the latest release of Microsoft’s operating system. It was first geared
towards tablets and other touch-screen mobile devices but developed a version for desktop
and laptop computers as well. Windows 8 introduces a new tile oriented user interface, giving
users an immersive full-screen experience. It also provides improved startup times and
overall performance than previous versions of Windows.

Windows 7 – This is the most popular operating system to date. It has managed to keep a
large number of users happy with its familiar interface and snappy performance. Windows 7
addressed many of the problems plaguing its predecessor, Windows Vista, such as the poor
performance and numerous software compatibility issues.

Windows XP – This operating system brought a fresh new visual interface to the Windows
operating system. XP can be easily identified by its default green start button and blue
taskbar. Apart from the new look, XP introduced the “fast user switching” feature that
allowed multiple users to be logged into their own sessions at the same time.

Windows Vista- Released to the public on January 30, 2007, Windows Vista (box shown
right) is the successor to Windows XP in Microsoft's Windows line of operating systems.
Vista incorporated a search bar to the start menu, making it faster and easier to search
through your programs and files. Windows Vista was a complete redesign of the Windows
operating system. This resulted in hardware and software compatibility issues on a massive
scale.

Mac OS- Mac OS is the computer operating system for Apple Computer's Macintosh line of
personal computers and workstations.
 Application Software

Application software is a term which is used for software created for a specific purpose. It is
generally a program or collection of programs developed to help the user to perform specific
tasks it can be called an application or simply an app.

Examples of Application Software:

 Database programs
 Word Processing software
 Entertainment software
 Business software
 Educational software
 Spreadsheet software etc.

Difference between System Software and Application Software

System software is also known as the operating system and includes Microsoft Windows,
Apple's OSX and Linux, while application software refers to programs that perform tasks
such as includes Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop and Apple iTunes.

Primary Storage Devices

Primary storage devices are components that store information currently being used so that it
can be directly accessed by the computer’s CPU. Information stored in primary storage
devices can be accessed very quickly, making it ideal for storing active / running programs.

The computer’s processor can only handle data stored in primary storage. Therefore, when a
program. Primary storage can be categorized as volatile or non-volatile. Memory that is
volatile loses stored information when the device loses power. Memory that is non-volatile
retains stored information when the power is turned off. This is why it is recommended you
save your work (such as a word document) periodically. Doing so moves that information
from primary storage to a secondary storage device such as a hard drive. The term “primary
storage” is more often referred to as just “memory”.

There are two types of primary storage:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM) – Volatile primary storage

2. Read Only Memory – Non-volatile primary storage

Random Access Memory: Random Access Memory or RAM, is a type of computer

memory that allows its stored information to be randomly accessed by the CPU. This allows
data to be retrieved much faster compared to other storage locations such as a hard drive.
Since information stored on RAM can be accessed quickly, active files are temporarily stored
there. RAM is volatile. This means that RAM needs to be powered in order to keep its data
accessible. When the power is stopped or the computer is turned off, all the information
stored on RAM is lost.

Read only Memory: Read-Only Memory or ROM, is a type of computer memory on which
data has been stored during the manufacturing process. As the name suggests, this data can
only be read. This data cannot be removed and new data cannot be added. ROM is non-
volatile. This means that ROM retains its stored information even when the power is turned
off. Because of this, ROM is used to store vital information, such as the instructions to boot
the computer.

Types of Read Only Memory (ROM)

•Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): Programmable Read Only Memory or

PROM, is a type of ROM that allows data to be written to it only once. Unlike ROM chips
that come pre-programmed with data, PROM is manufactured with no stored data. A device
called a PROM programmer is then used to write information to the PROM chip. However,
once this information is written to the chip, it cannot be altered or erased.

•Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): Erasable Programmable Read

Only Memory or EPROM, is a type of ROM to which data can be written but is capable of
being erased and reprogrammed. The main difference between PROM and EPROM is that
PROM chips can only be programmed once and cannot be erased. EPROM can be erased and
written to using a special device called a PROM programmer.

•Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) is a stable, non-volatile

memory storage system that is used for storing minimal data quantities in computer and
electronic systems and devices, such as circuit boards. It is a kind of ROM chip that may be
programmed more than once. Once programmed, an EEPROM can be erased by exposing it
to an electrical charge.

Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage devices are components that store information but cannot be accessed
directly by the CPU. To make up for the slower operating speed of secondary storage
devices, computer systems temporarily transfer information from these devices into RAM
when necessary. This allows the computer to take advantage of the faster access speeds of
primary storage. This also makes accessing data from secondary storage slower since it needs
to be transferred to primary storage first.

The main advantage of secondary storage is that it retains information even when powered
off. This allows your programs, documents, music etc. to remain stored even after the
computer is shut down so that it is available thereafter.

Another advantage of secondary storage is that it has a higher storage capacity than primary
storage. This simply means that secondary storage is capable of holding more information.
 Types of Secondary Storage Devices

Hard drive: A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as Hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a non-
volatile memory hardware device that permanently stores and retrieves data on a computer.

Jump drive: Alternatively referred to as a USB flash drive, data stick, pen drive, memory
unit, key chain drive and thumb drive, a jump drive is a portable storage device. It is often the
size of a human thumb and it connects to a computer via a USB port. Flash drives are an easy
way to store and transfer information. They are available in sizes ranging from 2 GB to 1 TB.

Secure Digital Card (SD Card): A Secure Digital (SD) card is a tiny flash memory card
designed for high-capacity memory and various portable devices, such as car navigation
systems, smart phones, digital cameras, music players, digital video camcorders and personal
computers.

Compact Disk: Compact disks can store software programs that can be loaded onto a
computer. They save files for backup or transfer to another computer, as well as hold music
to play in a CD player.

Digital Versatile Disk: A digital versatile disk is a type of optical media used for storing
digital data. It is the same size as a compact disk, but has a larger storage capacity. Some
DVDs are formatted specifically for video playback, while others may contain different types
of data, such as software programs and computer files.

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is the delivery of computing services—servers, storage, databases,

networking, software, analytics and more over the Internet (“the cloud”). Companies offering
these computing services are called cloud providers and typically charge for cloud computing
services based on usage, similar to how you are billed for water or electricity.

If you use an online service to send email, edit documents, watch movies or TV, listen to
music, play games or store pictures and other files, it is likely that cloud computing is making
it all possible behind the scenes. The first cloud computing services are barely a decade old,
but already a variety of organizations from tiny startups to global corporations, government
agencies to non-profits are embracing the technology for all sorts of reasons. Here are a few
of the things you can do with the cloud:

 Create new apps and services

 Store, back up and recover data
 Host websites and blogs
 Stream audio and video
 Deliver software on demand
 Analyze data for patterns and make predictions

Top benefits of cloud computing

Cloud computing is a big shift from the traditional way businesses think about IT resources.
Some of the benefits of cloud computing include the following:

1. Cost: Cloud computing eliminates the capital expense of buying hardware and software
and setting up and running on-site datacenters—the racks of servers, the round-the-clock
electricity for power and cooling, the IT experts for managing the infrastructure. It adds up
fast.

2. Speed: Most cloud computing services are provided self service and on demand, so even
vast amounts of computing resources can be provisioned in minutes, typically with just a few
mouse clicks, giving businesses a lot of flexibility and taking the pressure off capacity
planning.

3. Global scale: The benefits of cloud computing services include the ability to scale
elastically. In cloud speak, that means delivering the right amount of IT resources—for
example, more or less computing power, storage, bandwidth—right when its needed and
from the right geographic location.

4. Productivity: On-site data centers typically require a lot of hardware set up, software
patching and other time-consuming IT management chores. Cloud computing removes the
need for many of these tasks, so IT teams can spend time on achieving more important
business goals.
5. Performance: The biggest cloud computing services run on a worldwide network of
secure data centers, which are regularly upgraded to the latest generation of fast and efficient
computing hardware. This offers several benefits over a single corporate datacenter,
including reduced network latency for applications and greater economies of scale.

6. Reliability: Cloud computing makes data backup, disaster recovery and business
continuity easier and less expensive, because data can be mirrored at multiple redundant sites
on the cloud provider’s network.
 UNIT 3: COMPUTER ETHICS AND RESEARCH

CONTENT

1. Basic computer ethics terms

2. Referencing Styles
3. Unethical and Ethical behaviours relating to the internet
4. Consequences of Unethical Practices
5. Presenting and Evaluating offline and online information

Computer Ethics

Ethics is the moral principles that govern a person or group's behaviour, while morals are
standards of behaviour; principles of right and wrong. Therefore computer ethics is set of
moral principles that regulate the use of computers.

Terms associated with Computer Ethics:

1. Intellectual property rights – are the legal rights that cover the privileges given to
individuals who are the owners and inventors of a particular item, and have created
something with their intellectual creativity. Intellectual property rights are the
foundation of the Software and Information Technology industry on a whole.
2. Plagiarism – is the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them
off as one's own.
3. Trademark – is a symbol, word, or words legally registered or established to be used
as representing a company or product.
4. Copyright – is the exclusive and assignable legal right, given to the originator for a
fixed number of years, for its use and distribution.

Unethical Behaviours

Unethical behaviour is an action that falls outside of what is considered morally right or
proper for a person, a profession or an industry.

1. Trolling – is the process of sowing discord on the Internet by starting quarrels or

upsetting people. This is done by posting inflammatory off-topic messages in an
online community (such as a newsgroup, forum, chat room, or blog) with the intent of
 provoking readers into an emotional response or otherwise disrupting a normal, on-
topic discussion, often for the troll's amusement.
2. Cyber Bulling – is the use of cell phones, emails, chatrooms and social network sites
to bully a person, typically by sending messages of an intimidating or threatening
nature.
3. Cyberstalking – is the use of electronic communication to bully a person, typically
by sending messages of an intimidating or threatening nature.
4. Software Piracy – is a term that is frequently used to describe the illegal copying,
distribution or use of computer software in violation of its license

Consequences of Unethical Behaviour

1. A high risk for depression, anxiety and stress-related disorders for victims who are
cyber bullied or stalked.
2. Legal consequences can be applicable as the offenders can be charged with acts of
harassment, intentional infliction of emotional pain, negligence and vicarious liability.

Internet/Computer Practices Punishable by Law

Computer/internet crime law deals with the broad range of criminal offenses
committed using a computer or similar electronic device.

The following offences are punishable under the Jamaican Cybercrime Act:

1. A person who knowingly obtains, for himself or another person, any unauthorized
access to any program or data stored on a computer commits an offence (hacking).
2. A person who does any act which that person knows is likely to cause any
unauthorized modification of the contents of any computer, commits an offence.
3. A person commits an offence if that person knowingly:
 secures unauthorized access to any computer for the purpose of obtaining,
directly or indirectly, any computer service;
 without authorization, directly or indirectly intercepts or causes the
interception of any function of a computer.
4. A person commits an offence if that person, without authorization or without lawful
justification or excuse, wilfully causes, directly or indirectly:
 a degradation, failure, interruption or obstruction of the operation of a
computer;
 a denial of access to, or impairment of, any program or data stored in a
computer.
 5. A person commits an offence if they, without the authorization of the owner,
facilitates the commission of possessing, receiving, manufacturing, selling,
importing, distributing, disclosing or otherwise makes available:
 a computer;
 any access code or password.

There are other punishable crimes that predate and are also extended to the internet.
These are inclusive of:

 Theft
 Fraud
 Vandalism
 Trespassing
 Harassment
 Copyright Infringements

Appropriate behaviours when using the Internet

1. Keep your software/apps updated and delete the ones not in use.
2. Be careful when dealing with emails from unknown sources.
3. Don’t click on random links and online ads.
4. FREE does not mean SAFE.
5. Do not relieve sensitive information online.
6. Keep your account information to yourself.
7. Report illegal activities or offending content.
8. Be careful what you post online as it stays online forever.
9. Use antivirus protection before you go online.
10. Create backup copies of your important documents.
 REFERENCING

Referencing is a standardized method of formatting the information sources you included in

your assignments and written work. There are two main referencing styles which are often
used, and these are the American Psychological Association style (APA) and the Modern
Language Association (MLA) style.

APA (American Psychological Association) Referencing Style

The APA style was created in 1929 by a group of Psychologists, anthropologists and
business managers who saw the need for a simple set of guidelines or rules that a publisher
observes to ensure clear and consistent written materials. Over the years, different editions of
the referencing style have been created. The 6th edition is the most current and it was created
in the year 2009.

APA Basic Rules

 Your reference list should appear on a new page at the end of your project and the page
should be labelled "References" as well as centred at the top of the page (do NOT bold,
underline, or use quotation marks for the title). It provides the information necessary for a
reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the project. Each source you
cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list
must be cited in your text.
 All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half
inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
 Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of
a particular work for up to and including seven authors. If the work has more than seven
authors, list the first six authors and then use ellipses after the sixth author's name. After the
ellipses, list the last author's name of the work.
 Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
 For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in
chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
 Present the journal title in full. Maintain the punctuation and capitalization that is used by the
journal in its title. e.g. ReCALL not RECALL or Knowledge Management Research &
Practice not Knowledge Management Research and Practice. Capitalize all major words in
journal titles.
 When referring to books, chapters, articles, or Web pages, capitalize only the first letter of the
first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper
nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.
Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals. Do not italicize, underline, or put
quotes around the titles of shorter works such as articles or essays in edited collections.

In-Text Citation

 When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that
the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, for
example, (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end
of the paper:

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it
was their first time" (p. 199).

or

Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what
implications does this have for teachers?

 Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten
lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the
left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation
on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation
1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation
should come after the closing punctuation mark.

Jones's (1998) study found the following: 

Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their
first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that
many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for
help. (p. 199)
 MLA (Modern Language Association) Referencing Style

MLA is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and
humanities. The 8th edition is the most recent of MLA editions and it was released in the year
2016.

MLA Basic Rules

MLA has turned to a style of documentation that is based on a general method that may be
applied to every possible source, to many different types of writing. But since texts have
become increasingly mobile, and the same document may be found in several different
sources, following a set of fixed rules is no longer sufficient.

 When deciding how to cite your source, start by consulting the list of core elements. These
are the general pieces of information that MLA suggests including in each Works Cited
entry. In your citation, the elements should be listed in the following order:

Author. Title of source, The container, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher,
Publication date, Location. Each element should be followed by the punctuation mark
shown. Author

 Begin the entry with the author’s last name, followed by a comma and the rest of the
name, as presented in the work. End this element with a period.

Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. Knopf, 1994.

 The title of the source should follow the author’s name. Depending upon the type of
source, it should be listed in italics or quotation marks. A book and website should be
in italics. A periodical (journal, magazine, newspaper article) should be in quotation
marks. A song or piece of music on an album should be in quotation marks:

*The eighth edition handbook recommends including URLs when citing online sources.

 Title of container – Containers are the larger wholes in which the source is located.
For example, if you want to cite a poem that is listed in a collection of poems, the
individual poem is the source, while the larger collection is the container. The title of
the container is usually italicized and followed by a comma, since the information that
follows next describes the container.

Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories, edited
by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994, pp. 306-07.
  Other contributors – In addition to the author, there may be other contributors to the
source who should be credited, such as editors, illustrators, translators, etc. If their
contributions are relevant to your research, or necessary to identify the source, include
their names in your documentation.
 If a source is listed as an edition or version of a work, include it in your citation.

The Bible. Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.

 Number – If a source is part of a numbered sequence, such as a multi-volume book, or

journal with both volume and issue numbers, those numbers must be listed in your
citation.
 The publisher produces or distributes the source to the public. If there is more than
one publisher, and they are all are relevant to your research, list them in your citation,
separated by a forward slash (/).
 Publication date – The same source may have been published on more than one date,
such as an online version of an original source. If you’re unsure about which date to
use, go with the date of the source’s original publication.
 Location – You should be as specific as possible in identifying a work’s location.
 Date of original publication – If a source has been published on more than one date,
the writer may want to include both dates if it will provide the reader with necessary
or helpful information.
 City of publication
 Date of access

Creating in-text citations

The in-text citation is a brief reference within your text that indicates the source you
consulted. It should properly attribute any ideas, paraphrases, or direct quotations to your
source, and should direct readers to the entry in the list of works cited. For the most part, an
in-text citation is the author’s name and page number (or just the page number, if the author
is named in the sentence):

Imperialism is “the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center
ruling a distant territory” (Said 9).

or

According to Edward W. Said, imperialism is defined by “the practice, the theory, and the
attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling a distant territory” (9).
 PROBLEM-
SOLVING AND
PROGRAM DESIGN
 UNIT 4: PROBLEM-SOLVING AND PROGRAM DESIGN

At the end of these lesson students should be able to:

1. state five steps involved in problem solving

2. solve basic everyday problems
3. state the purpose of constructing a defining diagram
4. draw a defining diagram
5. solve simple computer problems using the defining diagram
6. appreciate the need to analyze and solve problems

What does problem-solving involves?

T
he business dictionary defines problem solving as the process of
working through details of a problem to reach a solution. Problem
solving may include mathematical or systematic operations and can be a measure
of an individual's critical thinking skills.

In our everyday life we actually solve simple problems. For example, you have a problem
meeting your deadlines.

How would you solve this problem?

1. First you need to examine the problem – determine why you are having difficulty
meeting your deadlines.

2. Determine possible solutions to the problem such as: using reminders for the deadlines
you have to meet on your phone, work book etc, get your parents involved in reminding
you about your deadlines, completing the tasks you have to complete as soon as you get
them etc.

3. The possible solutions you would then evaluate to determine the best solution to the
problem.

4. Choose the best solution to your problem

Similarly, the computer is designed to solve problems for you
the user. How is this possible? A computer solves end-user
problems by following a set of instructions given to it by the
programmer and produces the specified results.

The computer programmer creates the instructions for the computer to follow. These
instructions are referred to as computer programs. You were introduced to the term computer
programs when we looked at software.

A computer program is a finite set of clear and specific instructions, written in a

programming language.

Problem-Solving on the Computer

The design of any computer program involves two major phases:

o The Problem-Solving Phase

o The Implementation Phase

The problem-solving phase is consists of the following steps:

1) Define the problem

2) Find a solution to the problem
3) Evaluate alternative solutions
4) Represent the most efficient solution as an algorithm (An algorithm may be defined as
a sequence of logical steps used to solve a problem.)
5) Test the algorithm for correctness
The implementation phase is consists of the following steps:

1) Translate the algorithm into a specific programming language

2) Execute the program on the computer
3) Maintain the program

Defining the problem

Defining the problem is a way to help the programmer understand what he or she is required
to do. It involves breaking down the problem into three key components:

1. what is given (that is, the inputs)

2. the expected results (that is, the output)
3. the tasks that must be performed (that is, processing)

These three components can be illustrated using what is a called a defining diagram. Some
text may refer to this as the Input Processing and Output (IPO) chart. The defining diagram
is a formal approach to defining a problem. The defining diagram is a table with three
columns, which represents the three components: input, processing and output.

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

 The Input

The input is the source data provided. You can identify what is the input in a given problem
by the following keywords: given, get, read or accept.

The Output

The output is the end result required. You can identify what is the output in a given problem
by the following keywords: print, display and output.

The Processing

The processing column is a list of what actions are to be performed to achieve the required
output.

Let us look first at a real world scenario. You are learning to bake a cake for the first time.
How would you represent this problem using the defining diagram concept? See the example
below.

Defining Diagram:

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

1. Get the ingredients

2. Combine the ingredients
The Ingredients such as The Cake
3. Preheat oven
4. Place the combine
ingredients in
baking tin
eggs, butter, flour etc.
5. Place baking tin in
the preheated oven
6. Leave cake to bake at the desired
temperature
Let us now look at computer related problem.

Example 1

A program is required to read two (2) numbers calculate and print their total.

Steps in drawing the defining diagram using the example above.

1. Identify the input (that is, the data that is given). The keyword, read, identifies the
input as two numbers, that is, any two numbers.

2. Identify the output. The keyword, print, identifies the output as the total (or sum) of
the two numbers.

3. List the processing steps. Here, we list all the actions that must be performed in
order to get the desired results. For example: What do we have to do to the two
numbers in order to print their total?

1. We must first get the numbers.

2. We must then calculate their sum.
3. We must then print the total.

See the defining diagram below.

Defining Diagram:

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

1. Read/get 2 numbers

2 Numbers 2. Add numbers TOTAL

together
3. Print total

Key things to note:

1. In the defining diagram, the actions must be in a logical sequential order.

2. All the necessary actions must be explicitly stated. For example, the read action and
the print action must not be assumed.
3. The processing section is NOT the solution to the problem. It is simply a list of the
things that must be done in order to solve the problem.

Example 2

Problem 2

A program is required to read three numbers calculate and print their product.

Defining Diagram

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

1. Accept 3 numbers

Three numbers 2. Find the product of the three

numbers Product

3. Print the product of the

three numbers