Designing Antennas For RFID Sensors in Monitoring Parameters of Photovoltaic Panels

micromachines
Article
Designing Antennas for RFID Sensors in Monitoring
Parameters of Photovoltaic Panels
Mariusz W˛eglarski 1, * , Piotr Jankowski-Mihułowicz 1, * , Mateusz Chamera 1,2 ,
Justyna Dziedzic 3 and Paweł Kwaśnicki 3
1 Department of Electronic and Telecommunications Systems, Rzeszów University of Technology,
Wincentego Pola 2, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; mateusz.chamera@talkinthings.com
2 Talkin’Things, Al. Wilanowska 317, 02-665 Warsaw, Poland
3 ML SYSTEM SA, Research & Development Centre for Photovoltaics, Zaczernie 190 G, 36-062 Zaczernie,
Poland; justyna.dziedzic@mlsystem.pl (J.D.); kwasnickipawel@gmail.com (P.K.)
* Correspondence: wmar@prz.edu.pl (M.W.); pjanko@prz.edu.pl (P.J.-M.)

Received: 13 March 2020; Accepted: 15 April 2020; Published: 17 April 2020
Abstract: The importance of the radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology and photovoltaic
(PV) systems has been growing systematically in the modern world full of intelligent products
connected to the Internet. Monitoring parameters of green energy plants is a crucial issue for efficient
conversion of solar radiation, and cheap RFID transponders/sensors can be involved in this process to
provide better performance of module supervision in scattered installations. Since many components
of PV panels disturb the radio-wave propagation, research in the antenna scope has to be carried out
to reach the proposed fusion. The problem with RFID transponders being detuned in close proximity
to glass or metal surfaces can be solved on the basis of solutions known from the scientific literature.
The authors went further, revealing a new antenna construction that can be fabricated straight on a
cover glass of the PV panels. To achieve the established task, they incorporated advantages from
the latest advancements in materials technology and low-power electronics and from the progress
in understanding radio-wave propagation phenomena. The numerical model of the antenna was
elaborated in the Hyper Lynx 3D EM software environment, and test samples were fabricated on
the technology line of ML System Company. The convergence of calculated and measured antenna
parameters confirms the design correctness. Thus, the studied antenna can be used to elaborate the
cheap semipassive RFID transponders/sensors in the PV panel production lines.
Keywords: RFID (radio-frequency identification); passive transponder; semipassive tag; energy

harvesting; RFID sensor; Internet of Things (IoT)
1. Introduction
1.1. RFID Technology

The radio frequency identification (RFID) technology is often used in automated processes in
various areas of human socioeconomic activity [1]. Its usefulness is confirmed by the growing number
of new applications [2–4]. RFID devices are increasingly used in sectors such as security and access
control systems, logistics, trade in fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG), research experimental samples
and valuable materials in the world supply chains [5]. Important applications can be also found in the
automatic vehicle identification (AVI) area, including reliable and safe object identification in rail or
road transport along with the tracking and navigation of moving vehicles [6]. It should also be noted
that the RFID technology is becoming more and more common in distributed sensor networks, in which
it is used to monitor operation parameters of various types of installations. These implementations
Micromachines 2020, 11, 420; doi:10.3390/mi11040420 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

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installations. These implementations have important meaning for creating the Internet of Things
have
(IoT) important meaning
[7]. In economic for creating
terms, this is duethe toInternet of Thingsavailability
the increasing (IoT) [7]. of In RFID
economic terms, this
equipment on theis
due to the increasing availability of RFID equipment on the market, especially
market, especially new constructions of transponders based on intelligent semipassive chips with new constructions of
transponders based on intelligent
additional functionalities (such as semipassive
power harvesting chips or
with additional
physical functionalities
quantity measuring (such as power
capabilities) [8].
harvesting or physical quantity measuring capabilities) [8]. In technical terms,
In technical terms, the good forecast in this area in the coming years is due to progress in recognition the good forecast in this
area in the
of the coming years
operational is dueof
principles to RFID
progress in recognition
devices of the operational
and the possibilities principlestheir
of determining of RFID devices
parameters
and the possibilities of determining their parameters [9,10].
[9,10].
Regardless
Regardless of frequency parameters
of frequency parameters(operating frequencyf0 fand
(operatingfrequency 0 and frequency
frequency band:
band: low low
(LF),(LF),
high
high
(HF) (HF) or ultrahigh
or ultrahigh (UHF)), (UHF)),
world world regulation
regulation of the radio-transmissions
of the radio-transmissions (e.g., ISO/IEC
(e.g., ISO/IEC 15693,
15693, 18000-63
18000-63
[1,11]) and [1,11]) and standardized
standardized system system implementations
implementations (e.g., HITAG,
(e.g., HITAG, MIFARE MIFARE and ICODE;
and ICODE; NXP
NXP
Semiconductors, Eindhoven, the Netherlands), the read/write device (RWD) and one or
Semiconductors, Eindhoven, The Netherlands), the read/write device (RWD) and one or several
several
transponders
transponderswith withaaunique
uniqueidentification
identificationnumber
number(UID)
(UID)attached
attachedto toidentified
identifiedobjects
objectscancanbebealways
always
found
found in every RFID system (Figure 1). Application efficiency in the automatic identificationfield
in every RFID system (Figure 1). Application efficiency in the automatic identification fieldisis
mainly described by the three-dimensional interrogation zone (IZ) [12]. The
mainly described by the three-dimensional interrogation zone (IZ) [12]. The IZ is the main parameter IZ is the main parameter
that
that allows
allowsto topredict
predictthe theusefulness
usefulnessof ofthe
theRFID
RFIDsystem
systemin inreal
realconditions.
conditions. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, itit is is very
very
hard to estimate this parameter outside the laboratory site; therefore, the
hard to estimate this parameter outside the laboratory site; therefore, the read range (read/writeread range (read/write range)
isrange)
mostly is determined
mostly determined[13,14] in practice,
[13,14] generally
in practice, by the by
generally “trial
theand error”
“trial method
and error” that is that
method the most
is the
commonly used in the industry [15,16]. In the presented research, indeed,
most commonly used in the industry [15,16]. In the presented research, indeed, particular attention particular attention is paid
to the construction of an electronic transponder, but nevertheless the origin
is paid to the construction of an electronic transponder, but nevertheless the origin of the undertakenof the undertaken efforts
lay in the
efforts laydesire
in thetodesire
improve to the process
improve theofprocess
predicting the real IZ the
of predicting on the
realbasis
IZ on of the
determined
basis of parameters
determined
at simulation and design stages.
parameters at simulation and design stages.
Semi-passive
IZ chip RFID sensor
Energy
PRWD GR
RWD
TX S Autonomous
f0
PT PTmin features (sensors)
Write
Passive
RX Data chip
01001101001
Read IZ boundary
Antenna
ZTA ZTA
UT ZTC(PT) UTmin ZTC(PTmin)
URT URT
Figure1.1. General
Figure General diagram
diagram ofof an
an ultrahigh-frequency
ultrahigh-frequency (UHF)
(UHF) radio-frequency
radio-frequency identification
identification (RFID)
(RFID)
system.
system. The interrogation zone (IZ) is space in which communication process can be carried outand
The interrogation zone (IZ) is space in which communication process can be carried out and
thus
thuswhere
wherethe
theunique
uniqueidentification
identificationnumber
number(UID),
(UID),user
userdata
dataand
andmeasured
measuredparameters
parameterscan
canbeberead
read
(or
(orwritten
writtenwith
withuser
userdata).
data).
The
Themost
mostpopular
populartype typeofof
RFID
RFIDpassive
passive transponder
transponder consists of two
consists mainmain
of two elements: an antenna
elements: and
an antenna
aand
chipa (IC—integrated
chip (IC—integrated circuit)circuit)
[1]. If there
[1]. Ifisthere
an additional supply supply
is an additional source (typically a disposable
source (typically lithium
a disposable
battery but also a replaceable accumulator) in its construction, then such a device is
lithium battery but also a replaceable accumulator) in its construction, then such a device is called acalled a semipassive
transponder.
semipassive The main purpose
transponder. The of providing
main purpose theofextra energy source
providing is the
the extra need to
energy enlarge
source the IZ
is the or to
need to
execute additional functions (such as data acquisitions, supervising environment,
enlarge the IZ or to execute additional functions (such as data acquisitions, supervising controlling actuators)
without an active
environment, RWD [17,18].
controlling Such implementations
actuators) without an active are possible since the
RWD [17,18]. RFID
Such chips are provided
implementations are
with an extended memory for measured samples and external wired interfaces
possible since the RFID chips are provided with an extended memory for measured samples and for data exchange with
other microcontroller
external wired interfacessystems. It should
for data exchangebe noted
with that,
otherfor conducting radio
microcontroller communication
systems. It should be in RFID
noted
systems, the RWD has to actively send queries, and then RF frontends of transponders
that, for conducting radio communication in RFID systems, the RWD has to actively send queries, are powered by
energy
and then passed through the
RF frontends electromagnetic
of transponders are field.
powered In this
by way,
energythepassed
additional source
through thecan only help to
electromagnetic
improve parameters achieved in the established link. The antennas of both
field. In this way, the additional source can only help to improve parameters achieved in the passive and semipassive
tags do not emit
established link.anTheelectromagnetic
antennas of both field passive
at all. They
andonly influencetags
semipassive the field
do notwhen
emittheaninput impedance
electromagnetic
field at all. They only influence the field when the input impedance of the chip is keying. This
Micromachines 2020, 11, 420 3 of 18
of the chip is keying. This method of passing signal back to the interrogator is called the backscattering.
This property allows to distinguish the RFID transponders from well-known short-range devices
(SRDs) [19].
1.2. Princeples of Photovoltaic Panels

A typical photovoltaic panel (module) is the basic element of a photovoltaic power plant,
and it contains a few (or dozens of) cells, depending on generation, design, maximum power,
nominal voltage, etc. [20]. The cells and then modules are usually connected in series to reach the
nominal voltage. Then, the chains are joined in parallel to achieve the expected power for supplying,
e.g., a building, or for passing it to the electrical distribution grid.
The most important parameters of the PV panels (or cells) are the current–voltage and power–
voltage nonlinear characteristics (Figure 2a) [21,22]. On the basis of the curves, further parameters
can be determined, such as the short-circuit current (ISC ) that occurs when the voltage across the solar
cell is zero (VPV = 0) as well as the open-circuit voltage (VOC ) measured at open terminals of the cell
(IPV = 0). When the module is operating under load conditions, it should work at the maximum power
point (MPP), which is available at the bend of the characteristics (VMP and IMP , which are the voltage
and current, respectively, at MPP)—it is the transition from the state with the constant voltage to the
steady current. All the parameters allow to select the optimal operating state for power installation in
different conditions of current load, solar irradiation and temperature. It should be noted that they
are not easily determinable, especially with regard to the module that is installed in the target system.
The crucial issue in the PV plant with a multitude of modules connected in series and rows is to find
the best maximum power point. When every panel works with the same I-V characteristic and under
the same irradiation and temperature, the problem of tracking MPP can be easily solved, and standard
PV converters are equipped with such a function [23,24]. However, some modules of the power matrix
may disturb this process of power point finding because of local shading occurrence, nonuniform
temperature distribution, contamination of active surface, uneven degrees of element aging, etc.
Generally, such problems influence the current carrying capacity, but when IPV is lower than IMP the
problems may not be noticed. On the other hand, panel overloading reduces the cell performance and
leads to a significant voltage drop at the panel terminals; in some cases, the voltage can even change
the polarity (which is prevented by protective diodes). In a large matrix, several local extremes can
also appear in the P-V curves. These all may significantly disrupt and, in consequence, reduce the
volume of energy production. Therefore, the best solution, but a very expensive one, would be to equip
all individual panels with dedicated DC–DC converters with the function of maximum power point
tracking. Since such a construction is not used (because of costs), it is necessary to monitor parameters
of all modules, otherwise one weak cell can destroy the efficiency of the entire installation.
In order to know the exact condition of a particular panel, at least the current, voltage,
solar irradiation and temperature should be measured or estimated in any other way. If a comparative
method was used, the measurement task could be simplified. Assuming that all panels work in the
same conditions—meaning that they are loaded with the same normal current for series connection,
that they are uniformly irradiated and that the temperature is similar on all devices—they should
generate the same voltage at the terminals. Thus, in order to indicate a degraded, damaged or odd
panel, it is sufficient to measure the voltage at a given current in the chain and to relate the results to
the I-V characteristic at a given temperature and irradiation. Obviously, the acquired data have to be
synchronized in the time domain. It is important that the odd panel can be distinguished without
having to invade the structure of connection in the PV system, as this is very troublesome and has to
be performed by qualified personnel.
Various acquisition systems for monitoring the parameters of PV panels have been designed and
described in the related literature [25,26]. All of them work being supplied by photovoltaic energy.
The authors propose in the paper to use the ideas derived from the RFID technology, particularly from
constructions dedicated to being implemented in the RFID sensors. The main advantage of this solution
is that the acquired data are always accessible, even if the energy system collapses. Furthermore, the
electronic transponders can be used at every life stage of the PV devices.
Micromachines 2020, 11, x 4 of 18
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2. Photovoltaic (PV) panel. (a) I-V and P-V characteristics of a photovoltaic panel at solar
irradiation from
Figure 2. 100 to 1000 W/m
Photovoltaic (PV)2 ; panel.
ISC —short-circuit
(a) I-V and P-Vcurrent (at VPV = of
characteristics 0); aVphotovoltaic
OC —open circuit
panelvoltage
at solar(at
IPV = 0);irradiation
VMP and Ifrom MP —100
voltage and
to 1000 W/m current, respectively, at maximum power point (MPP). (b) Common
2; ISC—short-circuit current (at VPV = 0); VOC—open circuit voltage (at
structureIPVof= exemplary
0); VMP andPV IMPpanel.
— voltage and current,
(c) Common respectively,
structure at maximum
of PV cell of the firstpower point (MPP).
generation (b)
(Si—silicon).
Common
(d) Common structure
structure of exemplary
of PV cell of thePV panel.
third (c) Common
generation (e.g.,structure of PV cell of the first
DSSC—dye-sensitized solargeneration
cell).
(Si—silicon). (d) Common structure of PV cell of the third generation (e.g., DSSC—dye-sensitized
A solarPV
typical cell).
panel consists of several layers (Figure 2b). In general, the glass covers the sunny
side, providing protection for the internal structure against external interferences and degradation
A typical PV panel consists of several layers (Figure 2b). In general, the glass covers the sunny
under the influence of the environment, while allowing maximum transmission of the solar spectrum.
side, providing protection for the internal structure against external interferences and degradation
Such a under
construction is characteristic
the influence for every while
of the environment, generation of PV
allowing panels:transmission
maximum the monocrystalline
of the solarand
polycrystalline silicon are used in the first generation (Figure 2c); the thin-film
spectrum. Such a construction is characteristic for every generation of PV panels: the technology is used
in the second generation;
monocrystalline the semiconductor
and polycrystalline siliconjunctions
are used inare
thereplaced with active
first generation (Figureelements based on
2c); the thin-film
other physicochemical
technology is used phenomena that
in the second allow to the
generation; convert the solar energy
semiconductor junctionsinto
are electricity
replaced within the third
active
elements based on other physicochemical phenomena that allow to convert the
generation (Figure 2d). The glass cover is often modified with a conductive metal layer such as a solar energy into
electricity
transparent in the third
conductive oxidegeneration (Figure
(TCO) glass, and2d).
theThe
net glass cover is often
of connections modified
between cellwith a conductive
electrodes is made
metal layer such as a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) glass, and the net of connections between
with the screen-printing technology on its surface [20].
cell electrodes is made with the screen-printing technology on its surface [20].
1.3. Issue of PV Panel Monitoring by RFID
1.3. Issue of PV Panel Monitoring by RFID
The applicability of the RFID technology in the photovoltaic installations can be considered in
The applicability of the RFID technology in the photovoltaic installations can be considered in
two aspects. Primarily,
two aspects. the RFID
Primarily, transponder
the RFID transponder cancanserve
serveasasananelectronic tag that
electronic tag thatprovides
provides detailed
detailed
information about about
information an object (this(this
an object is the panel)
is the panel)at all stages
at all stagesofofits
itslife:
life: production, distribution
production, distribution (in(in
thethe
supply supply
chain),chain),
installation (in the target application), operation, service/maintenance and
installation (in the target application), operation, service/maintenance and utilization. utilization.
Introducing such asuch
Introducing service could
a service significantly
could significantlyimprove
improvelogistics
logisticsand and maintenance
maintenance ofofproducts,
products, as as
it it
would
would not not be necessary
be necessary to useidentification
to use other other identification
systems.systems. Nowadays,
Nowadays, RFIDRFID systems
systems are usually
are usually rarely
used onrarely used onlines,
production production
whereas lines,
theywhereas they often
often appear at theappear
stagesatof the stages of distribution
distribution and trade.andThistrade.
means
This means that the transponders have to be attached to the product, intentionally,
that the transponders have to be attached to the product, intentionally, for only these two intervals for only these
two intervals of their life. Moreover consumers cannot use this facilitation in their household. On the
of their life. Moreover consumers cannot use this facilitation in their household. On the other hand,
other hand, the modern RFID technology provides the ability to modify data in the transponders’
the modern RFID technology provides the ability to modify data in the transponders’ internal memory
internal memory in accordance with consumer requirements. Intelligent implementations can even
in accordance with
learn about theconsumer
environment requirements.
by gathering dataIntelligent implementations
with a variety can eveninlearn
of sensors embedded about the
the structure
environment by gathering data with a variety of sensors embedded in the structure of the sempassive
RFID transponders [27,28]. This feature, which is still not used in automated identification systems,
has been implemented in the presented application of PV panel supervising.
The parameter monitoring of individual panels is the key enhancement that can improve efficiency
of the photovoltaic plant. Since the monitoring devices are designed as low-power technology, they can
be supplied by electricity produced in the PV cells; in the electric plant, this minute load is imperceptible.
Nevertheless, the voltage at the panel terminals is not available at night, which is a significant problem
when the SRDs need to be used. The problem can be solved by equipping the parameter monitors with
energy accumulators (e.g., supercapacitor in the simplest version or a chemical cell when maintenance
is anticipated). The capacious storage element is expensive and bulky, while the little one is not able to
supply circuits that emit electromagnetic signals. Thus, transmitters in SRDs rather do not respond
when energy is restricted and especially when the panel is damaged. Furthermore, when the economic
requirements (such as being low-cost, maintenance-free and easily integrable) were considered, the use
of the RFID sensor was determined as the best choice to solve all the above-mentioned problems.
Full integration of passive and semipassive transponders with marked objects is a desirable feature
sought nowadays in implementations of the RFID technology. The auxiliary power source is not
necessary to read or write the tags’ memory because of the passive nature of the RF transmitter/receiver.
Since the transponders are supplied by the electromagnetic field generated by the RWD antenna,
measurement tasks can also be achieved when the PV panels are not active.
In consideration of the listed benefits of RFID and PV technological fusion, as well as the need
to obtain the largest interrogation zones, the assumption of applying RFID systems operating in the
UHF band has been established. The frequency range of 860–960 MHz has been assumed in order to
cover all standards regardless of the type of equipment used, whose operating parameters may differ
depending on the standards existing in various places around the world. The long-range RFID systems
operate in accordance with the requirements of the electronic product code EPC global gen. 2 [29]
normalized by ISO/IEC 18000-63 [11]. The European version of these systems assumes compliance
of read/write devices and their antennas with ETSI EN 302 208 [30], where power is limited to 2 W
ERP (effective radiated power) in the frequency band of 865.6–867.6 MHz. In the FCC Part 15.247
American standard, the limit is 4 W EIRP (effective isotropic radiated power) at 1 W output power of
the transmitter and an antenna with a maximum gain of 6 dBi, in the frequency band of 902–928 MHz.
The design solutions of the measuring acquisition system are dependent on the accessibility of
appropriate electronic components, advancement of monitoring model, quantity of gathered data
and assumed scenarios for supervising the PV panels. In the simplest case, it is possible to use only
additional blocks that are included in commercially available RFID chips. Further simplification
could be achieved if the concept of measuring only voltage at the panel’s terminals was considered.
Such an RFID sensor could be activated just by a query from the RWD only during the service routine
(both related to periodic inspections or fault detections), and the measured values received from the
transponder might be processed in a management center of the RFID system. The comparison of
the voltage on adjacent panels in the power chain (at known temperature, solar irradiation and I-V
curve) gives enough information to carry out the effective diagnosis. This embodiment is the cheapest
and completely corresponds to the most important goal, which is to quickly and clearly identify the
damaged panel. On the other hand, the most complex solutions have to be designed on the basis
of microcontrollers for conducting measurement tasks, data processing and transmitting data via
wire or straight through radio interfaces as well as for the advanced energy managing. Of course,
such an entire circuit can be integrated into a one semiconductor chip with the option of connecting
external transducers of physical quantities, but this requires significant financial resources. All the
above-mentioned aspects of designing RFID sensors that are possible to be adopted in the monitoring
of PV panels are discussed in detail in [27].
1.4. Integration of Antennas and PV Panels

Apart from the issue of developing electronic circuits of RFID sensors, which is revealed in [27],
the most difficult problem consists in designing an antenna that can cooperate with the semipassive
chip with the extended internal structure of additional functionalities and could be attached to the PV
panel without losing its effectiveness. The enlargement of the interrogation zone is limited mainly by
the energy conditions that have to be satisfied in the UHF RFID system [1] and particularly by the
possibility of passing energy to the transponder in the presence of photovoltaic cell components that
disturb the electromagnetic field. Therefore, it is very important to carry out the full process of antenna
synthesis, in which the main focus is paid to maximizing the energy transfer to the RFID chip. It should
be emphasized that placing the antenna on the surface or in the close vicinity of the photovoltaic cell
requires the use of special constructions of inductive circuits (including additional reflectors under the
radiators). Generally, the concepts of designs dedicated to operate in the harsh environment or to be
attached to metal surfaces can be utilized to create new implementations in this scope. The reason
for this is the presence of metal-oxide layers and fluids (electrolyte in third-generation cells), as well
as metal electrodes in the PV panels, that strongly affect the impedance parameters of inductive and
capacitive circuits and thus the efficiency of energy transmission in the RFID systems. Even when the
transponder is placed on or integrated with the cover glass, the material parameters of all components
in the PV module have to be taken into account in the synthesis process [31].
Common transponders are developed to be located on surfaces or in structures that are mainly
based on plastics or textiles. In addition, designers strive to reduce dimensions of both antennas
(e.g., by replacing dipole antennas with meandering or additional arms as well as designing microstrip
patch structures) and chips/ICs (e.g., reducing the channel length of transistors) which often decrements
the read/write range. They develop antennas with an omnidirectional radiation pattern in order to
diminish the sensitivity to transponder deviation against the RWD antenna [32]. If such a tag is placed
on a conductive surface or glass with TCO, the antenna efficiency is significantly attenuated due to
a change in its impedance and resonance circuit detuning. Therefore, the most important factor in
proper antenna synthesis is achieving the best impedance-matching with the highly capacitive RF
frontend of the chip.
Of course, the issue of designing antennas for electronic transponders is discussed in many
scientific publications, as this is a key element that determines the effectiveness of the entire RFID
system. Nevertheless, new constructions dedicated to specific applications are still being developed
taking into account the whole UHF band and sensitivity to manufacturing inaccuracies and various
environmental conditions.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Impedance Matching

The authors consider the RFID systems of the UHF band in their work. Furthermore, devices
operating in the far field are assumed to be the best choice for designing the desired application.
This means that the electromagnetic wave generated in the antenna system is considered locally as a
plane wave in which strength vectors of electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other
and also to the direction of the wave propagation. Energy is carried between the matched antennas of
RWD and transponders by the radiated wave with a power density of S (Figure 1) and at an operating
frequency of f 0 . However, it should be noted that the classically understood impedance matching
(e.g., considered as resistance of 50 Ω) between a transmitter and receiver is only valid for the case
of the RWD and its antenna. The input impedance of the chip varies with the power harvested in
the transponder.
The changes in the input impedance ZTC (Figure 1) of the RFID chip significantly complicate the
design process of the transponders’ antennas. The impedance is expressed by a complex number and
is related to the operation of the rectifier and stabilizer in the power harvester of the chip. Its value
varies depending on the parameters of the electromagnetic field existing in the place of the tag location,
on mutual arrangement of antenna system, i.e., the orientation of the tag according to the RWD antenna
and its localization in relation to other objects that can disturb the radio-wave propagation. When the
transponder is in the IZ, this means that the energy and communication conditions are met and that the
minimum voltage UT that is induced at the antenna terminals activates the RF transmitter in the chip.
However, the transmitter does not emit any energy—data from the tag to the RWD is sent by using the
backscatter communication. In this process, the carrier wave is partially reflected (towards the RWD)
using modulation of the chip input impedance. The communication rules are implemented in the
protocol of electronic product code [29] that is standardized by ISO/IEC 18000-63 (formerly ISO/IEC
18000-6) [11].
Another key issue when designing the RFID transponders is to meet supply power
requirements [33]. The voltage induced in the transponder antenna while it is located in the
electromagnetic field generated by the RWD antenna is represented by the source URT (Figure 1).
The energy transmitted to the chip is represented by the voltage UT induced at the antenna terminals and
by the power PT . The electronic circuit in the tag starts working at the minimal power PTmin , known as
the chip sensitivity. The value of the PTmin is dependent on the type of chip. Primarily, this depends
on whether the chip is passive or semipassive, but it also depends also on the used communication
protocol, the manufacturer, the load generated by additional functionalities, energy support from
additional sources, etc. In turn, the chip sensitivity influences further parameters such as the chip
impedance at the IZ boundaries, the antenna construction and the shape and size of the interrogation
zone in a given application.
The most important determinant that indicates the correctness of the antenna design is to
achieve the matching between the chip impedance ZTC and the antenna impedance ZTA [9], which is
characterized by the power transfer coefficient τ:
4Re(ZTA )Re(ZTC )
τ= (1)
Re(ZTA + ZTC )2 + Im(ZTA + ZTC )2
The antenna impedance has inductive nature, whereas chip impedance is capacitive; they are
described by dependences as follows:
ZTA = RTA + jXTA = RTA + jωLTA (2)
1
ZTC = RTC + jXTC = RTC + (3)
jωCTC
where RTA and XTA denotes resistance and reactance of the transponder antenna, respectively;
LTA indicates its inductance; RTC and XTC indicate resistance and reactance of the active chip,
respectively; CTC indicates its capacitance; and ω = 2πf 0 describes pulsation.
It should be also taken into consideration that the impedance ZTA is constant at a given frequency,
but the chip impedance ZTC varies while the transponder is working because of changes in power load
generated by its electronic circuit. Both impedances are only coupled when the chip works at PTmin
and at the environmental conditions assumed in the designing stage. Otherwise, they are also strongly
influenced by ambient conditions, such as the type of surface to which the tag is attached, temperature,
humidity and vicinity of other objects.
2.2. Selection of Antenna Construction for the Given Application

Many constructions of the transponders dedicated to the UHF band are designed as a modification
of a dipole antenna with a linear polarization. Nevertheless, they are sensitive to environmental
impacts, and thus any change in the dielectric permittivity of substrate influences the antenna
properties [34]. Since maximization of the interrogation zone is the most important issue when
considering the development of PV installation with a monitoring system based on the semipassive
RFID transponders/sensors, it is necessary to consider other solutions. The antenna constructions with
a circular or elliptical polarization and the omnidirectorial radiation pattern significantly enlarge the
IZ. On the basis of the review of relevant literature, it should be stated that the fulfillment of these
assumptions may be difficult, especially in relation to the given photovoltaic application.
The issue of classical antenna (50 Ω) integration with the PV cells has been raised [35].
The developed constructions are dedicated for operating in the upper part of the UHF band (above
2 GHz). A microstrip patch antenna and a half-wave dipole antenna with a poly-Si solar cell as a reflector
are considered by the authors. The antennas are dedicated for communication purposes, e.g., in future
mini- and microsatellites, in sensor networks, wireless networks, mobile phones, and GSM or GPS
systems. The authors want the solar cell to be an energy source as well as to play the role of radiating and
receiving signal antenna. The conjunction of PV cells and microwave antennas significantly increases
the range of advantages in terms of costs, occupied space, installation troubles, etc. The antenna
manufacturing process involved the PCB technology. The authors also proposed a square microstrip
patch antenna made on a Perspex substrate as an AgHT-4 film layer on a glass.
In some research papers, authors propose the RFID antennas with different shapes of radiation
patterns that are dedicated to operate on various substrates (e.g., on glass [32], metal [36], plastic [37],
paper [38]). However, due to the radiator shape, they cannot be implemented in the developed PV
application, in which analog signals have to be connected to the extended circuit of the acquisition
module. Designers planned a place inside the radiator only for a common RFID chip that just has pads
for connecting the antenna.
There is also research in which the RFID antenna constructions dedicated to work on glass surfaces
are considered. For example, in [32] authors propose a circularly polarized antenna of a square-ring
shape that can cooperate with the passive chip: Higgs-2 (Alien Technology, San Jose, NC, USA).
Transponders of designs like that dedicated to operate in harsh environmental conditions such as close
proximity of metal [36] are suggested to be installed on a car windshield by authors of [39,40]. A typical
construction developed to operate on metal surfaces is presented in [36]. It is a rectangle antenna with
a star-shaped slot and a terminal-grounded L-shaped feed-line that has circular polarization and is
connected to the chip: Monza 4 (IMPINJ, Seattle, WA, USA). A special reflector is often used in order
to reduce the environmental impact on proposed transponders. In another example, an F-shaped
dipole antenna with an inset parasitic strip along a closed loop and matched to the passive chip,
Higgs-2, is described in [40]. A more sophisticated solution is revealed in [39]: a dual-band antenna
for the HF (13.56 MHz) and UHF (920–925 MHz) bands and HF SIC5600 (Silicon Craft Technology,
Bangkok, Thailand) and UHF HiRead-T (NXP Semiconductors, Eindhoven, The Netherlands) passive
chips. All the above-mentioned transponders are fabricated in the PCB technology on the FR4
glass-reinforced epoxy laminate. In [41], instead of the FR4, a thin PET substrate is used as a carrier
for a copper antenna. The antenna is comprised of a trapezoidal matching loop and a dual-dipole
radiator and is dedicated to the passive chip Monza 3 (IMPINJ, Seattle, WA, USA). A specific solution
for fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) is also available for glass products such as bottles with
liquids [34]. The antenna is designed as a wire loop matched to the Monza 4. Although it has very
good radio communication properties and is not very sensitive to liquid content, it is relatively large
and is not fully integrated with the bottle.
Detailed considerations regarding the energy budget in the UHF RFID system are presented in [42].
In this application, the passive transponder is mounted on a car windshield with a graphite polarized
film. Such a substrate structure affects the antenna impedance and, in consequence, decreases the
read/write range. On the basis of conducted experiments, the authors propose an antenna that can
be matched to the Higgs-3 (Alien Technology, San Jose, NC, USA) passive chip when it is located on
the windshield.
Thus, it is possible to create RFID transponders that can operate on glass even though it significantly
influences the antenna impedance value. In addition, if it were possible to integrate RFID devices with
glass substrates in one technological process, it would significantly contribute to the development of
the IoT in the scope of photovoltaic installations. The solution would become even more important if it
could be used at all stages of the PV product’s life.
Micromachines
After 2020, 11,
choosing thex antenna design, it is necessary to predict the method of its matching 9 of 18
to the
chip impedance. According to the subject literature and analysis of constructions that are available on
After choosing the antenna design, it is necessary to predict the method of its matching to the
the commercial market, the impedance matching is performed using a T-type circuit (Figure 3a) or a
chip impedance. According to the subject literature and analysis of constructions that are available
parasitic induction
on the commercialloopmarket,
(Figurethe3b)impedance
[1,43]. Sometimes,
matching isdiscrete passive
performed usingcomponents, e.g.,
a T-type circuit coil attached
(Figure 3a)
to one of antenna arms, are used for this purpose (Figure 3c). These methods
or a parasitic induction loop (Figure 3b) [1,43]. Sometimes, discrete passive components, e.g., coilare useful in the
case of passive
attached chips
to one of and canarms,
antenna be implemented in apurpose
are used for this wide frequency
(Figure 3c). range while maintaining
These methods are useful intheir
the case of passive
uncomplicated matching chips and can be implemented in a wide frequency range while maintaining their
structures.
uncomplicated
The matter getsmatching
complicatedstructures.
if the semipassive chips are implemented in transponders, which is
The matter gets complicated
the case when designing the RFID sensors if the semipassive chips are implemented
for the PV applications. in transponders,
Such a chip (e.g., SL900A,which
AMS AG,
is the case when designing the RFID sensors for the PV applications. Such a chip (e.g., SL900A, AMS
Premstaetten, Austria) includes an integrated energy harvesting block that can provide energy to
AG, Premstaetten, Austria) includes an integrated energy harvesting block that can provide energy
external electronic circuits [44]. This block is connected, inside the semiconductor structure, to the
to external electronic circuits [44]. This block is connected, inside the semiconductor structure, to the
antenna RF inputs of the IC. For this reason, the semipassive chip cannot operate with the matching
antenna RF inputs of the IC. For this reason, the semipassive chip cannot operate with the matching
circuitcircuit
in theinform of short-circuited
the form of short-circuited loop
loop(Figure
(Figure3a).
3a).
RFID Chip
(a) (b)
Inductive component
DC block RFID chip
(c) (d)
Figure 3. Antenna and chip impedance matching: (a) type T; (b) parasitic inductive loop; (c) inductive
passive components;
Figure (d)and
3. Antenna DC chip
block.impedance matching: (a) type T; (b) parasitic inductive loop; (c)
inductive passive components; (d) DC block.
Therefore, the construction with open arms that are matched to the input impedance seems to
be a goodTherefore,
approach. theHowever,
construction such
withanopenantenna causes
arms that are a number
matched to of
theproblems, especially
input impedance seemswhen
to is
be a good
designed for use approach.
on a metalHowever,
object.such an antenna causes a number
Its impedance-matching is onlyof possible
problems,in especially
a narrow when is
frequency
designed for use on a metal object. Its impedance-matching is only possible
band (e.g., 865–868 MHz). Even relatively small inaccuracies in the geometrical dimensions of the in a narrow frequency
band
radiator (e.g.,
(e.g., 865–868
caused by MHz).
parameterEvendeviations
relatively small inaccuracies
of antenna in the geometrical
manufacturing process)dimensions
that may beofreflected
the
radiator (e.g., caused by parameter deviations of antenna manufacturing process) that may be
in changes of the impedance value can significantly detune the RF circuit.
reflected in changes of the impedance value can significantly detune the RF circuit.
For aforementioned reasons, the so-called DC block (Figure 3d) is selected as the best choice
For aforementioned reasons, the so-called DC block (Figure 3d) is selected as the best choice for
for the
thematching
matchingimpedance
impedance in in the
the transponder/sensor
transponder/sensor intended
intended to integrated
to be be integrated withwith thepanels.
the PV PV panels.
The DCTheblock is justisajust
DC block capacitor that that
a capacitor prevents the flow
prevents of aofDC
the flow signal
a DC component.
signal component. The capacitor
The capacitorvalue
has tovalue
be adjusted
has to be to the antenna
adjusted inductance
to the antenna and connected
inductance and connectedto one of the
to one antenna
of the antennaarms. Duetoto the
arms. Due
use ofthe
this
useelement, the energy
of this element, harvester
the energy of theofsemipassive
harvester the semipassivechip can
chip operate
can operatedespite
despite connecting
connecting the
the short-circuited
short-circuited construction
construction of the of the antenna.
antenna.
2.3. Antenna
2.3. Antenna Design
Design for RFID
for RFID Sesnor
Sesnor DedicatedtotoPV
Dedicated PV Panels
Panels
SinceSince the complex

the complex impedance
impedance ofofthe
theantenna
antenna varies
varies with
withthe
theenvironmental
environmentalconditions, it is very
conditions, it is very
important to precisely designate material properties of the substrate to which it is attached [45,46].
important to precisely designate material properties of the substrate to which it is attached [45,46].
The relative permittivity r and dielectric loss tgδ are the most important parameters that have to be
The relative permittivity εr and dielectric loss tgδ are the most important parameters that have to be
determined for materials that are used in the PV panel constructions and that can potentially form
determined for materials that are used in the PV panel constructions and that can potentially form the
the substrate of the transponders.
substrate of the transponders.
InInthe
theproposed 2020, application,
proposed
Micromachines application,
11, x the
the low-iron glass for
low-iron glass for solar
solarpanels
panels(thickness
(thicknessofof1.92
1.92mm,
mm, measured
measured
10 of 18
bybythe
the universal table with the digital micrometer head Gimex GmbH 504.131) was chosen asas
universal table with the digital micrometer head Gimex GmbH 504.131) was chosen thethe
substrate In the proposed application, the low-iron glass for solar panels (thickness of 1.92 mm, measured
substratefor forthe
thedesigned
designedRFID RFID sensor.
sensor. The complex
complex permittivity
permittivityofofthetheglass
glasswas
wasmeasured
measuredat at
thethe
by the universal table with the digital micrometer head Gimex GmbH 504.131) was chosen as the
frequency
frequencyofof1 1GHz GHzthatthatisisclose
closetotothe
the operating
operating band
band of of UHF
UHF RFID
RFIDsystem.
system.This
Thiswas
wasperformed
performed in in
substrate for the designed RFID sensor. The complex permittivity of the glass was measured at the
the
the laboratory
laboratory stand
stand composed
composed of Compass
of Compass Technology
Technology Epsilometer
Epsilometer with integrated
with integrated Copper
Copper Mountain
frequency of 1 GHz that is close to the operating band of UHF RFID system. This was performed in
Mountain
R60 1-Port 6 R60
GHz1-Port
the laboratory Vector 6Network
stand
GHz Vector
composed
Network
Analyzer Analyzer
(Figure
of Compass 4). The (Figure
Technologyrelative 4). The relative
permittivity
Epsilometer withwas equal εrCopper
integrated = 6.6
permittivity was and
equal
the ε r = 6.6
dielectric and
loss the
tgδ =dielectric
0.0132 atloss
f =tgδ
1 = 0.0132
GHz. at f0 = 1 GHz.
Mountain R60 1-Port 6 GHz 0Vector Network Analyzer (Figure 4). The relative permittivity was
equal εr = 6.6 and the dielectric loss tgδ = 0.0132 at f0 = 1 GHz.
Figure
Figure4.4.Laboratory
Laboratory stand of complex
stand of complexpermittivity
permittivitymeasurement.
measurement.
Figure 4. Laboratory stand of complex permittivity measurement.
Since the transponder is based on the semipassive SL900A chip, a few requirements determined
SinceSince
the transponder
the transponder is based on on
is based thethe
semipassive
semipassive SL900A
SL900Achip,
chip,aafew
few requirements determined
requirements determined
bybythethe
authors had to to
be involved in the antenna design. The useuse of short-circuited constructions gives
byauthors
the authorshad hadbe to involved
be involved in the antenna
in the antenna design.
design.The
The useof of short-circuited constructions
short-circuited constructions
angives
opportunity to
an opportunity match the
to match impedance
thethe over
impedance a wide frequency range (860–960 MHz). In addition,
gives an opportunity to match impedanceover overa awide
widefrequency
frequency range
range (860–960 MHz).InIn
(860–960 MHz).
this solution
addition,
addition,is more
this solution
this resistant
is more
solution to resistant
is more theresistant
environmental
to to
thethe conditions,conditions,
environmental
environmental such as thesuch
conditions, presence
such theofpresence
as the metal frame,
presence ofof
glass
metal substrate
metal
frame, andglass
frame,
glass asubstrate
layer of and
substrate transparent
and ofconductive
a layer
a layer of transparent
transparent oxides (TCO)oxides
conductive
conductive [43]. (TCO)
oxides (TCO) [43].
The
TheDC DCblock
The DC
block had
block
hadhad to
to be to used
be be
used usedin order
in in orderto
order totoprovide
provide the
providethe possibility
the possibility
possibility of ofofchip
chipand
chip andand antenna
antenna
antenna
impedance-matching.
impedance-matching. It
impedance-matching. It is
is recommended
It is recommended
recommended to to choose
choose MultiLayer
to choose MultiLayerCeramic
MultiLayer CeramicCapacitors
Ceramic Capacitors(MLCCs)
Capacitors (MLCCs)
(MLCCs) forfor
for
applications
applications
applications that that
thatoperate operate
operate in
inthe in area
the the
areaarea
of of radio
of radio frequencies.Usually,
frequencies.
frequencies. Usually,the
Usually, theMLCC
the MLCC capacitors
MLCCcapacitors
capacitors with
with
with aavalue
a value
value
ofof33–68of pF
33–68 33–68
pFare pF
are are selected
selected
selected in
inthe in range
the the
rangerange 860–915
860–915
860–915 MHz
MHzMHz butwith
but
but withsufficiently
with sufficiently large
sufficiently large
largeQQQfactor.
factor.
factor.Taking
Taking
Taking intointo
into
consideration
consideration all the described requirements and commercially available discrete components
considerationallall thethedescribed
described requirements
requirements andand commercially
commercially available discrete
available components
discrete components within
within preferred series, the MULTICOMP MC0603N560J500CT (Farnell, Leeds, UK) capacitor with a
within preferred
preferred series, the series, the MULTICOMP
MULTICOMP MC0603N560J500CT
MC0603N560J500CT (Farnell,(Farnell,
Leeds, UK)Leeds, UK) capacitor
capacitor with a with a
capacity
capacity of 56 pF in a 0603 housing was chosen. Preliminary simulations were carried out in order to
ofcapacity
56 pF inof 56 pFhousing
a 0603 in a 0603was housing
chosen. was chosen. Preliminary
Preliminary simulations simulations
were carried wereout carried
in orderouttoincheck
order howto
check how the selected DC block influences the antenna impedance. The calculation results for the
check
the how DC
selected the block
selected DC blockthe
influences influences the antenna impedance. The calculation results for the
impedance and CMF of antennasantenna with the impedance.
DC block andThe the calculation
short-circuited results
arms forare the impedance
presented in
impedance
and CMF and
5. CMFwith
of antennas
Figure of antennas
the DC block with the andDC theblock and the short-circuited
short-circuited arms are presentedarms are in presented
Figure 5. in
Figure 5.
6000 1, 0
Re shorted DC BLOCK
6000 Im shorted
5000 Re shorted 1, 00,9
Re DC BLOCK Shorted
DC BLOCK
5000 4000 Im shorted
Im DC BLOCK 0, 90,8
Shorted
Re DC BLOCK
4000 3000 Im DC BLOCK 0, 80,7
Impedance ZTA ,
3000 2000 0, 70,6

0, 60,5
Impedance ZTA ,
CMF
2000 1000
0, 50,4
CMF
1000 0
0, 3
0, 4
0 - 1000 0, 2
0, 3
- 2000 0, 1
- 1000 0, 2
- 3000 0
- 2000 0,80 0,82 0,84 0,86 0,88 0,90 0,92 0,94 0,96 0,98 1,00 0, 10, 80 0, 82 0, 84 0, 86 0, 88 0, 90 0, 92 0, 94 0, 96 0, 98 1, 00
- 3000 Frequency f, GHz 0 Frequency f, GHz
0,80 0,82 0,84 0,86 0,88 0,90 0,92 0,94 0,96 0,98 1,00 0, 80 0, 82 0, 84 0, 86 0, 88 0, 90 0, 92 0, 94 0, 96 0, 98 1, 00
Frequency(a)
f, GHz (b) f, GHz
Frequency
Figure 5. Preliminary(a) (b)

simulation results of DC block impact. (a) Real and imaginary part of complex
impedance. (b) CMF—conjugate match factor; DC BLOCK—antenna with matching circuit based on
capacitor; shorted—antenna with short-circuited arms.
A slight influence of the capacitor on the antenna impedance can be observed in the graphs
(Figure 5a). The differences may be due to simplifications that are assumed in the numerical model.
Instead of the gap in the antenna wire, the new port that corresponds to the DC block is defined.
Moreover, the
Micromachines 2020,capacity
11, 420 value is selected from the available preferred series and slightly differs 11from
of 18
the value calculated for the frequency of 866 MHz.
The antenna pattern is an example of a slot antenna in which the impedance is additionally
matchedA slight
using influence
a T-shape of the capacitor (Figure
component on the antenna impedancecircuits
6). The electronic can be of observed
chip and in the graphs
acquisition
(Figure 5a). The differences may be due to simplifications that are
system as well as the whole antenna structure are surrounded by a relatively large ground surface assumed in the numerical model. in
Instead
order toof the the
limit gapimpact
in theof antenna wire, on
the reflector thethe new port that parameters.
impedance correspondsIntoturn, the DC block is defined.
the reflector (bottom
Moreover,
layer) is used the capacity
to reducevalue is selectedoffrom
the influence the available
the internal preferred
structure of PVseries
paneland slightly
on the differs
antenna. from the
Generally,
value calculated for the frequency of 866 MHz.
the antenna gain is fixed mainly by its sides L1 and W1 (Table 1) [43]. It can be noticed that when the
width Theof antenna
slot W2 ispattern
nearly two is antimes
examplesmallerof athanslotthe
antenna
side Win which
1, the inputthereactance
impedance is additionally
varies slowly with
matched using a T-shape component (Figure 6). The electronic
the frequency, and then the antenna can be easily tuned to the chip. The impedance matchingcircuits of chip and acquisition system as
can be
well as theby
adjusted whole
changingantenna thestructure
ratio of arethe surrounded
slot sizes L2by anda relatively
W2. The large ground
resistance surface inmainly
is sensitive order totolimit
the
the impact of the reflector on the impedance parameters. In turn, the
width of slot, but the reactance is dependent on both dimensions. As W2 increases, the resonance reflector (bottom layer) is used to
reduce the influence of the internal structure of PV panel on the antenna.
moves towards lower frequencies, the resistance decreases and the reactance peak is smaller. It is Generally, the antenna gain
is fixed
also mainly
known thatbyititsis sides
difficultL1 and W1 (Table
to match the Z1) TA [43].
and Z ItTCcan be noticedby
impedances that when
using the width
single T-match of slot W2
layout.
is nearly two times smaller than
Thus, by applying multiple T-match stages, furtherthe side W 1 , the input reactance varies slowly with
degrees of freedom can be added. The additional the frequency,
and then the antenna can
impedance-matching can be be easily
reached tuned to the chip.the
by modifying The impedance
parasitic matching
inductive loop can
sizesbeLadjusted
3, W3 and by H.
changing
This helps thetoratio of the the
improve slot sizes
antennaL2 and W2 . The resistance
in minimization aspect is sensitive
and allows mainly to the width
designing patterns of slot,
for
but the reactance
multiband systems. is dependent
The model on both dimensions.
of antenna As W2 increases,
has been elaborated the resonance
in the Hyper Lynx 3Dmoves towards
EM (HL3DEM,
lower
Mentor frequencies, the resistanceOR,
Graphics, Wilsonville, decreases
USA). and the reactance peak is smaller. It is also known that it is
difficult to match the ZTA and ZTC impedances by using single T-match layout. Thus, by applying
multiple T-match Table stages, furtherofdegrees
1. Dimensions designed of antenna
freedomincan be added.
accordance The
with additionalin
designations impedance-matching
Figure 6.
can be reached by modifying the parasitic inductive loop sizes L3 , W3 and H. This helps to improve
Specimen geometry, dimensions, mm
the antenna in minimization aspect and allows designing patterns for multiband systems. The model
L1 L2 L3 L4 W1 W2 W3 H
of antenna has been elaborated in the Hyper Lynx 3D EM (HL3DEM, Mentor Graphics, Wilsonville,
OR, USA). 72.10 26.80 13.90 11.90 98.80 30.00 19.70 1.00
Bottom side (reflector)
15 cm
W1
Top side (radiator)
W2
L4 W3
L2
L3 H
L1
SL900A
Figure 6. HL3DEM numerical model of antenna proposed for RFID sensor.
Table 1. Dimensions of designed antenna in accordance with designations in Figure 6.
Specimen Geometry, Dimensions, mm

L1 L2 L3 L4 W1 W2 W3 H
72.10 26.80 13.90 11.90 98.80 30.00 19.70 1.00
Figure 6. HL3DEM numerical model of antenna proposed for RFID sensor.
Due to
Due to the
the fact
fact that
that the
thereflector
reflector (Figure
(Figure 6) 6) with
with aa high
high conductivity
conductivity is is placed
placed under
under thetheradiator
radiator
surface, the radiation pattern of the antenna is very strongly directional. Almost
surface, the radiation pattern of the antenna is very strongly directional. Almost complete reduction complete reduction of
side
of and
side back
and back lobes
lobesisisreached,
reached,and andall allenergy
energyisisradiated
radiatedin inthe
themain
main lobe.
lobe. The preliminary tests
The preliminary tests of
of
the radiation patterns are presented in Figure 7. At this stage of the investigation
the radiation patterns are presented in Figure 7. At this stage of the investigation it should be only it should be only
noticed that,
noticed that, due
due to to the
the internal
internal construction
construction of of PV
PV panel,
panel, anan antenna
antenna design
design with
with thethe main
main loblob of
of
radiation pattern
radiation pattern directed
directed outside
outside thethe device
device is is advisable.
advisable. By Byadding
addingthethereflector
reflectorunder
underthe theantenna,
antenna,
the influence of panel components is eliminated and the directionality
the influence of panel components is eliminated and the directionality of the antenna is ensured. of the antenna is ensured.
Regardless of
Regardless of the
the half
half power
powerbeam beamwidth
width(HPBW),
(HPBW),the theenergy
energy should
shouldbeberadiated in in
radiated thethedirection
directionof the
of
RWD antenna position. The fact is that the transponder can be read with
the RWD antenna position. The fact is that the transponder can be read with a greater distance the a greater distance the more
directional
more this characteristic
directional is. However,
this characteristic is. However,any deviation from the
any deviation designed
from axis of axis
the designed antenna system
of antenna
causes acauses
system sharp adecrease in the read
sharp decrease in range.
the read Therefore, both smallboth
range. Therefore, and large
smallvalues of thevalues
and large HPBW ofhave
the
HPBW have their advantages and disadvantages. The analysis of radiation patterns would beit
their advantages and disadvantages. The analysis of radiation patterns would be interesting, but
is not very important
interesting, but it is not until
verythe application
important requirements
until the applicationare specified.
requirementsOf course, this problem
are specified. is of
Of course,
fundamental
this problem isimportance
of fundamental for determining
importanceIZ. for determining IZ.
Figure 7. Preliminary tests of the radiation patterns.

Figure 7. Preliminary tests of the radiation patterns.
The impedance matching in the elaborated design was investigated for the SL900A chip from
The impedance matching in the elaborated design was investigated for the SL900A chip from
ASM corporation, enclosed in QFN16 package. This is an EPC Global Class 3 chip standardized by the
ASM corporation, enclosed in QFN16 package. This is an EPC Global Class 3 chip standardized by
ISO/IEC 18000-63 with additional custom commands (for creating extended functions of RFID sensors).
the ISO/IEC 18000-63 with additional custom commands (for creating extended functions of RFID
The chip impedance ZTC (at power PTmin ) was obtained on the basis of the method detailed described
sensors). The chip impedance ZTC (at power PTmin) was obtained on the basis of the method detailed
in [10] and is specified in Table 2. It can be concluded that the impedance value is independent of the
described in [10] and is specified in Table 2. It can be concluded that the impedance value is
use of a supplementary battery source. This fact has essential practical meaning because it allows
independent of the use of a supplementary battery source. This fact has essential practical meaning
designers to create only one pattern of the transponder antenna for both passive and semipassive
because it allows designers to create only one pattern of the transponder antenna for both passive
operating modes.
and semipassive operating modes.
Table 2. Measuring results of impedance for passive/semipassive SL900A chip.
Table 2. Measuring results of impedance for passive/semipassive SL900A chip.
Z ,Ω ZTC , Ω
Frequency, MHz ZTC,TCΩ ZTC, Ω
Passive Mode Semipassive Mode
Frequency, MHz Passive
Ubat mode
=0V Semipassive
Ubat = 1.5 V mode
Ubat = 0 V Ubat = 1.5 V
f 0 = 866 14.9−j 342 14.7−j 338
f0 = 866 f 0 = 900 14.9−j 342
14.9−j 342 14.4−j14.7−j
316 338
f0 = 900 f 0 = 915 14.9−j 342
15.3−j 313 14.9−j14.4−j
309 316
fmean value => 860–960
0 = 915 14.5−j
15.3−j 316
313 14.0−j14.9−j
314 309
mean value => 860–960 14.5−j 316 14.0−j 314
2.4. Technology of Antenna Fabrication

2.4. Technology
One of of Antenna
the main goalsFabrication
of the research is to prepare the antenna in the process that is common for
manufacturing PV panels, thus
One of the main goals of the research allowingisthe tag to bethe
to prepare easily integrated
antenna in thewith processthe that
marked product at
is common
for the fabrication line
manufacturing and making
PV panels, it capable
thus allowing theoftagsurviving
to be easilyall stages of thewith
integrated product life. Inproduct
the marked this scope,
at the fabrication line and making it capable of surviving all stages of the product life. In thisPV
screen-printing is a mature process that is very often used in the technology of panel
scope,
manufacturing. Different kinds of metallization layers are applied in
screen-printing is a mature process that is very often used in the technology of PV panel manufacturing. this way to the constructional
components
Different kinds of ofmetallization
solar cells [47] layers(Figure 2b–d). For
are applied example,
in this way to itthecan be implemented
constructional to create
components of the
solar cells [47] (Figure 2b–d). For example, it can be implemented to create the gridlines and bus or
gridlines and bus bars at the front-side glass facing the sun. The tabbing layer of silver
barssilver-aluminum
at the front-sideare alsofacing
glass printed theon the The
sun. rear-side
tabbing of the
layer panel constructional
of silver surface to prepare
or silver-aluminum are also the
back on
printed conductive net for
the rear-side of connecting cells. The screen-printing
the panel constructional process the
surface to prepare is a back
mature technology
conductive netthat
forcan
be used to obtain a variety of conductive layers with different consistency
connecting cells. The screen-printing process is a mature technology that can be used to obtain a variety and thickness, but many
parameterslayers
of conductive of thewith
process haveconsistency
different to be controlled in order tobut
and thickness, maintain the manufacturing
many parameters repeatability,
of the process have
including viscosity, rheology and evaporation rate of pastes; attack
to be controlled in order to maintain the manufacturing repeatability, including viscosity, rheology and angle, print speed and press
evaporation rate of pastes; attack angle, print speed and press setup of squeegee; mesh count; diameter;and
setup of squeegee; mesh count; diameter; emulsion thickness of screen; and temperature
humidity
emulsion in the environment.
thickness of screen; and temperature and humidity in the environment.
The measuring
The measuring samples samples of theof the antenna
antenna demonstrator
demonstrator werewere manufactured
manufactured in the
in the Research
Research & &
Development Centre for Photovoltaics at the ML SYSTEM
Development Centre for Photovoltaics at the ML SYSTEM Company (Rzeszów, Poland). They wereCompany (Rzeszów, Poland). They were
prepared
prepared by applying
by applying AG1616-77
AG1616-77 (Johnson (Johnson
Matthey,Matthey,
London, London, UK) conductive
UK) conductive silver pastesilver paste for
for thin-film
thin-film coated glass (77% Ag content, ±81% firing residue) suitable
coated glass (77% Ag content, ±81% firing residue) suitable for lamination applications used in the PV for lamination applications
used
panel in the PVAt
production. panel production. stage
the preparatory At the thepreparatory
mesh count,stage the mesh
squeegee pressure,count, squeegee pressure,
emulsion-on-mesh
thickness, ink viscosity, etc. were adjusted to the experiment. Averaged values of thickness andvalues
emulsion-on-mesh thickness, ink viscosity, etc. were adjusted to the experiment. Averaged sheet of
thickness and sheet resistance obtained at the manufacturing
resistance obtained at the manufacturing preparatory stage were included in the MES model. preparatory stage were included in the
MESThemodel.
samples were made out of low-iron glass with the thickness of 1.92 mm. The paste was
The
screen-printed samples
through were made outpolyester
a 195-mesh of low-iron glass
screen, with the
allowed thickness
to settle for 10 ofmin1.92andmm.then Thedried
pasteatwas
screen-printed
◦ through a 195-mesh polyester screen, allowed to
120 C in a heating chamber for 10 min. Subsequently the pattern was fired in a conventional furnacesettle for 10 min and then dried
at at
◦ C. C
565120 Theinobtained
a heatingthickness
chamberoffor the10prepared
min. Subsequently
conductivethe layerpattern was fired
was around in aItconventional
8 µm. was averaged furnace
on
at 565 C. The obtained thickness of the prepared conductive layer
the basis of the determined profile (Figure 8) and the surface roughness (Figure 9) measured by using was around 8 µ m. It was
averaged
Sensofar onprofilometer
optical the basis ofwith the 20×determined profileand
magnification (Figure
using 8) and the
confocal mode.surface
The roughness (Figure
sheet resistance of 9)
the measured
conductiveby using
layer Sensofar
of the radiator optical profilometer with
(top layer—orange 20× magnification
in Figure 6) and reflector and usinglayer—green
(bottom confocal mode.
in Figure 6) was measured by a four-probe method. The average value was equal to 17.1Figure
The sheet resistance of the conductive layer of the radiator (top layer—orange in 6) and
× 106 S/m.
Thereflector
parameters(bottom layer—green
were determined onintheFigure
basis of6) test
wasresults
measured by a four-probe
performed method. line
on the technological Theinaverage
the
value was
ML System Company. equal to 17.1 × 10 6 S/m. The parameters were determined on the basis of test results
performed on the technological line in the ML System Company.
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Profile of antenna elements and routes of electronic circuits: (a) cross-section; (b)
surface topography.
Figure 8. Profile of antenna elements and routes of electronic circuits: (a) cross-section; (b) surface
topography.
Micromachines2020,
Micromachines 2020,11,
11,420
x 14 of 18
14 of 18
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Surface
Surface roughness
roughness of
of conductive
conductive layer:
layer: (a)
(a) cross-section;
cross-section; (b)
(b) surface
surface topography.
topography.
Figure 9. Surface roughness of conductive layer: (a) cross-section; (b) surface topography.
3.
3. Tests
Testsof
ofAntenna
Antenna
The
The basic
3. Tests antenna
antenna impedance
of Antenna
basic impedance parameters
parameters for
for the
the given
given type
type of
of the
the RFID
RFID transponders
transponders were
were
evaluated
evaluated in tests
in (Figure
tests 10).
(Figure Results
10). calculated
Results using
calculated the prepared
using the numerical
prepared model
numericalwere compared
model were
The basic antenna impedance parameters for the given type of the RFID transponders were
with the measurement
compared data averaged for three samples. They samples.
were determined in the frequencyin
band
evaluatedwith the measurement
in tests (Figure 10). data averaged
Results for three
calculated They were
using the prepared determined
numerical model the
were
of 500–1200
frequency MHz.
band of 500–1200 MHz.
compared with the measurement data averaged for three samples. They were determined in the
frequency band of 500–1200 MHz.
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Laboratory (a) site: (a) measurement stand for impedance parameter
(b) determination;
(b) differential
Figure probe withsite:
10. Laboratory sharp(a)
tips.
measurement stand for impedance parameter determination;
(b)Figure
differential probe with sharp
10. Laboratory tips.measurement stand for impedance parameter determination;
site: (a)
In the measurement stand, the impact of the apparatus was restrained as much as possible.
(b) differential
Since connectors (SMA, probeN, with
UFL,sharp
etc.) tips.
are not used in the transponders, they also should not be used at
In the measurement stand, the impact of the apparatus was restrained as much as possible.
the laboratory side because they significantly interfere the balance of the impedance in the antenna
Since connectors
In the (SMA, N, UFL,
measurement stand,etc.)
theare not usedthe
impact in the transponders, they also as
should
muchnot be used
resonance circuit. Thus, the differential passive of probe withapparatus was restrained
signal-to-signal delicate contact astips
possible.
was
atSince
the laboratory
connectors side
(SMA, because
N,toUFL, they
etc.)significantly
are not used interfere
in the with the balancethey
transponders, of the
alsoimpedance
should in
be the
used to connect the antenna the vector network analyzer two 50 Ω coaxial ports. Thenot
measure used
antenna resonance
at the laboratory side circuit. Thus,
because the differential
they significantly passive probe
interfere with signal-to-signal
the balance delicate contact
of the impedance in the
procedure—described in detail in [9]—constitutes in the S-parameters determination:
tips was used
antenna to connect
resonance the antenna
circuit. Thus, the todifferential
the vector network passive probeanalyzer with
with two 50 Ω coaxial
signal-to-signal ports.contact
delicate The
measure
tips wasprocedure—described
used to connect the antenna in detail
2Z0 (toSin theS[9]—constitutes in S the + S-parameters determination:
12 21vector
− S11 Snetwork
22 − S12 −analyzer21 1)with two 50 Ω coaxial ports. The
Zd = (4)
measure procedure—described in detail 2 Z 0(1 S−in S[9]—constitutes
21  S11S 22
12 S11
)(1 − S22) − in
S12S12 S21the
21 
 1S-parameters determination:
Zd  (4)
where Z0 denotes the reference impedance 2 Z01S S S211S11
50 Ω.
of1211
S22  laboratory
S 22
The SS1212S21S 21  1
stand included VNA Keysight
Zd  (4)
PNA-X
where ZN5242A
0 denotesand thea commercially available
reference impedance
1ofprobe
S11 1  S22   S12 S 21
50 Ω. (Micromanipulator
The laboratory stand 44-8000-D-NA)
included VNA which was
Keysight
moved
PNA-X using a manipulator (Micromanipulator model (Micromanipulator
110) with three-axis 44-8000-D-NA)
direct lead-screw/lead-nut
whereN5242A andthe
Z0 denotes a commercially availableof
reference impedance probe
50 Ω. The laboratory stand included VNA which was
Keysight
drivers
moved of resolution
using a 2.2manipulator
µm (10 mm max range in each axis). model
(Micromanipulator The set of Keysight
110) with 85131F flexible cables
three-axis direct
PNA-X N5242A and a commercially available probe (Micromanipulator 44-8000-D-NA) which was
(3.5 mm) was used to connectofthe
lead-screw/lead-nut probe and 2.2VNA.
moved using adrivers resolution
manipulator µ m (10 mm maxmodel
(Micromanipulator range in110)each axis).
withThethree-axis
set of Keysight
direct
The
85131F antenna
flexible was
cables matched
(3.5 mm) to
wasthe chip
used to impedance
connect the(14.6−j
probe 316)
and Ω,
VNA.with a typical resistance value
lead-screw/lead-nut drivers of resolution 2.2 µ m (10 mm max range in each axis). The set of Keysight
Re(ZTC ) in the range from a few to tens of Ohms and a reactance value Im(ZTC ) of about a few hundred
85131F flexible cables (3.5 mm) was used to connect the probe and VNA.
Micromachines 2020, 11,was
The antenna 420 matched to the chip impedance (14.6−j 316) Ω, with a typical resistance15value of 18
Re(ZTCThe ) in antenna
the range wasfrom a fewtotothe
matched tens
chipofimpedance
Ohms and(14.6−j
a reactance
316) Ω,value
with aIm(Z TC) of
typical about a value
resistance few
hundred TC) of
in Ohms (at the chipa sensitivity PTmin
of, frequency
in the frequency band ofvalue
f0 = 860–960 TCMHz). In Figure
ofRe(Z
Ohms (at the
the range from
chip sensitivity few to ,tens
PTmin in the Ohms andbanda reactance
of f 0 = 860–960 Im(Z
MHz). ) ofInabout
Figure a 11,
few
11, it is possible to find a high correlation between calculations and measurements performed for all
ithundred
is possible of to
Ohms
find (at the chip
a high sensitivity
correlation PTmin,calculations
between in the frequency band of f0 = 860–960
and measurements MHz).
performed forInallFigure
test
test
11, samples
it is in thetofrequency
possible find a high band 500–1200
correlation MHz. Since
between the Pearson
calculations and correlation coefficient
measurements performed between
for all
samples in the frequency band 500–1200 MHz. Since the Pearson correlation coefficient between the
the
testaverage
samples ofinsamples
the 2–4 andband
frequency the HL3DEM
500–1200 calculations
MHz. Since isthe
equal 0.918correlation
Pearson for the realcoefficient
part and 0.911 for
between
average of samples 2–4 and the HL3DEM calculations is equal 0.918 for the real part and 0.911 for the
the
theimaginary
average ofpart,
samplesthe 2–4
obtained
and results
the HL3DEM of the impedanceis Z
calculations TA show
equal the
forsatisfactory
real partconvergence
imaginary part, the obtained results of the impedance ZTA show the 0.918 theconvergence
satisfactory andwhich
0.911 isfor
which
the is suitablepart,
imaginary for analyzing
the obtainedthe results
impedance of matching
the impedancebetween
Z the antenna
TA show the and selected
satisfactory chip in
convergence
suitable for analyzing the impedance matching between the antenna and selected chip in the whole
the whole
which is RFID
suitable UHF forband (860–960 MHz).
analyzing
RFID UHF band (860–960 MHz). the impedance matching between the antenna and selected chip in
The
the The
whole comparison
RFID UHFof of
bandmeasurements
(860–960 MHz). and numerical calculations of power transfer coefficient
comparison measurements and numerical calculations of power transfer coefficient
presented The inin Figure 12 also
comparison confirms correct operation
of measurements of the designed antenna.
presented Figure 12 also confirms correctand numerical
operation of thecalculations of power transfer coefficient
designed antenna.
presented in Figure 12 also confirms correct operation of the designed antenna.
5000
2000 #2 measurement
#2 measurement
5000 #3 measurement
#3 measurement
4000 2000 #4#2 measurement
measurement
#4#2 measurement
measurement #3 measurement
#3 measurement 1000 HL3DEM calculation
4000 HL3DEM calculation #4 measurement
#4 measurement
3000 HL3DEM calculation
Reactance XTA ,
HL3DEM calculation 1000
Resistance RTA ,
3000 0
Reactance XTA ,
Resistance RTA ,
2000
0
2000 -1000
1000
-1000
1000
0 -2000
0 -2000
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Frequency f, GHz Frequency f, GHz
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Frequency f, GHz Frequency f, GHz
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
11. Comparison of measurements and numerical calculations of antenna complex impedance

Figure 11.
Z :
ZFigure(a) real
TA: (a) real
TA part; (b)
11. part; (b) imaginary
Comparison imaginary part.
part.
of measurements and numerical calculations of antenna complex impedance
ZTA: (a) real part; (b) imaginary part.
#2 measurement
1.0 #3 measurement
1.0 #4#2 measurement
measurement
0.8 #3 measurement
HL3DEM calculation
#4 measurement
0.8 HL3DEM calculation
0.6
τ
0.6
0.4
τ
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.4 0.5 0.6
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Frequency f, GHz
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Frequency f, GHz
Figure 12. Comparison of measurements and numerical calculations of power transfer coefficient.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this work, the uncommon construction of the RFID antenna dedicated to being fabricated on a
4. Conclusions
coverInglass
this of
work, the uncommon
PV panels construction
is elaborated. of the RFID on
Detailed information antenna dedicated
the design processto and
being fabricatedthat
restrictions on
a coverInbe
should glass
this of PV
work,
taken panels
intothe
account is is
uncommonelaborated. Detailed
construction
disclosed ofinformation
theThe
in the paper. RFID on the
antenna
antenna design process
dedicated
is designed andfabricated
totobebeing restrictions
manufactured on
in
that should
a cover
the be
glass of PV
screen-printing taken into
panelsthat
process account is
is elaborated. disclosed
is typicallyDetailed in the paper.
information
used in producing The antenna
on the design
photovoltaic is
cells.process designed to be
and restrictions
It can cooperate with
manufactured
that
the should be
semipassive inchip
the screen-printing
taken
that into
can beaccount process that
as aiskey
is disclosed
implemented typically used of
incomponent
the paper. inThe
producing
the antenna
RFID photovoltaic
sensor.is designed cells.
The antenna to isItbe
can cooperate
designed in thewith
manufactured the
in the
shape semipassive
allows for chip
screen-printing
that that can
process
easy to be
that
access implemented
is typically
its used as
contacts when in aelectronic
key component
anproducing of measured
photovoltaic
circuit of the cells.
RFIDIt
sensor. The
can cooperate
parameter antenna is
with the
acquisition designed
semipassive
system in the
needs tochip shape that allows for easy access to its contacts
that can be implemented as a key component of the RFID
be connected. when an
electronic
sensor.
The Thecircuit
numerical of measured
antenna model of parameter
is designed in theacquisition
the antenna shape thatsystem needs
allowsin
was elaborated for to be
theeasy
HL3DEM connected.
access to its contacts
software when
tool, and testan
electronic circuit of measured parameter acquisition system needs to be connected.
samples were fabricated on the technology line of ML System Company in the screen-printing process
of pastes on a glass substrate. The high correlation between calculations and measurements performed
for all test samples in the frequency band of 500–1200 MHz confirms the proper course of the design.
The obtained results of the impedance ZTA in the 860–960 MHz frequency band show a satisfactory
convergence which is suitable for analyzing the impedance-matching between the antenna and the
selected SL900A chip.
Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, conceptualization, M.W.; writing—review and editing,
methodology, P.J.-M.; resources, validation, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, visualization, M.W.
and P.J.-M.; investigation in antenna designs, software—HL3DEM simulations, M.C.; investigation in antenna
technology, resources—sample preparation, J.D. and P.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was financed by the Minister of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland
within the “Regional Initiative of Excellence” program for years 2019–2022. Project number 027/RID/2018/19,
amount granted 11 999 900 PLN. The work was developed by using equipment purchased in the programs EU:
POPW.01.03.00-18-012/09-00; UDA-RPPK.01.03.00-18-003/10-00.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.
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Designing Antennas For RFID Sensors in Monitoring Parameters of Photovoltaic Panels

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Designing Antennas For RFID Sensors in Monitoring Parameters of Photovoltaic Panels

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micromachines

Keywords: RFID (radio-frequency identification); passive transponder; semipassive tag; energy

1.1. RFID Technology

Micromachines 2020, 11, 420; doi:10.3390/mi11040420 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

1.2. Princeples of Photovoltaic Panels

1.4. Integration of Antennas and PV Panels

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Impedance Matching

ZTA = RTA + jXTA = RTA + jωLTA (2)

2.2. Selection of Antenna Construction for the Given Application

DC block RFID chip

SinceSince the complex

3000 2000 0, 70,6

Figure 5. Preliminary(a) (b)

Bottom side (reflector)

Top side (radiator)

Figure 6. HL3DEM numerical model of antenna proposed for RFID sensor.

Table 1. Dimensions of designed antenna in accordance with designations in Figure 6.

Specimen Geometry, Dimensions, mm

Figure 7. Preliminary tests of the radiation patterns.

2.4. Technology of Antenna Fabrication

performed on the technological line in the ML System Company.

Micromachines 2020, 11, x 14 of 18

11. Comparison of measurements and numerical calculations of antenna complex impedance

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