A NOVAL HYBRID FOCV BASED MPPT TECHNIQUE FOR IMPROVING

THE CONVENTIONAL INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD.

Group Members
IRFAN ULLAH 17PWELE5246
ASAD IQBAL 17PWELE5232
MUJEEB ULLAH 17PWELE5241
HASEEB ULLAH 17PWELE5250

Project Supervisor
ENGR.AMMAR KHAN

Electrical (power) Engineering Department

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PESHAWAR

 A NOVEL HYBRID FOCV BASD MPPT TECHNIQUE FOR IMPROVING
THE CONVETIONAL INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD

Project Report submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Engineering &
Technology, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PESHAWAR
 DEDICATION

The project is dedicated to our respectable parents, our honorable supervisor i.e.
ENGR AMMAR KHAN, Honorable teachers who are always dear and near to us
and whose efforts made our ideas turn into reality. It‟s a pray to ALLAH that gives
success and prosperity to all the people who helped us in the project.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we pray to Allah all mighty who gave us the ability and courage to complete this
speculation.
Lots of blessings and Darood Pak to Muhammad (S.A.W) for whose sake al-mighty Allah
created this Universe.
Here we will especially give tribute to our respectable supervisor, ENGR AMMAR KHAN, for
his support and advice throughout this project. His guidance and dedication gave us a good
experience. Without his help, we would not have been possible for us to complete the project.
Finally, we would like to thank our parents, our teachers, our friends for their constant
encouragement and support.
 CERTIFICATE

This thesis entitled “A NOVEL HYBRID FOCV BASD MPPT TECHNIQUE FOR
IMPROVING THE CONVETIONAL INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE
METHOD” submitted by IRFAN ULLAH, ASAD IQBAL, MUJEEB ULLAH and
HASEEB ULLAH hereby accepted as partial fulfillment for the award of Degree of
Bachelors of Engineering in Electrical Engineering to the Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology Peshawar.

______________
Supervisor External Examiner
Engr. AMMAR KHAN

Chairman
Department of Electrical Engineering
UET Peshawar

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

iii
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PESHAWAR
 iv

ABSTRACT

Nowadays, Global warming is the biggest problem in the world. Around the world all energy is
made from fossil fuels due to which the pollution of the world increases day by day. To reduce this
pollution the scientist tries to generate clean and green energy. Where the fossil fuels is useless and
focuses on the green energy. The aim of our project is also inclined towards this problem. To overcome
this problem we can take different steps, in which one is under consideration in this final year project.
We are going to reduce the carbon foot print and directly produced clean and green energy. Here
we used solar cell as a green energy. There as many losses in energy solar cell so we can convert this into
usable power. In this project we aim to boost our effiency up to maximum that‟s much as possible.
CONTENTS
List of Abbreviation
CV Constant Voltage
CV-IC Constant Voltage-Incremental Conductance
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
IC Incremental Conductance
MPP Maximum Power Point
MPO Modified Perturb and Observe
PO Perturb and Observe
PV Photovoltaic
PWM Pulse Width modulation
RAPS Remote area power supply
ISC Circuit Current
FLC Fuzzy Logic Control
PSO Particle swarm Optimization
VOC Open Circuit Voltage
I-V Current-Voltage
HC Hill Climbing
 Chapter 1:
INTRODUCTION

Energy sources are Useful energy from which can be extracted or recovered either directly or
through a process of conversion or transformation. Energy sources have played a basic role in
the development of human society. Primary energy sources may be broken down into two main
categories.

o Non-Renewable Energy Sources

o Renewable Energy Sources

Non-renewable energy is a source of limited supply that we can exploit or remove from the
earth and shortly it is preceded that it will finally run out. These sources of energy are molded
over thousands of years of underwater traces of ancient aquatic plants and animals' lives
million years ago. Most of these energies are fossil fuels which are not environmentally
friendly. While renewable energy sources are natural resources that can replace it speedily
and feebly. These are plentiful, sustainable, natural replenished, and environmentally friendly.
Figure1.1 briefly describes different sources of non-renewable and renewable energy.

Throughout the world, the global warming has become a severe issue and it was discussed in
almost all the international level conferences on the top priority. The earth is heat up day by day so
blame came on people because they burning of fossil fuel. Due to huge increase in last hundred years its
gradual increase is now an exponential increase. Hence “Greenhouse effect” takes place due to rapid
change in humans population which is ultimately change in increase in the volume of burning of fossil
fuel (coil, natural gas, oil, nuclear power). Developed countries are working to minimize the greenhouse
gasses emission. Here we have a number of green source of energies are available such as, wind,
biomass, geothermal, low impact hydropower and PV power generation. But PV power generation plays
an important role. By installing P-V power generation source instead of other energy sources is most
beneficial because it installment cause, reducing in pollution (air, water, land) also it can be put in any
useless place such roofs and desert. Also if we used it on a small load i-e compact scale battery can store
extra energy and also now a days it store it fed back. We have used at for electricity in remote area
where there is no electricity network. In reality, it's miles a developing countries in advanced nations
such as Germany which in 2010 is by a long way the world chief in PV energy technology followed by
way of Spain, Japan, USA and Italy [3]. The initial charges of P-V system installation is high priced
which is not affordable for everyone that‟s why government provide subsidies or feed and terrif.

The increase in power generation of key feature for which increase in effiency in P-V plants take place.
It will also increase the incomes . It cost reaches to the cost of other power produced sources because of
the solely reduction the cost of power generation.

Figure 1-1: Different renewable and non-renewable energy sources

1 Solar Cell

1.1 Define solar panels.

Solar panels are gadget that convert light energy into electrical energy. They are known as “sun”
panels due to the fact most of the time, the most power supply of light to be had inside the solar,
referred to as Sol by means of astronomer. Some scientists called them photovoltaic which means,
“light-energy”. A P-V panel is a set of solar cells. Lots of small sun cells spread over a massive place
can work collectively to provide enough energy to be beneficial. The more lighting that hits a cell, the
more electricity it produces. Solar panel are normally built with crystalline silicon, which is used in
different industries (together with microprocessor industries), and greater luxurious gallium arsenide,
which is produced solely for use in image voltaic (solar) cells.

1.2 History of photo voltaic cell

The term “photovoltaic” come from the Greek word that means “light”, and the name of the Italian
physicist Volta, after whom the volt (and therefore voltage) are named. It approach actually of light and
energy.
The photo voltaic effect become first diagnosed in 1839 with the aid of French physicist Alexander-
Edmond Becquerel. However, it became now not until 1883 that the P-V cell was constructed, by
Charles Frits, who coated the semiconductor selenium within extraordinarily skinny layer of gold to
shape the junctions. The device become best round one percentage efficient.
Russell Ohl patented the current P-V cell in 1946. Sven Ason Berglund had a previous patent
regarding methods of increasing the capacity of photosensitive cells.

The contemporary age of sun electricity technology arrived in 1954 when Bell Laboratories,
experimenting with semiconductor accidently observed that silicon doped with certain impurities
become very sensitive to light.
 This resulted inside the manufacturing of the first realistic sun cells with a sun light electricity
conversion efficiency of around 6%. This milestone created interest in generating and launching a geo-
stationary communication satellite by using presenting a viable.

1.3 How are solar panels made?

Making sun panels is a sensitive system, and it for that reason that primary sun advances
did not come into play until the lattermost area of the closing century, whilst advances
in semiconductors and picture voltaic layout allowed an increasing number of
efficiency and affordable solar cells to be developed.

1.4 How PV cells paintings

Photo voltaic is the direct conversion of light into electrical energy at the atomic stage.
Some substances showcase a belongings called the photo electric powered impact that
reasons them to absorb proton of light and launch electrons whilst these free electrons
are captured, electric powered cutting-edge results that can be used as power.

The photo electric powered effect was first referred to via a French physicist Edmund
Becquerel, in 1839, who located that sure materials could produce small quantities of
electrical cutting-edge when disclose to mild. In 1905, Albert Einstein describe the
nature of light and the photo effect on which photo voltaic era is based totally, for
which he later received a Nobel prize in physics. The first photo voltaic module
changed into constructed by Bell laboratories in 1954. It become billed as a sun battery
and become broadly speaking just a interest because it became costly to gain huge
unfold used. In 1960s, the space industry starts off evolved to make the primary severe
use of technology superior, it's miles reliability become established, and the fee began
to decline. During the energy crises in the Seventies, photovoltaic era gained popularity
as a supply of power for non-area.
 Diagram

The above diagram shows the operation of one photo voltaic cell, additionally referred to as a solar cell.
Solar cell are made from the same kind of semiconductors materials, along with silicon, used in the
microelectronics industry. For P-V cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is in particular treated to form an
electric powered powered field, fantastic on one issue and bad on the other side. When light energy strike
the solar cells electron are knocked free from the atoms inside the semiconductor material. If electric
conductor are linked to the positive and negative, forming and electric circuit, the electron may be
captured within the form of in electric current. This power can be used to power a load, which consist of a
light.

A variety of solar cells electrically linked to every different and installed in guide form or body is
referred to as a photovoltaic module. Modules are design to supply electricity at a high-quality voltage,
which incorporates a not unusual 12V system. The current produce is right away dependent on how a light
strike to the module.

Multiple modules can be stressed out collectively to form an array. Most commonly, the larger the
location of a module an array, the extra energy as a way to be produced. Photovoltaic module and arrays
produced direct–current(dc) power. Than may be associated in each collection and parallel electric
prepare to produced any required voltage and current.
 1.5 Types of PV cells:

Types of P-V cells

The 4 kinds of P-V cells are
• Single Crystal silicon.
• Polycrystalline silicon or multi-crystalline silicon.
• Ribbon silicon.
• Amorphous silicon

1.5.1 Single Crystal Silicon.

Most P-V cells are single crystal types. To make them, silicon is purified,
melted, and crystalized into pieces or ingots. The ingots are sliced into skinny wafers
to make cells. The cells have mostly blue or black.

1.5.2 Polycrystalline silicon:

Poly-crystalline cells are synthetic and perform in a similar way. The difference is
that decrease cost silicon is used. This typically result in barely lower performance,
but polycrystalline cell synthetic assert that the value advantage increses the
efficiency losses. The surface of polycrystalline cell has a random pattern of crystal
borders in place of stable color of single crystal cells.

1.5.3 Ribbon silicon:

Making a ribbon from the molten silicon in preference to an ingot makes

ribbon-kinds P-V cells. These cells are operate similar to single and of poly-crystal
cells.
The anti-reflective coating used on maximum ribbon silicon cells offers them a
prismatic rainbow appearance.

1.5.4 Amorphous or thin film silicon:

The last three kinds of silicon used for the photovoltaic cell have a
desperate crystal structure. Amorphous silicon has no such shape. Amorphous silicon
is sometimes abbreviated “Si” and is likewise called thin film silicon.
Amorphous silicon entites are made by depositing very skinny layers of
vaporized silicon in a vacuum onto a help of glass, plastic, or steel.
 1.6 problem statement:

In Perturb and Observe method of MPPT. The algorithm does not know where the MPP is
lying either to left or right to track the MPP point. In order to solve this problem we select
Incremental conductance method. In this method the algorithm knows where the MPP is lying and
the MPP point is easily track.
hence we use incremental conductance method to achieve the method.

1.6.1 Improvement

In incremental conductance method two steps takes place to acquire the MPP point. The steps are :
 Fixed step
 Variable step

In fixed step the step size is fixed which takes a number of fixed steps to reach MPP, while in
variable step the step size improved and its algorithm takes micro seconds to achieve MPP.

1.6.2 Performance

In this project we prefer INC COND method over P & O and other (direct and indirect) methods. It
improvement in performance are as;
 Decrease error in output parameters – ripples.
 Achieve the approximate actual value of MPP easily.

1.7 Objective and Methodology:

For the analysis of P-V system, two routes are possible:

Experimental and numerical simulation. Numerical simulation generally involves taking

mathematical or numerical device models and to the real world with the help of computer software, while
experimental research involves real-life measurement of materials relevant to the systems operates. So,
both experimental and numerical simulations are followed in this project. The steps used in this project are
modeling, programming, simulation and experimental evaluation of the MPPT technique.
The objectives of this project are as follows.
 To design and implement the MPPT proto type using the incremental conductance algorithm to
convert the varying DC power from the photo voltaic (PV) panel (the output of PV panel varies according
with weather conditions) to stable and desire able DC power.
 The prototype includes the boost converter to transform the random output from the PV panel to
the desired output for the DC load.
 In this project, both experimental and numerical simulations are observed.

The methodology followed in this project is as follows:

 To understand and investigate different algorithms.
 Analysis of boost converter in MATLAB.
  To investigate the output of the P-V panel at different operating conditions in the
MATLAB Simulink and experimentally.
 To perform simulation on boost converter in MATLAB Simulink by using the incremental
conductance algorithm.
Chapter # 2

Literature survey
2.1 Introduction
Now-a-days investments are increasing in rapid rate in solar photovoltaic (PV) energy, due to its
long-term Economic Prospects, and most important one is that it is environmentally friendly. Here the
major issue in the PV system is the low conversion of solar energy (light) to electricity, initially high-
cost, and also with dynamic change in the weather condition most crucial its output changes are.
Range of conversion efficiency of PV module lies in the range of (10% - 20%)
.
Moreover, impedances of the load effects the operations of the P-V system.as load changes the P-V
system operating point also varies on the I-V characteristics. The figure (2.1) below show us the
relation between the Load resistance ⁄ and the I-V graph curve .The intersection point of the IV
curve and load resistance system.

There happens an incompatibility between the load and the P-V system which is not required in a
direct P-V system. From the figure (2.1) as we see the MPP moves or tend to move toward the left by
increasing the load and by decrease in load it move toward the right. From the mechanism of the load
matching, when the load resistance become equal to the optimum resistance at that point
the maximum point occurs. Which is in turn equal to the ratio of the voltage and current at MPP
⁄ .It is more significant to select the solar panel specifications or parameters on the I-

V curve of the load for tracking the MPP of the panel[5].

Figure 2.1: Convergence of IV curve and load resistance at different

 resistances (Under Standard Test Conditions (STC) 250C,
1000w/m2).

More ever, weather condition of such as temperature and irradiance of the environment also affect thr
output of the method of PV. The MPPT algorithm is typically integrated with the dc-dc converter to
overcome the mentioned three problems. Different MPPT techniques have been proposed in literature,
such as direct techniques, indirect techniques, and. Each one of them is briefly discussed below.

2.2 MPPT Technique:

MPPT key feature if full power is to be transferred from source to charge at all environmental
conditions. Algorithms already exist to track maximum power for the PV system. In which some
of them are “indirect techniques” such as Constant Voltage (CV), Short Circuit Current (Isc)
technique, Fuzzy Logic Control techniques. And the others are “direct techniques” such as
Perturb and Observed based MPPT and Incremental Conductance techniques. Each one of them
is briefly discussed below.

2.2.1 Indirect Technique:

Indirect methods, like Constant Voltage[6] and Short Circuit Current [7] use the physical
parameters of the PV modules such as Open Circuit Voltage or Short Circuit Current as control
parameters for MPP searching.

Constant Voltage is the simplest MPPT control technique. This approach is also called as the
method of Open Circuit Voltage . The solar cells property is based upon Voc. A widely used
VMPP / Voc value is seventy-six percent.

The following equation may describe this relationship.

Vmpp = k1 ∗Voc

Here always factor k1 is less than one. It looks very difficult to determine the best value for k1
and the range from 0.71 to 0.8. The average value used is 0.76, so this algorithm is often referred
to as a 76 percent algorithm. By controlling the array voltage and matching it to a defined
reference voltage, the working factor of the PV array is stored close to the MPP Vref. The Vref
value is equal to the VMPP of the feature P-V module or to other calculated quality open circuit
voltage this technique assumes that individual variations in insulation and temperature at the
array are negligible and that the steady reference voltage is an affordable approximation of the
genuine MPP [7]. The method is easy, but at ordinary durations, it wishes to be calculated by
Voc. This causes energy losses

The most basic method of regulating MPPT is the Short Circuit Current Isc algorithm. This
approach is also known as the method of constt current. Isc is the photovoltaic short-circuit
Current. The Isc depends on solar cell land. The following equation will explain this relationship.

The factor k2 here is always smaller than one. It looks very easy, but it is very difficult to decide
the best k2 value, and k2 varies between 0.78 and 0.92. When the output current of the PV array
is roughly 90% of the ISC, the solar module operates at it‟s MPP. The popular value of k2 is, in
other words, 0.9. Is problematic to calculate ISC during service. Usually, an extra switch has to be
connected to the power converter. Not only is power output decreased when ISC is detected, but
also because the MPP is never perfectly balanced. [7].

For physical systems that do not lend themselves to simple and precise mathematical modeling and
crisp variables, Fuzzy Logic Controllers (FLC's) have been suggested and can therefore not be
tackled by conventional purely analytical control design techniques. Instead, control variables are
represented by fluid variables that allow the uncertainty level of the variables to be modeled
systematically. Also, a typical operator of such a process's expert expertise is embodied in a
collection of linguistic or rule-based engines that are the center of a fuzzy controller. [8].

FLC does not need a specific device model and works well with imprecise inputs. Fuzzy MPPT
performance depends on the membership features as well as the rule-based features used. Some of
the FLC's disadvantages are set out below.
 Required expert knowledge of the system.
 FLC’s are using a trial and error approaches to increase the performance of the system
which is time-consuming.
 Complexity increases as membership functions increase.

Particle Swarm Optimization PSO introduces the method for the optimization of continuous non-
linear functions [9][10]. PSO can also handle and effectively locate the MPP for any power voltage
curve irrespective of the changes occurs in environmental conditions [11]. But irrespective of its
benefits, there are some drawbacks P and O suffers from a large number of computations which
requires high-speed processor.

2.2.2 Direct Techniques:

The direct method uses the direct/instantaneous values from the PV panel such as output voltage
and current, the two basic direct methods are Perturb and Observed (P&O) and Incremental
Conductance (IC). The (P&O) algorithm is one of the most commonly utilized MPPT control
schemes for PV generators [12]. The Hill Climbing (HC) algorithm is also called the P&O
algorithm. The P&O method can be best understood in figure 2.2.

Minor disruption to the system is introduced in this algorithm. The module shifts the power due to
this disruption. If increases the power as a result of the disturbance, then the disturbance proceeds
in that direction. The power at the next moment is being decrese after the maximum power is
reached, and hence reverses the perturbation after that. The algorithm oscillates around the
highest point when in stationary state is achieved. The size of the perturbation is kept small to
keep the power difference less, as seen in figure (2.2) [13]. The number of advantages that the
P&O algorithm offers are:.

 It simplifies the tracking structure.

 It reduces the computation cost as well as time.
 No tuning efforts are needed.

For short, it replaces the complex MPPT control with simplified MPPT control.

In [14] author proposed Incremental Conductance (IC) algorithm for tracking MPPT. This
algorithm also uses the concept of „Hill Climbing‟, it is introduced to overcome the drawbacks of
the P & O algorithm. Like the oscillations of the P&O algorithm around MPP, and it is also
developed based on the assumption that terminal voltage arrays can often be balanced to a Vmax
value by contrasting the PV array's incremental and instant conductance.

Both P&O and IC algorithms are investigated by the author in [15], and both algorithms were
designed for the same real atmospheric conditions with a high level of irradiance fluctuations,
approximately 30W / m2. The outcomes of the investigation are that the update rate for P&O must
slightly be greater than that of IC thus neither of the two algorithms can be preferred over the
other.

In this project Incremental conductance algorithm is used, because Incremental conductance can
track fastly growing and reduce irradiance situations with better accuracy than perturb and
observe.

Perturb and Observe:

This algorithm uses a simple structure of input and output and small computed parameters. In
this approach, the module voltage is given periodically to perturbation and the corresponding
output power is compared to that in the previous perturbation cycle [15]. Minor perturbation is
applied to the system in this algorithm. This perturbation is causing the power of the various
solar modules. The power at the MPP is zero until the peak power is achieved and the next
moment reduces and so the perturbation reverses after that as shown in figures 5-1, 5-2, and 5-3
The algorithm revolves around a high-power point when a stable state has arrived. The magnitude
of the perturbation remains very small to keep the little power difference. The process is run in
such a way that it sets the reference power of the module corresponding to the maximum
power of the module. The controller works to transfer the operating point of the module to a
certain level of voltage power. Due to this perturbation, some power loss is often observed to
track the maximum power under rapidly Changing atmospheric conditions. But this method
is always very popular and easy to use [16].

Figure 2.2.1: P-V curve. (Under standard conditions 1Kw/m2, 250C)

Table 2.2.1: Summary of the working principle of the P&O algorithm.

 Benefits:
P&O is very popular and most commonly used in practice because of
 Its simplicity in the algorithm.
 Ease of implementation.
 Low cost
 It is a comparatively an accurate method.

Drawbacks:
Some limitations that reduce it‟s MPPT efficiency. They are,
 It cannot determine when it has reached the MPP. Under steady-state
operation output power oscillates around the MPP.

CONVENTIONAL INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE:

The Incremental Conductance will assess to stop the perturbing operating stage when the
(Maximum Power Point) MPPT has reached the MPP (Maximum Power Point) and. If it is not
satisfied this condition, the equation between dI/dV and -I/V will be used to evaluate The
direction in which the MPPT operating point may be interrupted. This equation is derived from
the fact that dP/dV is negative when the MPPT is the right side of the MPP curve and positive
when it is on the left side of the MPP curve.

Here we use two different approach:

 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE WITH FIXED STEP SIZE:

 Incremental method will always work on MPP voltage. It is based over Incremental conductance and
instantaneous conductance of the P-V module. The MPP have zero slop having a shape a lot of curves
at MPP. On the left a increases for MPP tracking and on right side at decreases to acquired MPP. By
differentiating the power of the P-V array we derived the incremental conductance algorithm with
respect to voltage and at last the result become equal to zero [5]. Which is the desired / required
MPP.
 (1) at the MPP
 (2)
As we see in the above equation (2) the left hand side show the instantaneous conductance of P-V array and are
opposite while the right hand side represents its incremental conductance . Hence, for tracking MPP two conditions
are must which are as follows;
 Both the quantities become equal to each other both in quantity and having opposite in signs.
 The equation (2) if show any derived set of inequalities, we can deduced very easily at any instant the
position of MPP voltage weather lies above or below.

; ( (3)

; ( (4)

(5)
FLOW CHART OF FIXED STEP INCREMENTAL
CONDUCTANCE:
 Benefits:

 better accuracy than perturbing and observing.

 It has good tracking efficiency
 It can reduce power loss and system cost as well
Drawbacks:
 This algorithm has the disadvantage of increased complexity.

6 Variable step size incremental conductance method OF

MPPT:

The INC MMPT algorithm is based on the fact that the slope of the array power curve is zero at the
MPP, positive on the left of the MPP, and negative on the right. The output of MPPT controller is
equal to at the MPP. Once the MPP is reach, the operation of the P-V array is maintained at this
point unless is observed. the algorithm decrements or increment to track the new MPP point,
when the atmospheric condition changes. The INC MPPT algorithm usually uses a fixed iteration step
size, the power drawn from the PV array with a larger step size contributes to faster system dynamics but
excessive steady state oscillations, resulting in a comparatively low system efficiency. To solve the
problem, a modified INC MPPT with variable step size is adopted in this paper. The step size is
automatically adjust according to the inherent PV array characteristics. If the operating point is so far
from MPP, it increases the step size which enables afast tracking ability. If the operating point is near to
the MPP , the step size becomes very small that the oscillation is well reduced contributing to a higher
efficiency. The flow chart of variable step size INC MPPT algorithm as shown in figure. Where the step
size is automatically tuned. Variable step size adopted to reduce the problem mentioned above in fixed
size.

WHERE coefficient N is the scaling factor which is tuned to adjust the step size.
CHAPTER 03
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PV PANNEL
3.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic PV solar cell depends upon the effect called “photovoltaic effect”, which state that when the
solar irradiance falls on the surface of the “Photodiode” as a result the current is produced that current is
known as “photocurrent Iph” of the photodiode. The output of the photodiode relies on many factors such
as the “sun irradiance, temperature of the surrounding and other so many factors”.

In an ideal case, the photodiode is basically the combination of P-type and n-type semiconducting
materials, as a result of that combination it forms a P-N junction (which is also known as depletion
region) of the diode. When the sun irradiance falls on the surface of the p-n junction, and if the energy of
the sun‟s irradiance exceeds the band-gap energy of the semi-conducting material so it results electron-
hole pairs on both sides of the depletion region which causes potential difference across the terminals of
the photodiode, if it is connected across the load then there will be a current through that load, and that
current is called the photocurrent Iph .

The output of one crystalline silicon PV cell is equal to 0.5V, and these cells are combining in series
or parallel to get the required output voltage, and current this combination PV cell is known as PV panel
and module. If panels are combined in series and/or parallel manner then this combination is known as PV
array. A typical PV cell, panel, and array are shown in figure 3.1

Figure 3.1: Model of PV cell, module, and array respectively

3.2 Mathematical model of P-V panel:
To understand the working principle of the P-V module, researchers continuously update the
mathematical model of the P-V panel which was designed on different software‟s such as C programing,
MATLAB, Simulink, Python, etc. In the early stage, the MATLAB m. file code was used to model a PV
panel. Then MATLAB Simulink model was also introduced in which both are working reliably under
Standard Test Conditions STC and normal environmental conditions. Both MATLAB m. file code and
Simulink models were tested and the results are compared.

3.2.1 Equivalent circuit for P-V panel:

The equivalent circuit for P-V panel in figure 3.2 is shown where the photocurrent Iph depends upon
the solar irradiance, Id is the current through the diode, and Ish is the Current through shunt resistance, and
finally, the equation for the output current I by using Kirchhoff‟s Current Rules is shown below. The
diode current Id depends upon the saturation current Io and the reverse saturation current Irs.

I=Iph-Id-Ish (1)

Figure 3.2: Mathematical equivalent circuit of PV panel

The mathematical equivalent equation for the photocurrent Iph is shown below.

Iph = [ Isc + Ki. ( T-298 ) ] G/1000 (2)

Where
Isc : Short Circut Current of the P-V panel.

ki : Short Circuit Current of a cell at STC

T : operating temperature of a cell(K)

G: solar irradiance (W/m2)

The equivalent mathematical equation for saturation current Io is shown below.

Io = Irs. [ T/Tn ]3 exp[q Ego ( 1/Tn-1/T ) / nK (3)

Where

Irs: Reverse Saturation Current

q: charge on the electron

Ego: band gap energy of semiconductors (eV)

Tn: nominal temperature

(K) n: ideality factor of diode

K: Bolt‟z Mann constant

The equivalent mathematical equation for reverse saturation current Irs is shown below.

Irs = Isc/ (exp [q. Voc/n.Ns.K. T]-1) (4)

Where Voc: open circuit voltage

Ns: number of cells connected in series

The equivalent mathematical equation for shunt current Ish is shown below.

Ish = (V+ I. Rs)/Rsh (5)

Where V: output voltage of a cell

I: output current
Now the mathematical equation for the resultant output current I is shown below.

I = Iph – Io (exp [ q (V+IRs) / nKNs T ] -1 ) - Ish (6)

3.3 Dc to Dc CONVERTER
DC-DC converters of electrical circuits convert the DC power to another DC electricity supply, and
additionally offer a managed output. There are 3 primary topologies buck , boost , and the buck-boost.
Most power conversion issues have been conquer with the aid of mixtures of these 3 topologies and
preserve to accomplish that today. DC-DC converters are used to convert an uncontrolled enter of DC
voltage into a managed output voltage. From the boost converter, the output voltage polarity is inverse to
the input voltage, that's less or extra than the enter voltage based totally at the duty cycle. The conversion
of output to input ratio is also dependent on the fabricated from the boost converter ratios. By controlling
the switch duty cycle, the output voltage is managed. In this portion, we've discussed the DC-DC
converters unique topologies. We have explained the modes operations and Boost Converter.

Many converter topologies can be used for maximum power points. The various topologies such as
Buck-Boost , Cuk , and Full-bridge converter. We have been studying the Boost converter topology in
this project. Because of the simplicity it is described in this chapter. This chapter describes the
fundamental concept behind the study of the DC-DC Converter.

3.3.1 BOOST CONVERTER

A boost converter is a DC-DC electricity converter this is used to step up voltage from the input to output.
Boost converter is a class switch switch mode power supply. It‟s containing at least semiconductors (a
diode and transistor) and at least one power element; which is a capacitor, inductor or in both
combination. For lowering voltage riffles filters are made up of capacitors (commonly in reference to
inductor) which generally sum to such converters output that's (load side clear out) and at input supply
facet filter out.

Circuit Diagram

Figure 2.1 Boost converter circuit diagram

 3.3.2 GENERAL CONFIGURATION OF BOOST CONVERTER:

Here in this converter the voltage at the output side is greater than that of the input so it is
called “boost”. Boost converter used Power MOSFET which is shown below.

Figure3.3.2 POWER MOSFET in boost converter.

There are modes of functioning of increase converter ( Mode A and Mode B).
MODE A.
Starts when transistor M1 is switched on at time t=zero. The input modern rises and flows through
inductor L and transistor M1.
MODE B.
Starts when transistor M1 is switched off at time t = t1. The enter modern now flows through L, C, load,
and diode Dm. The inductor current falls till the next cycle. The electricity stored in inductor L flows
through the load.
Following are the circuit diagrams of the MODE A AND B.

(A)

(B)
Fig. 3.3.3 Circuit operation (a) Mode A and (b) Mode B. [1]
The waveforms for the voltages and currents are shown below

Figure 3.3.4 waveform for current and voltage.

The voltage-current relation for the inductor L is:

 ∫

Or

For a constant rectangular pulse:

MODES OF OPERATION:

When the transistor MA is switched:

Or

And when the transistor is switched off the Current is:

Or

Here VD is the voltage drop across the diode. , and is the voltage drop
across the transistor MA.

By equating through delta i, we can solve for

 Neglecting the voltage drops across the diode and the transistor we have;

HERE, we see that the output voltage is related directly to the duty cycle. when designing a converter the
main challenge is the sort of inductor to be used. From above equations, it is able to be seen that the
inductance is inversely proportional to the ripple current "I". So, a large ripple is used to reduced the
ripples [5].

3.4 BUCK CONVERTER:

A buck converter (step down converter) is a DC-DC converter which step down voltage from
its input supply to its output load. This is class of switch mode power supply [SMPS] commonly
containing at least semi-conductor (a diode and transistor), even though buck converter frequently update
the diode with the second one transistor used for synchronous rectification ) and at final one energy
storage element ,a capacitor, inductor, or both combine .To lesser voltage ripple, filters made from
capacitors (some time in combination with inductors) are generally add to this kind of converter
output(load-aspect filter)and input(supply-facet filter out).

Switching converters provide a much greater power performance as DC-DC converter. Than
linear regulators, which might be easier circuit that decrease voltage dissipating power is warmness,
however do no longer step out present day.

Buck converter may be fairly effeciency (regularly better than 90%), making than beneficial for
tasks inclusive of changing a computer (bulk ) bulk voltage(often 12 V)DOWN TO lower voltages need
by means of USB ,DRAM and the CPU(1.8 V or much less).
Circuit diagram:

Mode of operation:

 When switch is ON ,diode is OFF;

Let the switch is on for time and off for time , so time period are:

So the switching frequency will be:

 As the duty cycle:

At the steady state apply KVL on the loop:

From this we see that when the switch is closed for TON which is equal to DT hence we then say that

( )CLOSED =(

SO;
As the switch is open for some interval

So we can say that,

( ( )

The closed and open current will be

( ( )

3.5 BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

The buck-boost converter in fig. 3.5.1 is based on the principle [18] of buck-boost converter. The
average output voltage can, as the name implies, be higher or lower than the voltage input. The
average voltage of the output and the input-voltage are given by:

The ratio of average output voltage and input voltage has a negative sign as the buck- boost
is an inverting converter.
 Figure 3.5.1: Buck-Boost converter

Modes of Operation:
The above figure 3.5.1 is described as the buck-boost converter. The operating modes for
this converter are as follows.

First ON Cycle:
When the switch is ON the inductor is charged when the diode is connected in reverse biased,
the diode operates as an open circuit, so the connected load is separated from the voltage of
the source. The current flow through the inductor is L.

Fig.3.5.2: 1st ON Cycle

First OFF Cycle:
The inductor brings the stored energy to the capacitor if the switch is OFF because the
inductor is a source for the rest of the circuit. In which the diode behaves as forward biased,
the diode gets conduct. Current run through the capacitor C is.

Fig. 3.5.3: 1st OFF Cycle

Vin=0

Second ON Cycle:
The switch is turned ON to charge the inductor, and the diode works as an open circuit, the rest
part circuit of the capacitor starts the supply to load since the capacitor supplies the charge to
load and, the capacitor, acts as a source. The current flow through the load is Io and the output
voltage acquire from the circuit is opposite in it‟s polarity,

Fig. 3.5.4: 2nd ON Cycle

 ∫

Second OFF Cycle:

When the switch is switched OFF the inductor supply the energy stored in the capacitor, the
inductor is a source for the remaining circuit in that cycle. The diode acquires a behavior in
which the diode is forward biased. The current flows through the capacitor is c.

Fig. 3.5.5: 2nd OFF Cycle

∫