EE 360

Electric Energy Engineering

Transformers

Dr. Mohammad Al-Muhaini

 Where these course notes come from

• On-Line EE360 Notes

• Electrical Machinery Fundamentals,

Stephen J. Chapman, 2012, 5th edition

• Electromechanical Energy Devices and

Power Systems, by Zia A. Yamayee, Juan L.
Bala. Jr., 1994.

• Prof. M. A. El-Sharkawi’s notes, university of

Washington,USA.
 Transformers

200kV-1MV Transmission
transformer

High voltage
transmission line

Transmission
Power plant transformer

Service 15kV-25kV
transformer
Distribution
transformer
Distribution line
120/240V
Distribution Transformer

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Low power Transformer

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Washington
 Transformers
Faraday’s Law

If a flux φ passes through N turn of a coil, the induced in the

coil is given by
d
eind = −N
dt
The negative sign is the statement of the Lenz’s law stating that
the polarity of the induced voltage should be such that a current
produced by it produces a flux in the opposite of the original flux.
This is illustrated below

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 Transformers

• What is a transformer?

A device for increasing or decreasing an AC voltage

• A transformer used to increase the voltage is called a "step

up" transformer, while that used to decrease the voltage is
called a "step down" transformer.

• A transformer consists of two coils of wires known as

primary and secondary windings
 Transformers

Basic Components

Iron Core Insulated Copper Wire

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 Transformers

• A transformer consists of two coils electrically separate but linked by a

common magnetic circuit of low reluctance formed by a laminated soft
iron core. If one coil (the primary coil) is connected to an AC supply, an
alternating magnetic flux is set up in the iron core.

• This alternating magnetic flux passes

through the secondary coil and induces and
alternating voltage in the secondary coil.

• The magnitude of the secondary voltage is

directly proportional to the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary and
primary windings and to the primary
voltage.
 Transformers
Ideal Transformer
• The relative permeability of the core is very high
• No Leakage Flux, hence Leakage Flux of the two
windings are neglected.
• Ideal windings has no resistances.
• Ideal core has no reluctance.
• Core losses are neglected.

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 Transformers
d
eP = N P
dt d
eS = N S
1 dt
=
NP  eP dt

iP iS

eP NP NS eS

Primary Secondary

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 Transformers
Basic Analysis:Voltage
d iP iS
eP ( t ) N P dt N P +
= = eP _+ NP NS eS
eS ( t ) N d N S _
S
dt
EP N P E P ES
= =
ES N S NP NS
• Volts/turn is constant
• Voltages are in phase (no phase shift)
• Voltage magnitudes vary with turns ratio.
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 Transformers
Basic Analysis: Power and current
S P = SS iP iS
e + N N + e
E I =E I
* * P S S
P _ _
P P S S

I P* ES N S IP NS
*
= = = NP I P = NS I S
I S EP N P IS NP

• Currents are in phase.

• Current ratio is opposite to the voltage ratio

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 Transformers

Turns Ratio
 Transformers
Impedance Transformation Through an Ideal Transformer

• The load impedance ZL is given

by
Vs
ZL =
Is
• The apparent impedance of the
primary circuit is

• Z’L is the load impedance

“referred” or “reflected” to the
primary side.
 Transformers
• The primary voltage can be expressed as

Vp = aVs

• This is the secondary voltage as “seen” from the primary

side of the ideal transformer. This referred voltage may be
defined as

• Similarly, the secondary current “referred to” or “as

seen from” primary side of the ideal transformer
may be defined as Is
'
Is @
a
 Transformers
Dot Convention

• The “dots” help to determine the polarity of the voltage

and direction of the current in the secondary winding.

• If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the

winding with respect to the undotted end, then the
secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted end also.

• If the primary current of the transformer flows into the

dotted end of the primary winding, the secondary current
will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.

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 Transformers

Single-Phase, Ideal Transformer Ratings

IP IS
Apparent Power
+ +
VP NP NS VS
2 KVA, 120/240 V - -

Primary Voltage Secondary Voltage

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 Transformers

• Rated voltage: The device can continuously

operate at the rated voltage without being
damaged due to insulation failure

• Rated current: The device can continuously

operate at the rated current without being
damaged due to thermal destruction

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Transformers
Transformers
 Transformers
Example 2
A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V, 60-Hz generator supplying a load
Zload = 4 + j3 Ω through a transmission line of impedance Zline = 0.18 + j0.24 Ω. Answer
the following:
(a) If the power system is as shown in Fig a, what will the voltage at the load be?
What will the TL losses be?
 Transformers

𝑉
𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = 90.8∠ − 37.8° 𝐴
𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 454∠ − 0.9° 𝑉

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ) 2 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1484 𝑊

 Team Problem
(b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up XFMR is placed at the generator end of the TL and a
10:1 step-down XFMR is placed at the load end of the line (see Fig b). What
will the voltage at the load be? What will the TL losses be?
 Team Problem

𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 9.594∠ − 36.88° 𝐴

𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 479.7∠ − 0.01° 𝑉

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 16.7 𝑊
 Transformers

Equivalent Circuit of a
“Real”
Single Phase Transformer
 Transformers
• Major items to be considered to accurately model a
real transformer:

1. Copper Losses in the primary and secondary windings.

• Proportional to the square of the current in the windings
2. Eddy current losses.
• Proportional to square of the voltage applied to the XFMR.
3. Hysteresis losses.
• Nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the XFMR.
4. Magnetization losses.
• Can be represented by a current that is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage
applied to the XFRM.
5. Leakage losses.
• Due to leakage fluxes, can be represented by inductances.
 Transformers
Core Losses – Eddy Current and Hysteresis
Primary Primary Secondary Secondary
copper leakage copper leakage
losses losses losses losses

Core losses: Magnetization

Eddy current + losses
hysteresis
 Transformers
Equivalent Circuit
'
RP jXP I S RS jXS
NP N S
IE
IP IS

load
VP EP ES VS
RC XM

'
EP N P VP I NS IP
=  S
= 
ES N S VS IS NP IS
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 Transformers
EP = I S' ( RS' + jX S' ) + VS'
Equivalent Circuit Referred to
Primary (Source) Side
RP XP I '
S RS XS
NP NS
IE
IP IS
VP RC XM
EP ES VS

RP XP R' X S'
S

IE '
IP I S
VP EP VS'
RC XM

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 Transformers
• The equivalent circuit may be simplified by reflecting
impedances, voltages, and currents from the secondary to
the primary side as shown below:

• Below is the transformer model referred to Secondary Side.

31
 Transformers

Practical Considerations
RP XP '
R X S'
S

IE '
IP I S
VP EP VS'
RC XM

RP  RC  R '
S
IP = I + IE S
'

X P  X M  X '
S
I  I E  I P
S
'

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 Transformers
R
X P R ' X S'
P S

IE '
IP I S
VP VS'
RC XM

ReqP = RP + RS'
Define:
X eqP = X P + X S'

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 Transformers
• Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary side:

• Assuming that
excitation current is
very small (2-3%)
compared to primary
current.

• Approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary side:

 Transformers
XP X S'
RP RS'

IP  I '
S
VP VS'

ReqP = RP + RS'
Define:
X eqP = X P + X S'

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 Transformers

Analysis of Transformer
ReqP X eqP

IP  I '
S
VP VS' Z

VP = V + I
S
'
S
'
(R eqP + jX eqP )

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 Transformers
Terminologies
VS Load Voltage

Load Voltage referred to Primary (Source) side

NP
V = S
'
VS
NS Impedance referred to Primary (Source) side

2
 NP 
IS Load Current
R =
'
S  RS
 NS 
2
Load current referred to Primary (Source) side  NP 
X =
'
S  XS
NS  NS 
I =
'
S IP
NP El-Sharkawi@University of
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 Transformers
Exact Equivalent Circuit
 Transformers
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
 Transformers
Example
A 25 KVA, 440/220 V, 60 Hz transformer has the following parameters,

R1=0.16 Ω
R2=0.04 Ω
X1=0.32 Ω
X2=0.08 Ω
Rc1= 270 Ω
Xm1=100 Ω

The transformer delivers 20 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging to a load on the

low voltage side with 220 V across the load.

Find the primary terminal voltage

 Transformers
Voltage Regulation VR
ReqP X eqP

IP  I '

Load
S
VP VS'

Vno load − V full load

VR 
V full load
VP − VS'
VR  '
Measured at the load side VS
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 Transformers

Efficiency  ReqP XeqP

IE
IP '
VP I S VS'
RC XM

 =
Output Power
=
Pout Pcu = ( I ' 2
S ) Req
Input Power Pin
2
V
Pin = Pout + Losses Piron = P
Ro
Plosses = Pcu + Piron Pout = VS' I S' cos 
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 Transformers
Example
 Transformers
(a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
 Transformers
(b) Find the per-unit equivalent circuit of this transformer.
 Transformers
(c) Assume that this transformer is supplying rated load at 277 V and 0.85 PF lagging.
What is this transformer’s input voltage? What is its voltage regulation?
 Transformers
(d) What are the copper losses and core losses in this transformer under the conditions
of part (c)?
 Transformers
(e) What is the transformer’s efficiency under the conditions of part (c)?
Transformers
Maximum Efficiency

Copper losses = Iron losses

 Transformers
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

Transformer impedances may be obtained from two tests:

• Open-circuit test: to determine core losses and magnetizing

reactance (Rc and Xm)

• Short-circuit test: to determine equivalent Series Impedance Req.

and equivalent leakage reactances, Xeq)
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 Transformers
Open-Circuit Test to Determine Rc and Xm

With secondary open, Voc, Ioc, and Poc are measured

on the primary side.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display .
 Transformers
Short-Circuit Test to Determine Req and Xeq

With secondary shorted, a reduced voltage is

applied to primary such that rated current flows
in the primary. VSC, ISC, and PSC are measured on
the primary side.

V
Z =
eq cos PF = R + jX
sc −1

I
eq eq

sc

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 Transformers
Determining Transformer’s Parameters
Note that

• OC test measurements are usually taken at the

secondary (since lower voltage is easier to deal with).

• SC test measurements are usually taken at the

primary (since lower current is easier to deal with).

Hence, one of these quantities has to be referred to the

other side.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display .
 Transformers

Example 2-5
A 15-kVA, 2300/230-V transformer is considered. The following test data have
been taken:
OC Test (on secondary) SC Test (on primary)
Voc = 230V Vsc = 47V
Ioc = 2.1A Isc = 6.0A
Poc = 50W Psc = 160W

(a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
(b) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
(c) Calculate the full load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, 1.0 power
factor, and 0.8 leading power factor.
(d) Plot voltage reg. as load is increased from no load to full load at the above
mentioned power factors.
(e) What is the transformer efficiency at full load with a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
 Transformers

Multi-Secondary Transformer
 Transformers
Multi-secondary windings (FYI)

Center-tapped
transformer

“Hot”

“Cold”

“Hot”

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 Transformers

Transformer Taps and Voltage

Regulation
 Transformers
• A typical distribution transformer has a number of taps. Hence,
the turns ratio can be adjusted based on the system needs.

• Typically, such a transformer would have four taps in addition

to the nominal setting with spacing of 2.5% of full-load voltage
between them.

Example.
Consider a 200/100-V transformer with 2.5% taps on the primary winding.
The voltage ratios corresponding to each tap would be:
• +5.0% tap → 200/105
• +2.5% tap → 200/102.5
• nominal tap → 200/100
• -2.5% tap → 200/98.5
• -5% tap → 200/95
 Transformers

Tap Changing Under Load (TCUL) Transformer: It is a transformer

whose tap settings can be adjusted while the transformer is
loaded.

A voltage regulator: It is a TCUL transformer with a feedback

loop that senses the voltage and adjusts the tap setting
automatically.
 Transformers

Autotransformer
 Transformers

• It consists of a single tapped primary where the center tap is common to

both primary and secondary (not isolated).

• some of the turns on the coil are used for the primary and some are
used for the secondary.

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 Transformers
• Subscript C stands for “common”.
This winding is common between high and low voltage sides.

• Subscript SE stands for “series”.

This winding is in series with the
common winding.
Transformers
 Transformers
Autotransformer: Voltage and current
• Given NC, NSE, What is VH/VL?

VH = VC + VSE IH
A1
NSE
VC NC VSE ISE
=
VSE N SE
VL = VC A2
IL
VH = VC + VSE VH B1
N SE  N   N  NC
VH = VC + VSE = VC + VC = 1 + SE VC = 1 + SE VL
NC  NC   NC 
VC IC VL
VH N SE + NC
= B2
VL NC
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 Transformers
Autotransformer: Voltage and current
• Given NC, NSE, What is IH/LL?

I L = I SE + IC IH
A1
NSE
ISE
NC IC = N SE I SE VSE

I H = I SE A2
IL
I L = I SE + IC VH B1
N SE  N SE   N SE  NC
I L = I SE + I SE = 1 +  I SE = 1 +  IH VC VL
NC  NC   NC  IC
I L N SE + NC B2
=
IH NC
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 Transformers
ISE IC Autotransformer
IH
+ + A1
NSE
VSE NSE NC VC VSE ISE

- - A2 IL
VH B1
NC
VC IC VL

SW = VSE I SE = VC I C B2

S IO = VH I H = VL I L
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 Transformers

Autotransformer: Power
S IO = VH I H = (VSE + VC ) I SE = VSE I SE + VC I SE
S IO = SW + VC I SE

S IO  SW
Autotransformer power Original rating,
OR OR
Input/output power Apparent power
at the winding

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 Transformers

Autotransformer:
Apparent Power Rating Advantage
• It can be shown that:

S IO N SE + N C
=
SW N SE
 Transformers
VARIC: Variable Auto-Transformer
A variac is a single coil with a sweeping arm for the center common, this
allows the ratio of primary turns:secondary turns to be altered easily.

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 Transformers
Example

A 1φ, 100 kVA, 2000/200 V two-winding transformer is connected as an

autotransformer such that more than 2200 V is obtained at the secondary.

The portion ab is the 200 V winding, and the portion bc is the 2000 V winding.

Compute the kVA rating as an autotransformer

 Transformers

2000 V 2200 V
 Transformers
Example
Transformers
 Team Problem

Ratings of regular transformer: 10 kVA, 400/200 V

New voltage ratio: 600/200 V
Compute the new power ratings
IH
A1
Solution NSE
VSE ISE
SW 10k
IC = = = 50 A A2 IL
VC 0.2k VH
B1
SW 10k NC
I SE = = = 25 A = I H VC IC VL
VSE 0.4k
SIO = VH I H = 600  25 = 15 kVA B2

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 Transformers

Three-Phase Transformer
 Transformers

Three-Phase Transformer – Single Core

• Cheaper
• Lighter
• Smaller
• A bit more efficient

Figure 2-36

A three-phase transformer wound on a single three-legged

core.
 Transformers
Three-Phase Transformer – Three Cores

• More reliable.
• Easier to
transport
• Spare phase!

Figure 2-35

A three-phase transformer bank composed

of independent transformers
 Transformers
3-phase transformer Y-Y connection.
Also known as star-star connection
a A
Ratio of Phase Voltage

N1 N2

Ratio of Line Voltage

n N

c b C B

Van N1 Vac 3 Van N1

= = =
VAN N2 VAC 3 VAN N2
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Figure 2-37(a)
Three-phase transformer Y-Y connections and wiring diagram.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Transformers
3-phase transformer ( -)
Ratio of Phase Voltage and line voltage

A
a

N1 N2
B
c b
C

Vac N1
=
VAC N2
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Figure 2-37(d)

Three-phase transformer Δ- Δ connections and wiring diagram.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 3-phase transformer (Y-)
a A
Ratio of Phase Voltage

Ratio of Line Voltage

N1
n
N2 B

c b C
Van N1 Vac 3 Van 3 N1
= =a = = = 3a
VAC N2 VAC VAC N2
The secondary voltage lags the primary voltage by 30 deg
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Figure 2-37(b)

Three-phase transformer Y-Δ connections and wiring diagram.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Transformers
3-phase transformer (-Y)

Vab N1 Vab Vab N1 a

= =a = = =
Va ' n N2 Va 'b ' 3 Va ' n 3 N2 3

The secondary voltage leads the primary voltage by 30 deg

Figure 2-37(c)

Three-phase transformer Δ-Y connections and wiring diagram.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Transformers
Ratings of Ideal 3-phase
Transformer
Apparent Power (3-phase)

100 MVA, 13.8/138 KV

Primary Voltage Secondary Voltage

line-to-line line-to-line
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 Transformers
Example
Three single-phase transformers are used to form a three-
phase transformer bank. Each single-phase transformer is
rated at 10 kVA, 13.8 KV/240 V.

One side of the transformer bank is connected to a three-

phase, 13.8 kV transmission line. The other side of the
transformer is connected to a three-phase residential load of
415.7V, 9kVA at 0.8 power factor lagging.

Determine the connection of the transformer bank, the

voltage ratio of the transformer bank, and the magnitude of
the line current of the bank at the 13.8 kV side

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 Transformers

Solution
• Secondary voltage (Low voltage side) should be in
Y to provide the needed residential voltage
415.7
= 240V
3
• The high voltage side must be Delta-connection
– The line-to-line voltage of the supply is 13.8 kV. Same
as the transformer rating of the primary.
– If the primary is connected in Y, the voltage of the load
would be lower than 240 V.

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 Transformers
Solution Van= 240 V
A a
VAB= 13.8 kV N1 N2 Van Vab

B
b
N1 N2

C
c

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 Transformers
Solution Van= 240 V
VAB VAB 13,800 a
= = A
Vab 3 Van 3 240 VAB= 13.8 kV
N1 N2 Van V
ab

Phase current of the load B b

9000 N1 N2
I2 = 3 = 12.5 A C
240 c
Phase current of the Transformer primary

N2 240 Line Current in primary

I1 = I 2 = 12.5 = 0.2174 A
N1 13,800 I A = 3 I1 = 0.377 A
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