ELJMC

UNIT II – TECHNICALITIES
“A philosopher once said, half of good philosophy is good grammar.”
-The Vamps (Girls on TV)
UNIT OBJECTIVES
LESSON OBJECTIVES
• appreciate the topic by means of classifying the different
types of sentence according to form and according to
Sentence Types and structure;
Patterns (With • enumerate the different basic sentence pattern;
Common Sentence • identify the common sentence errors;
Errors) • appreciate the topic by means of discussing sentence errors;
and
• apply the correction for each sentence errors.
• apply the rules in capitalization through sentence
construction;
Capitalization and
• appreciate the topic by means of correcting errors in
Punctuations
capitalization and punctuations; and
• use the different punctuations in constructing sentences.
• outline an essay;
• appreciate the topic by means of revising an outline;
Essay and Outlining
• enumerate the different types of essay; and
• write an essay.

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LESSON 1 – SENTENCE TYPES, PATTERNS AND ERRORS

ACTIVATE
Study the image below.

ANTICIPATE
Reflect on these questions.
1. What have you observed from the image?
2. What was the error?
3. How did the error affect the meaning of the statement?

ACQUIRE
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS
S – IV
The S–IV pattern is the simplest sentence type. It includes a subject and an intransitive
verb. Intransitive verbs are verbs that do not have a direct object.
Take note of the subject and the intransitive verb in the following examples:
• Peter sneezed.
• Evil exists.
• Fame ends.

S – TV – DO
Next, the S–TV–DO pattern includes a subject, a transitive verb, and a direct object. Unlike
intransitive verbs, transitive verbs are verbs that have a direct object.

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Take note of the subject, transitive verb, and direct object in the following examples:
The Chinese people have interesting traditions.
• S: Chinese people
• TV: have
• DO: traditions
• She slapped me.
• S: She
• TV: slapped
• DO: me
• Students should respect their teachers.
• S: Students
• TV: respect
• DO: teachers

S – LV – C
Then we have the S–LV–C sentence type. This includes a subject, a linking verb, and a
complement. Linking verbs are verbs that connect the subject with an adjective or
another noun. Common linking verbs include be, am, are, is, was, were, and seem. On
the other hand, a subjective complement is a word or a group of words that often follow
a linking verb. Subjective complements can either be nouns, pronouns, or adjectives.
Take note of the subject, linking verb, and complements in the following examples:
• Albus Dumbledore is the headmaster.
• S: Albus Dumbledore
• LV: is
• C: headmaster
• Pandas and polar bears are endangered species.
• S: Pandas and polar bears
• LV: are
• C: endangered species
• That girl should be a singer.
• S: girl
• LV: be
• C: singer

S – TV – IO – DO
Next, S–TV–IO–DO sentence types includes a subject, a transitive verb, an indirect object,
and a direct object.
In the following examples, take note of the subject, the transitive verb, the indirect object,
and the direct object:
• I gave the conductor our tickets.
• S: I
• TV: gave
• IO: conductor
• DO: tickets
• Faith gave Josh a new jacket.
• S: Faith
• TV: gave
• IO: Josh

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DO: new jacket

Neil taught us the recipe.
• S: Neil
• TV: taught
• IO: us
• DO: recipe

S – TV – DO – OC
Next, the S–TV–DO–OC sentence type includes a subject, transitive verb, direct object,
and an objective complement. Unlike subjective complements, objective complements
describe a direct object. Generally, objective complements are nouns or adjectives that
describe direct objects.
Look at the following examples and take note of the subject, transitive verb, direct object,
and objective complement:
• He called the girl beautiful.
• S: He
• TV: called
• DO: girl
• OC: beautiful
• Dean defeated Sam fairly.
• S: Dean
• TV: defeated
• DO: Sam
• OC: fairly
• The class elected Josephine as president.
• S: The class
• TV: elected
• DO: Josephine
• OC: president

V – S pattern in sentence types

Lastly, the V–S pattern or the inverted sentence type contains a verb followed by the
subject. Sentences that follow this pattern are usually interrogative sentences—sentences
that ask questions. Basically, an inverted sentence may begin with any type of verb. But
typically, these sentences start with here, there or it. Meanwhile, interrogative sentences
usually begin with either of these words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whose, or
why.
In the following examples, take note of how the subject always follows the verb:
• Here are photographs of my grandmother in her youth.
• There goes the boy who never knew his parents.
• Beyond the meadow flows a beautiful river.
• When will the shipment come?
Take note, inverted sentences can usually be transformed into the more common S–V
pattern.
• Photographs of my grandmother in her youth are here.
• The boy who never knew his parents goes there.
• A beautiful river flows beyond the meadow.

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The shipment will come. (*For this sentence, take note how the question ‘when’
was removed.)

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

Simple Sentence Structure
A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause contains
a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)
• I like coffee.
• Mary likes tea.
• The earth goes round the sun.
• Mary did not go to the party.

Compound Sentence Structure

A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a conjunction or
semi-colon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone.
• I like coffee and Mary likes tea.
• Mary went to work but John went to the party.
• Our car broke down; we came last.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions:
• and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
Complex Sentence Structure
A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A
dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and
contains a subject and verb, but does not express a complete thought.)
• We missed our plane because we were late.
• Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
• He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
• Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:
• after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till,
until, when, where, whether, while
Here are the five basic relative pronouns:
• that, which, who, whom, whose

Compound-Complex Sentence Structure

A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one
or more dependent clauses.
• John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
• He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later.

COMMON SENTENCE ERRORS

1. Run-on Sentence or Comma Splice
A run-on sentence is a sentence that joins two independent clauses without punctuation
or the appropriate conjunction. A comma splice is similar to a run-on sentence, but it uses

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a comma to join two clauses that have no appropriate conjunction. Fixing a run-on
sentence or a comma splice can be accomplished in one of five different ways.
Incorrect sentence: "Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was three years
old."
• Solution 1: Separate the clauses into two sentences. "Rachel is very smart. She began
reading when she was three years old."
• Solution 2: Replace the comma with a semicolon. "Rachel is very smart; she began
reading when she was three years old."
• Solution 3: Replace the comma with a coordinating conjunction. "Rachel is very smart,
for she began reading when she was three years old."
• Solution 4: Replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction. "Rachel is very smart
because she began reading when she was three years old."
• Solution 5: Replace the comma with a semicolon and transitional word or phrase. "Rachel
is very smart; as a result, she began reading when she was three years old."

2. Pronoun Disagreement
Some of the most common grammar mistakes are pronoun errors. They occur when
pronouns do not agree in number with the nouns to which they refer. If the noun is
singular, the pronoun must be singular. If the noun is plural, the pronoun must be plural as
well.
For example:
• Incorrect: "Every girl must bring their own lunch."
• Correct: "Every girl must bring her own lunch."
Pronoun errors are common in modern English, as writers try to avoid awkward phrasing
or the implication of sexist language. Although this is an admirable goal, it is still important
to learn the correct grammar and use it in more formal situations.

3. Mistakes in Apostrophe Usage

Apostrophes are used to show possession. However, you do not use an apostrophe after
a possessive pronoun such as my, mine, our, ours, his, hers, its, their, or theirs.
For example:
• Incorrect: "My mothers cabin is next to his' cabin."
• Correct: "My mother's cabin is next to his cabin."
In the case of it's, the apostrophe is used only to indicate a contraction for "it is."
For example:
• Incorrect: "Its a cold day for October."
• Correct: "It's a cold day for October."

4. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

Confusion over subject-verb agreement can be the source of many grammatical errors.
When speaking or writing in the present tense, a sentence must have subjects and verbs
that agree in number. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is
plural, the verb must be plural as well.
For example:
• Incorrect: "These recipes is good for beginning chefs."
• Correct: "These recipes are good for beginning chefs."

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5. Misplaced Modifiers
To clearly communicate your ideas, you should place a modifier directly next to the word
it is supposed to modify. The modifier should clearly refer to a specific word in the
sentence. Misplaced modifiers can create confusion and ambiguity.
For example:
• Incorrect: "At eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas."
• Correct: "When I was eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas."

6. Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are also common grammar mistakes. A sentence needs to have a
subject and a verb. A fragment often happens after another related idea has been
expressed.
For example:
• Incorrect: "Sharon stayed home from school the other day. Because she was sick."
• Correct: "Sharon stayed home from school the other day because she was sick."

7. Missing Comma in a Compound Sentence

A compound sentence expresses two complete and related ideas, and it usually includes
a conjunction to connect these two parts. There should be a comma before the
conjunction to indicate the two ideas are related. If that's missing, it's a mistake readers
will notice.
For example:
• Incorrect: "Jim went to the store and Ella went with him."
• Correct: "Jim went to the store, and Ella went with him."

8. No Clear Antecedent
An antecedent is a word that comes before a pronoun and helps the reader understand
what the pronoun means. Generally, you can clear up this confusion by rearranging the
wording.
For example:
• Incorrect: "The dad found the boy, and he was happy."
• Correct: "The dad was happy when he found the boy."

9. Ending a Sentence in a Preposition

Another common grammar mistake is ending a sentence with a preposition. A
preposition, by its nature, indicates that another word will follow it. In casual conversation,
this type of error is no big deal, but you should avoid this mistake in your writing.
For example:
• Incorrect: "What reason did he come here for?"
• Correct: "For what reason did he come here?"

10. Mixing Up Spellings

There are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings. If you
mix these up, it can be an embarrassing mistake. These are a few of the most commonly
confused words:
• "You're" vs. "your"
• "To" vs. "two" vs. "too"

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• "Weather" vs. "whether"

• "There" vs. "their"
For example:
• Incorrect: "There father went to school there."
• Correct: "Their father went to school there."

11. Mixing Up Similar Words

Sometimes, it's not a matter of mixing up the spelling as much as an error in word choice.
There are many words that sound similar but have different meanings and spellings. These
include the following:
• "Affect" and "effect"
• "Except" and "accept"
• "Comprise" vs. "compose"
• "Further" vs. "farther"
For example:
• Incorrect: "The rain had a good affect on the farmer's field."
• Correct: "The rain had a good effect on the farmer's field."

12. Unnecessary Commas

While commas are important for clarity and give the reader a chance to pause in the
sentence, it's possible to use commas when you don't need them. These unnecessary
commas can be confusing to read, and they make writing look less professional. Before
you use a comma, think about why you're using it. If you aren't sure it's needed, double
check by reviewing comma rules.
For example:
• Incorrect: "She had a stomach ache, because she ate too much ice cream."
• Correct: "She had a stomach ache because she ate too much ice cream."

13. Mixing Up Possessives and Plurals

People often get confused when adding an "s" to the end of a word. When do you need
an apostrophe? In general, you use an apostrophe before an "s" to show possession or as
a contraction, like "that's" for "that is." If you're just trying to say something is plural, you
don't need the apostrophe. Like most rules in the English language, this has some
variation. However, if you keep the general guidelines in mind, you'll be correct most of
the time.
For example:
• Incorrect: "The dogs dish was full of bone's."
• Correct: "The dog's dish was full of bones."

14. Mistakes With Well and Good

One of the most common grammatical errors is mixing up "well" and "good." In general,
"well" is an adverb, while "good" is an adjective. When you aren't sure which one to use,
simply ask yourself whether an adjective or an adverb is appropriate for the situation.
For example:
• Incorrect: "I am doing good in math."
• Correct: "I am doing well in math."

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15. Comparisons That Are Incomplete

When you use a word that has a comparative aspect, you need to
compare it to something else. These common grammatical errors may
appear in advertisements or market slogans, but it does not work well in
papers or other writing. If the word requires a comparison, you should
always provide it.
For example:
• Incorrect: "My hair is smoother and softer."
• Correct: "My hair is smoother and softer than it was a month ago."

16. Mixing Up Adverbs and Adjectives

If you mix up adverbs and adjectives, this can be an embarrassing
grammar mistake. This is the kind of error that can annoy a teacher or
make the difference between a great grade on an essay and getting
marked down. This happens most often with words that end in "-ly."
For example:
• Incorrect: "Susan gave me a real nice bouquet of flowers."
• Correct: "Susan gave me a really nice bouquet of flowers."

17. Confusion Between Fewer and Less

Many people mix up "fewer" and "less." If you're talking about the amount
of something, you need to decide whether the item is all one thing or a
group of many things. If it's a group of many smaller things, you should use
"fewer." If it's one thing, you should use "less." For example:
• Incorrect: "The store was almost out of dog food. There were less cans on
the shelves than there were yesterday."
• Correct: "The store was almost out of dog food. There were fewer cans
on the shelves than there were yesterday."

18. Title Capitalization Problems

Knowing when to capitalize the words in a title can be very confusing. In
general, you should capitalize the first and last words, all nouns and
pronouns, all verbs, and all adjectives and adverbs. However, there are
specific title capitalization rules depending on the style you are using.
For example:
• Incorrect: "Around the world in 80 days"
• Correct: "Around the World in 80 Days"

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