1.

Explain circulatory system for…

a. Insects

Insects have open circulatory system. One or more hearts pump haemolymph into haemocoel to
bath cells via blood vessels. When the heart contracts, haemolymph flows out from heart into
haemocoel. When the heart relaxes, haemolymph flows back into heart from haemocoel via
ostium. In the haemocoel, substance exchange between haemolymph and body cells occur via
diffusion.

b. Fish

Fish has single circulatory system. Blood is pump from ventricle to gill capillaries to enable
gaseous exchange. Gill capillaries carries blood to blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood
to systemic capillaries. In systemic capillaries, oxygen diffuse into tissues while carbon dioxide
diffuses out from tissues into the capillaries. Deoxygenated blood is transported back to heart
atrium via veins.

c. Amphibians

Amphibians have incomplete double circulatory system. Deoxygenated blood is transported

from body to right atrium via pulmonary artery. Oxygenated blood is transported from lung and
skin to left atrium via pulmonary vein. Blood from both atria enters one ventricle. Although
there is some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, most of oxygenated blood remain
on left side of ventricle while most of deoxygenated blood remain on right side of ventricle. Then
ventricle pumps blood through pulmocutaneous and systemic circulation.

d. Human

Human have complete double circulatory system. Deoxygenated blood is pumped to lungs for
gaseous exchange via pulmonary artery. Oxygenated blood transported from lungs is returned to
left atrium and flows into left ventricle. Blood is pumped from heart to all body tissues via aorta.
Deoxygenated blood transported from body tissues is returned to the right atrium via vena cava
and flows into right ventricle.

2. Explain sequence of heart pumping

Sinoatrial node generates electrical impulses which spreads rapidly through both atria causing
atria to contract simultaneously. The contraction of atria helps to pump blood to ventricle.
Electrical impulses reach the atrioventricular node then spread through the bundle of His and
Purkinje fibres up to apex of heart. Electrical impulses spread from atria to ventricle wall,
resulting the ventricle contract to pump blood out to lungs and body.

3. Explain contraction of muscle around veins

Force produced by pumping of heart is insufficient for blood flow to continue through veins and
back to heart. Blood is forced to flow against gravity. Contraction of muscle around veins is aided
by contraction of smooth muscles found in venules and vein wall. Contraction of skeletal muscle
also aids by presses and constricts the veins, causing valve to open and let blood flow to heart.
Then valve is closed to prevent blood to flow back to foot.

4. Explain substance exchange between blood capillaries and body cells

Blood that reaches arterial end of blood capillaries has high pressure due to small diameter of
blood capillaries and pumping force of heart. High pressure allows blood plasma to diffuse
 continuously from blood capillaries to intercellular space. Tissue fluid (blood plasma that
occupies intercellular space and continuously bath cells) does not contain erythrocyte, plasma
protein and platelets because these are too large to diffuse out of blood capillaries. Tissue fluids
allow exchange of material in blood and cells to occur. Nutrients and oxygen diffuse out from
tissue fluid to body cells. Excretory products and carbon dioxide diffuses out from body cells to
blood capillaries via tissue fluid.

5. Explain pregnancy and rhesus factor

When a Rh-negative mother marries a Rh-positive father and conceives a Rh-negative foetus. During
last month of pregnancy, fragments containing antigen D of foetus cross placenta and enter blood
circulation of mother. White blood cells of mother react and produce anti-D antibodies that will flow
back through the placenta into foetal blood circulatory system. Antibodies will destroy red blood
cells of baby before or immediately after birth. Concentration of antibodies produced is not enough
to affect first child. But anti-D antibodies will last in mother’s blood circulatory system. Problem
arises when second child is also Rh-positive. The anti-D antibodies of mother cross placenta into
foetus circulatory system then destroy red blood cell of foetus. This symptom of disease is called
erythroblastosis fetalis.