1.

What is a pathogen

Microorganism that causes disease

2. Example of pathogen

Bacteria, viruses and parasites

3. What is antigen

Body defence system that recognises pathogen as foreign particles that enters body.

4. Action of antigen

Stimulate immune response by stimulating lymphocytes to produce antibodies into blood flow
to destroy antigens.

5. What is antibody

-protein found on lymphocyte surface

-protein released by lymphocyte into blood plasma

6. What is immune response

Interaction between antigens and antibodies to destroy antigens

7. What is immunity

Body’s ability to fight pathogen or other foreign objects by specific attack on pathogen.

8. Lines of defence to fight against disease in body

First line, second line and third line defences.

9. What does first line of defence consist of

Physical and chemical line out to prevent pathogen to enter body.

10. Action of first line defence

Prevent pathogen to enter body.

11. Organs and mechanisms involved in first line defence -5 MHSML

Lysosome, mucous membrane, skin, hydrochloric acid, mechanism of blood clotting

Lysozyme Found in nasal mucus, saliva and tears contain antimicrobial protein to dissolve
certain types of bacteria.
Mucous membrane Lining on respiratory tract to secrete mucus contain lysosome that destroys bacteria
in respiratory tract air.
Skin -Tough and difficult for bacteria to penetrate
-Shedding of dead cells on skin surface prevent bacteria growth
-Oil and acid in sebum prevents type of microorganism growth
-Secretes sweat that contains lysozyme that breaks down cell wall of some bacteria
Hydrochloric acid Destroy bacteria present in food or drinks in stomach
Mechanism of blood clotting Prevents bacteria to enter via wound
12. Action of second line defence -3

Fever, inflammation and phagocytosis

13. Mechanism involved in second line defence

Not specific

14. Why do we have fever?

To fight infection by increasing phagocytotic activity and fight against microorganisms that
infects body

15. How do fever be effective?

Increases phagocytotic activity

16. What is phagocyte?

Leucocyte that carries out phagocytosis

17. Example of phagocytes -2 MN

Neutrophils and monocytes

18. Why phagocytosis occurs?

Phagocyte trap and digest microorganisms and other particles such as dead cells

19. What happen when infection occur

Phagocytes move to infected area and enters tissue fluid via pores of blood capillaries

20. How does phagocyte encounter a pathogen?

Phagocyte will engulf the pathogen and lysozyme in phagocyte will digest the pathogen

21. Phagocytosis stages -5

-phagocyte expands pseudopodium towards bacterium and envelops the bacteria

-phagosome is formed via bacterial ingestion

-phagosome combines with lysosome to secrete lysozyme into phagosome

-lysozyme destroys bacterium

-phagocyte expel remaining of digested microorganism out of cell

22. What is inflammation

Immediate response to destroy and neutralise harmful microorganism action and toxin at early
stage of infection

23. What happen to inflamed area -3

Swell, turns red and feel pain

24. Inflammatory response -6

-damaged tissues release histamine which stimulates immediate inflammatory response

-histamine expands the blood capillaries to let more blood flow to infected area

-histamine increase permeability of blood capillary to phagocytes

-phagocytes and clotting factor will accumulate infected area

-blood clotting mechanism is triggered

-phagocytes undergo phagocytosis

25. What does damaged tissues release

Histamine

26. Function of histamine -3

-stimulates immediate inflammatory response

-expands blood capillaries to let more blood flow to infected area

-increase permeability of blood capillary to phagocyte

27. In what condition third line of defence will be activated

Pathogen overcomes second line defence

28. Action of third line defence

Immune response of lymphocyte

29. What does lymphocyte produce

Lymphocyte formed in lymph nodes produce antibodies

30. Characteristics of antibody action

Specific, antibody only combine with certain antigen

31. What causes lymph nodes to swell

Large number of lymphocytes will accumulate at lymph nodes to destroy antigens and foreign
particles

32. What does lymph nodes contain?

Lymphocytes -contain antibodies

Macrophages -destroy bacteria, foreign particles and dead tissues via phagocytosis

33. Types of lymphocytes -2

T lymphocyte

B lymphocyte

34. Function of T lymphocyte -2

Attack infected cells

Stimulate B lymphocyte to produce memory cells

 35. Function of B lymphocyte

Produce memory cells

36. Function of memory cell

Stimulated to produce antibodies immediately when same pathogen attacks

37. Actions of antibodies -5 PANOL

Precipitation, agglutination, neutralisation, opsonisation and lysis

38.

Actions Actions of antibodies on antigens

Precipitation Antibodies react with dissolved antigens to form precipitate easily destroyed by phagocytes
Agglutination Antibodies accumulate pathogens to aid phagocytosis targeting
Neutralisation Antibodies bind and neutralize toxins produced by bacteria
Opsonisation Antibodies combine with antigen as a marker to aid phagocyte recognition
Lysis Antibodies combine with antigen to break down and decompose bacteria
39. Types of immunity

Active immunity Passive immunity

Lymphocytes produce their own antibodies
as a response to antigen stimulation
Natural active immunity
-acquired after individual recovered from
infection
Artificial active immunity
-acquired when individual is given vaccine
injection
Body receives antibodies from external
sources
Natural passive immunity
-acquired via breastfeeding from mother to
foetus after pregnancy
Artificial passive immunity
-acquired through antiserum/serum injection

40.
41.
42. Long period time immunity

Active immunity

43. Short period time immunity, temporary protection

Passive immunity

44. What happen when individual is attacked by same pathogen before

Memory cells will produce antibodies rapidly to react immediately against antigen

45. Uses of vaccine

Protect oneself from getting infected by high infectious disease, individual will be immunised
against disease

46. What is immunisation

Process that stimulates immunity against specific disease via vaccine

47. What is vaccine

Suspension of pathogens that are weakened, dead or non-virulent

48. What happen when vaccine is injected into body

Vaccine stimulated lymphocytes to produce antibodies to fight against pathogens

49. Result of first vaccine injection

Result in a low level of antibody production which is insufficient to protect individual from
disease

50. Why is booster dose needed?

Increase antibody production to a level that immunity can protect individual from the disease

51. Examples of vaccines

Salk vaccine (poliomyelitis), BCG vaccine (tuberculosis), HPV vaccine (cervical cancer)

52. How is natural passive immunity is acquired to foetus

Mother’s antibodies diffuse through placenta into blood flow of foetus

53. How does baby get antibodies?

Via breastfeeding of mother’s milk or colostrum

54. Immunity period of baby antibodies

First few months after birth

55. What does antiserum contain

Specific antibody to fight against specific antigens

56. Examples of antiserums

Antitetanus, anti-rabies and antiserums for poisonous snakes

57. Antitetanus preparation

Tetanus toxoid suspension is injected in a horse

Antibodies from horse serum is concentrated and purified then injected into individuals with
high risks of tetanus

Individual is protected

58. 1 Difference between artificial active immunity and artificial passive immunity

The period of immunity for artificial passive immunity is shorter than that of artificial active
immunity

59. Types of immunity that decrease over time. Explain.

Artificial passive immunity. The body does not produce its own antibody. Therefore, the
immunity does not last long and only provides temporary protection.

60. Immediate treatment to person bitten by poisonous snake

Individual must be given serum injection containing antibodies that can fight toxin found in
snake venom.

61. Why complete immunisation plan

Immunisation helps to boost immune system by stimulating the body’s defence cells which then
protects us from any possibility of life-threatening complications. Therefore, we are advised to
comply with and complete the immunisation plan as early as possible according to the
recommended schedule.2

62. Full name of HIV

Human immunodeficiency virus

63. What is HIV

Virus that attacks human immune system

64. How HIV effects a person’s health -3

Mutate and change cell structure when spread

Spreads in lymphocyte and destroy lymphocyte

Paralyse immune system of individual and cause death from infection

65. HIV infection effect

AIDS

66. Full name of AIDS

Acquired immunodeficiency system

67. Why AIDS patient is easily infected by other diseases

Immune system of individual is progressively destructed

68. Will AIDS patient show symptoms for first few years?

No

69. Symptoms of AIDS disease

Chronic diarrhoea 慢性腹泻 and fungi infection

70. Final stage of AIDS disease

Immune system is paralysed

71. How HIV is transmitted

Transfer of body fluids such as blood and semen

72. Can woman infect by HIV transmit disease to her baby

Yes, transfer virus to baby during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding

73. Medical treatment to prevent HIV infection to baby

Proper medical treatment when mother is pregnant or during birth

74. Explain how HIV can cause someone to suffer from AIDS

The HIV virus attacks and disables the immune system of individual infected by virus. The HIV
virus attacks and destroys lymphocytes that function to destroy pathogenic microorganisms. This
may result in individual contracting AIDS or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The immune
system of patient becomes weak that body is unable to fight against diseases that would
normally not infect individuals with health immune system.

75. Why person who have HIV doesn’t necessarily suffer from AIDS

A person who is infected with HIV can be a carrier without showing any symptoms for a period
longer than 10 years. This individual will only develop AIDS if their immune system becomes
weak and less resistant to diseases that are usually not harmful. For example, pneumonia can
prove fatal to AIDS patient. Thus, person infected by HIV virus does not necessarily contract AIDS
as long as their immune system stays strong and not crippled by HIV virus

76. Explain how mother infected by HIV can infect foetus in her womb

Through the mother’s placenta to foetus in womb or breastfeeding

77. Why second injection is required for different artificial immunity

(a) Artificial passive immunity

To increase quantity of antibodies beyond the immunity level because quantity of antibodies
drops below immunity level after period of time

(b) Artificial active immunity

To induce more antibodies beyond immunity level because first does is insufficient for individual
to achieve required immunity level

78. Two individuals acquired immunity against chickenpox in different situations. Individual X
recovered from chickenpox. Individual Y was injected with a type of suspension and received
immunity against chickenpox after a few months. Explain the immunity acquired by
(a) individual X (b) individual Y
(a) Lymphocytes are stimulated to produce antibodies to destroy antigens. Memory cells
remain in body. Individual will acquire natural active immunity and is able to fight against
disease in future.
(b) Suspension injected into individual is vaccine. Vaccine is weakened pathogens used to
induce lymphocytes to produce antibodies. Individual acquires artificial active immunity and
obtain immunity against measles 麻疹.
79. Explain effect of person immunity if missed out third dose of vaccination

Individual will contract with virus if exposed to the virus because antibody level in body has not
reached the required concentration to offer complete protection from disease.

80. Injection suitable if stepped on rust nail

Antitetanus injection should be given. Antitetanus contains antibodies that will act against
tetanus. Rusty nail stepped on may contain clostridium tetani that causes tetanus (lockjaw). As
the antibodies for tetanus is already available in Antitetanus, the antibodies can act immediately
against bacteria. Body immune system does not need to be stimulated to produce antibodies
against disease. Thus, the immunity acquired is artificial passive immunity. Antiserum injection
can save person immediately compared to immunisation that will take long time to stimulate
body’s immune system to produce required quantity of antibodies.

81. Why take antibiotics prescribed for recommended period

If antibiotic prescribed is not taken completely, undestroyed bacteria will become immune
towards antibiotic. This produces a bacterial strain which is immune to antibiotic. This strain of
bacteria will grow rapidly and the existing antibiotic will not be effective and immune system
may not be able to fight against new bacteria stain.

82. Ways to prevent infection

Wash hand often

Wear mask

Avoid touching

Bring hand sanitisers