How Trays Work: Flooding: Downcomer Backup

Source: A Working Guide to Process Equipment
CHAPTER 3
How Trays Work:
Flooding
Downcomer Backup
D
istillation towers are the heart of a process plant, and the
working component of a distillation column is the tray. A tray
consists of the following components, as shown in Fig. 3.1:
• Overflow, or outlet weir

• Downcomer
• Tray deck
There are two types of tray decks: perforated trays and bubble-
cap trays. In this chapter, we describe only perforated trays, examples
of which are
• Valves or flutter caps

• V grid, or extruded-valve caps
• Sieve decks
• Jet trays
Possibly 90 percent of the trays seen in the plant are of these types.
Perforated tray decks all have one feature in common; they depend
on the flow of vapor through the tray deck perforations, to prevent
liquid from leaking through the tray deck. As we will see later, if
liquid bypasses the outlet weir, and leaks through the tray deck
onto the tray below, tray separation efficiency will suffer.
3.1 Tray Efficiency

Distillation trays in a fractionator operate between 10 and 90 percent
efficiency. It is the process person’s job to make them operate as close to
90 percent efficiency as possible. Calculating tray efficiency is sometimes
23
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How Trays Work: Flooding
24 A Working Guide to Process Equipment
Weir
Downcomer
Tray
deck
FIGURE 3.1 Perforated trays.
simple. Compare the vapor temperature leaving a tray to the liquid

temperature leaving the trays. For example, the efficiency of the tray
shown in Fig. 3.2 is 100 percent. The efficiency of the tray in Fig. 3.3 is
0 percent.
400°F
Vapor 350°F
Liquid
400°F
Liquid
450°F
Vapor
FIGURE 3.2 Hundred percent tray efficiency.


Chapter 3: H o w Tr a y s W o r k : F l o o d i n g 25
400°F
Vapor 350°F
Liquid
350°F
Liquid
400°F
Vapor
FIGURE 3.3 Zero percent tray efficiency.
How about the 10 trays shown in Fig. 3.4? Calculate their average
efficiency (answer is 10 percent). As the vapor temperature rising
from the top tray equals the liquid temperature draining from the
bottom tray, the 10 trays are behaving as a single perfect tray with
100 percent efficiency. But as there are 10 trays, each tray, on average,
acts like one-tenth of a perfect tray.
Poor tray efficiency is caused by one of two factors:
• Flooding
• Dumping
In this chapter, we discuss problems that contribute to tray deck

flooding.
3.2 Downcomer Backup

Liquid flows across a tray deck toward the outlet weir. The liquid over-
flows the weir, and drains through the downcomer, to the tray below.
Vapor bubbles up through the sieve holes, or valve caps, on the
tray deck, where the vapor comes into intimate contact with the liquid.
More precisely, the fluid on the tray is a froth or foam—that is, a
mixture of vapor and liquid. In this sense, the function of a tray is to
mix the vapor and liquid together to form a foam. This foam separates
back into a vapor and a liquid in the downcomer. If the foam cannot
drain quickly from a downcomer onto the tray below, then the foamy
liquid or froth will back up onto the tray above. This is called flooding.


FIGURE 3.4
Average tray
efficiency 10
400°F
percent.
Vapor
(1)
(2)
(9)
(10)
400°F
Liquid
3.3 Downcomer Clearance

Referring to Fig. 3.5, note that the downcomer B is flooding. The cause
is loss of the downcomer seal. The height of the outlet weir is below the
bottom edge of the downcomer from the tray above. This permits
vapor to flow up downcomer B. The upflowing vapor displaces the
downflowing liquid. That is, the vapor pushes the liquid up onto the
tray above—which is a cause of flooding. On the other hand, Fig. 3.6


FIGURE 3.5
Flooding due to
lack of a
downcomer seal.
Vapor
Tray #2
Tray #1
FIGURE 3.6 Flooding caused by inadequate downcomer clearance.


shows what happens if the bottom edge of the downcomer is too

close to the tray below. The high pressure drop needed for the liquid
to escape from downcomer B onto tray deck 1 causes the liquid level
in downcomer B to back up onto tray deck 2. Tray 2 then floods. Once
tray 2 floods, downcomer C (shown in Fig. 3.6) will also back up and
flood. This process will continue until all the tray decks and
downcomers above downcomer B are flooded.
On the other hand, all trays in a tower below downcomer B will
lose liquid levels and dry out when flooding starts in downcomer B.
Thus, the following rules apply:
• When flooding starts on a tray, all the trays above that point
will also flood, but trays below that point will go dry.
• An early indication of flooding in a distillation column is loss
of liquid level in the bottom of the column.
• If the downcomer clearance—which means the distance
between the bottom edge of the downcomer and the tray
below—is too great, the downcomer becomes unsealed. Vapor
flows up the downcomer, and the trays above flood.
• If the downcomer clearance is too small, then liquid backs up
in the downcomer, and the trays above flood. To calculate the
height of liquid in the downcomer, due to liquid flowing
through the downcomer clearance:
H 0.6 V 2
where H inches of clear liquid backup in the downcomer, due to

head loss under the downcomer
V horizontal component of liquid velocity, in ft/s, as the
liquid escapes from the downcomer
To guarantee a proper downcomer seal, the bottom edge of a

downcomer should be about 0.5 in below the top edge of the outlet
weir. This dimension should be carefully checked by process personnel
when a tower is opened for inspection. It is quite easy for sloppy tray
installation to distort this critical factor.
3.3.1 Height of Liquid on Tray Deck

As the liquid level on a tray increases, the height of liquid in the
downcomer feeding this tray will increase by the same amount.
Again, excessive downcomer liquid or froth levels result in flooding
and loss of tray efficiency.
The liquid level on a tray is a function of two factors:
• Weir height
• Crest height


The weir height on many trays is adjustable. We usually adjust

the weir height to between 2 and 3 in. This produces a reasonable
depth of liquid on the tray, to promote good vapor-liquid contact.
The crest height is similar to the height of water overflowing a
dam. It is calculated from
Crest height 0.4 (GPM/inch (outlet) weir length)0.67
where crest height inches of clear liquid overflowing the weir

GPM gallons (U.S.) per minute of liquid leaving the
tray
The sum of the crest height plus the weir height equals the
depth of liquid on the tray deck. One might now ask, “Is not the
liquid level on the inlet side of the tray higher than the liquid level
near the outlet weir?” While the answer is “Yes, water does flow
downhill,” we design the tray to make this factor small enough to
neglect.
3.4 Vapor-Flow Pressure Drop

We have yet to discuss the most important factor in determining
the height of liquid in the downcomer. This is the pressure drop of
the vapor flowing through the tray deck. Typically, 50 percent of the
level in the downcomer is due to the flow of vapor through the
trays.
When vapor flows through a tray deck, the vapor velocity
increases as the vapor flows through the small openings provided by
the valve caps, or sieve holes. The energy to increase the vapor
velocity comes from the pressure of the flowing vapor. A common
example of this is the pressure drop we measure across an orifice
plate. If we have a pipeline velocity of 2 ft/s and an orifice plate hole
velocity of 40 ft/s, then the energy needed to accelerate the vapor as
it flows through the orifice plate comes from the pressure drop of the
vapor itself.
Let us assume that vapor flowing through a tray deck undergoes
a pressure drop of 1 psig (lb/in2 gauge). Figure 3.7 shows that the
pressure below tray deck 2 is 10 psig and the pressure above tray
deck 2 is 9 psig. How can the liquid in downcomer B flow from an
area of low pressure (9 psig) to an area of high pressure (10 psig)? The
answer is gravity, or liquid head pressure.
The height of water needed to exert a liquid head pressure of
1 psig is equal to 28 in of water. If we were working with gasoline,
which has a specific gravity of 0.70, then the height of gasoline needed
to exert a liquid head pressure of 1 psig would be 28 in/0.70 40 in
of clear liquid.


FIGURE 3.7 Vapor

ΔP causes
downcomer
backup. 9 psig
Tray #2
10 psig
3.4.1 Total Height of Liquid in Downcomer

To summarize, the total height of clear liquid in the downcomer is the
sum of four factors:
• Liquid escape velocity from the downcomer onto the tray

below.
• Weir height.
• Crest height of liquid overflowing the outlet weir.
• The pressure drop of the vapor flowing through the tray
above the downcomer. (Calculating this pressure drop is
discussed in Chap. 4.)
Unfortunately, we do not have clear liquid, either in the

downcomer, on the tray itself, or overflowing the weir. We actually
have a froth or foam called aerated liquid. While the effect of this
aeration on the specific gravity of the liquid is largely unknown and
is a function of many complex factors (surface tension, dirt, tray
design, etc.), an aeration factor of 50 percent is often used for many
hydrocarbon services.
This means that if we calculated a clear liquid level of 12 in in our
downcomer, then we would actually have a foam level in the
downcomer of 12 in/0.50 24 in of foam.
If the height of the downcomer plus the height of the weir were
24 in, then a downcomer foam height of 24 in would correspond to
downcomer flooding. This is sometimes called liquid flood.


This discussion assumes that the cross-sectional area of the

downcomer is adequate for reasonable vapor-liquid separation. If the
downcomer loading (GPM/ft2 of downcomer top area) is less than
150, this assumption is okay, at least for most clean services. For dirty,
foamy services a downcomer loading of 100 GPM/ft2 would be
safer.
3.5 Jet Flood

Figure 3.8 is a realistic picture of what we would see if our towers
were made of glass. In addition to the downcomers and tray decks
containing froth or foam, there is a quantity of spray, or entrained
liquid, lifted above the froth level on the tray deck. The force that
generates this entrainment is the flow of vapor through the tower.
The spray height of this entrained liquid is a function of two
factors:
• The foam height on the tray

• The vapor velocity through the tray
High vapor velocities, combined with high foam levels, will

cause the spray height to hit the underside of the tray above. This
causes mixing of the liquid from a lower tray with the liquid on the
FIGURE 3.8
Entrainment
causes jet flood.
Tray #2
Spray
Foam
Foam
Spray


upper tray. This backmixing of liquid reduces the separation, or tray

efficiency, of a distillation tower.
When the vapor flow through a tray increases, the height of froth
in the downcomer draining the tray will also increase. This does not
affect the foam height on the tray deck until the downcomer fills with
foam. Then a further increase in vapor flow causes a noticeable
increase in the foam height of the tray deck, which then increases the
spray height.
When the spray height from the tray below hits the tray above,
this is called the incipient flood point, or the initiation of jet flooding.
Note, though, that jet flood may be caused by excessive downcomer
backup. It is simple to see in a glass column separating colored water
from clear methanol how tray separation efficiency is reduced as
soon as the spray height equals the tray spacing. And while this
observation of the onset of incipient flood is straightforward in a
transparent tower, how do we observe the incipient flooding point in
a commercial distillation tower?
3.6 Incipient Flood

3.6.1 A Fundamental Concept
Figure 3.9 illustrates the operation of a simple propane-butane splitter.
The tower controls are such that both the pressure and bottoms
temperature are held constant. This means that the percent of propane
in the butane bottoms product is held constant. If the operator
increases the top reflux flow, here is what will happen:
1. The tower-top temperature drops.

2. The amount of butane in the overhead propane product
drops.
3. The tower-bottom temperature starts to fall.
4. The reboiler duty increases, to restore the tower-bottom
temperature to its set point.
5. The weight flow of vapor and the vapor velocity through the
tray increase.
6. The spray height, or entrainment, between the trays increases.
7. When the spray height from the lower trays impacts the
upper trays, the heavier, butane-rich liquid contaminates the
lighter liquid on the upper trays with heavier butane.
8. Further increases in the reflux rate then act to increase, rather
than decrease, the butane content of the overhead propane
product.


-X
Reflux
1
Propane
product
Propane 15
Butane
feed
16
30
Steam
Butane
product
FIGURE 3.9 A simple depropanizer.
Figure 3.10 illustrates this point. Point A is called the incipient

flood point, that point in the towers operation at which either an
increase or a decrease in the reflux rate results in a loss of separation
efficiency. You might call this the optimum reflux rate; that would be
an alternate description of the incipient flood point.


Percent heavy
key component A
in overhead
Incipient flood
Reflux
FIGURE 3.10 Definition of the incipient flood concept.
3.7 Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding

It is a characteristic of process equipment that the best operation is
reached at neither a very high nor a very low loading. The intermediate
equipment load that results in the most efficient operation is called
the best efficiency point. For distillation trays, the incipient flood point
corresponds to the best efficiency point. We have correlated this best
efficiency point for valve and sieve trays as compared to the measured
pressure drops in many distillation towers. We have derived the
following formula:
(Δ P)(28)
=K
(NT)(TS)(s.g.)
where P pressure drop across a tray section, psi

NT the number of trays
TS tray spacing, inches
s.g. specific gravity of clear liquid, at flowing temperatures
On the basis of hundreds of field measurements, we have observed
K 0.18 to 0.25: Tray operation is close to its best efficiency point

K 0.35 to 0.40: Tray is suffering from entrainment—increase in
reflux rate, noticeably reduces tray efficiency
K ≥0.5: Tray is in fully developed flood—opening a vent on the
overhead vapor line will blow out liquid with the vapor
K 0.10 to 0.12: Tray deck is suffering from low tray efficiency, due
to tray deck leaking
K 0.00: The liquid level on the tray is zero, and quite likely the
trays are lying on the bottom of the column


3.7.1 Carbon Steel Trays

One of the most frequent causes of flooding is the use of carbon steel
trays. Especially when the valve caps are also carbon steel, the valves
have a tendency to stick in a partially closed position. This raises the
pressure drop of the vapor flowing through the valves, which, in
turn, pushes up the liquid level in the downcomer draining the tray.
The liquid can then back up onto the tray deck and promote jet flood
due to entrainment.
Of course, any factor (dirt, polymers, gums, salts) that causes a
reduction in the open area of the tray deck will also promote jet
flooding. Indeed, most trays flood below their calculated flood point,
because of these sorts of problems. Trays, like people, rarely perform
quite up to expectations.
The use of movable valve caps in any service where deposits can
accumulate on the tray decks will cause the caps to stick to the tray
deck. It’s best to avoid this potential problem. Use of grid trays with
fixed cap assemblies is preferred for most services.




How Trays Work: Flooding: Downcomer Backup

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Source: A Working Guide to Process Equipment

• Overflow, or outlet weir

• Valves or flutter caps

3.1 Tray Efficiency

Lieberman_Ch03_023-036.indd 23 3/20/08 10:54:53 AM

24 A Working Guide to Process Equipment

FIGURE 3.1 Perforated trays.

simple. Compare the vapor temperature leaving a tray to the liquid

FIGURE 3.2 Hundred percent tray efficiency.

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FIGURE 3.3 Zero percent tray efficiency.

In this chapter, we discuss problems that contribute to tray deck

3.2 Downcomer Backup

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26 A Working Guide to Process Equipment

3.3 Downcomer Clearance

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FIGURE 3.6 Flooding caused by inadequate downcomer clearance.

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28 A Working Guide to Process Equipment

shows what happens if the bottom edge of the downcomer is too

where H inches of clear liquid backup in the downcomer, due to

To guarantee a proper downcomer seal, the bottom edge of a

3.3.1 Height of Liquid on Tray Deck

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The weir height on many trays is adjustable. We usually adjust

Crest height 0.4 (GPM/inch (outlet) weir length)0.67

where crest height inches of clear liquid overflowing the weir

3.4 Vapor-Flow Pressure Drop

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30 A Working Guide to Process Equipment

FIGURE 3.7 Vapor

3.4.1 Total Height of Liquid in Downcomer

• Liquid escape velocity from the downcomer onto the tray

Unfortunately, we do not have clear liquid, either in the

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This discussion assumes that the cross-sectional area of the

3.5 Jet Flood

• The foam height on the tray

High vapor velocities, combined with high foam levels, will

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32 A Working Guide to Process Equipment

upper tray. This backmixing of liquid reduces the separation, or tray

3.6 Incipient Flood

1. The tower-top temperature drops.

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FIGURE 3.9 A simple depropanizer.

Figure 3.10 illustrates this point. Point A is called the incipient

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34 A Working Guide to Process Equipment

FIGURE 3.10 Definition of the incipient flood concept.

3.7 Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding

where P pressure drop across a tray section, psi