Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF BOILERS

Basis of efficiency determination
It is important to note that the calorific value (the heat content or heating value) of
fuel is expressed either as gross calorific value GCV (HHV) or as net calorific value
(LHV) for any given fuel. From one value the other can be computed based on the
chemical composition of the fuel. What is determined in a Bomb Calorimeter (for
solid and liquid fuels) or Gas Calorimeter (for gaseous fuels) is the gross calorific
value and the net calorific value is computed from the gross calorific value. For any
fuel net calorific value is lower than the gross calorific value.

IS 8753 specifies the method of determining boiler efficiency on either basis and one
of the conditions to be agreed upon by the buyer and seller is on which basis
efficiency is to be computed.

The efficiency on the basis of GCV is lower than that on the basis of NCV. The
amount of fuel that would be consumed is same for a given output, irrespective of
the basis on which the efficiency is specified.

The gross calorific value and net calorific value for certain typical fuels and typical
efficiencies is given in the Table 1.

Table 1 HeatingValues for Typical Fuels and Efficiencies

  Fuels
Particular Coal Rice Husk Lignite(Neyveli) Bagasse F. Oil Bio-gas
GCV Kcal / Kg 3800 3275 2890 2272 10200 4098
NCV Kcal / Kg 3623 2980 2439 1812 9596 3695
Efficiency GCV
84 80 74 69 87 83
Basis
Efficiency NCV
88.1 87.9 87.7 86.5 92.4 92.0
Basis

From the above it can be seen that the efficiency expressed on the basis of net
calorific value is fairly constant for the fuels with varying range of moisture content
and carbon to hydrogen ratio, while the efficiency on gross calorific value varies very
widely.

National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar

 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

Factors affecting boiler efficiency

The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:
 Loss of heat due to dry gas
 Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel
 Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen
 Loss of heat due to radiation
 Loss of heat due to unburnt
In the above, loss due to moisture in fuel and the loss due to combustion of
hydrogen cannot be controlled by design and is dependent on the analysis of fuel
and these two losses are practically zero while computing the efficiency on the basis
of net calorific value.

Loss of Heat due to Dry Gas

This is affected by the exit temperature and the excess air (EA) level. A reduction in
excess air below certain recommended levels can result in higher unburnt loss and
the increase in unburnt loss will be more than the gain due to reduction of excess air
level. For solid fuel fired boiler, the excess air is somewhere between 30 - 50% and
for oil fired boiler it can be as low as 15-20 % and for a Biogas fired boiler the excess
air can be of the order of 10 - 15%.

The effect of varying excess air on this loss (as a percentage of heat input) is shown
below :

Fuel Gas Outlet Temp 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

(oC) EA EA EA EA EA
Coal 140 4.02 4.19 4.36 4.53 4.70
Rice Husk 140 4.16 4.33 4.49 4.66 4.83
N Lignite 160 5.21 5.42 5.62 5.83 6.03
Furnace Oil 170 4.69 4.90 5.12 5.33 5.54
Bio-gas 170 4.70 4.91 5.11 5.31 5.52
Bagasse 160 4.59 4.79 4.98 5.18 5.38

The higher the gas temperature the higher will be the losses (in percentage of heat
input) as shown in the table below:

Exist Flue Gas Temperature

Fuel Excess air Considered 140oC 160oC 180oC 200oC 220oC
Coal 20% 4.36 5.26 6.16 7.08 7.98
Husk 20% 4.49 5.42 6.36 7.31 8.24
Lignite 20% 4.66 5.62 6.59 7.57 8.54
Bagasse 40% 5.01 6.04 7.08 8.14 9.18
Furnace 15%
3.60 4.33 5.29 6.04 6.49
Oil
Bio-gas 15% 3.77 4.53 5.29 6.04 6.80

National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar

 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

The exit gas temperature is decided based on the dew point of the flue gases and
the recommended level of gas temperature for different fuels is also indicated in the
table below:

Neyveli Furnace
Fuel Coal Husk Bagasse Bio-Gas
Lignite Oil
Dew Point 108 95 135 ** 150 152
Exit Temp 140 140 160 160 170 170
** Bagasse does not contain sulphur

In the case of oil burners, the best excess air is the one at which the carbon
monoxide present in the flue gas is negligible. Depending on the type of atomisation,
particle size of spray the amount of turbulence created by the burners it is possible to
achieve very low levels of carbon monoxide with reasonably low excess air levels.
Generally the steam atomised burner gives less carbon monoxide with low excess
air compared to a pressure jet burner. Steam atomisation has the additional
advantage of higher turn down and lower power consumption of fuel oil pumps.

The loss of heat due to sensible heat in flue gas can be calculated using the
following formula:

Theoretical Air Requirement (TAR) =[11 x C + {34.5 x (H2 – O2/8)} +

4.32 x S]/100 kg / kg of fuel
Excess Air supplied (EA) = O2% x 100 / (21-O2%)
O2% means % of oxygen in flue gas
H2, O2, S, C are % of hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur and Carbon determined by
Ultimate Analysis
Actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS) = {1 + EA/100} x Theoretical Air
Requirement)

Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas = k x (Tf – Ta)/ % CO2
Where k is Seigert constant = 0.65 for Coal
= 0.56 for Oil
= 0.40 for Natural Gas
Tf = Flue gas Temperature in oC
Ta = Ambient Temperature in oC

Loss of Heat due to Moisture in Fuel

Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel

= M {584 + 0.45 (Tf – Ta)}
GCV of Fuel
Where M is % of moisture in fuel

Loss of Heat due to Evaporation of water formed due to H2 in Fuel

Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air

= AAS x Humidity x 0.45 x (Tf – Ta) x 100
GCV of Fuel
Where AAS is the actual air supplied
Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
= 9 x H2 {584 + 0.45 (Tf – Ta)}
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GCV of Fuel
Where H2 is % of hydrogen in fuel
 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

Loss of Heat due to Moisture present in Air

Loss of Heat due to unburnt

This loss is dependent on the type of combustion, the amount of excess air used, the
design of the system such as the volume of combustion space, residence time
provided, size of fuel particles and to some extent the nature of the fuel (the
reactivity of the fuel). This loss will be less than 0.5% for liquid and gaseous fuels as
there is no significant solid residue left after combustion and the entire loss on this
account is due to incomplete combustion of the hydro carbon (like excess CO in the
flue gas). In the case of solid fuels this significantly depends on the type of
combustion and other design parameters. For most of the solid fuels this loss (on
percentage of heat input) will be of the order of 6 to 10% for grate fired boilers,
between 2 - 6% for fluidised bed combustion, 2 - 4% for pulverised fuel firing. In the
case of solid fuels reduction in excess air below certain levels results in a very high
increase in the unburnt losses and therefore one should be very careful while
reducing the excess air levels of operation. The larger the combustion space the
higher will be the residence time and accordingly less will be the unburnt loss. A
typical residence time of 2-3 seconds is required for most solid fuels.

Percentage heat loss due to combustibles in ash

=Ash x (100 –Comb. in ash) x GCV of ash x100
GCV of fuel

Loss of heat due to radiation

This loss is of the order of 0.5% to 1.5% of the heat input in case of fired boilers
depending on the size, quality and method of insulation. For a large boiler this loss
will be less, as the surface area exposed per unit heat input is less. This loss
depends on the thickness of insulation, type of insulation mattress used and the
cladding material used. Loose mineral wool made into mattress results in a higher
heat loss compared to lightly resin bonded mattresses.

The effect of these two on the heat loss is shown in the below mentioned tables:

Conductivity
Surface Casing Heat Loss
Thickness (K)
Insulation Material Temp Temp (kCal
(mm) (kCal/hr.m
(oC) (oC) /m2hr)
°C)
LRB 50 200 49 0.0490 98.23
Mattress 75 200 46 0.0490 61.70
  100 200 44 0.0490 44.47
Unbonded 50 200 50 0.0580 114.60
Mineral Wool 75 200 47 0.0580 71.87
Mattress 100 200 45 0.0580 51.76

Various Insulation Material Vs Heat Loss is shown in the table below:

National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar

 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

Surface Casing Conductivity Heat Loss

Insulation Thickness
Temp Temp (K) (kCal (kCal
Material (mm)
(oC) (oC) /hr.m oC) /m2hr)
Mineral Wool 50 200 50 0.058 114.60
Sonasil 980 50 200 51 0.057 125.75
Ceramic 50 200 49 0.047 103.65
Blanket

While aluminum cladding may result in a higher outer casing temperature compared
to GI Sheet cladding, still heat loss with aluminum cladding will be lower than that of
the GI Cladding for the same thickness and type of insulating material.

HEAT BALANCE

Essentially, a heat balance is an attempt to balance the total energy entering a boiler
against that leaving the boiler in different forms. A typical heat balance for a boiler
system is given below:

12.7 %
Heat loss due to dry flue gas
8.1 % Dry
HeatFlue
loss Gas
due Loss
to H2 in fuel
100.0 % 1.7 %
BOILER Heat loss due to moisture in fuel
0.3 %
Fuel Heat loss due to moisture in air
2.4 % Heat loss due to unburnts in residue
1.0 %
Heat loss due to radiation & other
unaccounted loss
73.8 %
Heat in Steam
EVAPORATION RATIO

Evaporation ratio means quantity of steam generated per unit of fuel consumed.

Examples: For, Coal fired boiler : 6

Oil fired boiler : 13

i.e 1 kg of coal can generate 6 kg of steam

1 kg of oil can generate 13 kg of steam

BOILER EFFICIENCY

Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of heat input that is

effectively utilised to generate steam.

Boiler Efficiency Calculation

Direct Method
National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar Indirect Method
 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

Direct Method

Parameters to be monitored for the calculation:

Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q)

Quantity of fuel used per hour (q)
The working pressure and superheat temperature (if any)
The temperature of feed water
Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV)

Boiler efficiency () : Q x (Hg – hf) x 100

q x GCV
Where, Hg – Enthalpy of steam
hf - Enthalpy of feed water

Example – 1

Type of boiler : Coal fired

Quantity of steam generated : 8 TPH
Steam pressure / temp : 10 kg/cm2 / 180 0C
Quantity of coal consumed : 1.8 TPH
Feed water temperature : 850 C
GCV of coal : 3200 kcal/kg
Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm2 pressure: 665 kcal/kg
Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kcal/kg

Boiler efficiency () = : 8 x (665 – 85) x 100

1.8 x 3200
= 80 %

Example – 2

Type of boiler : furnace oil fired

Quantity of steam generated : 35 Tonnes per hour
Steam pressure / temp : 20 kg/cm2 / 300 0C
Quantity of F.O consumed : 2.9 Tonnes per hour
Feed water temperature : 950 C
GCV of F.O : 10200 kCal/kg
Enthalpy of steam at 20 kg/cm2 pressure & 3000C : 723.5 kCal/kg
Enthalpy of feed water : 95 kCal/kg

Boiler efficiency () =: 35 x (723.5 – 95) x 100

2.9 x 10200
= 74 %

National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar

 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

Indirect Method

In this method the thermal efficiency is found by subtracting the percentages of all
the heat losses from 100. The following parameters are to be known for the
calculation:

Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content)

Percentage of Oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
Flue gas temperature in 0C (Tf)
Ambient temperature in 0C (Ta) & humidity of air in kg/kg of d.a
GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)
O2 x 100
Excess Air supplied (EA) =
(21 – O2)
Theoretical air requirement =[(11 x C) + [{34.5 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of fuel

Actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel = {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air

(AAS)

Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas = k x (Tf – Ta)

% CO2

Where, k (Seigert const.) = 0.65 for Coal

= 0.56 for Oil
= 0.40 for NG

Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H 2 in fuel

9 x H2 {584 + 0.45 (Tf – Ta)}
=
GCV of fuel
Where, H2 – percentage of H2 in fuel

Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel

= M {584 + 0.45 (Tf – Ta)}

GCV of fuel
Where, M – % moisture in fuel
Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air
AAS x humidity x 0.45 x (Tf – Ta) x 100
= GCV of fuel
Percentage heat loss due to combustibles in ash
Ash x (100 –Comb. in ash) x GCV of ash x100
= GCV of fuel
Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss

National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar

 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

The actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of
particular emisivity of various surfaces, their inclination and air flow pattern etc. The
loss may be assumed appropriately depending on the surface condition.

Efficiency of boiler () = 100 – (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi)

Example:

Type of boiler : Oil fired

Ultimate analysis of Oil
C : 84.0 % H2 : 12.0 %
S : 3.0 % O2 : 1.0 %

GCV of Oil : 10200 kCal/kg

Percentage of Oxygen :7
Percentage of CO2 : 11
Flue gas temperature (Tf) : 220 0C
0
Ambient temperature (Ta) : 27 C
Humidity of air : 0.018 kg/kg of dry air
Excess air supplied (EA) : (O2 x 100)/(21-O2)
: (7 x 100)/(21-7)
: 50%

Theoretical Air requirement =[(11 x C) + [{34.5 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)]/100 kg/kg of fuel
=[(11 x 0.84) + [{34.5 x (12 – 1/8)} + (4.32 x 3)]/100 kg/kg of fuel

= 9.24 + (409.6875 +12.960) / 100

= 9.24 +4.22 = 13.46

Actual mass of air supplied /kg of fuel : [ 1 + EA/100] x Theo. Air

(AAS)

: [1 + 50/100] x 13.46
: 1.5 x 13.46
: 20.19

Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =

k x (Tf – Ta)
% CO2
Where, k (Seigert const.) = 0.65 for Coal
= 0.56 for oil
= 0.40 for Natural Gas

% Heat loss ={ 0.56 x (220-27)}/11

= 9.82 %

Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H 2 in fuel

National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar

 Workshop on Efficient Operation & Maintenance of Boilers

9 x H2 {584 + 0.45 (Tf – Ta)}

=
GCV of fuel
Where, H2 – percentage of H2 in fuel

= 9 x 12 {584 + 0.45 (220 – 27)}

10200
= 7.10%

Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air

AAS x humidity x 0.45 x (Tf – Ta) x 100
= GCV of fuel

= [ 20.19 x 0.018 x 0.45 x (220-27) x 100]/10200 = 0.039%

i. Heat loss due to dry flue gas : 9.82%

Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel : 7.10 %

Heat loss due to moisture present in air : 0.39 %

Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss(Estimated) : 5%

Boiler Efficiency = 100- [9.82+7.10+0.39+5]

= 100 –22.31
= 77.69%

National Productivity Council, Gandhinagar