Unit 6

Microorganisms and genetic modification

What are microorganisms? – Microorganisms are living things that you can only see with the help of a
microscope. The bodies are made of a single cell.
(Examples are protozoa, algae. Bacteria, fungi, yeast and viruses.)
Biotechnology – which means using any organisms to make products that are useful to humans.
Fermentation and biotechnology
Fermentation meant any anaerobic respiration process involving microorganisms, such as the
fermentation of sugars by yeast.
Making alcoholic drinks –
Wine is made by using yeast to ferment sugars in grape juice. Commercial wine production takes place
in large containers called vats which prevent air reaching the wine and ensure conditions remain
anaerobic.
Homemade wine is produced in small-scale fermenters fitted with an “airlock”, which allows carbon
dioxide to escape but prevents the entry of oxygen. The alcohol increases in concentration until it kills
the yeast cells, at which point fermentation stops.
Making beer – the first stage in making beer is to get barley seeds to germinate by placing them in
warm, moist conditions. When they start to germinate they produce the enzymes amylase which breaks
down starch into the sugar maltose. Later, the maltose from the seeds is fermented by yeast in a large
open vat.
Making bread – Yeast is also used to make bread. Wheat flour and water are mixed together and yeast
added, forming the bread dough. Enzymes from the original cereal grains break down starch to sugars,
which are respired by the yeast.
In bread-making, the yeast begins by respiring aerobically, producing water and carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide makes the dough rise. When the air runs out, conditions become anaerobic, so the yeast begins
to respire anaerobically making ethanol (alcohol) and more carbon dioxide.
Later, when the dough is baked in the oven, the gas bubbles expand. This gives the bread a light, cellular
texture. Baking also kills the yeast cells and evaporates any ethanol from the fermentation.
Making fruit juice – Pectinases are enzymes that is used to extract fruit juice by breaking down the
pectin in the cell walls in fruits such as apple. Pectinases are used for extracting fruit juice and for
softening vegetables.
Making yoghurt – yoghurt is milk that has been fermented by lactic acid bacteria. To make yoghurt, milk
is first pasteurized at 85-95°C for 15 to 30 minutes to kill any natural bacteria that it contains, then
homogenized to disperse the fat globules. The milk is then cooled to 40-45°C and inoculated with a
starter culture of the lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilis).
These bacteria produce lactic acid, as well as starting to digest the milk proteins. The culture is kept at
this temperature for several hours while the pH falls to about 4.4 (Optimum pH for bacteria). The
mixture coagulates (thickens) at the drops of pH causes the milk proteins turns into semi-solids.
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When fermentation is finished, the yoghurt is stirred and cooled to 5°C. Flavourings, colourants and fruit
may then be added before it is packaged for sale.
Mycoprotein – is a high material produced by fungus called Fusarium. The fungus is supplied with
oxygen, glucose, mineral salts and ammonia for the fungus to make amino acids. The fermenter is kept
at 30°C. The hyphae are processed to give a meat like texture. Flavourings are added so it can be made
into a variety of products, such as burgers, sausages, and pies.

Microorganisms and genetic modification

Genetic engineering – is the transfer of a gene from the DNA of one species to the DNA of another
species.
Recombinant DNA – DNA from one organism is being transferred to the DNA of another organism to
make a new combination of DNA is called recombinant DNA.
Advantages of recombinant DNA:
1. The product is very pure.
2. The product can be made large quantities; less expensive and more readily available. Insulin
produced in this way costs about 1% as much as insulin produced from pig pancreas.
3. The process can be switched on and off easily as the bacteria can be stored until needed again.
Gene therapy – is the transfer of healthy human genes into a person’s cells that contain mutant alleles
which cause disease. Gene therapy may be able to repair diseased human cells.
Enzymes that are chemical scissor and glue –
Restriction endonuclease enzyme (usually shortened to restriction enzyme) act as chemical scissor to
cut the human insulin making gene from the rest of the DNA.
Ligase enzyme – is used to attach the sticky ends of the insulin-making gene of the plasmid.
Industrial fermentation – Production of the antibiotic Penicillin
1. The fermentation vessel is made of stainless steel and is filled with sugars and ammonium salts.
Sugars provide energy for respiration and ammonium salts are used by the fungus to make
proteins and nucleic acids. And then fungus Penicillium chrysogenum is added into the
fermenter.
2. A stirrer keeps the microorganisms suspended so they always have access to nutrients and
oxygen. Stirring also helps to maintain an even temperature throughout the fermenter.
3. An air supply provides oxygen for aerobic respiration of the fungus.
4. A water-cooled jacket removes the heat produced by fermentation to give a constant
temperature of 24 °C.
5. Probes monitor the temperature and make sure and p H is constant at 6.5 by adding alkalis if
necessary.
After 30 hours, the fungus start to produce penicillin. After 6 days the fermentation is completed
and mixture is drained and filtered.

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Industrial production of insulin

 Genetic engineering makes insulin quickly and cheaply on a large scale.

 The human gene that codes for the production of insulin is identified.
 Restriction enzymes act as chemical scissor to cut the human insulin-making gene from the rest
of the DNA.
 A circular piece of DNA called a plasmid is removed from a bacterium.
 The same restriction enzymes are then used to cut open the plasmid.
 The two ends of the insulin-making gene are attached to the sticky ends of the plasmid using the
ligase enzyme.
 This plasmid is now known as a recombinant plasmid and is inserted back into the bacteria.
 This bacteria with recombinant plasmids use to make the production of insulin.

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 Recombinant plasmid

Biological washing powder

Microorganisms produce enzymes to digest complex carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Bacteria such as
Bacillus and fungus Aspergillus are grown in fermenters to produce enzymes for biological washing
powder. The fermentation process is similar to that of penicillin production.
Biological washing powder may contain one or more of the following types of enzymes.

 Proteases enzyme – break down protein stains, e.g. blood, grass and egg.
 Lipases – break down fats in grease stains, e.g. butter, lipstick and mayonnaise.
 Amylases – break down starch, e.g. Food stains containing starch
 Cellulases – break down cellulose fibres on the outside of cotton fabrics to remove the dirt
attached to them.
During the washing cycle, proteases break down protein into amino acids, amylases break down starch into
glucose and also cellulases break down cellulose into glucose.

Advantages of biological washing powder

1. The enzymes are broken down into harmless products after they have been used.
2. They do not harm the environment.

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Tuesday 14 May 2019 (Paper Reference 4BI1/1BR 4SD0/1BR)

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Friday 7 June 2019 /2B