Grade 10 – Biology (1st term)

Chapter 18 - Biotechnology and genetic modification

18.1 Biotechnology –

Biotechnology is defined as the exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other
purposes, especially the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of
antibiotics, hormones…etc.

Role of Yeast in the Production of Bread and Ethanol

The fundamental basis for the production of bread is the production of carbon dioxide during the
process of yeast fermentation. In bread making, the wheat flour is mixed with water, yeast, salt,
and sugar to make a dough. The sugar causes the fermentation process to start quickly. The
dough is then left in a warm, humid environment to allow fermentation.

(Fermentation - The chemical breakdown of a substance (normally under anaerobic

conditions) by microorganisms or enzymes)

The yeast feeds on the sugar, using it as a source of carbon and energy, and breaks it down
anaerobically into alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide.

➢ A chemical reaction called fermentation takes place in which the glucose is broken
down to ethanol by the action of enzymes in the yeast.

The equation for the reaction is:

The bubbles of carbon dioxide led to the rising of the dough. The dough is then baked which kills
the yeast and evaporates the alcohol.

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Grade 10 – Biology (1st term)

Understand that bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification due to their
rapid reproduction rate and their ability to make complex molecules.

Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering due to their rapid reproduction rate
and their ability to form complex molecules.

They are useful mainly due to the following reasons:

• Rapid reproduction rate: microorganisms are small and easy to grow in the laboratory. It
is a fast process, only taking several minutes.

• Ability to make complex molecules: They have a huge range of different chemical
substances.

Why bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification?

a) Lack of ethical concerns: No such issues arise in society over the use of their manipulation
and growth
Genetic code shared with all other organisms: Even though bacterial cells are different
from those of plants and animals, they share the same genetic code of DNA. A gene from
a human cell can be placed in a bacterial cell to produce human protein.

b) Presence of plasmids: They are easy to transfer from one cell to another due to the
presence of plasmids, which are the circular piece of DNA. Plasmids are used to transfer
genes from one organism’s cell to others.
Biotechnology involves the use of microorganisms to carry out processes that make
substances that humans want, for example, enzymes, proteins, hormones, fermenters,
extraction of metals from their ores, etc.

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Fermenters:
Fermenters can be used for the large-scale production of useful products by bacteria and fungi.

Following conditions need to be controlled during the process -

temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient supply and waste products.

A fermenter is a large tank in which fermentation takes place. It is filled with a nutrient solution
and maintained at an optimum pH (using mineral salts) and temperature.

Industrial fermenters - Fermenters are containers used to grow bacteria and fungi in large
amounts.

e.g.:

• transgenic bacteria

• Penicillium mould for producing penicillin (an antibiotic)

• Fusarium mould for producing mycoprotein (a fungus-based meat substitute)

Fermenters are usually made from a metal that will not corrode, such as stainless steel. They may
hold thousands of liters. The table describes the main features of a fermenter and their function.

The pH inside the fermenter is monitored to check it is at the optimum value for the particular
microorganism being grown. The pH can be adjusted, if necessary, using acids or alkalis.

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Grade 10 – Biology (1st term)

Example: A fermenter
is used for bulk
production of penicilin

In a fermenter,

• The pH and temperatures should be monitored

• Air provides oxygen for respiration
• Cooling mechanisms are there to maintain an optimum temperature of
approximately 24 C0
• Stirrer keeps the contents suspended

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Grade 10 – Biology (1st term)

Feature Function Reason

Steam inlet Hot steam sterilizes the inside An aseptic precaution to prevent
of the fermenter contamination by unwanted
microorganisms

Nutrient inlet Allows sterile nutrients to Microorganisms need nutrients so that

enter the fermenter they can grow and reproduce

Water jacket Keeps the temperature inside Microorganisms grow best at an

with cooling constant optimum temperature
water

Air inlet Provides a source of oxygen Microorganisms need oxygen for

aerobic respiration

Filter on air inlet Stops microorganisms getting An aseptic precaution to prevent

inside the fermenter contamination by unwanted
microorganisms

Stirring paddles Keeps the mixture inside the Mixes the microorganisms with the
fermenter agitated (stirred) nutrients and keeps the temperature
even

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Different uses -

(a) enzymes in biological washing powders

Many stains on clothes are organic molecules – oil from skin, protein from blood, fat and
protein from food.
Biological washing powder - a type of detergent that contains enzymes (e.g., proteases,
lipases) which remove stains by digesting large, insoluble food molecules.

Explanation:

• Detergents that only contain soap can remove some of these stains when mixed with hot
water, but it will be difficult and time consuming to remove the stains entirely.
• Biological washing powders contain enzymes similar to the digestive enzymes produced
in the alimentary canal that help to break down large food molecules
• Using biological washing powders has several advantages, including:

- Quickly breaking down large, insoluble molecules such as fats and proteins
into smaller, soluble ones that will dissolve in washing water
- They are effective at lower temperatures, meaning less energy (and money) has
to be used in order to wash clothes to get them clean as washing water does not
need to be heated to higher temperatures
- They can be used to clean delicate fabrics that would not be suitable for washing
at high temperatures

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Grade 10 – Biology (1st term)

(b) pectinase for fruit juice production

Pectin is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls that holds the walls of adjacent cells
together.
Pectinase is an enzyme that breaks down pectin – A protein found within plant cell walls.

Pectinase is used commercially to break down pectin within fruit cell walls in order to allow
easier extraction of juice from the fruit.

(c) lactase for lactose-free milk

• Lactose is the sugar found in milk.

• Human babies are born with the ability to produce lactase, the enzyme that breaks down
lactose. Some people lose the ability to produce lactase as they get older.
• This means that they can become lactose intolerant and react badly to the lactose in milk
and products made from milk (cheese, yoghurt…etc.)
• Symptoms of lactose intolerance include nausea, flatulence and diarrhea as their
digestive system is upset by the lactose.
• As a solution, milk can be made lactose free by adding the enzyme lactase to it and
leaving it to stand for a while to allow the enzyme to break down the lactose

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Grade 10 – Biology (1st term)

18.2 Genetic modification –

This is the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its

genetic material.

Genetic modification is defined as genetic material of an organism by removing, changing or

inserting individual genes from another organism.

The organism receiving the genetic material is said to be ‘genetically modified’, or is described
as a ‘transgenic organism’

Examples -

• Insertion of human genes into bacteria for the production of insulin

• Insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to herbicides

Commercial production of insulin:

Useful human proteins such as insulin (for management of type 1 diabetes) can be made by
bacteria. This is an example of genetic engineering.

▪ Human cells with human insulin genes are selected

▪ Chromosomes from those cells are extracted
▪ Insulin gene from the chromosome is removed via an enzyme called restriction
endonuclease enzyme
▪ A suitable bacterial cell is selected
▪ Bacteria have loose DNA called plasmids
▪ Plasmid is removed from the bacteria

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▪ Plasmids are cut open via the same restriction endonuclease enzyme used to cut out the

insulin gene from the human chromosome (The DNA of a bacterial plasmid is cut open

with the help of the same restriction enzymes that form complementary sticky ends)

▪ Human insulin gene is inserted into plasmids via ligase enzymes.

▪ Plasmids are returned back to the bacterial cell.

▪ The bacteria are left in a fermenter to reproduce.

▪ Rapid asexual reproduction produces a huge colony of bacteria that all have the human

insulin gene, and hence produces insulin.

▪ The insulin can be extracted from the fermenter and purified. It is used to treat diabetic

patients.

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Use of genetic modification on crop plants (Genetically modified crops)

In order to increase the food production genetically modified plants can be made. These
are plants that have had foreign DNA inserted into their genome.

Resistant to insect pests

• Crop plants (e.g.: wheat and maize), have been genetically modified to contain a gene
from a bacterium that produces a poison that kills insects, making them resistant to insect
pests such as caterpillars. This can improve crop yields.

Resistant to insect pests

• Crop plants can be genetically altered to become resistant to some of herbicides, meaning
that when the herbicide is sprayed on the crop it only kills weeds and does not affect the
crop plant.

To produce additional vitamins

• Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional vitamins and improved
nutritional value,

e.g., ‘Golden rice’ - genes from another plant and a bacterium (make the rice grains produce
a chemical that is turned into vitamin A in the human body).

Not only that, drought-resistant (to grow better in very dry conditions) can be made in order
to improve crop yields. This is a good solution for deficiency problems around the world.

Advantages and potential risks of genetic modification:

• Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wildflowers and insects.
• Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have not been fully
explored.

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Grade 10 – Biology (1st term)

Advantages of GM crops Disadvantages of GM crops

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Advantages of bacteria in GM -

o Have the same genetic code as the organisms we are getting the genes from, therefore
they can make the same protein without any problem.
o For bacteria, there are no ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth – other
animals; they suffer
o There are plasmids inside the bacterium, it can be separated from the main bacterial
chromosome, that is very easy to remove and manipulate in order to insert genes into
them and it is convenient to put it back in to the bacterium.

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