Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

A semi-empirical model for steady-state simulation of household refrigerators

Joaquim M. Gonçalves a, Cláudio Melo b, Christian J.L. Hermes b,*
a
Federal Center of Technological Education of Santa Catarina, Rua José Lino Kretzer 608, 88103-310, São José, SC, Brazil
b
POLO Research Laboratories for Emerging Technologies in Cooling and Thermophysics, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-970 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A semi-empirical modeling approach for simulating the steady-state behavior of vapor-compression
Received 19 October 2007 refrigeration systems is presented in this study. The model consists of first-principles algebraic equations
Accepted 15 July 2008 adjusted with experimental data obtained from the refrigeration system under analysis. Measurements of
Available online 31 July 2008
the relevant variables were taken at several positions along the refrigeration loop, supplying data for the
calibration of the computer model. The predicted values of refrigeration capacity and power consumption
Keywords: when compared with experimental data were within ±10% error bands. The model was also employed to
Steady-state simulation
assess the effect of various system parameters on the refrigerator performance. Although a top-mount
Semi-empirical model
Domestic refrigerators
frost-free refrigerator was chosen for this study, the modeling methodology can be easily extended to
Experimental validation other types of refrigeration systems, from domestic refrigerators to heat pumps.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the evaporating and condensing pressures were assumed to be

A household refrigerator is composed of a thermally insulated
cabinet and a vapor-compression refrigeration loop as shown in
Fig. 1. These refrigeration systems, on the whole, consume a large
amount of energy since hundreds of millions are currently in use,
and dozens of millions are coming onto the market every year.
An understanding of the operational characteristics of a refrigera-
tion system is vital for any energy optimization study, not only
to predict its performance, but also to aid the decision making dur-
ing the design process.
The refrigerator performance is usually assessed by one of the
following approaches: (i) simplified calculations based on compo-
nent characteristics; (ii) component analyzes through commercial
CFD packages; and (iii) standardized experiments. Although the
first two techniques play important roles in component design,
they do not provide enough information on component matching
and system behavior, which is only obtained by testing the refrig-
erator in a controlled environment chamber. These tests, however,
are time consuming and expensive. A faster and less costly alterna-
tive is the use of computer models to simulate the thermal- and
fluid-dynamic behavior of refrigeration systems.
Many mathematical models have been proposed in the past for
refrigerator modeling. In one of the earliest studies, Davis and Scott
[1] developed a mathematical model to predict the steady-state
component behavior over a range of operating conditions, consist-
ing of individual component sub-models that combined first-prin-
ciples with a number of empirical parameters obtained from the
literature. Simplistic models were used for heat exchangers as
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 48 3234 5691; fax: +55 48 3234 5166.
E-mail address: hermes@polo.ufsc.br (C.J.L. Hermes).
known. The compressor model, on the other hand, considered the
in-cylinder compression and the pressure drops in the suction and
discharge valves. No model has been provided for the expansion
device.
A few years later, the United States Department of Energy (US
DOE) sponsored the development of a steady-state simulation
model for household refrigerators, which was intended to be
adopted as a reference to establish the energy targets for American
household manufacturers [2]. Based on the US DOE model, several
incremental studies were then carried out. First, Abramson et al.
[3] incorporated a sub-model for the capillary tube-suction line
heat exchanger, and the model was adapted to simulate a two-door
‘Combi’ refrigerator. Later, Reeves et al. [4] improved the overall
computational performance using the e-NTU method for heat ex-
changer modeling, and polynomial fits for the compressor mass
flow rate and power consumption.
More recently, Klein et al. [5] proposed a first-principles model
for simulating the steady-state behavior of a 230-l all-refrigerator,
which comprised the following component sub-models: a natural
draft wire-and-tube condenser, a plate-type ‘roll-bond’ evaporator,
a capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger, a hermetic reciprocat-
ing compressor, and an insulated cabinet. The model was estab-
lished based on the mass, momentum and energy conservation
laws, heat transfer equations, equations of state of the working
media and empirical correlations derived from experimental data.
The capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger sub-model was de-
rived from a more sophisticated model [6] through a fractioned
factorial design technique, whilst the compressor sub-model was
based on curve fittings of calorimetric data.
In all of the studies mentioned above, the models depended on
reliable component-level performance data, which required

1359-4311/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.07.021
 J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630
Nomenclature
Roman
A area (m2)
cp specific heat (J kg1 K1)
d inner diameter of the capillary tube (m)
D inner diameter of the heat exchanger coil (m)
f friction factor
h specific enthalpy (J kg1)
L length (m)
M mass of refrigerant (kg)
N compressor speed (s1)
Q heat transfer rate (W)
Qe cooling capacity (W)
Qt thermal load (W)
R thermal resistance (K W1)
t temperature (K)
UA thermal conductance (W K1)
v specific volume (m3 kg1)
V volume (m3)
W power (W)
w refrigerant mass flow rate (kg s1)
x vapor quality (dimensionless)
Greeks
a heat transfer coefficient (W m2 K1)
Dp pressure drop (Pa)
c void fraction (dimensionless)
c mean void fraction (dimensionless)
purpose-built experimental facilities for testing each component.
In the present study, the required empirical information was gath-
ered directly by testing the refrigerator in a controlled temperature
and humidity chamber. In order to do so, the refrigeration system
was properly and carefully instrumented to minimize any affect on
its performance. The conservation laws were employed to establish
the governing equations that describe the system behavior. Each
component was modeled using a lumped approach, based on phys-
ical principles and employing empirical parameters (e.g., heat
transfer coefficients and friction factors), adjusted to fit the exper-
imental data. The model showed good agreement with experimen-
tal data during the validation exercise.
2. Experimental work
The tests were performed with a 430-l top-mount frost-free
refrigerator, assembled with a hermetic reciprocating compressor,
a natural draft wire-and-tube condenser, and a tube-fin ‘no-frost’
evaporator. The sealed system employed HFC-134a as the working
fluid (130 g) and synthetic oil as the lubricant (250 ml). The air
temperatures in the freezer and in the fresh-food compartments
were controlled by a thermostat and by a thermostatic damper,
respectively.
The refrigerator was instrumented and installed inside an envi-
ronment chamber. T-type thermocouple probes were immersed in
the refrigerant flow passage and absolute pressure transducers
with a measurement uncertainty of ±0.1% of the full scale were in-
stalled at seven points along the refrigeration loop, as shown in
Fig. 1. A Coriolis-type mass flow meter with a measurement uncer-
tainty of ±0.03 kg/h was installed at the compressor discharge. The
surrounding air temperature was measured by five thermocouples
placed around the refrigerator. The freezer and the fresh-food air
temperatures were measured, respectively, by three and six ther-
mocouples placed within these compartments. All T-type thermo-
1623
gk overall compression efficiency (dimensionless)
gv volumetric efficiency (dimensionless)
q refrigerant density (kg m3)
r refrigerant mass fraction (dimensionless)
Subscripts
A–H p-groups (Table 2)
a ambient
c condenser
dis dissolved in the compressor oil
e evaporator
f evaporator fan
hx capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger
i internal, inlet
k compressor
l saturated liquid
o external, outlet
oil compressor oil
sat saturated
sub sub-cooled
sup superheated
v saturated vapor
1–7 refrigerant states along the
refrigeration loop
Superscripts
0
capillary tube
couples employed in this study have a measurement uncertainty of
±0.3 °C. The compressor and fan power consumption were moni-
tored using a digital power analyzer with a measurement uncer-
tainty of ±0.1%. A 112-channel system was employed for data
acquisition. Tests were performed before and after the instrumen-
tation setup to check for any discrepancies in the system
performance.
Additional adjustments were introduced into the system to al-
low the obtainment of the desired information. A needle metering
valve was installed as an auxiliary expansion device upstream of
the capillary tube. The original fixed capacity compressor was re-
placed by a variable capacity compressor. The wall heat loop was
by-passed and the defrost heaters were turned off. The thermo-
static mechanism of the damper was removed and the aperture
was kept constantly opened. The compressor and fan power con-
sumption and speed were controlled and measured independently.
The compressor power consumption and speed were measured
with a Yokogawa WT230 power analyzer. The fan speed was mea-
sured using infrared light. In total, 13 variables were experimen-
tally studied, seven were geometric characteristics of the system
and the other six were operational variables.
The geometric characteristics were varied in different combina-
tions which generated eight different system configurations, as
shown in Table 1. Each configuration was tested controlling the fol-
lowing six operational variables: (i) ambient temperature; (ii)
compressor speed; (iii) refrigerant charge; (iv) auxiliary expansion
device opening; (v) fan speed; and (vi) internal heating. A total of
168 tests were performed, approximately 20 tests for each config-
uration. Independent experimental setups were used to measure
the capillary tube inner diameter, the internal volumes of the com-
ponents, and the cabinet overall thermal conductance. The range of
tested conditions is showed in the pressure–enthalpy diagram of
Fig. 2. It is worth of note that this dataset can also be used for com-
ponent analysis.
1624 J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630

5000
R-134a

3
4 60˚C
1000 2
40˚C

Pressure [kPa]
5

20˚C

0˚C

100 -20˚C

6 1
7
-40˚C
30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Specific enthalpy [kJ/kg]

Fig. 2. Experimental data points in the pressure–enthalpy diagram.

3.1. Reciprocating compressor

In most reciprocating compressors, the entering refrigerant

passes successively through the compressor shell, the suction muf-
fler and the suction valve to the compression chamber, where it is
expelled through the discharge valve to the discharge muffler. The
compressor mass flow rate equation was based on the volumetric
efficiency, gv, as defined by [8]

NV k
w¼ g; ð1Þ
v1 v

where w and N are the compressor mass flow rate (kg s1) and
speed (s1), respectively, Vk is the compression chamber volume
(m3), and v1 is the specific volume at the compressor inlet
(m3 kg1).
The compressor discharge enthalpy, h2, was obtained from an
overall energy balance

h2;s  h1 UAk
h2 ¼ h1 þ  ðt2  t a Þ; ð2Þ
gk w

where gk is the overall compression efficiency. The compression

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the vapor-compression loop. power Wk was calculated as follows:

NV k gv
Wk ¼ ðh2;s  h1 Þ: ð3Þ
v1 gk
3. Mathematical model
The compressor heat release rate was calculated by an overall
For modeling purposes, the refrigeration system was divided thermal conductance, UAk, related to the temperature differ-
into five component sub-models: (i) compressor, (ii) capillary ence between the discharge line, t2, and the surrounding air,
tube-suction line heat exchanger, (iii) condenser, (iv) evaporator, ta.
and (v) refrigerated cabinet. Each of the component sub-models The compressor volumetric and overall efficiency values and
are described below. More detailed information can be found the overall compressor thermal conductance were all fitted to
in [7]. the experimental data, yielding

Table 1
Configurations tested

Configuration Capillary tube Condenser Evaporator

Overall length (m) ID (mm) Entrance length (m) ID (mm) Number of wires Number of tubes Number of fins
1 3.0 0.64 0.2 4.8 55 19 47
2 4.0 0.60 0.4 5.6 45 19 58
3 4.0 0.75 1.6 5.6 75 19 29
4 3.0 0.75 0.2 5.6 65 19 35
5 3.0 0.56 0.2 4.8 90 25 35
6 3.0 0.56 0.8 6.2 60 13 47
7 4.0 0.64 0.4 4.8 30 25 29
8 4.0 0.75 1.6 4.8 60 25 58
 J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630
gv ¼ 1 þ 0:011½1  ðp2 =p1 Þ1=1:13   0:0023N;
gk ¼ 0:7294 þ 0:001349ta  0:001428N;
UAk ¼ 1:520 þ 2:423p1 þ 0:05459N  0:06742ðt 2  t a Þ;
where UAk is given in (W K1), p1 and p2 in (bar), ta and t2 in (°C),
and N in (rpm). As can be seen in Fig. 3, this set of equations predicts
the experimental data for mass flow rate (Fig. 3a) and power con-
sumption (Fig. 3b) within ±10% error bands, and the compressor
discharge temperature (Fig. 3c) with deviations of ±5 °C.
Fig. 3. Validation of the compressor sub-model: (a) mass flow rate, (b) power
consumption and (c) compressor discharge temperature.
1625
ð4Þ 3.2. Heat exchangers: condenser and evaporator
ð5Þ
The condenser is a natural draft wire-and-tube heat exchanger,
ð6Þ
in which the air-side temperature is assumed to be uniform. The
condenser was divided into three regions depending on the refrig-
erant state: superheated, saturated or subcooled (Fig. 4a). The heat
transfer rate in each region was then modeled following the e-NTU
method [9].
The refrigerant at the condenser exit was obtained from the fol-
lowing energy balance:
Q c;sup þ Q c;sat þ Q c;sub
h4 ¼ h3  ; ð7Þ
w
where the heat transfer rates were calculated as follows:
Q c;sup ¼ wðh3  hv Þ ¼ wcp;v ðt 3  ta Þ½1  expðUAsup =wcp;v Þ; ð7aÞ
Q c;sat ¼ whlv ¼ UAsat ðt c  ta Þ; ð7bÞ
Q c;sub ¼ wðhl  h4 Þ ¼ wcp;l ðt c  t a Þ½1  expðUAsub =wcp;l Þ: ð7cÞ
Note that Eqs. (7a)–(7c) are constrained by the overall condenser
area, Ac = Ac,sup + Ac,sat + Ac,sub. For each region, the overall thermal
conductance was obtained from the internal and external
conductances
UA1 ¼ ðai Ai Þ1 þ ðgo ao Ao Þ1 : ð8Þ
The air-side conductance was evaluated taking into account the
fin efficiency, following the calculation procedure proposed by
Schmidt [10]. The heat transfer coefficients were fitted to the
experimental data. The refrigerant-side heat transfer coefficient
was adjusted for each region (superheating: 100 W m2 K1; satu-
ration: 1900 W m2 K1; subcooling: 16 W m2 K1), whereas the
air-side heat transfer coefficient was assumed to be uniform
(13 W m2 K1).
In addition, the condenser pressure drop was calculated by
L w2 8
Dp ¼ Dpsup þ Dpsat þ Dpsub ¼ f : ð9Þ
D5 q p2
An attempt was made to fit the friction factor into the above
equation for every flow region, but deviations of up to ±50% were
observed. This is probably due to several phenomena that were
not accounted for by Eq. (9), such as two-phase flow patterns and
curvature of pipe fittings (return bends). Thus, an average experi-
mental value of 4 kPa was adopted for the pressure drop, which rep-
resents a temperature glide of 0.2 K, which has a negligible effect on
the system performance.
The evaporator sub-model is analogous to that of the condenser,
although only two zones can be observed, saturated and super-
heated refrigerant (Fig. 4b). The fluid enters the heat exchanger
in a saturated condition and may exit either saturated or as super-
heated vapor. The refrigerant at the evaporator exit was obtained
from the following energy balance:
Q e;sat þ Q e;sup
h7 ¼ h6 þ ; ð10Þ
w
where the heat transfer rates were calculated as follows:
Q e;sat ¼ wðhv  h6 Þ ¼ UAsat ðt i  t e Þ; ð10aÞ
Q e;sup ¼ wðh7  hv Þ ¼ wcp;v ðt i  t e Þ½1  expðUAsup =wcp;v Þ: ð10bÞ
Note that Eqs. (10a) and (10b) are constrained by the overall con-
denser area, Ae = Ae,sup + Ae,sat. For each region, the overall thermal
conductance was obtained from Eq. (8). The heat transfer coefficients
used by the evaporator model are as follows: air-side: 25 W m2 K1;
refrigerant-side (saturation): 1700 W m2 K1; and refrigerant-side
(superheating): 100 W m2 K1. In addition, the average pressure
drop in the evaporator was found to be 7 kPa, which represents a glide
of approximately 1.5 K in the evaporating temperature.
1626 J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the heat exchanger sub-models: (a) condenser and (b) evaporator.

Fig. 5 shows both condenser (Fig. 5a) and evaporator (Fig. 5b) where the p-groups are described in Table 2. In cases where two-
sub-model predictions for the heat transfer rate, where an agree- phase refrigerant is entering the capillary tube, the dimensionless
ment within ±10% and ±20% error bands can be noted, respectively, group pG is expressed in terms of the inlet vapor-quality as follows:
for the condenser and the evaporator.
pG;sat ¼ 1  x4 : ð12Þ
3.3. Capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger It can be seen in Fig. 7 that Eqs. (11a) and (11b) both predict exper-
imental data within 10% error bands. When either the subcooling or
The refrigerator employs a concentric capillary tube-suction quality approached zero, the mass flow rate was determined by a
line heat exchanger, where the capillary tube is placed inside the linear interpolation between the values given by the two equations.
suction line forming a counterflow heat exchanger, as illustrated The heat transfer in the capillary tube to suction line heat ex-
in Fig. 6. During the expansion process heat is transferred from changer was determined using the heat exchanger effectiveness,
the capillary tube to the suction line. As a consequence, the refrig- defined as follows:
erant quality at the evaporator inlet is reduced, whereas the suc- t1  t7
tion line exit temperature increases, eliminating suction line ehx ¼ : ð13Þ
t5  t7
sweating and preventing slugging of the compressor.
The mass flow rate through the capillary tube was modeled The effectiveness was found to be around 0.87 for all experimental
through a p-type correlation, using a set of dimensionless param- data. Additionally, the suction line was considered adiabatic in rela-
eters proposed in [11]. The equation coefficients were fitted to the tion to the surrounding air, thus, the refrigerant heat gain in the
experimental data provided by [12] for subcooled inlet conditions suction line was considered equal to the heat released by the capil-
and to the data obtained in this study for saturated inlet condi- lary tube. The refrigerant enthalpy at the evaporator inlet was thus
tions, yielding obtained from the following energy balance:
h6  h5 ¼ h7  h1 : ð14Þ
pG;sub ¼ 0:07602p0:4583
A p0:07751
B p0:7342
C p0:1204
D p0:03774
E p0:04085
F p0:1768
H ;
ð11aÞ In order to avoid prohibitive computational costs as well as conver-
0:3127 1:059 0:3662 4:759 0:04965 gence issues, the capillary tube flow model was replaced by a fixed
pG;sat ¼ 0:01960p A p C p
D p E;sat p F ; ð11bÞ
subcooling degree at the condenser outlet. Therefore, the model
 J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630 1627

Table 2
Summary of the p-groups of the capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger sub-model

pA Lct/d
pB Lhx/d
2
pC pc d =l2l vl
2
pD pe d =l2l vl
pE cp;l Dtsub d=l2l v2l
2
pF cp;l Dtsup d =l2l v2l
0
pG w /dll
pH 1  lv/ll

In the two-phase flow regions, the mean void fraction definition

was employed to determine an average density for the working
fluid [13]
Msat ¼ Asat Lsat ½qv c
 þ qv ð1  c
Þ; ð17Þ

Fig. 5. Validation of the heat exchanger sub-models: (a) condenser and (b)
evaporator.

was used a posteriori to determine the capillary tube diameter re-

quired to expand the refrigerant from the condensing to the evapo-
rating pressure.

3.4. Refrigerant mass inventory

The volume of each component was carefully measured using

the principle of a pressurized gas contained in a known volume
being expanded into an evacuated and unknown volume. In the
single-phase regions, the mass of refrigerant was calculated from
qv þ qsup
M sup ¼ Asup Lsup ; ð15Þ
2
ql þ qsub Fig. 7. Validation of the capillary tube sub-model: (a) Zangari’s data [12] and (b)
M sub ¼ Asub Lsub : ð16Þ Gonçalves’ data [7].
2

Fig. 6. Schematic representation of the capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger.

1628
where the mean void fraction was calculated from [13]
Z xo
c ¼ cðxÞdx:
xi
Also, the mass of refrigerant dissolved in the lubricant was calcu-
lated from
r
M dis ¼ Moil ; ð19Þ
1r
where r is the solubility of refrigerant in the compressor oil ob-
tained from [14].
Several void fraction models were tested [13], but all of them gen-
erated a poor agreement (+20% to 50%) with the experimental refrig-
erant charge (Fig. 8). Because of these results, the validation study was
carried out using fixed experimental values for the superheating at
the evaporator outlet. The refrigerant charge was then calculated a
posteriori using the void fraction model introduced by Hughmark
[15] in order to provide a qualitative description of the variation in
the refrigerant charge with respect to the superheating degree.
3.5. Working pressures
Two additional equations are required to determine the evapo-
rating and condensing pressures. In general, the working pressures
are obtained implicitly and iteratively from the following
equations:
w  w0 ¼ 0;
X
M M j ¼ 0;
j yielded two equations for each component that were used to calcu-
where w and w0 are the refrigerant mass flow rates discharged by
the compressor and flowing through the capillary tube, respec-
tively, M is the actual charge of refrigerant and Mj is the calculated
amount of refrigerant in each of the j components of the refrigera-
tion loop. It is worth noting that Eqs. (20a) and (20b) are strongly
non-linear functions of the working pressures and, thus, their solu-
tion is time-consuming and may lead to convergence issues. In or-
der to keep the complexity at a reasonable level, these equations
were replaced by imposing both the superheating and the subcool-
ing degrees at the evaporator and condenser, respectively. There-
fore, the working pressures were calculated from
t sat ðpe Þ ¼ t7  Dt sup ;
t sat ðpc Þ ¼ t4 þ Dt sub :
This procedure not only eliminates the convergence issues, but also
approximates the numerical analysis to the design practice, where
both the capillary tube and refrigerant charge are adjusted a poste-
200
Predicted refrigerant charge [g]
150
100
50
0 4.2. Sensitivity analysis
0 50
Measured refrigerant charge [g]
Fig. 8. Comparisons between predicted and actual refrigerant charge.
J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630
riori to enforce that the refrigeration system works with the de-
signed superheating and subcooling degrees.
ð18Þ
3.6. Refrigerated compartments
An overall thermal conductance value was used to calculate the
rates of heat transmission through the cabinet walls and gasket
sealing
Q e ¼ Q t ¼ UAcab ðti  ta Þ þ W f : ð22Þ
The fan power consumption, Wf, varied from 7.5 W (2500 rpm) to
8.5 W (3100 rpm) for all tests and, thus, an average value of 8 W
was assumed. The rate of heat transmission through the walls was
calculated based on an overall thermal conductance, UAcab, which
was fitted to the experimental data generated by reverse heat leak
tests. This parameter was found to be 2 W K1, which predicted the
experimental heat transfer data within ±8% error bands [7].
3.7. Solution algorithm
The models were written in a modular format using a specific
routine for each of the component sub-models, and implemented
using the EES platform [16] in a modular form. The main inputs
and outputs of each sub-model routine were the geometric charac-
teristics of each component, the pressure and enthalpy at the com-
ponent interfaces, the mass flow rate, and the internal and external
ð20aÞ air temperatures.
ð20bÞ Basically, the energy and momentum conservation principles
late the specific enthalpy and pressure at the interconnection points.
The working pressures at the compressor discharge and suction ports
were calculated from Eqs. (21a) and (21b), respectively. The capillary
tube-suction line heat exchanger provided an equation for the refrig-
erant temperature at the compressor inlet. The energy conservation
principle applied to the refrigerated cabinet supplied a final equation
for the internal air temperature. After a sequential arrangement of
these equations, a resulting set of four non-linear equations and four
unknowns (evaporating and condensing pressures, and compressor
inlet and internal air temperatures) was solved using the Newton–
Raphson technique. The other equations were solved by successive
iterations within the component subroutines.
ð21aÞ
ð21bÞ 4. Results and discussion
4.1. Model validation
Fig. 9 shows a comparison between predicted and measured
values. Fig. 9a compares predicted and measured internal air tem-
+20%
perature and compression power as a function of the refrigerant
charge, showing maximum deviations of 2.5 °C and 5%, respec-
tively. Fig. 9b plots the same independent variables as a function
of compressor speed, where maximum deviations of 1 °C and
8 W were observed for the internal air temperature and compres-
sor power, respectively. Fig. 9c shows the variation in the same
independent parameters as a function of the auxiliary expansion
valve, where deviations of 4.5 °C and 9 W can be noted, respec-
-50% tively, for the internal air temperature and compressor power. In
all cases, the measured and predicted values are within an accept-
able uncertainty band, and the numerical model was able to pre-
dict satisfactorily the trends observed experimentally.
100 150 200
The validated model was then used to assess the refrigerator
performance assuming the following key conditions: (i) system
 J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630 1629

130 125
a 4
System #1
115
System #1
Ambient temperature = 32 ˚C

Compressor power consumption [W]

125

Compressor power consumption [W]

0 Ambient temperature = 32 ˚C 110 Freezer temperature = -18 ˚C
Internal air temperature [˚C]

120 120
-4 105

Refrigerant charge [g]

-8 100 115

-12 95 110 115

-16 90 105

-20 85 100 110

-24 80 95

-28 75 90 105
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Refrigerant charge [g] Capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger effectiveness

Fig. 10. Effect of the capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger effectiveness.
b -12
System #1
-13 Ambient temperature = 32 ˚C 99
increasing effectiveness, which is due to the reduction in the vapor
Compressor power consumption [W]
Internal air temperature [˚C]

-14 quality at the evaporator inlet and, thus, a lower amount of refrig-
90 erant is needed. In practical terms, the proposed effectiveness
-15
enhancement can be performed by increasing the heat exchanger
-16
length or reducing the suction line diameter.
81 Fig. 11 shows the effect of the finned surface of the heat exchan-
-17 ger on the compressor power. It can be noted that the compression
power decreases with increasing condenser surface, although a
-18 72
higher amount of refrigerant is required to keep the internal air
-19
63
-20
1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 a 106 130

Compressor speed [rpm] System #1

Ambient temperature = 32 ˚C
Compressor power consumption [W]

105
Freezer temperature = -18 ˚C 125
c 30
System #1
120
104

Refrigerant charge [g]

Ambient temperature = 32 ˚C 110 120
Compressor power consumption [W]

20 103
Internal air temperature [˚C]

100 102 115

10

90 101
110
0
100
80
105
-10 99
70
98 100
-20 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
60
Number of condenser wires
-30 50
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 b 110 135
Auxiliary expansion device opening [turns] System #1
Ambient temperature = 32 ˚C
Compressor power consumption [W]

105
130
Fig. 9. Model validation varying (a) the refrigerant charge, (b) the compressor Freezer temperature = -18 ˚C
speed and (c) the valve opening. 100
Refrigerant charge [g]

125

#1 (Table 1); (ii) freezer air temperature at 18 °C; (iii) ambient 95
120
temperature of 32 °C; (iv) compressor speed of 4000 rpm; and (v)
90
auxiliary expansion device fully open. The effects of the capillary
115
tube-suction line heat exchanger effectiveness, and the number 85
of condenser wires and evaporator fins on the compressor power 110
consumption were investigated. The numerical experiment was 80

carried out maintaining the internal air temperature and the evap- 105
75
orator superheating and condenser subcooling degrees constant.
The refrigerant charge variations are represented in these figures 70 100
by dotted lines, since the values are merely illustrative. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fig. 10 depicts the effect of capillary tube to suction line heat Number of evaporator f ins
exchanger effectiveness on the compressor power. It can be seen Fig. 11. Effect of the heat transfer surface area varying: (a) the number of wires in
that both compressor power and refrigerant charge decrease with the condenser and (b) the number of fins in the evaporator.
1630 J.M. Gonçalves et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1622–1630

115  Numerical procedures: The sub-models were implemented in the

EES software. The computer code was written in a modular for-
Compressor speed [rpm]
mat, using a specific procedure for each of the components.
Compressor power consumption [W]

110 Capillary tube

5100
0.45 diameter [mm]
0.5 When all the routines are run together the program solves a
0.55
105
0.65
0.6 set of four non-linear equations. The program predictions were
4500
compared to the measured data and a reasonable level of agree-
100 ment was achieved.
3900
Overcharged
 Analysis: The effects of some key parameters on the system per-
95 Undercharged
condenser evaporator formance were determined. During this analysis the internal air
3300 temperature was held constant reflecting a design requirement.
90
A map of the system states which provides insights into both the
2700
design and control procedures was also presented. This type of
85 System #1
Ambient temperature = 32 ˚C
analysis provided a realistic insight into the systemic behavior,
Near optimum region
Freezer temperature = -18 ˚C which is otherwise laborious and costly to carry out
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 experimentally.
Refrigerant charge [g]

Fig. 12. Map of the refrigerator states.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Empresa Brasileira de Compressores

(EMBRACO S.A.) for sponsoring this research program. The contin-
temperature constant (Fig. 11a). It can also be noted that the heat
ued support from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico
transfer surface was considerably increased, although the power
(CNPq) is also duly acknowledged.
consumption changed only 5%. When the number of evaporator
fins was changed (Fig. 11b), not only the refrigerant charge but also
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