Jakobsen (1995)

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Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems
* The Domestic Refrigerator - a Case Study *
DTU
Arne Jakobsen
Refrigeration Laboratory
The Technical University of Denmark (DTU)
March 1995.
Ph. D. Thesis Report F-179-1
DiSTRIBUTION OF THiS DOCUMENT is UNLIMITED

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About the Report & Dansk resume Page
About the Report

This thesis is submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph. D. degree at DTU,
The Technical University of Denmark.
The Study was carried out at the Refrigeration Laboratory from September 1992 to March
1995 under the supervision of associate professor Per Danig.
Any questions regarding the report should be adressed to:

Refrigeration Laboratory
DTU, Building 402
2800 Lyllgby
Denmark Fax. nr:+4545935215
After the oral defence taking place 9/6-95 with Professor R. W. James, UK as external
examiner minor editorial modifications have been made to the thesis.
Lyngby. July 1995
Dansk resume
Emnet "energioptimering af kelesystemer" er behandlet. hvor et husholdningskeleskab er
anvendt som eksempel. Pa trods af at energiforbruget af de individuelle ksleskabe er
beskeder.t. er der et stort potentiale set i sarnfundsmressig sammenhreng for reduktion af
energiforbruget. Dette skyldes, dels at den exergetiske virkningsgrad af ksleskabelfrysere er
ringe. dels den store udbredelse afksleskabelfrysere.
Der er udvikJet simuleringsmodeller til beskrivelse af den dynarniske drift af et 325 I ksleskab.
Simuleringsresultateme er valideret ved sarnmenligning med udforte mminger. Modelleme er
benyttet til at beregne de termodynarniske tab i kslesystemet og anvendt til vurdering af
forskeIlige muligheder for energi optimering. I denne sammenhreng er pararnetre som
kompressor effektivitet, lrengde af kapillarror. f}tldning af kelemiddel, UA-vrerdier af
varrnevekslere samt alternative styrestrategier af kompressorens omdrejningstal blevet
undersogt.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen
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Abstract and Acknowledgements Pageii
Abstract
The subject of Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems is treated using the domestic
refrigerator as a case study. It is shown that even though the energy consumption of the
individual domestic refrigerators is rather low, a big potential, seen in society perspective, for
further savings exists. This potential .is partly due to the low exergy efficiency of the
refrigerator and partly due to the large number of refrigerators in society today.
Simulation models of· the dynamic behaviour of the refrigerator are developed and are
validated against measurements on a 325 I refrigerator. The models are used to quantifY the
thermodynamic losses in the refrigeration cycle and to investigate various means of energy
optimisation. In this context the influence of design variables like compressor efficiency, UA-
values ofthe heat exchangers involved, length of capillary tube, charge of refrigerant as well as
the effect of alternative control strategies of the compressor are examined.
Acknowledgements
I have received much help and guidance during the 2'1> year of my Ph. D. Study. The danger of
naming people explicitly is that some people involved will be forgotten, who also deserved to
be mentioned. So not to forget anybody: Thanks to all, who have supported me ill this project.
Anyway the names of a few people should be emphasised. First of all I will thank my
supervisor P. Danig for taking me on as Ph. D. student and for all the stimulating discussions
we have had. I am also indebted to Professor Worsoe-Schmidt, who has shown great interest
and supported me during the project. A special thank is directed to my fellow Ph. D. student
Bjame Rasmussen, who's interest in my project and positive attitude to life in general has been
a source of inspiration. Thanks are also addressed to P. Bansal at The University of Auckland,
New Zealand for hosting me for four month. Thanks are directed to the companies Gram Ltd.
and Danfoss Ltd. for equipment and knowledge provided during my project. Another thank is
addressed to the Danish Energy Agency (Energistyrelsen) for partial funding of my project.
I am grateful for the help from Tine. concerning the handmade drawings to the various front
pages. Finally thanks to my wife Lene and to my children Mojo and Kamilla for showing
tolerance and love towards me even though my mind has been occupied with the mysteries of
"Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems".
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen ii
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• Background for Ph. D. study
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Page iii
Background for Ph.D. Study
Today there is a great public concern regarding the environmental situation. The most drastic
and global reaction has been the ban of the CFC refrigerants containing chloride, which are
believed to contribute significantly to the obselVed break down of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere. "ODP" (Ozone Depletion Potential), "GWP" (Global Wanning Potential), and
"TEWI" (Total Equivalent Wanning Impact) are abbreviations appearing in the ongoing
debate. The GWP-number reflects the direct contribution to the green-house effect from the
possible emission of a specific substance in the atmosphere. The TEWI-number includes also
the indirect effect coming from the use of energy (emission of CO 2) related to the use of the
substance in question.
In the refrigeration industry the challenge is to develop energy efficient systems using
environmental benign refrigerants. The laner might be natural refrigerants like water, air,
carbon dioxide, ammonia, isobutane etc.
In EU Denmark is detennined to implement common standards for maximum energy
consurr.;Jtion of household equipment - among them domestic refiigerators and freezers. The
idea is to force the industry to develop products, which both in their end-use and in the way
they are produced are energy efficient. The tools are standards for maximum allowable energy
consumption and so-called "green taxes" put on the use ofenergy, e.g. COz tax.
The development in the field of ele~ronics increases the potential for development and
implementation of "energy-intelligent" control of products (e.g. household equipment) and
industrial processes. The problem is to develop the right control strategies. In order to do this
a deep understanding of the process inefficiencies together with a knowledge of the possible
control strategies are needed. This Ph. D. project is focused on:
* fundamental description ofthe process inefficiencies in a standard refrigeration cycle.
* development and use of simulation models for quantifying the loss mechanisms and for
investigating means of energy optimisation including the influence ofvarious
control strategies.
The example chosen is a domestic refiigerator. The main reason for this choice is that, parallel
to this Ph. D. project, the Institute1 is involved in a collaboration project with Danish industry
I Refrigeration Laboratory, DTU. Denmark
Energy Optimisation of RefrigeraLion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen iii
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Background for Ph. D. study Page iv
investigating the use of continuous capacity control of a refiigerator by the use of a

compressor with variable speed.
Introduction to Report
The report is structured in five parts:

I Background.
II Theory.
ill Modelling ofa Domestic Refrigerator.
IV Energy Optimisation ofa Domestic Refrigerator.
V Evaluation.
Part I - Background: Section 1 ~ Section 2 provide information regarding the energy

consumption of today's refiigerators, the cooling d~mand, the system efficiency and test
conditions which are prescribed by the test standards.
In addition to this information the design and working principle of a domestic refrigerator are
explained in Section 2. Readers who are familiar with the thermodynamics and design of the
refiigerator can just glance through tllis section - or skip it.
Part D - Theory: Section 3 ~ Section 5 treat the subject of "Thermodynamic Loss Analysis".
From the 1st and the 2nd law of thermodynamics the relationship between the COP
(Coefficient Of Performance) and the thermodynamic losses is derived. The latter is
qualitatively expressed as process irreversibilities and can be quantified in terms of entropy
generations or exergy destructions. The actual thermodynamic losses are identified for a
domestic refrigerator and the losses are quantified using a simulation model, which is described
in Part m of the repon.
General concepts ofEnergy Optimisation and Modelling of Thermal Systems are described in
Section 4 and Section 5 respectively.
Part m - Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator: Section 6 0+ Section 9 describe the

developed simulation models. The physics of the processes involved are in all cases explained
qualitatively ("mind modelling") before equations constituting the mathematical model are
Energy Opti misation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen iv
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II.
Background for Ph. D. study Page v
derived. Three models are described: two dynamic system models and one steady-state system
model.
The numerical implementation - or programming - of the mocels is described in Section 7. In
order to validate the simulation models, measurements on a domestic refrigerator are carried
out. The experimental tests are summarised in Section 8. The comparison between the
measurements and the results from the dynamic simulation models constituting the model
validation are explained in Section 9.
Part IV - Energy Optimisation ofa Domestic Refrigerator: Section 10 focus on the influence
of the various design parameters on the energy consumption (or COP) of the domestic
refrigerator. Subjects ranging from capacity control of the compressor to optimisation of the
length of capillary tube and charge and choice of refrigerant are treated. In most of the cases
the influence of the design parameter are quantified by the use of the simulation models
developed.
Part V - Evaluation: Section 11 -+ Section 15 describe initially a vision regarding elements of

the future design of refrigerators. Prior to the presentation of the main conclusions of the Ph.
D. study in Section 13 the involved methods and tools are evaluated separately in Section 12.
Fin:Uly suggestions for further work are outlined in Section 14.
Section ISis "Conclusion and Summary" in danish.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen v
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Nomenclature Page vi
N omenclature
A m2 Surface area.
COP Coefficient OfPerformance.
E J Energy.
Gf Gearing factor for local irreversibility reduction.
h J/kg Specific enthalpy of refrigerant.
L m Length.
M kg Amount of refrigerant
MC JIK Thermal capacity.
mcap kgls Flow rate of refrigerant through capillary tube.
rilcom kgls Flow rate of refrigerant through compressor.
Nrym RPM Frequency of compressor.
np Polytropic exponent.
p bar or Pa Pressure (absolute).
Q W Heat flow.
S JIK Entropy.
s J/(kg'K) Specific entropy.
T K Absolute temperature.
V W/(m 2 'K) Heat transfer coefficient (air).
VA WIK Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Vi J Internal energy of refrigerant.
Ui J/kg Specific internal energy of refrigerant.
V m3 Volume.
Vs m3 Compressor-cylinder volume.
v m3/kg Specific volume.
W W Electrical power consumed by compressor.
X Quality of refrigerant.
Z m Length coordinate.
Z Compressibility factor.
Energy OptimiS3tion of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen vi
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Nomenclature Page vii
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Greek leUel"li.
a Heat transfer coeffic:ient (refrigerant).

Volumetric efficiency for compressor.
TI, Isentropic efficiency for compressor.
p Density.
1t Pressure ratio.
t, WfK Entropy generation.
Time
lnd!ces.
a Ambient. 3 Exit condenser.

c Condenser. 30 Exit adiabatic part of capillary tube.
cap Capillary tube. -I Inlet evaporator.
conY Convection. 5 Exit evaporator.
Evaporator 2ph Two-phase.
g Gas.
He Heat exchanger.
Inner.
Liquid.
Outer.
Cabinet air (room).
rod Radiation.
sal Saturated.
sc Subcooling.
sh Superheating.
Wall.
Inlet compressor.
2 Discharge of compressor.
2s State of refrigerant out of compressor
if process had been isentropic.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen vii
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Table of Contents Page viii
Table of Contents
About the Report _.. _ i
Dansk resume i
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements _ _ ii
Background for Ph.D. Study iii
Introduction to Report iv
Nomenclature vi
Table of Contents viii
Part I: Background
1. Energy Consumption of Today' s Domestic Refiigerators 1
1.1 Actual energy consumption 2
1.2 Cooling demand _ __ _ _ 3
1.3 System efficiency 4
1.4 Test standards 5
2. Working Principle ofa Refiigerator __ 7

2.1 Design 8
2.2 Thermodynamic description 10
Part II: Theory

3. Thermodynamic Loss Analysis 13
3.1 Relation between thermodynamic losses, irreversibility,
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen viii
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Table of Contents Pageix
entropy generation and exergy destruction 13

3.2 Relationship between COP and thermodynamic losses 15
3.3 Identification and description of the thermodynamic losses
for a domestic refrigerator 17
3.4 Interaction between local losses and the overall system loss 18
3.5 Identification of losses caused by transient phenomena 19
3.6 Calculation of thermodynamic losses in a 325 I refiigerator 22
3.7 Discussion 25
4. General Energy Optimisation 26

4.1 Objectives 26
4.1.1 Trade-off between investment and running cost.. 27
4.1.2 Trade-offbetween competing losses 28
4.1.3 Control strategies 29
4.2 Numeric31 methods/tools 30
5. Modelling of Thermal Systems in General 32

5.1 Phases in the modelling process 32
5.2 Proper choice of model complexity __ 34
5.3 Model types 35
Part ill: Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator

6. Modelling ofa Domestic Refrigerator 38
6.1 Objective __ __ __ 38
6.2 Qualitative system model or phenomenological description 38
6.3 Complexity and structure of the mathematical system model 42
6.4 Component models for the dynamic system model 44
6.4.1 Compressor __ 45
6.4.2 Condenser 50
6.4.2.1 Thermal model.. 51
6.4.2.2 Model includ1!1g the influence ofrefrigerant content.. 52
6.4.3 Capillary tube 56
6.4.3.1 Flow model. 58
6.4.3.2 Heat exchange model __ 60
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen ix
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T:l.!;:.: of Contents Page x
6_4.4 Evaporator . ._ _ __ __ __ 64
6.4.4.1 Thennal model 64
6.4.4.2 Model including the influence ofrefrigenlllt content.. 65
6.4.5 Refrigerator cabinet .. _ _ __ 69
6.5 Steady-state model 71
7. Numerical Implementation 73
7.1 Numerical tools __ 73
7.2 Computing time and numeric difficulties .. __ _ _ _ __ 76
8. Experimental Setup and Tests 77

8.1 Introduction to the experimental set-up __ 77
8.2 Measurements ofa standard on-off cycle 78
9. Model Validatior. __ __ __ _ _ _ _ 84
9.1 Comparison between simulation results and measurements 84
9.2 Model parameters and initial values __ 90
9.3 Comparison between results from different dynamic models __ 92
9.4 Discussion 95
Part IV: Energy Optimisation of a Domestic Refrigerator

10. Energy Optimisation ofa Specific Domestic Refiigerator. 98
10.1 Influence of control strat~gies __ __ __ _ __ __ 98
10.2 Influence of design parameters 104
10.3 Capillary tube length and amount ofrefiigerant charge 107
lOA Choice ofrefiigerant __ __ 109
iO_5 Built-in versus external evaporator and condenser __.._.. __ __ 110
10.6 Use offan III
10.7 Discussion 113
Energy Optimisation ofRcfrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen x

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Table of Contents Page xi
Part V: Evaluation
11. Refiigerator Year 2010 114
12. Evaluation ofMethods and Tools 117
13. Conclusion and Sununary 120
14. Suggestions for Further Work 126
15. Konklusion og Sammenfatning (Danish) 129
List of References 134
Table of Contents for Appendices Volume 137
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Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Syslems. Man:h 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen xi
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• Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems
'* The Domestic Refrigerator - a Case Study *
Part I: tJ3(U;K.flrouna
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Energy Consumption ofToday's Domestic Refrigerators
1. Energy Consumption ofToday's Refrigerators

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In the discussion of the energy consumption of today's refrigerators it is important to
distinguish between what you can buy today and the refrigerators that are in use in the
individu.a1 households. The normal lifetime for a refiigerator is about 13 years. In the autumn
1994 there was a campaign in Denmark aimed at making people buy new energy efficient
refrigerators and freezers. A new energy efficient refrigerator/freezer is claimed to save up to
300 kWh/year (0.82 kWh/day) compared to the energy consumption of an older
refrigerator/freezer. In 1991 the energy consumption for a 200 I refrigerator in a typically
Danish household was'" 0.76 kWh/day according to P. Buhl [9]. The energy consumption for
a typical 200 I refrigerator purchased in the end of 1994 is about 0.5 kWh/day. The "super
efficient" refrigerator LER200 from Gram Ltd. consumes only 0.3 kWh/day.
In this report, when energy consumption is mentioned, it is referred to the Danish market and,
if nothing else is stated, the data for energy consumption are based on the ISO 7371-1985
standard (see Section 1.4 ).
It is important to distinguish between energy consumption ( = electrical power consumption

of the refrigerator) and the cooling performance. The former is the number which is normally
stated in a sales brochure whereas the latter is normally not indicated. "The cooling
performance" is the amount of energy the refrigeration system actually removes from the
refrigerator. This quantity is difficult to measure whereas the energy consumption can be
measured with standard electrical power transducer or measuring instrument.
Knowing the energy consumption ofthe refrigerator and the cooling performance it is natural
to introduce:
Cooling Performance
COSP (1.1)
Energy Consumption of Sys/em
This can be interpreted as a "benefit/cost ratio". COSP is a abbreviation for the Coefficient of
System Performance. COP - Coefficient Of Performance - which is commonly used in the
literature, is the ratio between the cooling energy performance and the energy supplied to the
compressor. Note that in this report the term "energy consumption of compressor" means the
power consumption of the motor in the hermetic compressor. The difference between COP
and COSP is that the power consumption to possible auxiliary equipment (fans, light bulbs
etc.) is not included in COP.
Energy Optimisation ofRcfrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen
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Energy Consumption ofToday's Domestic Refrigerators Page 2
__ Cooling Performance
CO'P (1.2)
Energy Consumption of Compressor
In USA the tenn EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) is sometimes used. The unit of the cooling
perfonnance is "BTU/h" whereas the energy consumption of the compressor is "W". Hence
the following relationship exist:
COP:; 0.293 . EER (1.3)
Finally another issue is the efficiency of the system. The term efficiency normally means the
ratio between the actual performance and the perfonnance of some ideal reference system. The
aspect of efficiency is treated in Section 1.3.
1.1 Actual energy consumption.

Based on actual market data it is found that the energy consumption to a good approximation
increases linearly with the volume of the refrigerator, ref. [9]. Taking 0.5 kWh/day as the
mean energy consumption for a modern 200 I refrigerator and 0.7 kWh/day as the mean
consumption for a new 300 I refiigerator (no frost box) one obtains the figure below.
1.00 Typical energy consumption of new refrigerators

ultimo 1994
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
~
-~ 0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Volume (liter)
Figure 1. 1: Typical energy consumption for new refrigerators.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 2
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Energy Consumption of Today's Domestic Refiigerators Page 3
The keyfigure "energy consumption per refrigerator volume" (kWh/day· I) is sometimes used by
the manufactures, when a comparison of the energy consumption of refiigerators of different
sizes is in question.
When inspecting the energy consumption of a, say, 200 I new refrigerator (21W in average),
one gets the impression that we are dealing with a negligible power consumption when seen in
the perspective of the national energy consumption. This is however not the case because
refrigerators and freezers are very widespread in society today. In reE [10] the total electrical
power consumption in 1994 for Danish households is estimated to 10.1 TWh. The proportion
used by refiigerators and freezers is 1.94 1Wh corresponding to 19 % of the total power
consumption for the households. When considering these figures it has to beared in mind that
not all households are equipped with the latest models ofremgerators and freezers. In ref. [1(1]
it is expected that in the year 2000 the power consumption for refrigerators and freezers will
be reduced to 1.80 TWh corresponding to a reduction of 8 %. This prognosis was made in
1992. In Denmark the awareness regarding energy savings has been growing since then and the
savings obtained will, based on this observation, probably be greater than stated in ref. [10].
On the other hand there seems to be a growing market for the use of lager refrigerators.
1.2 Cooling demand.

The cooling demand has different sources:
* Cooling ofwarrn fresh food.
* Cooling and dehumidification ofwarrn air entering the cabinet when door is opened.
* Cooling and dehumidification of warm air infiltrating through sealings etc.
* Heat transmission from the surroundings through the cabinet walls.
In Guldbrandsen et. al ref. [11] the various sources ofthe cooling demand are investigated. For
a 200 litre "standard" refrigerator the following time-average values are found:
Cooling of fresh food r:r - 3.1 W
Door openings r:r - 2.2 W
Air infiltration r:r - 0.0 W
Heat transmission r:r Depending on the thickness of insulation 15 W ~ 30 W.
The variation in heat transmission corresponds to a variation in insulation thickness from
Energy Optimisation of Refrigel1nion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis A~ne Jakobsen
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Energy Consumption ofToday's Domestic Refrigerators Page 4
- 30 nun to - 60 mm of polyurethane foam with a conductivity of about 0.023 W/rrIK. If we

assume that the average value of 22.5 W is typical for a new energy efficient standard 200 litre
refrigerator weobtain the following distribution of cooling demand:
Cooling demand kWh/day W %

Fresh food 0.074 3.1 11
Door openings 0.053 2.2 8
Air infiltration 0 0 0
Heat transmission 0.54 22.5 81
Total cooling demand 0.67 27.8 100
The main conclusion from the data above is that the heat transmission is the dominating factor
in the determination of the cooling demand. If the tightening-strip around the door not is
damaged, the air infiltration can be disregarded.
1.3 System efficiency.

As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter the traditional way of calculating efficiencies is
to compare the actual performance with the performance of an ideal system with the same
cooling demand.
Taking the cooling demand of 0.67 kWh/day based on ref [II] and a mean energy
consumption of 0.5 kWh/day, the COP for a new energy efficient 200 I refrigerator is:
COP "" 0.67 kWh / day 1.3
0.5kWh /day
Then the question is: how high is the COP of an ideal system ? The answer comes from the
laws of thermodynamics (read more about this in Chapter 3) and the result is often called the
COP for a reverse Carnot process:
T•.gh - 7;.w
The low temperature is the storage temperature and the high temperature is the temperature of
the surroundings. In the ISO standard (see next section) a cabinet temperature of 5 °C and an
ambient temperature of 25°C are used. As the temperatures in the formula above must be
inserted in degrees Kelvin the following is obtained:
Energ)' Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 4
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Energy Consumption of Today's Domestic Refrigerators Page 5
5 + 273.15
13.9
25-5
The efficiency for the refrigerator is then;
T] = COP =~ = 0.093 - 10 %
COP'dm, 13.9
Even though the energy consumption of a refiigerator appears fairly low, it is in fact quite
inefficient. In Chapter 3 the various reasons for this poor efficiency will be investigated.
1.4 Test standards.

A number of standards describing the conditions for testing refiigerators and freezers exist. In
EU, work is in progress to harmonise national standards, but the work has not yet been
finalised. In Denmark the ISO standard is used.
ISO 7371-1985 prescribe that the energy consumption must be measured over a period of24
hours and that the start state and the end state of the refiigerator must be the same. That is, a
whole number of cycles have to be measured. No door openings are specified and the cabinet
is empty. The average temperature in the cabinet (measured at the bottom, middle and top)
should be 5 °C and the temperature ofthe surroundings prescribed is 25 DC.
From field tests of the actual energy consumption of refiigerators in practical use it is found
that the data obtained agree quite well with the results from the ISO standard. From our
knowledge in Section 1.2 this agreement is understandable. The kitchen temperature in
Denmark is about 20 DC. This means the heat transmission is increased by 33 % when using the
ISO standard test. For an ISO test of a standard 200 litre refiigerator the cooling demand is:
Cooling demand ISO test kWh/day W %

Fresh food 0.0 0.0 0
Door openings 0.0 0.0 0
Air infiltration 0.0 0.0 0
Heat transmission 0.72 30.0 100
Total cooling demand 0.72 30.0 100
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Energy Consumption ofToday's Domestic Refiigerators Page 6
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The 30 W of cooling demand agrees quite well with the cooling demand stated in Section 1.2
of27.8 W.
Finally it should be noted that other test standards exist. In ANS (American National Standard)
the prescribed cabinet temperature is 3.3 °C, and the temperature of the surroundings is 32.2
°C. In the Japanese standard (TIS) a certain frequency of door openings together with the
opening angle are specified.
It can be difficult to translate energy consumption's found from one standard to another
standard. Refer to P. Bansal [12] for a treatment of this problem.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. Mareh 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 6
Working Principle of a Refiigerator Page 7
2. Working Principle of a Refrigerator
Generally, cooling is obtained by placing an object in thermal contact with a body that is colder
than the object in question. The colder surface is called the cooling surface. The cooling effect
in a refrigerator - or in any standard Evans-Perkins process (gas compression refrigeration
cycle) - is obtained by evaporation of the refrigerant in the evaporator. For pure refrigerants or
any azeotrophic mixture the evaporation temperature is detennined solely by the pressure.
Lower pressure means lower evaporation temperature.
Pressure
Temperature
Figure 2.1: Evaporation temperature is determined by the pressure.
The observation above means that it is possible to control the temperature of an evaporating
refiigerant by controlling the pressure. If the vessel above is the evaporator - or the cold
surface in the refrigeration system - we could control the pressure by connecting it to a
compressor to remove the evaporating gas at a controlled rate. If the compressor capacity is
increased the pressure of the refrigerant will be lowered and hence also the temperature
decreases. Thereby the heat input from the surroundings increases and a balance will eventually
be reached where the heat input corresponds to the heat of evaporation of the flow of
refrigerant entering the compressor. The problem arises first when the vessel becomes empty
for refrigerant indicating that the vessel has to be filled with liquid continuously in order to
keep the system running. That is the elements adjacent to the evaporator have two purposes.
Energy Optimisation of Rcfrigerntion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 7

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Working Principle of a Refrigerator Page 8
One is to draw off refrigerant gas in order to control the pressure at the desired level. Another
is to regenerate and liquefy the gas and return it to the evaporator.
The tasks of the components in a standard refiigeration cycle can be described as follows.
•
The compressor keeps the evaporation temperature in the evaporator at the desired level by
suction of the refrigerant gas at an adequate speed. The refiigerant is "regenerated" in the
condenser as liquid and then returned to the evaporator via the capillary tube (throttling
device).
2.1 Design.
In figure 2.1 below the construction ora standard Danish refrigerator is illustrated.
Width -550 mm Depth - 600 111m
Roll bond evaporator Condenser tubes
Figure 2. 2: Design of standard refrigerator.

Main dimensions:
The width 550 rom and depth 600 mm of the cabinet are de-facto standards for a Danish
refrigerator. These dimensions are a so-called "module" in a Danish kitchen. The height is
detennined from two considerations: the desired inner volume and the insulation thickness of
the cabinet. A "superlow energy" refrigerator like LER200 from Gram Domestic Ltd. is
considerably higher th3JI the equivalent standard model K200 due to the increased thickness of
the insulation.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 8

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Working Principle ora Refrigerator Page 9
The inner diameter of the capillary tube is "" 0.7 mOl and the length varies between 2 m and 4 m
depending on the desired capacity and refrigerant chosen. This means that refrigerators with
larger inner volumes have shorter lengths of the capillary tube, as the flow capacity increases
when the length of the capillary tube decreases
The geometric volume of the cylinder in the hermetic compressor varies between 2 cm3 and
10 cm3 depending on the refrigerant chosen and the size of the refrigerator.
External or built-in evaporator and condenser:

In principle there are two ways the condenser and the evaporator can by arranged. Either they
are fitted into the wall (internal) or they are external, that is mounted in the distance"" 30 nun
from the cabinet wall. The former construction is easy to clean as the surface is smooth. The
latter, however, is preferable from an energy point of view as the overall heat transfer
coefficient (UA-value) is considerable higher. The advantage of placing the evaporator in the
free air is that it leads to heat transmission from both sides of the heat exchanger. Another
benefit is that the direct thermal conduction from the condenser to the evaporator is avoided.
Presently the most common arrangement is to place the condenser internally and also use the
sides of the cabinet, whereas the evaporator is externally inside the refrigerated enclosure as a
result ofthe increased awareness of energy efficiency.
Materials:
The evaporator is made from aluminium and the tubes of the condenser is made from steel.
The latter fact is a little surprising as steel has pretty poor heat conductance. The explanation is
that the dominating heat resistance arise from the thermal contact between the tubes and the
cabinet wall and the rather poor heat transfer on the air side. The capillary tube is made from
copper.
Refrigerant:
A few years ago (nearly) all refrigerators used CFC-R12 (CF2C1 2 ) as refrigerant. CFC-RI2 is
now abolished due to the destructive effect that CFC's have on the ozone layer. HFC-R134a
(CH2FCF3 ) does not contain chloride, which means that it does not effect the ozone layer. This
synthetic refrigerant is u~"d today in many refrigerators, but there is an ongoing discussion
whether this choice is wise. The arguments against R 134a are as follows. It is a synthetic
substance for which we do not know the long term environmental effect. It contributes to the
green-house effect and it is relatively expensive. Alternatively natural refrigerants like
• Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 9
• I
• Working Principle ofa Refrigerator Page 10
•
J isobutane can be used. In this case we are iacing a fire risk, but the question is whether this is
significant compared to other risks accepted in our daily life. Producers are trying to minimise
the charge used. A refrigerator using R 134a has a charge of == 75 g. In the case of isobutane
the charge will be approximately 45 % of this value.
Temperature control'
Today the temperature of the cabinet air is controlled by switching the compressor on and
off. Until a few years ago the temperature sensor was in all cases placed on the evaporator
surface. The user indirectly adjusted the desired air temperature by adjustment of the
evaporator surface temperature below which the thermostat switched off the compressor. The
compressor switched on again when the sensor temperature rose to =:: 3 °C ensuring defrosting
of the evaporator surface. In recent years, models with an indication of the cabinet air
temperature and the possibility of sening the desired air temperatIlre have appeared on the
market. The compressor is switched on and off by an electronic controller depending on
measurement of the air temperature. Intelligent defrosting, that is when needed, also begins to
be implemented. However one problem still remains. That is to measure a representative air
temperature. The problem arises from the fact that there might be up to 4 K difference in
temperature in the cabinet air depending on where it is measured.
2.2 Thermodynamic description.

In Figure 2.3 the refrigeration cycle for the refrigerant R 134a is illustrated on a h,logp
diagram. The following numbering of state pohts are used here and throughout the report.
<D Inlet compressor.
(2) Outlet compressor.
a> Outlet condenser.
@) Inlet evaporator.
<2l Outlet evaporator.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 10

I
h
Working Principle of a Refrigerator Page 11
R 1340 P.-I~ DP.~ ol A.:i.flvow."~ '~11l>l5 ~ Yol. 'PI pcol ':'.
00'"
~
o.o~ 1
0-"'"
D....,
'00 soo
R134a
Figure 2.3: Refrigeration cycle ill the h, logp diagram.
The inlet (<D) to the compressor is superheated gas at low pressure. Some pressure losses
occur internally in the compressor as well as additional warming before the gas enters the
cylinder. The path of the compression process (<D ~ 0) is complex because heat is exchanged
with the cylinder wall during the process. In order to leave the compressor cylinder the
refrigerant gas has to overcome the pressure loss in the discharge valve. Work must be
supplied to the compressor (W) in order to compress the gas from the low pressure to the
high pressure. As the compressor surface becomes wanner than the surroundings heat is
rejected from the compressor to the ambient air (Q,,,."). In the condenser (0 ~ (3» where the
heat (Q<) is rejected to the surroundings, the refiigerant gas is first desuperheated to the
saturation state before condensation takes place. There will be some pressure loss in the
condenser as well. The throttling process «3) ~ @) is combined with internal heat exchange
with the suction gas. In a steady state situation is h 3 - h. = hi - h s . The evaporation from @) to
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 11
{f;:~4;Hj~~~~i'~~i:;~~if~~~?~;~?~t~~j~~~~~:~~::{~~~~~~ i
(
Working Principle ofa Refrigerator Page 12
® will also suffer from some pressure loss while the refiigerant receives heat (Q.) from the
cabinet air. Under normal conditions state point 5 will be slightly superheated. Additional
superheating to state point 1 will occur in the heat exchange with the refiigerant in the capillary
tube.
An overall steady-state energy balance prescribes that the heat input to the evaporator together
with the work supplied to the compressor are rejected as heat from the compressor and from
the condenser:
(2.1)
Often an idealised reference cycle is used in the analysis of refrigerant cycles. The
compression is assumed to be isentropic (reversible adiabatic process). The throttling is
adiabatic which means the internal heat exchange is disregarded. Finally pressure losses in the
evaporator and in the condenser are not considered.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S)·stems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis .4.rneJakobsen 12

I
Part II : fJ1ieorg
NoTES
W~~'(hl -7a. Sz.)-
'!JI (h - 7a 5, ) -
Q (/- ~ );- "To. fs'
----
"
",
.
Ph. D. Thesis Repon F-179-1
Thennodynamic Loss Analysis Page 13
3. Thermodynamic Loss Analysis
What is a thennodynamic loss? What are the process inefficiencies in a standard refiigeration
cycle? This analysis involve both the 1st law and the 2nd law of thennodynamics. Concepts
such as "exergy analysis", "availability analysis" or "2nd law analysis" are used in literature and
here the name "thennodynamic loss analysis" is applied. Three textbooks within this field can
be recommended: M. J. Moran [13], A. Bejan [14] and T. J. Kotas [15].
3.1 Relation between thermodynamic losses, irreversibility, entropy

generation and exergy destruction.
In most cases a control volume analysis in the investigation of thei1llal systems is applied. The
1st law and 2nd law ofthennodynamics can be written as follows, disregarding the change in
kinetic and potential energy of the flowing fluid. For the sake of simplicity only one input and
one output flow is shown:
W 6
\~
';'" h1, S1
-=r-
E.S.M
Figure 3. 1: Variables in ::ootrol volume analysis.
1st law:
dE . .
dr == W + Q + m, . h, - m 2 • h2 (3.1)
2nd law inner boumiarv:

· dS.
f " == dr + m2 • S2 -
-
w, . S, -
6 ~0
T (3.2)
2nd law outer boundary:

' dS. ·s -m. -s - Q
f • ==-+m - > 0 (3.3)
dr T.-
,
2 2 I I
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. 11995. Ph, D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 13

Mass balance or continuity equation:

dlvf . .
--;t; -= m, - mz (3.4)
In the case of doubt regarding the nomenclature the reader is referred to the nomenclature list.
The naming of the variables should be traditional.
The mass balance and the 1st law ofthennodynamics seems intuitively clear as we are dealing
with conserved quantities like energy and mass. From the 2nd law of thermodynamics the
entropy generation t. in the process can be calculated. If the term gT is interpreted as entropy
flow associated with heat transfer we are back to a kind of bookkeeping of entropy where only
surplus and no deficit is allowed. When applying the 2nd law one has to be careful regarding
the temperature at the boundary. If we calculate the difference in entropy generation between
the outer and the inner control volume we get:
. . . . 1 1
r.Q =r. - r" =Q . (T - To ) (3.5)
The equation above is the entropy generation in connection with the heu transfer.
The following statements, seen in many textbooks, relates entropy generation and the tenn
reversibility:
t. >0 Irreversible process.

t. =0 Reve~ible process.
t. <0 Impossible process.
Ifconsiderations are restricted to a steady state analysis, use of (3. 1), (3.2) and (3.5) where t.
is eliminated, leads to the following expression for the work supplied to the control volume:
. . T .
W-=m z ' (hz - To ·sz)-m, '(h, - To 'Sl)- Q·(l- ;>+
1;, ·f" (3.6)
It turns out that equation (3.6) is an exergyl balance. The exergy of a energy quantity is the
maximum useful work into which the energy may be converted in an ideal reversible process in
a given environment. The environment is represented by the ambient temperature To.
I After many tenns have been used like "potential \\'Ork". "essergy", "availabilily", "usable energy" there seems
10 be agreement about the use of the lenn "exergy~.
I
•
In equation (3.6) the following general tenns can be identified:

m· (h - T• . s) exergy of flow.
. T
Q. (1- ; ) exergy of heat.
exergy destruction.
Equation (3.6) can now be explained as follows. The work supplied to the process is the
increase in flow exergy minus the exergy supplied by heat transfer but plus the process
irreversibilities represented by the exergy destruction. It appears that the minimum necessary
work supplied to the process for given inlet., outlet flow conditions and heat supply is
occurring when the process is reversible.
Enough background infonnation should have been passed on to make the follo~'ing statement
meaningful:
Thermodynamic losses are caused by precess irreversibilities and can be quantified in
terms ofentropy generation (or exergy destroction).
3.2 Relationship between COP and thermodynamic losses.
.
W
.
Qcom
Ta
r-----------
I
I
'f.------------ 1
I
I
I
!I
: I •
Qe : .. .. :Qc
~ !0
Tr i Te go
I
I
r
I
>
D
1~~
i Tc Ta
I
I I
I
:
!L J:
Figure 3. 2: Control volume around the rerrigeration system.

In Figure 3.2 the energy transfers to and from the refrigeration system are depicted together
with the temperatur~ levels for the heat transfer. The work W is supplied to the compressor,
the evaporator receives the heat flow Q. from the cabinet air at the temperature Tr .
Heat, Q"""" is rejected from the compressor to the ambient at temperature Ta , and at the
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 15
I
I
Thermodynamic Loss Analysis Page 16
condenser Q< is rejected. The total energy of the system is called E whereas the total entropy
is called S.
Use ofthe 1st law ofthermodynamics yields:
~ =W + Q. - Q< - Q_ (3.7)
When the 2nd law ofthermodynamics is applied the external temperature levels are used:
t = dS + Q< + Q.... _ Q. (3.8)

, dr T. T. T.
Now variables of the system which are time averaged over a period are introduced. In this case
the state of the system at the end is identical to the state of the system in the beginning,
-1 SXdr'"
. X. ,. • where 'to is the cycle period.
TC t'1"
The convenience is that the time average of the derivatives of E, S vanish. The definition of
COP also becomes meaningful as the instantaneous value only makes sense in a steady-state
situation:
COP=~ (3.9)
W
Recognising that (Q'T.J '" Q.T. due to the relatively small variations in T, the use of (3. 7), (3.8)
and (3.9) leads to the following (beautiful) expression for COP:
COP = T...:..'_ _--==--I

(3.10)
(T. - T,) + f, .(T.~t.)
Q.
It appears clearly now. The process irreversibilities cause the reduction ofthe actual COP
compared to the COP for a reverse Camot process. The latter is obtained for the reversible
process where t, is zero !
Referto Section 3.6 for a numerical example where Eq. 3.10 is used.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 16
Thermodynamic Loss Analysis Page I7
3.3 Identification and description of the thermodynamjc losses for a

domestic refrigerator.
From the previous section the message was that the means to improve COP are to reduce the
process irreversibilities or thennodynamic losses. Another important point is to recognise that
the total entropy generation is the summation of the (always positive) entropy generation in the
individual processes taking place in each component.
(3.11)
The numbering of the state points in the h. logp diagram is shown in Figure 2.3. The following
equations appear for the local entropy generation using the 2nd law of thermodynamics for
each component. The bars indicating time average or steady state values are omitted in the
following notation.
1 ~ 2: Compressor
r".sl-.:! =m· (t..

. (s';!. -s) ) +T: (3.12)
2 ~ 3: Condenser
r·.2-+) =m'
. (s) - S2
) + Q.
r;, (3.13)
3 ~ 4 and 5 ~1: Throttling inc/. heat exchange with suction line

t.3->. =';'·(s, +s. -5) -s~) (3.14)
4 ~5: Evaporator
. (s~ -so ) -Q.

r·......~ =m· - (3.15)
T,.
By insertion these equations into (3.11) it can be seen that all contributions add up to give
equation (3.8) the total entropy generation.
The equations above are "black box." descriptions and do not determine which phenomena will
cause the local irreversibilities. In the following the processes causing the irreversibilities in the
various components are listed:
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigeration Systems. Mareh 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmcJakobsen 17
I
Thennodynarnic Loss Analysis Page 18
Irreversibilities in the compressor:

@) Heat generation in the internal motor.
@) Pressure loss in the compressor valves and mufflers.
@) Leakage from the compressor cylinder.
@) Backflow through the valves.
® Friction in the compressor.
@) Heat rejection to the surroundings at temperature higher than the ambient temperature.
Irreversibilities in the condenser:

@) Heat rejection to the surroundings at temperature higher than the ambient temperature.
@) Pressure loss caused by friction.
Irreversibilities in the throttling process:

® The acceleration pressure drop caused by the expansion is dissipated just like the frictional
pressure drop and an opportunity to make useful work by means ofa turbine is missed.
Irreversibilities in the internal heat exchange:

@) Heat exchange over a finite temperature difference.
@) Pressure loss in heat exchanger.
Irreversibilities in the evaporator.

® Heat input from the cabinet air received at temperature lower than the cabinet temperature.
@ Pressure loss caused by friction.
Again it should be noted that all the phenomena mentioned (and some the author has forgotten
or is not aware of) contributes to the overall entropy generation.
3.4 Interaction between local component losses and the overall system loss.
The purpose of the optimisation is to reduce the overall entropy generation to a level where the
overall effort is in balance with the overall benefit. Often literature shows the distribution of
irreversibilities among the various components. This gives an overview of the distribution of
the actual overall loss.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigcration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 18
I I
Thermodynamic Loss Analysis
••
Page 19
What it does not tell you directly is the interaction between the local loss and the total loss. In
theory reducing a loss one place can lead to a total negative overall effect, if another loss is
increasing even more as a consequence of this local adjustment. This can be the situation if
competing irreversibilities are involved such as pressure loss and heat transfer. If the fluid
velocity is increased the irreversibility caused by pressure loss will also increase, whereas the
heat transfer coefficient will become higher reducing the entropy generation caused by the heat
transfer. Granryd [16] found that the optimal pressure loss corresponds to a drop in saturation
temperature of == ~ of the temperature difference between the refiigerant and the wall in an
evaporator.
As a "closed loop" refrigeration system is being considered the change in one (i) component
not only affects the output from that component but the input to the component itself will also
be affected. The following interaction or gearing factors2 can be defined:
Gf. ~ ~~. (3.16)

6I".a
The gearing factor is the ratio between the total change of system entropy-generation and the
local component (i) change of entropy-generation, when some parameter is changed in the
component in question The factor has, of cause, to be positive in order to make the local
improvement wonhwhile. When the gearing factor is larger than unity, some irreversibilities
are reduced in other components as a result ofthe change in the component in question.
In Section 3.6 some calculations are made for which the use of the above definition appears to
be clarifying.
3.5 Identification of losses caused by transient phenomena.

In normal operation the behaviour of a refrigerator is dominated by transients. This is caused
by the fact that the on-off time period in the control cycle is less than some of the thermal time
constants of the system. In fact the system does not reach a steady-state in a normal on-off
cycle.
When the electrical motor stans. its electrical efficiency is very poor until the nominal speed
has been reached. These losses will result in a rather large heat generation in the motor during
: The use of this definition "ilhin refrigeration is new and it might as well be called scnsiti~ity or influence
factor.
-
the start-up phase. This phase is however very short (::: 50 ms) so energywise this is not
significant.
It is instructive to calculate the amount of energy that ideally (no frictional losses and no
pressure difference) is needed to accelerate the compressor:
Emez:h::: ~(Jl::: * 1.5· I0-4-(21t.2850/60i ::: 7 J.
2850 rpm is the nominal speed and 1.5.10.4 kg-m 2 is the moment of inertia. Since the total
energy transfer to the compressor in a normal on.:o£1:" cycle for a 325 I refrigerator is ::: 70 kJ
(33 W average in 35 min.) the mechanical start-up energy can be disregarded.
There are thermodynamic losses connected to the pressure equalisation occurrir.g in the off-
period. This has been thoroughly investigated in Janssen [3]. The undesired phenomenon is
that refrigerant gas evaporates in the condenser, when the pressure decreases rapidly when the
compressor stops. Then refrigerant gas will flow through the capillary tube in the off period
and condense in the evaporator, In this way some heat is generated in the evaporator the origin
of which is cooling of the condenser. The pressure equalisation can be avoided by insertion of
a solenoid valve after the condenser that closes when the compressor is off. In ref. (3) COP
improvements from 2 % ~ 10 % are reported for this so-called "Micloss" system depending
on the length of the cycle period oftime.
Finally one must consider the thermodynamic consequences of the refrigerator only running
for a part of the time. A duty cycle of 40 % is normal. It is relevant to compare the system
performance with a steady-state system running all the time with the same average cooling
demand and temperature in the cabinet. This is investigated in depth in Section 10.1 but it is
quite simple to obtain a first hand impression of what there is to be gained.
In Figure 3.3 the calculated evaporation temperature - based on a measurement of the pressure
- is plotted for a "standard cycle" of a 325 I refrigerator (Refer to Chapter 8 for a description
of the experimental work). The average evaporation temperature was calculated to be - 8.54
DC. The idea is to compare the calculated entropy generation caused by the heat transfer
between the on-off cycle and a situation where the evaporation temperature is constant. In the
calculations, it is assumed that the cabinet air temperature (Tr) is constant at 5 DC.
h II I
10 Evaporation temperAture
] ,.. - 5.0·C
_.1- =-
"
AVO~1iI0 ovap. ~e,"p. 8.54 °C
-10
-15
-..... Nfeas~re,"e,..t
-20
'----------
-25 iii i i i I i I Iii iii I I i I , I
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Mlnutos
Figure 3.3: Evaporation temperature standard cycle. Measured & average.
. .] 1 1 1
r.>Q=Q.(:r. -T,)=UA•. (T,.-T.)'(:r. -T,) (3.17)
The heat transfer coefficient was estimated to be 3.25 W/K. The entropy generation was
numerically calculated in the two cases mentioned and the integrated cycle average values are
presented below:
On-off control "Steady-state"
I Entropy generation 0.0129W/K 0.008095 W/K
I Exergy destruction 3.84 W 2.4] W
In the calculatIOn of exergy destructIOn the ambient temperature IS assumed to be 25°C. The
thermodynamic losses due to the heat transfer are reduced from 3.84 W to 2.41 W. when the
continuous control is applied instead of the on-off control. It's a reduction of37 %3.
3 In Section 10.1 the overall reduction of the energy eonswnplion by Ihe use of eOnlinuous capaeily control of
the compressor is investigated using detailed simulation models. This investigalion predicts an increase in COP
of 59 % which corresponds 10 a decrease of 37 % (jusllike the estimale above!) of:":,e energy consumption.
.-
I
Summing up, the following transient losses occur in a refrigerator:
Electro-mechanical start-up losses Not significantfor the overall energy consumption.

Pressure equalisation in off-period Significant for energy consumption.
Transient thermal behaviour in stead
ofsteady-state Great influence Oil the energy consumption.
3.6 Calculation of thermodynamic losses in a 325 I refrigerator.

In this section some results from simulations are presented. The model and the numerical
implementation are described in Ch2.pter 6 and 7. The mode! parameters are chosen in order to
describe the dynamic behaviour of a 325 1 Danish refrigerator (the model is validated against
experimental data from a refrigerator "KS350" from Gram Ltd.). To make the results
representative and comparable the simulations are carried out under ISO-conditions, that is an
ambient temperature of25 °C and an average cabinet air temperature of 5°C.
In Figure 3.4 below the main exergy flow and the distribution ~f the thermodynamic losses
between the components are shown. The values are averaged by integration over a standard
on-off cycle.
Power ----..IiIlIo... ~ '*- 69 % Compressor
to -----....-- ~ 8
compressor ....
14 % Evaporator
8 ·/.1 Condenser
• Capillary tube & h. e.
NB. due to rounding ofrhe mln/bers the summations do notfir e=ctly.
Figure 3. 4: Exergy flow and distribution of thermodynamic losses.
Encrgy Optimisation or Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis ArneJakabsen 22

I
On average, for a compressor which consumes 33.4 W of electrical power, the exergy flow
related to the cooling is only 3.2 W, leading to an exergy efficiency of 9.6 %. The average
cooling rate is 45 W, leading to a COP (please refer to Section 9.1 for a full presentation of the
results from the simulation of the standard on-off cycle) of 1.35, and the value of the exergy
efficiency can also be evaluated as:
135
278.15/ . 1000L - 7 0/0
/0 - 9.
/ ./ (Does not fi t exactIy due to roun d'mg) .
/(25 - 5)
Eq. 3.10 can be used to illustrate the calculation of COP based on the actual thermodynamic
losses. The following terms can be identified:
Cooling rate:Q. == 45 W
Exergy destruction: T" . t, == 30.1 W
Temperatures: Ta == 25 + 273.15 == 298.15 K ~ =5 + 273.15 =278.15 K
COP 278.15 _ 1.35 ./
(298.15-278.15)+278.15. 30.1
45
It appears from Figure 3.4 that most of the losses occur in the compressor (69 %). The
evaporator is responsible for 14 %. the condenser 8 % and finally the capillary tube including
the heat exchange with the suction line accounts for 8 % of the losses.
The 1055 in the condenser is only about half of the loss in the evaporator. This is not
surprising when the actual values of the condensing and the evaporating temperature are
inspected. The condensing temperature is below 35°C all the time, whereas the evaporation
temperature becomes below - 20 DC.
It is remarkable that the losses in the compressor are so dominant. How should this be
interpreted? Does the loss of 14 % in the evaporator mean that use of an ideal evaporator will
reduce the overall loss by 14 % only? No !
In the refrigeration cycle there are interactions between all losses. E. g. the use of an ideal
evaporator (infinite VA - value) would result in an evaporation temperature of about 5 dc. The
resulting high evaporation pressure will also directly reduce the losses in the compressor and
the capillary tube. The higher COP will then again reduce the heat rejection in the condenser
which also reduces the thermodynamic losses in this component.
Encrgy Cpti misation of Rcfrigcration Systcms. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 23
1
I L
The question is then, what does Figure 3.4 indicate? The low exergetic efficiency shows that
there is a great potential for improvement. The natural question is then: "where is it most
effective (the greatest overall impact) to reduce the losses?". Conclusions regarding ''where to
optimise" based on the loss distribution are however not that simple as illustrated above. In the
end, it is off course an economic question. A strict thermodynamic question could be: "where
is the greatest overall impact obtained, if a local exergy destruction is reduced by ] W?". In
this coJUlection is it helpful to use the gearing factors defined in E.q. 3. J 6 .
The calculation (simulation) is in practise carried out in the following way. A local parameter
is improved a little and a simulation is earned ouI. The improvement in the overall loss is then
compared with the local reduction of loss. For the compressor the isentropic efficiency is
enlarged slightly and for the evaporator and the condenser it is the overall UA-value, which is
used as a parameter.
The results are:
Component Sensitivity parameter Gearing factor

Compressor Isentropic efficiency 1.03 WIW
Condenser UA-value 2.95 WIW
Evaporator UA-value 6.22 WIW
The results above means that if the local exergy destruction in the evaporator is reduced by ]
W (by enlarging the overall heat transfer coefficient) the power consumption will be reduced
by 6 W! The gearing factor for the condenser optimisation is about 3 and a local loss reduction
in the compressor will not reduce other losses by much. The latter might be a little surprising at
first hand because a loss reduction in the compressor will lower the heat rejection in the
condenser and thereby reduce the local losses. The reason why this won't have a large impact
is that the losses in the condenser only contribute a little in the overall picture.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigerauon Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmcJakobscn 24
II
I
I
To complete the description an overview of the energy transfers averaged over the on/off cycle
period is given below.
Averaged Averaged
45 W
Energy inpul 63 W Energy output
Cooling
Heatrejec.
}------l
Condenser --~~
33 W
Electrical
Power 15 WHeat
Figure 3. 5: Overview averaged energy Dow.
3.7 Discussion.
The degradation of the actual COP compared to the COP for an inverse Carnot cycle is caused
by the process irreversibilities.
The calculations of the component losses for a 325 I reliigerator indicate that the major part
of the losses are occurring in the hennetic compressor. The isentropic efficiency (total
efficiency) for the hennetic compressor is approximately 0.3, which is very low. The motor
efficiency which is '" 0.55 accounts for "half' of the losses. The rest of the losses are
mechanical and thennodynamic losses.
The losses in the evaporator are in themselves not very huge. But the overall impact of
reducing the losses here (i. e. increasing the evaporation temperature) is significant.
Summing up, the major points of energy improvement for the actual 325 I refiigerator are the
compressor efficiency and the evaporator VA-value, whereas the condenser and the capillary
tube losses are less significant.
Energy OpLimisaLion of RefrigeraLion Systems. Man:h 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 25
I
I I
General Energy Optimisation Page 26
4. General Energy Optimisation
In the previous Chapter the involved thermodynamic losses have been identified for a standard
refrigeration cycle. Knowledge about the influence of some of the design variables on the
therrnodynami.: losses is available now. What is the right choice (sizing) of design variables ?
Should a highly efficient but expelisive compressor be chosen and then save some money on
the size of the evaporator? Which design variables should be changed in order to produce a
more competitive product ? If we want to minimise the thermodynamic losses we should
purchase (or design) a high-efficiency compressor, an evaporator with a surface area as large
as possible, the condenser surface area should likewise be large, the insulation of the cabinet
should be very effective etc. There is no doubt that the energy consumption will be very low
for such a refrigerator - but it is just as foreseeable that the price of the refrigerator will be very
high.
In this Chapter the objective is to present the idea of optimisation, whereas a treatment of the
mathematics and the numerical methods involved are beyond the scope of the report. Readers
are referred to address some of the special textbooks within the area e.g. Stoecker [17] and
Edgar [18].
4.1 Objectives.
In order to do a systematic optimisation three aspects have to be considered:
* A criterion function which is sought to be minimised or maximised.
* Identification of relevant design variables.
* Knowledge of how the design variables influence the criterion function.
Mathematically this can be expressed as follows:

Optimise F(l2) under the constraints
D""", :s D i 5 D=z for i = 1,....N.
Here N is the number of elements in the array of design variables. F is the criterion function
which either is minimised or maximised.
Note that the formulation of the constraints shown above covers both equalities and one-sided
inequalities as well as the two-sided inequalities depending on the choice of D"",. and Dm=.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S)"SIcms. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 26
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I
4.1.1 Trade-off between investment aDd running cost.
Thermodynamic losses
Figure 4. 1: Investment and running cost.

A common criterion is to minimise the total cost of a system (e. g. a refrigerator). The total
cost is the sum of the investment cost (interest and depreciation) and the running cost. The
cost has to be seen as the total cost during the lifetime of the product. In Figure 4.1 above ~!Je
design variables are represented by their influence on the thermodynamic losses. In general the
investment cost increases rapidly as the thermodynamic los3es approach zero. Note that even
though the thermodynamic losses were zero, we would still have some running cost. This is
due to the fact that even a reversible working refrigeration cycle need some energy input.
In principle there exist an optimum of desien variables that minimise the total cost. In order to
calculate this optimum a lot ofinformation has to be available:
* Cost functions for all elements depending on the design variables.
* Running cost ofthe system depending on the design variables.
* Lifetime of system, interest rate in the lifetime (future i).
Most of the information listed above is not available as exact data. In practical engineering
optimisation a lot ofexperience and rules of thumbs are used For example the "economic"
temperature difference across a heat exchanger is often assumed to be approximately 10K.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakob••n 27
I
In the case of optimisation ofa refiigerator - taking a simplifying approach - the following
cost relationships have to be known:
* Cost of compressor as a function of efficiency.
* Cost of evaporator as a function of surface area.
* Cost of condenser as a function of surface area.
* Cost of insulation ofthe cabinet as a function of thickness.
The energy consumption is the only running cost and a model for its dependence on the above
mentioned design variables must be available Finally the lifetime of the refiigerator must be
estimated together with the future interest rates and unit prices for energy.
In Pan ill of this report (Chapter 6 ~ 9) simulation models for a refrigerator are developed
which, among other things, will calculate the energy consumption depending on the design
variables mentioned above. The context for the use of simulation models in the energy
optimisation process should be apparent from the treatment in this chapter. Cost functions are
not treated any further in this report as the focus here is on the thermodynamic aspects of
energy optimisation.
4.1.2 Trade-off between competing losses.

In some cases a reduction in one thermodynamic loss will lead to an increase in an other loss.
This aspect was mentioned in Section 3.4. The classical conflict is the "competition" between
the Joss due to pressure drop in fluid flow and loss due to the heat transfer.
c
.Q
"i!!
CD
c
CD
Cl
i!i:
g
c
W
Ruid velocity
Figure 4. 2: Optimum fluid velocity.
I
I
In Figure 4.2 the qualitative nature of the situation is illustrated. As the velocity of the fluid -
which is involved in the heat transfer - increases, the pressure loss also increases and the
convective heat transfer coefficient will likewise increase. As a consequence, the temperature
difference driving the heat transfer will be reduced.
Two examples are relevant in the case of a refrigerator. As mentioned in Section 3.4 there
exists an optimum ratio between temperature difference and pressure loss for evaporating or
condensing refiigerant. The temperature difference in question is between the saturation
temperature and the respective wall temperature. Another example is optimal use of fans. Iffor
example a fan with variable speed is considered together with the evaporator, an increase in fan
speed causes a decrease of the temperature difference across the evaporator. On the other hand
the energy consumption of the fan will increase. This situation becomes even more complex
because the power consumption of the fan must be added to the cooling demand for the
refiigerator.
4.1.3 Control strategies.

Once the system has been constructed its perfonnance can still to some extent be improved by
the implementation of optimised control strategies. Let us limit the discussion to the control of
the compressor. In the case of the on-off control the time period is adjustable. If the time
period is very small the thermal behaviour will approach the situation with continuous control.
The significance of the start/stop losses will increase as the time period decreases but some of
the other thennal losses will decrease. Depending on the rate with which these phenomena
change. there might exist an optimum time period.
Time period in on-off control
Figure 4. 3: Optimal time p~niod.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Ame Jakobsen 29
Hamilton Andersen [19) have ~erformed experiments, which indicates that the optimal period
is about 30 min for a 200 I refiigerator. The results in the present study indicate (see Section
]0.]) that the decrease in the thermal losses are dominant, leading to the conclusion that a very
small time period is preferable.
For a variable speed compressor, assuming the cooling demand to be constant, the optimal
frequency will be constant speed corresponding to the steady-state situation. When the cooling
load changes in response to a cabinet air temperature set point change or a change in the
ambient air, the question is what is the optimal pathway towards the new steady-state. If the
cooling load is increasing - that is, there is a need for a higher frequency of the compressor -
how fast should the system adapt ? Seen from a user point of view there is a maximum
allowable time before the refrigerator must obtain the right temperature again. Seen from an
energy point of view the lowest energy consumption will app::ar if the system is allowed to
adapt very slow. If the cooling demand decreases it will be beneficial if the system decreases
the frequency of the compressor rather fast. The main idea is to use as low as possible
frequency, but not temporarily so low that it is later necessary to use high peaks in the
frequency 10 adapt. This fuzzy-like control strategy is based on "common sense" and the
knowledge from Chapter 3 that transient behaviour in itself causes greater thermodynamic
losses than the corresponding 51eady-state.
4.2 Numerical methods/tools.

As stated previously the focus in this report is not on the mathematical and numerical tools
needed for a systematic oplimisation procedure. In this section a few principle remarks are
however made to complete the description of the subject of optimisation,
For a more thorough treatment please address for example ref [17) and ref. [18). There are in
principle two optimisation methods depending on how the constraints are handled. The
traditional formulation is:
Minimise F(Q) , respecting
fiCQ)=Q : equality constraints and
Q.CQ)~ Q : inequality constraints.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S)'stems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 30
III
•
In the minimisation (or maximisation) of F either search methods like "steepest descent" or
"conjugate gradient", or more random trial and error methods like the "Monte Carlo" method
can be used. During the search it is observed that the constraints are satisfied. Another method
is to include the constraints directly in thl: criterion function. This is called the Lagrange
formulation (Ref. [18]):
Now only one function is left but the trade-off is that the variables A. and I.l (so-called Lagrange
multipliers) have been introduced. Sometimes solution of the formulation above is easier than
the traditional one - but not always. The benefit often arises from the fact that the A'S and I.l'S
":"-'---
often have an economical interpretation. that clarifies the problem.
The approach mentioned above is global optimisation. Some researchers have tried to develop
methods in which the system is divided into smaller subsystems that are easier to handle. EI-
Sayed (ref. [20]), R. B. Evans and before them L.S. Lasdon have worked in this area called
"thermoeconomics". The authors experience is that the methods work if the system in question
can be broken into sub-systems that are serially connected. Some convergence and
interpretation problems arises when feedback loops are involved. In the case of a refiigerator
there is a physical feedback in the cycle, and my experience is that the method doesn't work for
this case.
Energy Optimisation of Rcfriger.nion Syslcms. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 31
. . :, . . ". -: -.~ ~ ~ - "-\/, . .. . '. . .',

.' . .,...... I.. . \. . ~- . . ~ .'
Modelling ofThermal Systems in General Page 32
5. Modelling of Thermal Systems in General
Modelling is an individual and artistic discipline ! There exist no very firm standardised
methods the use of which ensures the development of the "right" simulation-model. In
literature the use of models is widespread. In daily life most engineers use models and develop
models as a significant part of their job. In contradiction to the widespread use of models
descriptions of methods of"how to model ?" are rare. Such technical guidelines are not part of
an "exact science" but there is no doubt that eXfle:ience and guidance in the modelling process
are very beneficial. In this chapter some general modelling experience, gained by the author
within the field of refrigeration systems, are described.
5.1 Phases in the modelling process.

The starting-point of the modelling process is to clarifY the intended use of the model. What
knowledge is missing at the mo~ent and what information is expected to be gained from the
use of the model? In other words, the objective of the model has to be detennined
There are many kinds of models, but the results from the use ofa model are finally interpreted
by a human being. The person possesses some kind of "mind model' which is used when the
results are examined. It is the authors experience that it is very beneficial to start creating a
mind model of the system as the first model. This requires knowledge of the mechanisms or
phenomena, that make the system work. It can be a verbal description of the system including
small sketches to illustrate some of the ideas. The purpose is to get a feeling for the system
through imagination of the system behaviour.
There are probably (nearly) an infinite number of levels of complexity too choose from when
the level intended for the mathematical modelling is determined. In order to obtain a
operational model in a foreseeable futuie, it is important to include only the most important
phenomena in the first mathematical model. Later, it is always possible to include more
phenomena. The big questing is, what phenomena should be included and what phenomena can
be disregarded. The two previous steps - that is a knowledge of the objective of the model and
an idea of the system behaviour from the mind model - are the basis for the a-priori selection
ofsignificant phenomena to be included in the mathematical model.
The next step is writing the equations, preferably based on first principles laws, that describe
the system behaviour. Normally a combination of basic physical laws and empirical correlations
must be used.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. Mareh 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 32
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Modelling of Thermal Systems in General Page 33
It is seldom possible to solve the equations analytically. That is. some kind of numerical
implemelllatio1l is needed. The programming ofthe model can be a very delicate maller.
1. Determine objective.
1---------------1
f
......> 2. Describe the involved phenomena
in a "mind model". f
,.....> 3. Select the phenomena to be
included in the mathematical model.
4. Develop mathematical model.
:..> 5. Implement the model numerically.
.......... 6. Test the numerics.
7. Verify the model against expectations

from "mind model".
............ B. Validate against experimental data
9. Carry out relevant simulations.
10. Conclusions.
Figure S. 1: Phases or the modelling process.
Energy OpLimisaLion of RefrigeraLion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D, Thesis Arne Jakobsen 33
I I
~ . '. .
. ?
. '.

• t l
In Figure 5.1 the most important steps of the modelling process are illustrated. The nelct step
(6), after programming is completed, is to test the numerical methods involved. There might be
truncation errors, rounding errors, problems with convergence etc. all of which influence the
results.
When all numerical errors are eliminated, it is time to consider the principle behaviour of the
model. Does the model produce results that are consistent with the expected behaviour? In
other words do the results agree with the mind model? If there is a conflict, it might be the
mind model which was wrong, in which case it has to be adjusted. This iteration in the
modelling process is very fruitful because the "model-developer" now in the middle of the
modelling process has learned something new about the system. This new knowledge is then
"stored" in the adjusted "mind model". Of course the other possibility is that the mathematical
model is not accurate enough or that some equations are derived or implemented incorrectly.
After step 7 the "model-developer" cannot falsifY that the model describes the real system
behaviour. The next step is to compare the simulation results with experimental data in order
to validate the model. In some cases experimental data do not exist; but data from other more
complex models, which have proven their validity already, may be obtainable. A result of the
model validation can be adjustment of some of the parameters involved. The validation can
also reveal that some phenomena that initially were disregarded will have to be included (back
to step 3).
After successful validation it is time to obtain the information from the simulation model that
was initially needed. Based on these data an analysis can be made and the appropriate
conclusions can be drawn.
5.2 Proper choice of model complexity.

Cleland [21] discuss the appropriate level of model complexity. What is the right level? The
most important factor is the intended use of the model. The model objective will dictate some
phenomena to be included and other phenomena that may be disregarded. At first hand one
could have the attitude "let's make the most correct model by including all phenomena". The
problem that appears quite fast is the limitation of resources in terms of limited time, limited
tools and also limited knowledge.
In Figure 5.2 the principal balance between cost and benefit is illustrated. The greater the
model complexity, the greater are the development and running costs. The cost could be
manpower, computer time, cost of necessary tools etc. Generally the benefit from the
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Syslems. Mart:h 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 34
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Modelling ofThermal Systems in General Page 35
simulation results will increase with increasing model complexity. The shape of the cost curves
are non-linear because added complexity results in higher and higher marginal cost. On the
other hand, the added benefit from a more complex model will become less significant.
Of course the real world is much more complicated than it appears from Figure 5.2. For one
thing the curves are very seldom known. The main conclusion from this section is however that
it normally pays carefully to consider the level of model complexity.
Cost
•
Benefit Ii
\, Ratio I
I
\ I
, I
, I
\
, I
'
"'';i--;--
'" I
7~';'k
~
Model Complexity
Figure 5. 2: Right choice of model complexity.
5.3 Model types.

The literature is loaded with model descriptions. In order to obtain an overview it is beneficial
to divide the model types into groups. Survey of models have been carried out by various
researchers. James et. aI. [22] present a very comprehensive survey of models within the field
of refiigeration.
In this section a brief overall characteris<l.tion of the models for refrigeration systems (in
principle the same for al1 thermal systems) is given.
EnerID' Optimisation of Refrigeration S)·stems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 35
•
The first distinction consider the system behaviour in time perspective:
Continuous +-+ Discrete

Deterministic +-+ Stochastic
Steady-State +-+ Dynamic
The physical description of refiigeration systems is often a rnilcture of continuous processes

and discrete events. Start and stop of evaporation and condensation, on-off control are
examples of discontinuities that occur in refiigeration systems. A discontinuity, which depends
on the value of a certain state-variable, is called a "state-event", whereas "time-events" only
depend on the time in the simulation.
The author has not yet seen a model of a refiigeration system that includes stochastic
elements, however there are a few areas where a stochastic description could be preferable.
Load variations are often described with stochastic elements within other research areas such
as power plant:;. Observation of the flow phenomena (in some flow regimes) in evaporators
could indicate that a stochastic description could be appropriate if a detailed study is desired.
As a consequence of the fast development of computers, dynamic (or transient models) are
appearing more BOld more in the literature. These models are often used to study start and stop
phenomena or, in general, the consequences ofaltemative control strategies.
Another way of characterising models is to consider whether the model equations are based
on the fundamental laws of physics or based on statistical correlations.
First Principles Statistical / Empirical
White Box Model Black Box Model
Deductio!'1 Induction
Figure 5. 3: Blackboll - white boll. models.
The empirical model are often referred to as "black box" models whereas the "first principles"
models could be called: "white box" models. The latter models are more generally applicable
whereas the empirical models are often valid only when some of the variables are within certain
intervals.
Energy OpLimisaLion of RcfrigcraLion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 36
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Modelling ofThennal Systems in General Page 37
The last model characteristic - that will be mentioned in this section - is whether the model
describes the spatial distribution of the variables within a subsystem. If not, the model is called
lumped in contradiction to the distribuled model.
Problems with spatial distributed variables normally leads to panial differential equations. To
a given time the spatial distribution is a so-called boundary value problem. There are in
principle two ways of solving these equations. Either a numerical discretisation is used (grid -
methods: finite difference, finite element or finite volume) or a physical zoning dividing the
subsystem into many lumps is used. The latter procedure produces equations, which are similar
to those of the finite difference method.
Time derivatives of some of the variables will be present in dynamic models. If the spatial
distribution is disregarded or the transport equations are solved algebraically (e. g. by means of
a finite difference method) only ordinary differential equaTions will be left. The solution of
these equations will most often be treated as an initial val\:e problem.
For some elements the time constants will be small (propagation of pressure, small thermal
capacities) compared with the dominant time '::vns:::...'!ts. For such elements - which are
assumed to be in a momentarily balance with their boundaries - only algebraic equations will
appear. Due to the timewise change of some of the boundary values, the state of the element
will also change in time. Such a description for the element is called "a quasi- steady-state
model",
ps
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S)·stems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 37
II
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Part III : !kfotfelling of a 'Domestic. $.f.frigerator
Ph. D. Thesis Rcpon F-179-1
II
i
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Modelling ofa Domestic Refiigerator

I • Page 38 L
6. Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator
6.1 Objectives.
The intended use ofthe simulation models are:
quantitative description of the thermodynamic losses in order to
explain/understand the overall low energy efficiency of the refiigerator.
.. prediction ofthe energy consumption and system energy efficiency depending on

compressor control strategy, compressor efficiency, sizing of components and choice
and amount ofrefiigerant.
It appears that the purpose of the modelling work is twofold. The first part is mainly of
theoretical or explanatory interest whereas the second part is a tool for the practical energy
optimisation of the refiigerator.
, ~ . .
. tr· ,
6.2 Qualitative (mind) system model or phenomena description.

In Section 2.2 the thennodynamic refiigeration cycle is explained but this only includes the
main phenomena. The purpose of this section is to give a detailed phenomena description of
what is going on (or more correct "what I think is going on") in the refiigeration system. The
idea is to create a mental picture (mind model) of the dynamic system behaviour. The method
used is to imagine the dynamics of the system in a "standard" on-off cycle, starting just before
the compressor is switched on again.
In the initial state (after the compressor has been switched off for a while) the condenser
contains solely superheated gas as most ofthe refiigerant has moved through the capillary tube
to the evaporator in the off-period. The temperature in the condenser is close to that of the
surroundings ('" 27 CC), and the pressure is the same in all components near the saturation
pressure of the refiigerant corresponding to the temperature in the evaporator (3 cC - 3.3 bar
for R134a).
Most of the refiigerant is either situated in the evaporator being the coldest place or dissolved
in the oil in the compressor. The amount of refrigerant in the oil increases as the pressure in the
compressor housing increases and the temperature decreases.
EnerID' Optimis:llion or Rerrigeration SJslems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmcJakobsen 38
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Modelling ofa Domestic Refiigerator Page 39
The mean temperature of the air in the cabinet will be about one degree Celsius above the
desired value, say 6°C. Actually the temperature in the top of the cabinet is approximately 7.5
°C and the bottom air is approximately 4.5 °C.
Now suppose that the controller (thennostat) sMtches the compressor on. The first period of
time is extremely transient. The speed of the compressor changes from 0 to - 2850 rpm within
- 50 ms (half a revolution of the compressor).
The first component which is affected by the compressor start is the condenser. Due to the
high mass flow out of the compressor, the condenser pressure increases rapidly from the low
value corresponding to the evaporator temperature to the saturation pressure corresponding to
the temperature of the condenser ''wall''. Within", 10 s the condenser pressure increases from
the level of 3.3 bar to about 7 bar (27°C R134a) , of course depending on the compressor
capacity and the volume of the condenser. At this point condensation begins, and from now on
the pressure will increase much more smoothly.
The flow of refiigerant from the compressor to the condenser is very high at the beginning.
As the pressure rises, outflow from the condenser through the C3pillary will begin, but in the
beginning the inflow from the compressor will be much higher than the outflow through the
capillary tube. As a consequence the amount of refrigerant in the condenser increases very fast
until the outflow of refrigerant through the capillary tube equals or exceeds the flow from the
compressor. After about 40 s most of the refrigerant is situated in the condenser as liquid. Due
to the liquid build-up the degree of subcooling will increase which, together with the increasing
pressure, will increase the flow of refrigerant through the capillary tube. At the same time the
flow of refrigerant from the compressor will drop as a consequence of the decreasing suction
pressure and increasing condenser pressure together with the increasing superheat of the
vapour entering the compressor cylinder. Therefore after a while (- 5-10 min.) the flow of
refrigerant through the capillary tube and the flow from the compressor will be nearly equal
and from then onwards the distribution of refrigerant between the components will not change
significantly.
In the first few seconds after the start of the compressor the evaporator pressure will be
nearly constant. This is due to evaporation of liquid refrigerant in the evaporator and boil-out
of refrigerant from the oil in the compressor. After about 20 s the evaporator pressure will
decrease rapidly as most of the refrigerant is "pumped" to the condenser. Therefore after
approximately 40 s the superheat of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator will be very high
partly due to Ia::k of refrigerant and partly due to the low pressure. With a delay - as previously
described - the evaporator is gradually recharged with refiigerant as the flow of refrigerant
Energy Optimisation of Refrigerntion Systems. March t995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen 39
I
• i
through the capillary increases. After 5-10 minutes the refrigerant will be redistributed in a
"quasi steady state manor" therefore the utilisation ofthe evaporator and condenser surfaces to
phase transition is initially rather poor.
Even though the evaporation temperature decreases, the temperature of the air in the cabinet
will still increase - 1 min. after the compressor has started. The reason is that the surface
temperature of the evaporator has to fall below the temperature, at which the heat transmission
to the air from the surroundings is in balance with the heat transfer to the evaporator surface.
After a period oftime, which depends on the intemalload from cooling of fresh food and the
heat transfer through the cabinet walls the cut-off temperature of the thermostat will be
reached, and the compressor is switched off. The flow of refrigerant out of the compressor
stops immediately. The flow through the capillary tube continues as long a pressure difference
betw::en the condenser and the evaporator e>tists. Consequently the condenser will be
completely drained of liquid refrigerant. As the pressure tends to decrease fast a part of the
liquid in the condenser will flash. How much liquid Jctually evaporates in the condenser is
difficult to estimate precise because this depends on the f10wrate through the capillary tube and
the extend to which the liquid flow is mixed with gas bubbles.
As the temperature of the oil in the compressor decreases in the off-period, more refrigerant
will be dissolved. The pressure in the evaporator will increase as the evaporator temperature
approaches that of the air in the cabinet. The pressure in the compressor housing will follow
this pressure rise and contribute to the dissolution of refrigerant in the oil. Thc overall result is
that there is a small flow of refrigerant from the evaporator to the compressor in the off-
period.
The phenomena occurring in each component will be further described in connection with the
mathematical modelling (Section 6.4).
Finally in this section the main dynamic interactions between the various components are
discussed. The main focus is on creating a framework for understanding the dynamics of the
refrigerant flow.
In Figure 6.1 - on the next page - the direct influences between main process variables are
indicated in a qualitative way. A "+" means that if the process variable from which the arrow
begins increases then the process variable to which it is pointing will also increase (assuming all
other interactions to be negligible). "-" indication means that the process variable to which the
] Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 40
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Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator Page 41
arrow is pointed will decrease if the process variable from which the arrow originates
... increases.
-:J)-
Figure 6. I: Interaction between the nowrates of refrigerant and the state in the
condenser and the state in the evaporator.
From Figure 6.1 one can see that if the flow rate through the compressor is increasing, then the
condenser pressure will also be increasing. On the other hand this rise in conden~er pressure
will give a negative feedback on the flow rate from the compressor. If the condenser pressure
increases, the f10wrate through the capillary tube will also increase. This increase in the flow
rate will also cause a negative feedback to the pressure in the condenser. Similar remarks can
be made regarding the low pressure side. It is noteworthy that the feedback loop between two
adjacent components regarding mass flow rate always gives a negative feedback. This shows
that the process itself will have a tendency to stabilise the refrigerant flow in the system.
The degree of subcooling and the degree of superheat are also shown as process variables in
Figure 6.1. If the mass flow rate through the compressor increases, the subcooling and the
degree of superheat will also increase. The flow rate through the capillary tube has a negative
influence on the degree of subcooling and superheat. Therefore the subcooling and the
superheat will both decrease when the flow rate through the capillary tube increases.
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigeration Systems. March 1995.· Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 41
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Modelling of a Domestic Reliigerator Page 42
6.3 Complexity and structure of the mathematical system model.
It is neither possible nor desirable to describe all phenomena occurring in the refrigeration
system. In order to derive a "workable" model, for which it is possible to maintain a physical
interpretation of the phenomena modelled, is it necessary to simplifY the model when compared
to the act~al system. The following phenomena are disregarded:
• Transport delays, pressure losses and refiigerant build-up in connection tubes.
* Pressure losses in condenser and evaporator.
* Spatial temperature variations on condenser, evaporator and compressor

surfaces.
• Spatial temperature variation in the cabinet air.
Changes in the amount ofrefiigerant dissolved in oil.
Dehumidification of air.
Frost formation and thawing on the evaporator surface.
Door openings, air infiltration and influences from the cooling ofgoods in the
detennination of the cooling load.
The system model is divided into a number of submodels which in this case almost correspond
to the various components.
The structure is depicted in Figure 6.2 on the next page, where the system model is subdivided
into the following submodels:
[] compressor, C condenser, C evaporator, C cabinet, [J capillary tube, C heat exchanger.
A component called "heat exchanger" does not exist separately, as the heat exchange is
integrated into the capillary tube and suction line, but for modelling it is practical to describe
this heat transfer separately.
Energy Oplimisalion of Rcfrigeralion SySlems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 42

L
Ta
Po
~
.
Co
S Heat Exchanger
~
oS
e0 Po.h5 Pc.h3
Ta
Til
CD
Tr
~
:§ I.U
~
Pc,/>3
Figure 6. 2: Information now in system model.
Figure 6.2 should be read as follows. For the compressor model the ambient temperature T. is
a parameter. Knowing the suction pressure p.. the discharge pressure p., the suction enthalpy
hI and the control variable N,pm, it calculates the outlet mass flow til..... and the enthalpy h 2 (in
practice via a calculation of the discharge temperature). In addition to the parameter T. other
"internal" parameters like thermal capacities, surface area etc. have to be known. Only
information which is exchanged between the various submodels are shown.
The state points of the refrigerant are characterised by the enthalpy, pressure and together
with the respective mass flow rate these process variables constitute the process link between
the various submodels. The numbering of state points are shown on the h,log(p) diagram in
Figure 6.2.
- In the following Section 6.4 the submodels are described in greater detail.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen 43

• Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator Page 44
6.4 Component models in the dynamic system model.

Two dynamic models have been developed. One "hydrodynamic model" (called DynF/o) and
one "thermal model" (called DynTherm ). Please refer to A. C. Cleland [2] for a further
classification of models.
For DynTherm the degree of superheat out of the evaporator and the degree of subcooling
out of the condenser are parameters. The flow of refrigerant is assumed to be the same
everywhere in the system and equal to the flow rate through the compressor. The floWTate of
refrigerant through the capillary tube is not calculated separately, and the amount of refrigerant
in the various components is not considered.
The dynamic variables' chosen are:
.., Cabinet air temperature (T,).
Evaporator surface temperature (T_).
Condenser surface temperature (T",,).
.., Compressor surface temperature (T. am ).
r-
The modelling of the internal energy of the four components mentioned above are lumped to 'T"--
thermal capacities at their respective surface temperature.
The DynTherm model is quite straightforward. the computing time of the simulations carried
out are rather moderate and the results are easy to interpret. The drawback of the model is that
it can not tell how well the evaporator and the condenser are utilised in terms of how large a
part of the area is used for phase transition (condensation or evaporation). The utilisation is
implicitly prescribed by the parameters: degree of subcooling and degree of superheat. The
model will not be able to say anything about the significance of the refrigerant charge in the
system and the size of the capillary tube because these design parameters are not included in
the formulation. Finally it can not predict anything about the pressure equalisation in the off-
period. Please refer to Section 9.3 where results from DynF/o and DynThenn are compared.
As a consequence of the limitations mentioned above the model DynF/o was developed. In
addition to the dynamic variables already mentioned the following dynamic variables are
included in the formulation:
Amount of refrigerant in the evaporator (M.).
* Amount of refrigerant in the condenser (M.).
I A dynamic variable enters the formulation as a time derivalive and must be pro\ided an initial \'lIlue.
Encrgy Optimisation of Refrigcralion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 44
•
Modelling ofa Domestic Refrigerator Page 45
Pressure in evaporator (Pt).

• Pressure in the condenser (Pc) .
In the thermal model the pressures are, of course, also variables but enter as algebraic variables
(among many other algebraic v3riables).
In DynFlo the distribution of refrigerant between the evaporator and the condenser changes
as a consequence of the difference in the flow rate from the compressor and the flow rate
through the capillary tube. The actual amount of refrigerant, in the condenser and the
evaporator respectively, is used to calculate the part of the heat transfer area used for phase
transition. In this way the degree of superheat and the degree of subcooling are implicitly
modelled from the distribution of the refrigerant.
6.4.1 Compressor.
p
Discharge
\\eompress;on
lSW~nm.e" v
Figure 6. 3: Process in hermetic reciprocating compressor.
The design or'the intake is first discussed. In most hermetic compressors the compressor
cylinder draws the refrigerant gas from the compressor housing. As a results of this design, the
gas which enters the cylinder is much warmer than the gas coming directly from the suction
line. This additional superheat has a negative affect on both the compressor efficiency and the
capacity. In recent constructions the suction inlet pipe is directed towards the inlet port of the
intake muffler (semidirect intake). In this way the gas which is drawn into the cylinder is a
mixture of gas coming from the housing and a fraction of the gas coming directly from the
suction line. It is necessary to cool the motor to some extent, but the use of the refrigerant
itself for this purpose has the above mentioned disadvantages.
The pathway of the processes in the compressor is hereafter briefly explained. The gas which
enters the compressor from the suction line is divided into two parts. One part escapes to the
housing and the other part is directly drawn into the compressor cylinder. The first part is
mixed with oil and with some refiigerant coming from leakage past the piston. The oil and
refiigerant in the housing will cool the motor and transport the energy to the shell.
When the piston moves downwards in the cylinder the pressure is decreasing. As the pressure
falls below tht" pressure in the housing (:::: evaporator pressure) the inlet valve opens and the
intake begin~. The compression begins when the piston starts to move upwards and at the same
time the inlet valve closes. When the pressure in the cylinder exceeds that in the discharge line
(:::: condenser pressure ). the discharge phase begins and the discharge valve opens.
The temperature in the housing is 40 °C -+ 80°C. At the end of the compression stroke the
gas is very hot ( - 150°C ). The temperature (T2) measured at the discharge line is
considerable lower due to the internal heat transfer in the compressor.
The compression process is not adiabatic. When compression commences the gas receives
heat from the cylinder wall, however towards the end it is cooled by the cylinder wall.
It appears from the description above that the process is quite complex. The mathematical
model developed is, however, quite simple.
UAcom MCcom Vs np
1 h2, T2
~~' ~I'\. ~
w
- - - - - - l.. c_o_m_p..r..-ess_o_r - - - -.. mcom
Qcorn
i
Ts
dTcom/dT
Figure 6. 4: Input/output compressonnodel.
In Figure 6.4 the input/output variables and parameters are indicated. The following
parameters have to be quantified:
To Ambient temperature [K).
UA."., Heat transfer coef between wall and the air [WIK).
V. Geometric cylinder volume [m 3].
Encrg)o' Optimisation of Rcfrigcr.ltion Syslems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 46
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I
MCcom Lumped thermal capacity [JIK] of the compressor.

Polytropic exponent.
The definition ofthe input/output variables should be self-explanatory.
The flowrate through the compressor is expressed using a volumetric efficiency:

. lV~m
m..... =.,,~ p,V'60 kgls (6.1)
77- Volumetric efficiency (-).

In Equation 6.1 PI is the density of the gas in the suction line.
From steady-state compressor data (TLES3F from Danfoss, which is the compressor type with
which the refrigerator investigated is equipped) it is found that 77- to a good approximation is a
=
function ofthe pressure ratio only (1< P';P.), see Figure 6.5.
0.80 Volum etric efficiency for TLES3 F
~
;::&.x
Xx x -~
>.-/
~ ...... X
0.70
llv 0.60 x
x
0.50 x
x
x
0.40
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.011.0 12.0 13.0
PreSsure ratio Jt
Figure 6. 5: Correlation for volumetric efficiency.
The expression for the curve fit is: 77_ = 0.542- 0.08954· 7C + 0.27523 . J1i
The data in Figure 6.5 and in Figure 6.6 are based on a variation of the evaporation
temperature between - 30°C and 5 °C together with a variation in the condensation
temperature between 32°C and 40 °C.
I
. . _.'
.\; .. . ~,' - .
. .' - " .
• ... ; ....: I
Modelling of a Domestic Refiigerator Page 48
The electric power to the compressor is calculated using an isentropic efficiency:
(6.2)
h;z. is the enthalpy of the outlet gas assuming the process to be isentropic (reversible adiabatic
process).
From the specific data it is found that the low pressure (p.) is correlated better with the
isentropic efficiency than the often used pressure ratio (1t). This conclusion is probably due to
the limited variation of the condensing temperature. Please refer to Figure 6.6.
0.46 Isentropic efficiency for TLES3F
0.46 x
x
X X
I'
0.44
X
0.42 X X
0.40 ~
"5 0.36 X X
0.36
0.34 X
0.32
0.30
X
0.26
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

P e (bar)
Figure 6.6: Isentropic efficiency.
The expression for the curve fit is: 77, = -1.479-1.4916· P. + 3.2409· JP: + 0.08142· p;
The unit for p. is [bar] in this equation.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. pr.. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 48
II I
It is possible to obtain a slightly better fit of Tis • if for example Tc also entered the correlation
as parameter. However, this is not done partly to keep the equations simple, paltly because the
general inaccuracies caused by other model simplifications in the compressor modelling are
believed to be even more significant than the inaccuracies caused by the simplified expression
for the isentropic efficiency.
The 1st law of thermodynamics applied to the compressor gives:
tiT . .
Mea--r -.£!!!!..=W-Q
dr I:'DI'II
-riPCOII'I ·(h~ -h)
I
(6.3)
In order to determine h1 - the enthalpy of the discharge gas - it is necessary to derive one more
relationship as only the pressure is known at this state point. A traditional way is to calculate
the temperature assuming a polytropic like process.
T~ =(1; +?T_).(Pc)·::' (6.-1)

- P.
1; + T . . .
The term ~ reflects the assumption that the gas entenng the cylinder partly comes
directly from the suction line and panly from the compressor housing. It was found that using
IIp = \.09 (K" eric" - 1.08 for R134a) the model gives reasonable results for the level of the
discharge temperature.
Finally the overall heat loss given by: (2..•• =UA..., . (T",", - T.) (6.5)
The calculations can in the dynamic case be carried out explicitly, assuming the inlet state <D.
the condenser pressure. and the evaporator pressure known. In the steady-state case Tc"",", T]
and Q.... are found by a simultaneous numerical solution ofEq. 6.3, 6.4. and 6.S.
Summing up it can be stated that even though the process in the compressor is quite complex
the mathematical model presented is fairly simple. All the complex process details are hidden in
the efficiencies 7]"" T/s and in the parameters UA..,.. and 1Ip-
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 49
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6.4.2 Condenser.
In the literature one often finds the condenser divided into three zones: a superheating zone,
condensation zone and a subcooling zone. In the present model the superheated zone is
disregarded once condensation occurs. The background for this choice of model is explained in
the following.
Shortly after the compressor start-up the pressure exceeds the saturation pressure
corresponding to the inner wall temperature and therefore film condensation will begin all over
in the condenser as a consequence. After a while the first part of the condenser will probably
be warmer than the rest cfthe condenser due to heating by the incoming superheated gas. That
is, the first part wil: be occupied by superheated gas. The extent of this zone depends on the
"axial" temperature profile in the condenser. If the condenser material had infinite heat
conductance then the wall temperature would be the same allover. Therefore there would not
be any superheated zone at the beginning as film condensation also takes place here. Of course
the temperature of the core of the flowing refiigerant is higher than the film temperature - but
the heat transfer mechanism between the refiigerant and the wall is condensation.
The physics of the two-phase flow during the condensation is very complex and to a great
extent unknown. The interest in the present investigation regarding the condenser modelling
comes down to three aspects: pressure loss, heat transfer and mass content in the two-phase
zone.
With the present modelling the pressure loss is disregarded (with standard sizing of the tubes
the pressure loss corresponds to a drop in saturation temperature of 0.5 °C ~ 2°C).
The heat transfer resistance by condensation is .n.QLthe dominating heat transfer resistance in
the case of a natural-convection air-cooled condenser. The thermal contact between the steel
tubes and the backplate and the natural convection term are the decisive factors. In the present
model the heat transfer coefficient for the condensation is hence just a parameter (but its value
is high - 1000 W/m2 K).
In order to calculate the mass ofrefiigerant in the two-phase zone it is necessary to know the
average void. Many void-fraction models exist - many of them are related to the quality, see'
.-----....11
"-
e.g. Whalley [4]. The problem is however, even the complicate!! expressions have proven to be
quile inaccurate, see e.g. Janssens et. al. [3]. The intention in the present work is to keep the _.~_
model as simple as possible because it appears from the literature that the benefit from using
complicated models are very limited. The approach will be explained in detail in Section
6.4.2.2.
Encrgy Optimisation of Refrigcration Systcms. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 50
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I
I I
To complete the introductory description it should be mentioned that there might exist a
subcooled liquid zone in the last part of the condenser. This is the case when the mass of
reftigerant in the condenser exceeds a certain limit where the two-phase flow zone can not
contain more refrigeranl
6.4.2.1 Thermal model.

In the "thermal" model the direct influence from the content ofrefrigerant is disregarded.
Instead the degree of subcooling is given as a parameter.
Aco Ad Mea (Xci fj,Tsc
I
h3. T3
hz, Tz Condenser
~ Thermal Model Te. pc
mcom L:.~ __----/ efTweld.
Ta
Figure 6.7: Input/output Condenser Thennal Model
The f~Uowing parameters are introduced:

A... Outer area in contact with the air rm:).
A.i Inner heat transfer area in contact ""ith refrigerant [m2 ).
Me. Thermal capacity [WIK).
a.i Internal heat transfer coefficient [WIm2K] .
.6.T.. Degree of subcooling [K].
Assuming that all of the condenser wall material is at the same temperature, Twe. the following
equations can be derived.
The 1st law of thermodynamics for the "wall" gives:
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S)'siems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 51
~
I
I
(6.6)
Ue is the external heat transfer coefficient. In appendix B the derivation of the expression for
this variable is found.
Use of the 1st law oftherrnodynarnics again - this time for the refrigerant - gives the following
equation, where it is assumed that the refrigerant is in a quasi steady state energy balance with
the wall:
mCQm·(h:-1'J)=a",·A",·(~-T",,) (6.7)
By definition 1; = Te - 6.T", (6.8)
If it is assumed that condensation takes place at all times the pressure will be equal to the
saturation pressure:
(6.9)
P'D' is a property function for the refrigerant chosen relating saturation pressure and
temperature.
6.4.2.2 Model including influence of refrigerant content.

In the "hydrodynamic" model the influence from the actual content of refrigerant in the
condenser is considered. The main idea is to calculate the area distribution (by area distribution
it is meant how much of the heat transfer area is occupied by gas alone. i.e. superheated area,
mixture of gas and liquid i.e. condensation area and liquid i.e. subcooled area) and the quality
of the outlet (XJ ) as linear functions of the refiigerant content (Me). First the input/output
variables and parameters for this model are identified (Figure 6.8).
The new parameters are:

V" Volume of condenser [mJ ].
Voide "Saturated void" of two-phase section [-].
Note that the degree of subcooling no longer appears as a parameter. The pressure pe has now
become a dynamic variable (related to the internal energy of the refrigerant) and the refrigerant
content Me enters as a dynamic variable.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. M:trch 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 52
h3, T3, X3
hz, Tz
Condenser
mcom Hydrodynamic Model
mcap dpcldT
dMcldT
T ..
Figure 6. 8: Input/output Condenser Hydrodynamic Model.

In the following the hydrodynamic model is explained.
The change of the content ofrefiigerant is expressed in an equation of continuity:
dAfC=til -til (6.10)

d. """ -
In the figure below the way the model describes the area distribution and the quality at the
outlet as a function of the refrigerant content is explained.
T....
~
mcom
-;>
Figure 6. 9: Hydrodynamic Model of Condenser.

AI: Heat transfer area occupied by superheated gas.
Energy Optimisation of Rcfrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen 53

• Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator
I ,!
Page 54
A 2ph Heat transfer area where condensation takes place.

As< Heat transfer area where subcooling takes place.
Let us consider what happens as the content of refrigerant increases from zero up to the point
where th.: condenser in theory is completely filled ",ith liquid. To keep the mental picture
simple it is assumed thut the 'vaIl temperature is constant.
When the content of i,,,:-i,'.':: ':It is vel)' low (Me < M ge ) superheated gas occupies the entire
volume. All the heat transfer area can be considered as "super:leated area" ie. Ag = A,.,.The
outlet is of course refrigerant gas i.e. X j = /.
As the refiigerant content increases, it will at some point cross a limit where the pressure
becomes high enough for film condensation to occur over the entire length of the condenser. In
this case the s'Jperheated area is zero and the condensation zone will encompass the entire heat
transfer area i.e. A 2ph = A,." Now the outlet refrigerant will be a mixture of gas and liquid. As
Me increases further the liquid content in the outlet will also increase. Finally (Me> M g1e ) the
olllict flow will be solely liquid. X j = O. In the interval M ge < Me < M g1e it is assumed that the
quality decreases linearly with the ~ount ofrefiigerant.
When Me crosses Mgle the two-phase section is "saturated" and cannot contain more
refrigerant. Therefore a liqu:d zone will appear 2nd the outlet will be subcooled. For Me> M gle
is X j = 0, :md theoretically th~ condenser will be filled completely with liquid when Me = M 1e .
The model formulation is complete with the determination of M gc , M glc and M 1c .
pg,a,(TwJ· Vc (6.//)
PIJQl(TwJ . Ve (6./2)
Voidc'Mgc + (l-VoidJ ·M/c (6./3)
pg'Q,(T,.J is the density of the saturated vapour at the wall temperature T!<C. Likewise is
pua,(T.,J the density of the saturated liquid.
Voide is a parameter in the model. Voide is the minimum void in the two-phase region and
therefore the zone cannot contain more refrigerant beyond this point. Further increase in the
amount of refiigerant will result in the appearance of a liquid zone. Voidc is previously called
"the saturated void of the two-phase section". If nothing else is stated then Voide = 0.7 is used.
For a treatment ofvanous void fraction models see e.g. Whalley (4).
In stead of Equation (6.?) the following eql!ation applies when the 1st law of thermodynamics
is used for the control volume ofthe refiigerant in the condenser:
.
, "
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 54
I
Modelling ofa Domestic Refrigerator Page SS
dU i< .
--==m
d-c ~
·h,-m
-
•
~
. ~ - O·
_Ie
(6.14)
Uic is the internal energy of the refrigerant and Qi<is the heat transfer from the refrigerant to
the wall.
In the detennination of the degree of subcooling it is a problem to have only one average wall
temperature in the model because the subcooled temperature should be able to fall below this
value. The exit temperature T3 - if subcooling occurs - ;s calculated from a quasi- steady-state
energy balance. Integration of the differential energy balance:
-m_ ,CpI·dT==U" ·(T- T.).dA" (6. 15A)
gives:
T3 ==T. +(T< -T.)· ex{

U",' A,,) (6. 15B)
"'C4P . Cpt
Usc is the overall heat transfer coefficient from the liquid to the air and Cpr is the heat capacity
ofthe liquid.
The heat transferred from the refrigerant to the condenser wall can be expressed as follows:
(6.16)
is the inner heat transfer area in the condensation zone.
A2phi
The expression contains three contributions. The first one is non-zero if the condenser contains
superheated gas only. In this case the last two contributions will be zero. The second term is
the heat transferred in the condensation zone between the refrigerant and the walL The last
term is the heat transferred in the liquid zone:
(6. 17a)
otherwise is (6. 17b)

hl3 is the enthalpy of saturated liquid at the pressure pc.
In Appendix C the following expressions for the pressure of the refrigerant are derived. The
expression is valid for a fixed control volume being in internal thermodynamic equilibrium:
dUo< _ dMe .j,
dp< d. d. •
(6.18)
dT M. df. + V . df,
< dpc • dpc
Equation (6.18) is valid if condensation occurs and
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen SS

Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator Page S6
U - U. V . Ui/ - v, . u
J. =_iR _ _, , /2 = R 'R are functions of pressure (pc) only.
v, -v, V
R
-V,
v is specific volume and Ui is internal energy of the refrigerant. Index "g" refers to saturated gas
and "I" to saturated liquid.
For numerical reasons a perfect gas law corrected with a compressibility factor is used in the
case of superheated gas, in place ofthe "true" property routines:
R. dUiC
dpc = z--!!L- (6.19)
dT C.' Vc
Here z is the compressibility factor correcting the temperature found from the perfect gas law
in relation to the temperature found using a "correct" function for the equation of state for the
refrigerant. R, is the gas constant for the refrigerant and C. is the heat capacity for constant
volume.
6.4.3 Capillary tube.

The capillary tube is a long ( - 3 m) copper tube with a small diameter (- 0.7 mm). In the first
part there is no heat exchange with the suction line. The last part of it is in direct thermal
contact with the suction line from the evaporator. The first part of the process is therefore
adiabatic whereas the last part is diabatic.
evaporator condenser
Figure 6. 10: Arrangement or the capillary tube.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis ArneJa"obsen S6
. .: ... ,,' . . '. . - . . " " " . , .. .,'.. . .-".
'.'. '. ' . . . , .' . ,...,.'. .,' .' :

. . . . /.. , ' . ' .. .
I
There are two different ways in which the thermal contact between the capillary tube and the
suction line is established. Either the capillary tube is wound around the suction line or it is
placed inside the suction line. Thermodynamically the process is assumed to be the same.
Temperature
Tso/
T1
Ts
log(p)
T4=T"
L tf)
LLL h
Figure 6. 11: Temperature profile in heat exchange.
In Figure 6.11 above the principle shapes of the temperature profiles in the heat exchange are
shown. If the liquid from the condenser is subcooled to the temperature TJ , the first part of the
process in the capillary tube is an isothermal pressure drop. When the pressure has decreased
to the value of the saturation pressure corresponding to TJ , flashing will begin. As the pressure
decreases due to fiiction and acceleration of the flow, the temperature will also be forced to
drop as evaporation occurs. Even though the first part of the process is adiabatic the
temperature decreases. The drop in sensible energy (drop of temperature) is established by an
equal rise in the latent energy due to the phase transition (the enthalpy of the gas is higher than
the enthalpy of the liquid). In other words the drop of the temperature of the refrigerant liquid
is caused by internal cooling via the evaporation or in other words "by flashing".
At the point where the capillary tube comes into contact with the suction line the temperature
is called TJo . The pressure still decreases but the necessary cooling has now two sources: partly
cooled by the suction line and partly by internal evaporation inside the capillary tube. If the
cooling from the suction line is sufficient to cool the liquid to the saturation temperature no
evaporation will occur and in extreme cases recondensation is possible. Whichever the case,
..-
I I
I
the effect of the heat exchange is a decrease of the quality of the refrigerant at the inlet to the
evaporator and a rise in the temperature of the refrigerant gas at the inlet to the compressor (Ts
~T/),
A counter flow heat exchanger is being considered but the process on the capillary side is
quite different from what is normally experienced in a heat exchanger. The temperature profile
is over most of its length determined by the pressure profile, and is not directly influenced by
the heat transfer! The heat transferred mainly affects the profile of the quality. This profile
influences the mass flow of refiigerant in the capillary tube because a lower quality (more
liquid) will increase the flow. Therefore increased heat transfer will increase the mass flow rate
in the capillary tube.
At the inlet to the evaporator the two temperature profiles actually cross over. If the gas
leaving the evaporator is superheated from T. ~ Ts and the inlet temperature of the
refrigerant is
T4 = T. , then heat is transferred in the" wrong direction" in this part of the heat e;l(changer.
A detailed mathematical model of the process in the capillary tube is very complex. It is a
matter of two-phase flow with evaporation and pressure loss. See e.g. C. Melo [5], M.B. Pate
[6], and Qishen Yan [7].
In order to derive a workable model for system simulation it is necessary to develop a simple
model. In the following two sections this is done by treating the flow rate and the heat
exchange independently even though this is not physically correct.
6.4.3.1 Flow model.

A detailed model of the phenomena which determine the mass flow rate through the capillary
tube is • as mentioned above - outside the scope of the present work. The pressure drop from
the high to the low pressure is caused by friction and by acceleration of the flow. The latter is
due to the decreasing density mainly caused by flashing of the liquid refrigerant. The physics is
complicated by the fact that choking often occurs, the flow rate is then limited by the local
speed of sound and a pressure step (shock) will occur in the outlet.
The modelling approach chosen is to generate data from a complex "stand-alone" model and
adjust a number of parameters in a simple input/out model in order to obtain results as close as
possible to those of the more accurate model. The latter is developed by Hegaard Knudsen,
Refiigeration Laboratory, DTU. See Christensen [8] for a detailed description of the model. It
is based on Bandel-Scliinder's correlation for the frictional pressure drop; the acceleration
II
pressure drop is calculated using Scmidt's void fraction model. The flow is assumed to be
adiabatic.
abc
1
ps, pc
V3 - Flow Model
Capillary Tube
..... .
mcsp
L1Tsc
Figure 6. 12: Input/output now model capillary tube.
In the figure above the input/output variables and parameters are shown. It was found that the
following equation will produce results which deviate at the most ± 8 % from the data
produced by the "complex model". In most cases (normal inlet conditions to the capillary tube
and evaporation pressure) the results are within ± 3 %. The relationship between results from
the simple model and the more correct model are shown in Figure 6.13. The data are obtained
by variation of condenser pressure, evaporation pressure, degree of subcooling and also the
quality at the inlet to the capillary tube in the case of two-phase flow from the condenser.
gls (6.20)
V3 is the specific volume of the refrigerant at the inlet to the capillary tube. In the equation
above the unit of the pressure is "bar". The following parameters are found for a flow of
R134a through a capillary tube oflength 2.9 m and with a diameter of 0.66 mrn.
D 0.003755049
b 0.03068930
c 0.074415
In the numerical implementation "c" is set equal to zero in the off-period and the numeric
value of the pressure difference is used when the square root function is evaluated. The sign of
"a" is negative if p. > p. permitting a backflow of refiigerant from the evaporator to the
condenser, which often occurs at the end of the off-period.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. Mareh 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 59
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I
The data to Figure 6.13 are obtained by variation of the condensing temperature between
30°C and 50 °C, the evaporation temperature is changed within the limits -25°C and 0 °C,
and the subcooling from 0 °C to 10°C. Two-phase flow into the capillary tube was also
applied where the quality was varied between 0.0 and 0.4.
1.00
0.80
0.60
/-
#/
/
0.40
r
0.20
/
0.00
/
---ifL----r-----.-----.--...,.--.----,.----,-----.------,-------,
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Flow frOll1 cOll1plcx 1l10dcl g/s
Figure 6.13: Accuracy of simple now model for capillary tube
6.4.3.2 Heat exchange model.
Uk. j_'
The input/output variables ana the parameters are shown at the figure below.
l.Ho
pc, h3 (T3)
ps, hs (Ts) .. Heat Exchange Model
Capillary Tube f----~
Tr
•
QHS
mcom
Figure 6. 14: Input/output heat exchange model.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S)·stcms. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 60
I
<lH. is the heat transferred in the heat exchanger. The parameters are as follows.
VA H, Overall heat transfer coefficient [WIK).

f6pH. Fraction of tot a! pressure drop taking place in the adiabatic part [-].
L H, Length of the heat exchange zone [m].
The pressure in the capillary tube at the inlet to the heat exchanger is:
P,o =p, - f"'H•. (p. - P.) (6.21)
The corresponding temperature is determined by the pressure and the enthalpy:
1;0 = f(P3Q' ~) (6.22)
The function "/' is an appropriate equation of state for the refrigerant.
In the further calculations of the heat exchanger it is assumed that the temperature on the
capillary tube side decreases linearly from TJo to TJ (no~e that we disregard the fact that T.
might be slightly lower than TJ • refer to Figure 6.11).
LHe
1-<::-------------31-1
Figure 6. 15: Assumed temperature profile in heat exchanger.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakabsen 61
Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator
• Page 62
Three cases may occur depending on the state of the refrigerant in the suction line:
If? Two-phase flow with evaporation for the entire length.
If? Two-phase flow for part of the length.
If? Superheated gas for the entire length.
If the exit from the evaporator, state point ® is a mixture of gas and liquid, the first part of
the heat exchanger (L2plr) on the "suction side" will consist of a two-phase flow with
evaporation. If the heat transferred is not sufficient to evaporate the liquid (L 2plr > LH<) two-
phase flow will persist all the way through the heat exchanger and accordingly the temperature
on the suction side will constantly be equal to T. (remember that pressure loss is disregarded in
the suction line).
The case where the outlet of the evaporator is dry m (Xj ~ I and L 2plr = 0) is treated first.
A differential energy balance gives:

m..,..· Cn . dTg =UA'H.·(T_ - Tg }· dZ (6.23)
Tg is the temperature of the refrigerant in the suction line. T«p is the corresponding
temperature of the refrigerant in the capillary tube. dZ is an infinitesimal length of the heat
exchanger.
UA 'H. =UAHJLH. is the heat transfer coefficient pro unit length.
.
Insertmg Teo. = Ts + (1;0 - T,) Z
. ; 0 S; Z S; L H.
L H•
leads to (after some trivial manipulations. see appendix D):
T.=T.. _(1;0-7;).( I-exp(-K.L )) (6.2.f)

I 30 K. L • H.
H
UA'H.
where K . In the calculations it is assumed that the heat capacity of the gas Cps
m_ ·Cpg
is constant. In the numerical implementation an average value between state points ® and (j) is
used.
When the outlet of the heat exchanger is gas on the suction side. it is possible to calculate the
enthalpy of state point (j) knowing the temperature and pressure. In any cases the heat
transferred, assuming the heat exchanger to be in a quasi-steady-state, can be calculated as:
(6.25)
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. M:lJ'ch 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 62
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If the refrigerant at the outlet of the evaporator is a two-phase flow (Xs < 1) the length L 2ph can
be calculated as follows:
Defining Q,P. =mea- . (I - X,)· M1...,p
("1;0 - 1;.).Z
the temperature difference across the heat exchanger is T""I' - T,
L H, '
as long a two-phase flow exist in the suction line, the corresponding heat transferred is:
(6.26)
From this expression the length over which two-phase flow persists is determined::
2· Q~pJo' L H•
L~ph = _1---=--';';""'- (6.27)
UA'H.-(7;o - 1;.)
If L 2ph ;:: L Hc there will be liquid present at state point CD (the inlet to the compressor).
Then:
. 1 1
T/=T. and QH, =-·("1;o-T,)·L H .·UA'H, =-·("1;o-T,)·UA H •
2 2
If L 2ph < L Hc the length "LH.-L}ph" is treated as previously with dry gas coming from the
evaporator. Please refer to Figure 6.15 for an illustration of the temperature profiles. In
Appendix D the derivation and solution of the governing differential equation is given.
The result for this case is: (6.28)
1; =T 30
- ("1;0 - T,pJo) . (1- exp(-K· (L H • - L,p.») - (T"h - ~). exp(-K· (L H
• - L~,h»
K· (L H• - L 2P. )
Where 1;ph =T. + L,ph . (7;0 - 1;.)

L H•
It can be shown that (6.28) reduces to (6.2.f) if L 2ph = O. In this limiting case is Ts = T. = T2ph .
If L2p~ = L H• (6.28) is not defined, but it can be seen that when L 2ph approaches L H• , then
approaches T1 = T3rr(T3rr T.) = T•.
Equation (6.25) can still be used to calculate the heat transferred.
i-I
6.4.4 Evaporator.
Under normal operation the state at the inlet to the evaporator is a mixture of gas and liquid.
Since the evaporator wall is warmer than the saturation temperature (T. corresponding to P.)
evaporation will occur. If there is not sufficient liquid refiigerant in the evaporator only gas
will be present in the last part of it. In this case the first zone is a two-phase flow whereas the
last zone is the superheated region.
The process in the evaporator is in many ways similar to the process in the condenser
described in Section 6.4.2. One difference is that at the inlet to the condenser there is always
superheated gas. while at the inlet to the evaporator the normal state is a mixture of gas and
liquid. The last zone in the condenser can be solely liquid - a subcooled zone - whereas a
superheated zone normally appears in the last part of the evaporator.
The approach to the modelling of the evaporator is similar to that of the condenser.
6.4.4.1 Thermal model.

In the "thermal" model the influence from the content ofrefiigerant is modelled indirectly
using the degree of superheat as a parameter.
Aoo Am MC/J as; L1Tsh
I
hs, Ts
Tr ..... Evaporator
Thermal Model
...
Te, pe
mcom dTwe,ldr
Figure 6.16: Input/output Evapo:-ator Thermal Model.
The following parameters are introduced:

A.., Outer area in contact with the air [m2).
A. , Inner heat transfer area [m2).
Me. Thermal capacity (W/1<].
a.. Internal heat transfer coefficient [W/m 2K].
~TJh Degree of superheat [K).
Energy Optimisation of RefrigeraLion SJstems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis ArneJnkobsen 64

•
Tr is the cabinet air temperature.
Assuming that all of the evaporator material are at the same temperature, T_. the following
equations can be derived.
The 1st law ofthermodynamics for the evaporator wall gives:
Me • dT••
d-r =U~ ·A1'0 ·(Tr -T...... )-a ·A ·(T -T)
CI C'I ...... •
(6.29)
U. is the external heat transfer coefficient. Please see Appendix B for a derivation ofthe
expression for this variable.
Use of the 1st law of thermodynamics again - this time for the refiigerant - gives the following
equation, in which it is assumed that the refrigerant is in a quasi steady state energy balance
with the wall:
riI_ .(~ - h.)=c: n • A" ·(T_ - '1;) (6.30)
By definition 1; = T. + ~T,;, (6.31)
If we assume that evaporation takes place at all times, the pressure will be equal to the
saturation pressure:
(6.32)
p.o , is an appropriate function for the refrigerant chosen.
6.4.4.2 Model including influence of refrigerant content.

In the "hydrodynamic" model the influence from the actual amount of refrigerant in the
evaporator is considered.
The main idea is to calculate the area distribution and the quality of the outlet (Xs) as linear
functions of the refrigerant content (M.). By area distribution it is meant, how much of the heat
transfer area that is occupied by dry gas i.e. superheated area, and by a mixture of gas and
liquid.
Let's first identitY the input/output variables and parameters for this model (Figure 6.17).
Energy Optimisation of Refriger:llion S)·stems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 65

Aeo Asi Ve MCe as; Voide
I hs, Ts, Xs
To
Tr Evaporator
Hydrodynamic Model f-------1~.. dT'M/dr
ma=
dpeld-r
mcap
dMe/dr
Figure 6.17: Input/ouput Evaporator Hydrodynamic Model.
The new parameters compared to the thermal model are:

V. Volume of evaporator [m3).
Void.: "Saturated" void of two-phase section [-).
Note that the degree of superheat no longer is a parameter. The pressure p. has now becume a
dynamic variable (related to the internal energy of the refiigerant) and the amount of
refiigerant M. enters the model as a dynamic variable.
In the following the hydrodynamic model is explained.

The change of the amount of refiigerant in the evaporator is expressed by the equation of
continuity:
dJvf.. .
--=m
d. ..,. -m.... (6.33)
In Figure 6.18 the 3fea distribution and the quality of the outlet as a function of the remgerant
content are indicated.
Energy Optimisation ofRerrigeration S)·stems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 66
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Modelling ora Domestic Refiigerator Page 67
mcsp mcom
-~
--~
Xs
Quality A A Area
Xs Ag Aath: AICt
~--------------I
" Xs
f-----''''--=''-----...; -'--,
... :"
............. / I
,'"
/""", :
,../' .......................... I
o '--~ -'-, .....;~ 0
o Me
Figure 6.18: Hydrodynamic Model of Evaporator.

Ag Heat transfer area occupied by superheated gas.
A?ph Heat transfer area where evaporation takes place.
Let us consider what happens as the amount of refiigerant increases from zero until the
evaporator is, theoretically, completely filled with liquid. To keep the mental picture simple it
is assumed that the wall temperature is constant.
When the amount of refiigerant is very low (M. < Mge) superheated gas occupies the entire
evaporator. The inflow might still be a two-phase mixture, but this boundary condition is
ignored in the overall "picture". One can imagine that flashing occurs at the inlet. All the heat
transfer area in the evaporator is "superheated area" i.e. Ag = A ,Ol. The outflow is of course
refiigerant gas i.e. X s = 1.
As the content crosses a limit the pressure becomes so high that not all liquid will be flashed in
the inlet. Therefore evaporation begins in the evaporator itself, but most of the evapo~tor still
contains superheated gas and Xs =1. As the refiigerant content increases the superheat'ed zone
decreases. When Iv!. = A-lg1< evaporation will take place over the entire length of the evaporator.
It means A g = 0 and A?ph = A ,o,. A further increase ofrefiigerant content wi!1 cause the outlet to
be a mi,.,1ure of gas and liquid, therefore will X5 < 1. It is assumed that the funher decrease of
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigcratioli S)'stems, l\.1arch 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 67
, I I
• .... J I J iii
the quality is linear depending on M., and X.l = 0 when M. = MI.. This limit is somewhat
artificial. It corresponds to the situation where the evaporator is filled with liquid.
In principle the model formulation is finalised with the determination of Mg., M gl• and MI•.
PgsQ,(FwJ· v. (6.34)
PIs.,(T...) . V. (6.35)
Void.-Mg• + (J-VoidJ -M,. (6.36)
pgsar(T...J is the density of the saturated gas at the wall temperature T.... Likewise PIs.,(F...J is
the density of the saturated liquid.
Void. is a parameter in the model. It is the minimum void in the two-phase region and it
means that the zone caMot contain more refrigerant beyond this point. Further increase in the
amount ofrefiigerant will result in the appe3rance ofliquid in the outflow. Void. is previously
called "the saturated void of the two-phase section". If nothing else is stated Void. = 0.8 is
used.
Instead of equation (6.30) the following equation is obtained when the 1st law of
thermodynamics is used for the contre! volume of the refrigerant in the evaporator: --..
dU~ -
~=m""P- 4 - m com'
h . h
,+ QI. (6.37)
Here VI. is the internal ener!;"j' of the refiigerant and Qi. is the heat transfer from the wall to the ~'
refrigerant. ;:.:---
In the determination of the degree of superheat it is a problem to have only one average wall
temperature in the model because the superheated temperature should be able to rise above this
value. If superheat occurs the exit temperature T.l is calculated from a quasi steady-state energy
balance. The resulting expression is:
T,=T,.-(T,-T,,).exp( .'~ ·A ,h )
V (6.38)
mcom • CpR
U," is the overall heat transfer coefficient from the refrigerant gas to the air, a..1d e pg is heat
capacity of the refrigerant gas.
The heat received by the refrigerant from the evaporator wall can be expressed as follows:
Q.• =A 2phi • a 2ph • (T.., - T.) + Q,h (6.39)
Where Alph• is the inner heat transfer area in the evaporation zone.
Energy Optimisation ofRcfrigp.raLioli Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 68
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1.- \ .-
~ . r-
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Expression (6.39) contains two contributions. The first one is non-zero if evaporation occurs.
The last term is the heat transferred in the superheated zone:
Ifa superheated zone exists: Q.~ ="'""" .(hs - hgs ) (6.40a)
otherwise (6040b)
hgJ is the enthalpy of saturated gas at the pressure p•.
A similar expression as in the case of the condenser (6.18) is valid for the pressure of the
refrigerant:
dU,. _ dJvf• • j
dP. dr dr 2
(6.41)
dr - M . df: + V . dJ;
• dp. • dp.
This expression is valid if evaporation occurs.
v . u,/ - v, . u.
g, '. are functions of pressure (P.) only.
v. -v,
v is specific volume and u, is internal energy of the refrigerant. Index "g" corresponds to
saturated gas and "I" is saturated liquid, as in the case of the modelling ofthe condenser.
Finally a perfect gas law corrected with a compressibility factor is used in the case of
superheated gas:
R. dU ..
dP. =z--!!L (6.42)
dr Co ·V.
The cooling of the cabinet is in all cases;
Q. =U.· A2P"" ·(T, - T_)+Qm (6.43)
A:lp~.is the outer heat transfer area between the evaporator surface and the air corresponding
to the two-phase/evaporation zone.
6.4.5 Refrigerator cabinet.

The model of the cabinet interior is quite simple. It is a lumped model in which spatial
variations of the temperature in the cabinet are disregarded. The cooling demand is assumed to
be caused solely by heat transmission from the hot ambient air to the colder cabinet. That is,
door openings, cooling of fresh food, air leakage and build-up of frost on the evaporator
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Syslems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 69
I,
•
surface are disregarded. This may sound like crude assumptions. but they correspond to the
situation prescribed in the ISO standard test conditions for refrigerators, which are found to
agree very well with the actual cooling demand observed in the practical use of a refiigerator.
The inputjoutput variables and parameters are given below:
Uk Mer Ta
1
Os .. Cabinet Model .. dTr/dr
Figur~ 6.19: Input/output cabinet model.
VAr Overall heat transmission coefficient [WIK].

MCr Thennal capacity related to the dynamics of T, [11K).
An energy balance - or 1st law of thermodynamics - for the cabinet yields:

dT .
Me, d; =VAr ·(T. - T,) - Q. (6.44)
That is all that is required in this submodeL
••
I
6.5 Steady-state model.

Once the dynamic model has been derived it is in principle quite simple to obtain the
corresponding steady-state model. It is a malter of putting all the time derivatives to zero. The
former dynamic variables then become algebraic variables. The following variables change
Ustatusl'l':
Dynamic variables 0+ algebraic variables:
pc Pressure in condenser.
Pressure in evaporator.
Refiigerant content in the condenser.
Refiigerant content in the evaporator.
Condenser wall temperature.
Evaporator wall temperature.
Compressor surface temperature.
Cabinet air temperature.
The following algebraic equations appears when all the time derivatives are put equal to zero.
(6.45)
M. +Mc=M,or (6.46)
T=T-Sk.... (6.47)
, UA,
0
T = T + W-tilcom .(h,- _l.)

.~ (6.48)
""" 0 UA oom
T =Vc·~p«o·T.+a,;'A"pnc;'~ (6.49)
..., V c '~p""" +ac>, A2plori
AZphco and AZphe; are respectively the outer surface and the inner surface area in the two-phase
section in the condenser.
T..
U.· ~p"o' 1;. +a,,' A",Iori' r. (6.50)
V e • .4,,'''0 + a" . AlP'"
The expressions for dpjur and for dp/dr look quite complex and mathematically it is not
straightforward to see the consequences of dpjdr= dp/dr= O. What it comes down to is:
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmcJakobsen 71
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p. = fCM.,T.) and p. = f(M•• T.) (6.51)

Therefore the pressures are found ITom relevant property routines for the refrigerant depending
on specific: volume (v = VIM) and the temperature.
___ ~k
Energy Optimisalion of Refrige.ation Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 72
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Numerical Implementation Page 73
7. Numerical Implementation
As development of numerical algorithms and tools are not key subjects in the present work the
author has, so far as possible, based the prograrruning on existing tools. The conunercial
market for simulation tools is growing very fast but is still "young and not transparent" and
therefore it is a difficult task to choose the right tool.
The requirements for the tools are as follows.

e
'L
For steady-state model:

* Non-linear (implicit) equation solving.
* Refrigerant property routines available.
In addition to the requirements mentioned above a few requirements are needed in the case of
the dynamic model:
*
--
Time integration routines.
* Strategy for handling of discontinuities.
7.1 Numerical tools.

For the implementation of the steady-state model the PC-software under Windows called
Engineering Equation Solver (ref. [23] ) is used. The advantages of this software are twofold:
The format and the sequence of the equations are extremely free and property routines of a
number of substances (e. g. many remgerants) are built in.
Please refer to Appendix A3 to see a program listing of the steady-state model developed.
For the implementation of the dynamic models a Pascal program under DOS - called DALI-
is used. It consists of a collection of subroutines developed at The Refiigeration Laboratory
(ref. [24] ) in which equation solving, time integratic:o and handling of discontinuities are built
in. In addition to DALI refrigerant routines also developed at The Refrigeration Laboratory
(lWgaard Knudsen [25]) are used. P]foase refer to Appendices Al and A2 for the program
listings of the dynamic models developed.
Conunercial packages like SimuLink, ACSL, VisSim have also been considered but none of
them appeared convincing especially regarding the handling of discontinuities.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis A me Jakobsen 73
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In the dynamic model DynFlo three discontinuities are defined:

Change of compressor mode between on and off.
* Either two-phase in condenser or gas only.
* Either two-phase in evaporator or gas only.
In the more simple dynamic model DynTherm it is only the first discontinuity which is relevant.
As the three subsystems can individually be in either one oftwo (sub)states, the system can be
in eight (global)states. The reason why the concept of states is introduced is that the equations
describing a subsystem can be significantly different from one state to another. The number of
equations and variables may also change. The structure of the states and the relation between
them are illustrated below in Figure 7.1.
5 6
!" ~ ...~ ~
...!'1
CD
.,1
CD
.z::.1
CD f
..I
CD
1
CD
:& :3 .z::.1
~ & l!l, &

~ Q) 0 ~ 0
8 7
Figure 7. 1: States and G-functions.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Tnesis Arne Jakobsen 74
,
Numerical Implementation
At first hand one might think that the change of equations could simply be handled by
Page 75
traditional if-statements. The reason that discont:nuity functions are introduced is to ensure
•
correct timing of the changes between the various states. This is done implicitly in the
integration routine. The change between the states are handled by means of so-called G·
functions (discontinuity functions). A change of state happens when one of the G-functions,
that is valid for the actual state, changes sign.
Let's illustrate the meaning of Figure 7.1 by an example. If it is assumed that the state
number of the system is I, it appears that the compressor is on and there is two-phase flow in
both the condenser and the evaporator. From state I the system may change to state 2,4 or 5
depending on which discontinuity function changes sign. Knowing this fact it is not surprising
to learn that discontinuity timing is handled by the integration routine by means of interpolation
in time. A change of state is detected when one discontinuity function becomes zero and
changes sign just afterwards.
There are 24 arrows in Figure 7.1 but only 6 G-functions as each G-function appears in four
places. Go. and GOff control the switching between "on" and "of!" for the compressor. An
example could be:
Go. = Tr - 4.0 and GOff = 6.0· Tr
where T, is the cabinet air temperature (in this context with the unit DC). In this case the
compressor switches off when the temperature falls below 4.0 DC, and it switches on when the
temperature rises above 6.0 DC.
The change between a twc-phase and superheated gas condition in the condenser and
evaporator is handled by inspection of the mean quality of the refrigerant in the condenser and
evaporator respectively. If the quality gets above 1.0 a superheated gas state will appear
instead of a two-phase situ'!.tion. That is:
G2p...... = 1.0- Xc G.,.,_.... = Xc - LO
X. ' X. are the mean quality of the refrigerant in the condenser and evaporator calculated
from the actual mass content (mean specific volume) and the pressure.
Energy Oplimisation or Rerrigeration Syslems. March \995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 75
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7.2 Computing time and numerical difficulties.

Most of the simulations are carried out on a 60 MHz Pentium PC. The computing times are
very different in the various models.
Static model in EES:

The calculation ora new steady-state solution, when one parameter is changed, lasts about 30
s. In order to get the model to converge it is necessary to enter reasonably accurate initial
guesses of the variables in EES.
Dynamic model DynTherm in DALI:

The simulation of one cycle of a time period of about 40 minutes lasts approximately 2
minutes.
Dynamic model DvnFlo in DALI:

In comparison with the thermal model the computing time and the numerical difficulties have in
this case grown considerably. The system has become much more stiff because the time
constants involved in the initial pressure build-up in the condenser, the degree of superheat and
degree of stibcooling are very small compared to the time constants of some of the thennal
masses. Tho;: time constant for the cabinet air is '" two hours, whereas the time constants for the
start-up phenomena mentioned are of the order of one tenth of a second. In the beginning the
time step in the integration routine is about 0.01 s in order to cope with the very steep
gradients in some of the variables.
A cycle of 40 minutes takes from 2 to 10 hours of computing time. The variation in

computing time originates from a minimum solution where all the not required integrations are
omitted to a solution where all entropy generations and energy balances are integrated within
the model.
The equation solving is also much more sensitive. One of the convergence difficulties is that
the flow of refrigerant through the capillary tube can be close to zero and also change
direction. Great care have been taken in order to ensure that all equations are valid and
produce sensible results, even if some of the implicit variables temporarily are out of their
normal range during the equation solving process.
Energy Optim.isation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis .Arne Jakobsen 76
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Experimental Setup and Tests Page 77
8. Experimental Setup and Tests
Measurements have been carried out on a 325 I refrigerator. The main motivation has been to
provide data for validation of the simulation model. ISO test conditions were established by
placing of the refrigerator in a climate chamber where temperature, humidity and the velocity
of the air are controlled. The air temperature were 25°C ± 0.1 °C and the relative humidity
were 60 % ± 2 % (absolute). The refrigerator is from Gram Ltd., type KS350. The refrigerant
is R134a, and the charge is approximately 80 g. The refiigerator is equipped with a c~mpressor
with a cylinder volume of 3.1 cm J (TLES3F from Danfoss Ltd.) and a nominal speed of
::: 2850 rpm. The condenser is hidden in the backplate of the refrigerator (built-in) whereas the
evaporator is an externally mounted "roll-bond" type. The on-off control of the compressor is
provided by an electronic thermostat (micro-controller), and the user can adjust the desired air
temperature from 2 °e to 9 "e in steps of 1 "C.
8.1 Introduction to the experimental set-up.

A sketch of the experimental set-up is shown in Figure 8.1 below.
Figure 8. 1: Experimental Sei-tlp.
The following instrumentation was established:

ID J Power transmitter. Measurement of the power supplied to the refrigerator.
ID 2 Pressure transmitters. Measurement of the low pressure in the compressor housing
and the high pressure measured after the filter drier.
Ellergy Optimisation ofRcfrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 77
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lB> 19/hermocouples.3 test chamber air temperatures. 3 cabinet air temperature (ISO-
placing top, middle, bottom). 2 compressor surface temperatures. Surface of suction
line at inlet to the compressor. Surface of discharge line at outlet from the compressor.
6 temperatures on the evaporator surface. 3 temperatures on the condenser surface.
8. 2 Measurements of a standard on-off cycle.

The most relevant results from measurements of a standard "n-off cycle are shown in this
section. Measurements were carried out for several days and it was observed that the
behaviour can be characterised as periodic. Nearly every 6 hours the compressor is stopped
--.
e"..raordinary by the electronic controller in order to ensure defrosting. This special event is
not considered in the following. Accordingly, the data shown in this section can be regarded as
the typical period. which repeats itself again and again under the ISO standard conditions.
•..
The sampling period is about 10 s.
120 Power to refrigera tor

"l Standard cycle KS350
110
-1
100 ~.
=
90 .
80 .".,-
...
70
3:
J 60
50
40
30
~
20
10 1
~ I I I
10
I I I
15
i
20
I I
25
I I II---.--Tl- I T 'I
30
I iii
35
i I
40
-
Time minutes
Figure 8. 2: Power to refrigerator in standard cycle.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 78
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Figure 8.2 shows how the power to thf' refiigerator varies during an on-off period. The plot
starts just as the compressor is switched on and ends where the next cycle begins, that is, with
the nell.1 compressor start-up. The power orthe compressor has a peak orabout 120 W right at
the start. The power then decreases smoothly to a level or about 73 W. After 15 minutes the
compressor is switched off by the electronic controller. Note that the power level in the off-
period is not zero but about 1.25 W. This is the power consumed by LED's at the front panel
and the electronic controller itself The off-period is about 21 Il'Jnutes giving a cycle period of
36 minutes. The relative period the compressor is switched on is called the duty cycle and is 42
%. The average value of the power is 33 W corresponding to an energy input of 70 kJ per
cycle.
The pressures measured just after the condenser and at the compressor inlet are shown in
Figure 8.3 below.
10.0 Pressures
Standard cycle KS350
9.0
B.O
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
Starting point
3.0 < ~._-----~-.
1.0 -=ih--,,-r,',--.,"'Ti-,r-r,-"r-r,..."r-r-...-rl--"..,.--r-r'''''I-r,..,.--r-r,..."rTj- , ' ' ' - , ,T,-,,,,-""I...,,-r""--r-l,I

10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time minutes
Figure 8. 3: Pressures measured in standard cycle.
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigcrntion S~'slems. Man:h 1995. Ph. D. Thesis ArneJakabsen 79
- • mi·
I -=!
At the starting point the· two pressures p. and p. are almost equal due to the pressure
equalisation in the previous off-period. The condenser pressure increases very fast after the
start-up until a level is reached, where condensation of the refrigerant gas is possible. The drop
in evaporator pressure is a little slower. After about 5 minutes the evaporator pressure
becomes nearly constant while the condenser pressure is still increasing slowly. The reason for
this steady ascend is the heating ofthe condenser tubes and the backplate of the condenser and
also heating of the air on the back of the refrigerator.
In the off-period the pressure in the condenser drops to the level of the evaporator. This
pressure equalisation is established within about 6 minutes. The pressure decrease in the
condenser in the off-period presents an interesting path. To a good approximation it consists
of three linear p;:rts (A.B,C). During the first about 30 sec. the pressure drops very rapidly. For
the next about 3 minutes. the pressure drops more slowly (relatively) whereas in the final about
2l.:! minutes. it again drops very fast. The question is: why does the slope of the pressure
temporarily diminish? The most probable answer is that ~vaporation of refiigerant is taking
place in the condenser for about 3 minutes (phase B). until no more liquid is present.
The course of the cabinet air temperatures are shown in Figure 8.4 below.
9.0 "1 Cabinet air teDlperatures
8.5 S Standard cycle KS350
8.0 -j-3
7.5 -1
7.0
=i
6.5
6.0
5.5
::: ~j_~'.,.~
. . . .__ ~~:;:....cc,.;"~__ =------
4.0 _--.. _,,#'oJ
3.5 -.". average _-,"".:,,",
3.0 ..-........ .....,.,
2.!:' ~"'_._.....~..._..;-
2.0 -§
1.51
-- 1 .0 -=In-r-.,.....,-r""-""""""'''''''''I...,,-,....,.-,.-.'"T[-"-''"T.-.r-r.-'-1.,....,r-;-...,,-ri""-""""""'''''''''1'''''-'''''''''''-''1-"-'...,-r-r,"'1
10 15 20 25
Time minutes
30 35 40
Figure 8.4: Cabinet air temperatures. Measurement standard cycle.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen 80

• Experimental Setup and Tests Page 81
The cabinet air temperature is measured at three locations: top, middle and bottom according
to the ISO test standard. The average value of the three measurements is shown as a solid line.
The overall average value of the cabinet air temperature is 5.0 °C exactly as prescribed in the
ISO standard. The ambient temperature (not shown) is kept at 25.0 °C.
A priori one would expect the bottom temperature to be the coldest. From Figure 8.4 it
appears that in fact the middle location is the coldest place. The background for this
observation is that the evaporator ex"tends from the top of the inner backplate down to the
middle of the cabinet. Therefore the thermocouple in the middle is exposed to the cold air
coming downstream from the evaporator surface. At the bottom the air is warmer, probably
due to mixing of the cold air from the evaporator with warm air rising along the back wall of
the cabinet. The flow pattern of the air in the cabinet is believed to be complex because the
bottom air might become stagnant. The laller statement is a hypothesis and the author has not
located literature treating the air flow and the distribution of temperature in the cabinet.
60
50
40
30
20 I • I I " i I ," I . I I I I I ' , i I

10 ':5 20 25 30 35 40
Time minutos
Figure 8. 5: Temperatures "hot" side. Measurements standard cycle.
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigeration Systems. lI.-tarch 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen Sl
? &L
i
• •
Experimental Setup and Tests
II
Page 82
In Figure 8.5 on the previous page the temperatures measured on the "hot side" of the
refiigerator are shown. When the compressor is switched on, all temperatures are increasing.
They all increase very fast during approximately the first minute, whereupon the change is
more smooth as condensation begins.
The temperature of the surface of the discharge line is highest during the on-period. In the
off-period the surface temperature ofthe compressor stays pretty high (above 43 0c) due to its
high thermal capacity and limited heat transfer area.
The saturation temperature in the condenser, which is found from the measured pressure, is
relatively low. Note that it stays below 35 °C. The measured condenser surface temperatures
are nearly 5 °C below the condensing temperature. This indicates that the thermal resistance
from the condensing refrigerant to the outer surface is significant. There are three contributors.
The heat conductivity of the steel tubes are rather poor, the thermal resistance of the contact
between the tubes and the cabinet wall is considerable and the "fin efficiency" of the backplate
is low.
The temperature of the filter drier just after the condenser is about 1 °C below the saturation
temperature indicating a slight subcooling. Note that the pressure is measured just after the
filter drier. When the compressor is switched of the filter temperature drops very fast and it .
even falls below the temperature of the surrounding air. This observation confirms the previous
statement regarding evaporation in the condenser when the compressor is switched off. The
phenomena is only observable in the temperature measured at the filter probably due to the low
thermal capacity here.
In Figure 8.6, the temperatures related to the cold side of the refrigeration system are
illustrated. The lowest temperature is the saturation temperature calculated from the measured
pressure. It gets down to a level of about - 21 °C 3 minutes after the compressor is switched
on. The measured surface temperatures indicate that the evaporator surface is poorly utilised,
especially in the beginning. The inlet temperature decreases rather fast, whereas the outlet
temperature) follows with a small delay and the level is approximately 5 °C higher. The reason
is that the evaporator is rapidly drained for refiigerant just after start-up of the compressor due
to the superior capacity of the compressor by comparison with the flow of refiigerant through
the capillary tube. In the off-period part of the refrigerant has already left the evaporator, as it
1 In Figure 8.6 the term "accumulator" appears. TItis is the exit area in the evaporator, where the cross
sectional area is large making the flow velocity of the refrigerant low. TItis gives possible droplets time to
evaporate.
has been dissolved in the oil in the compressor. Towards the end of the on-period the
evaporator seems to be (nearly) satisfactorily filled with liquid refrigerant.
The temperature of the suction line surface is influenced by heat conduction from the hot
compressor. It is interesting to observe that just after start-up the temperature temporarily
decreases significantly. This could indicate that at the start droplets of refrigerant evaporate in
the suction line. The reason why the temperature is increasing despite the fact that the
evaporation temperature decreases is that the suction gas is heated by the warm capillary tube
in the "heat exchanger".
When the compressor is switched off (time equal IS min.) a rather remarkable small "dent" is
observed in the temperature of the suction line. For about half a minute the temperature
increases and then the temperature decreases for another half a minute. The peculiar shape of
the temperature trend must be due to the variation in the heat exchange with the capillary tube.
The temperature of which for a short time becomes especial cold due to evaporation in the
condenser. Refer to the filter temperature in Figure 8.5 which is identical to the inlet of the
capillary tube.
TeDIperatures "cold side"

Standard cycle KS3S0
35
_ fir"~ s~rfoce. ,-..---
30 StJct.o~"':"':':~_----
u
o
25
:/
20
15
10
_5
-10
-15
-20
-25
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time minutes
Figure 8. 6: Temperatures or "cold side". Measurements standard cycle.
I
III I
Model Validation Page 84
9. Model Validation
9.1 Comparison between simulation results and measurements.

In this section results from the simulation model DynFlo are compared with the measurements
carried out on the refrigerator KS350 which were presented in Sectioll 8.2.
In the simulation model the compressor is switched on when the cabinet air temperature rises
above 6.2 °e and is switched off when the temperature gets below 4.0 °e. This control
strategy leads to a duty cycle and time period close, but not equal, to the experimental
observation. If the control settings in the model were adjusted further a better match could be
obtained. With the above mentioned control settings an average cabinet air temperature close
to 5.0 °e is obtained in the simulation.
120 Po""er 1:0 IDo1:or

~oder va/idaLion
110
100
90
80
~
70
! 60 1
50
40
-I §
3
§
30 - 3
20 ~
~
10
0
i I , , , I I' ,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time n1inu~es
Figure 9. 1: Validation of simulated power to motor.
Measurements : + Simulation :
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration SYSlems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 84
I
III
Model Validation Page 8S
In all plots the solid lines are data obtained from the simulation model whereas the "Q"
represent experimental data.
In Figure 9.1 the electrical power to the compressor motor is shown. The overall agreement
between the model and the measurements is quite good. The drop in the simulated power is
faster than the measured values. One explanation for this discrepancy could be that the
dissolution of refrigerant in the oil is neglected in the model. The refrigerant in the oil will act
as a kind of buffer because more refrigerant will be boiled out as the suction pressure
decreases and the temperature of the oil increases.
The value of the isentropic efficiency was reduced by 1S % when compared to the expression
given in Section 6.4.1, which was based on general supplier data. Without this correction there
would be a difference in the level of the consumed power.
In Figure 9.2 below the pressures ar~ compared.
10 Pressures
Model validation
I i I I
Evaporator
I I i , [
10
I I ill
,/
15
I i i , i II
20
iii
Time minutes
I
25
Ii' iii
30
L
I
35
I'
40
,I
45
Figure 9. 2: Model validation of pressures.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 8S
-. \
•
,
, • 'I
.
.......
~:,.
• •
.-:
II
I
The agreement seems quite remarkable bearing the complexity ofthe process in mind.
The simulated condenser pressure shows a small peak (a kind of overshoot) shortly after the
start-up of the compressor. This (simulated) phenomenon is caused by a temporary build-up of
liquid in the condenser before the refrigerant is redistributed between the condenser and the
evaporator. This sharp peak in the pressure is not observed experimentally. Probably
condensation will not start at ellactly the same time over the entire condenser length due to
spatial differences in the wall temperature. Thus, in reality the distributed phenomenon will
react more smoothly and cause a more gradual build-up ofthe pressure than is predicted by the
simulation, in which the wall temperature is lumped (assumed to be the same allover).
In the off period where pressure equalisation takes place the qualitative agreement of the
course of the condenser prc~sure is verj good. In the simulation the following three phases
appear more distinct: a fast pressure drop until evaporation of refrigerant in the condenser
occurs, a somewhat slower pressure drop due to the evaporation, and finally a fast pressure
drop when no more liquid is left in the condenser. It seems that the evaporation phase is a little
longer and smoother in the experimental data. When evaporation occurs the local wall
temperature decreases - below the temperature of the ambient. The decreasing wall
temperature will slow down the evaporation process. In the simulation model where the
lumped (global) wall temperature represents a large thermal capacity the temperature is not
affected significantly by the evaporation - therefore the wall temperature stays relatively high.
This mechanism in the simulation model will cause the evaporation phase to proceed rather
fast.
The overall agreement in the behaviour of the evaporation temperature is very good. During
the pressure equalisation period the measured pressure levels off at 2.9 bar (0 0c) due to
thawing. Since this phenomenon is not included in the simulation model a discrepancy appears
here.
In Figure 9.3 the behaviour of the cabinet air temperature is illustrated. The ellperimental
temperature shown is the average value of the measuring points: top-, middle- and bottom. It
appears that the lumped model of the cabinet air is a pretty accurate description of the actual
average temperature of the air.
Energy Optimisation orR~rrigcration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 86
11
7.0
Cabinet air temperature
Model validatim.
6.5
6.0
, ..
~
~ -tq....
~ 5.5
"\
~
i 5.0 ...""-"\.
•
I.
'til ~
~
a
~
4.5
\\
4.0
3.5
"..
-~
3.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time minutes
Figure 9. 3: Model validation of cabinet air temperature.

In Figure 9.4 the temperatures of the so-called "hot side" are depicted. Three simulated
temperatures are shown: compressor surface, condenser wall, and refrigerant temperature in
the condenser. In the case of condensation with or without subcooling the simulated refrigerant
temperature shown is the saturation temperature.
In the on-period the simulated compressor temperature agrees very wen with the
experimental data. In the off-period the actual temperature drops faster. In the on-period the
lumped model oft.'te temperature is probably a reasonable simplification as the oil circulation in
the compressor evens out the temperature. This is not the case in the off-period where greater
temperature differences prolJably exist between the thermal masses in the compressor.
The simulated condenser wall temperature is lumped. This variable is therefore not directly
comparable with the experimental surface-wall temperatures, which have been measured on the
outer side of the backplate of the condenser, as they are not an accurate representations of the
average wall temperature. For this reason it is reasonable that the simulated wan temperature
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S~stelllS. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 87
r
lies between the measured saturation temperature (calculated from the pressure) and the
measured wall temperatures in the on-period. In the off-period the slope of the simulated and
the measured wall temperatures are alike. _.
'1
i
. 60 Temperatures "Hot side"
Model validation
~
50
~
"Iii
~
~
~ 30
j
20
10
I
10 15 20 25 30 3S 40
Time minutes
Figure 9. 4: Model validation temperatures "hot side".
The simulated temperature of the refrigerant follows the saturation temperature in the on-
period. In the off-period the drop in temperature due to evaporation agrees qualitatively with
the temperature of the filter drier at the condenser outlet.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March i995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 88
~!~§Y$~t~~~~~f~t.~
,
--
•
10 TelDperatures "cold side"
l'Jodelvulidation
~'Ill
"C
~ -5
~
I
.10
-15
F
-20
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time minutes
Figure 9. 5: Model validation temperatures at evaporator,

In Figure 9.5 above the temperatures on the so-called "cold side" are illustrated. The
simulation variables shown are the evaporator wall temperature and the refrigerant
temperature. The latter is identical to the saturation temperature.
The measured saturation temperature is most ofthe time a little lower than the simulated one.
This indicate that the "pump down" of the evaporator in the beginning is slightly
underestimated in the model. As several model parameters influence this phenomenon (charge,
size of capillary tube, capacity of compressor, heat transfer coefficients and evaporator areas)
adjusting some of these could probably lead to closer agreement. Another possible explanation
for the observed discrepancy is that the actual flow of refrigerant through the capillary tube is
limited by choking until the condenser pressure is build up. This flow limitation is not included
in the model explicitly.
The previously mentioned remark regarding the thawing of water on the evaporator surface
accounts for the disagreement ofthe temperatures at the end of the off-period.

• Model Validation
I
Page 90
9.2 Model parameters and initial values.

All the dynamic variables in the simulation model must be given initial values (at time = zero).
Among other criteria they are detennined in order to obtain a. stable period. That is, the
variables have the same values at the end of the period as at the beginning of the period.
Initial values· (just when the co'mnressor starts):
Cond.:nser Evaporator Cabinet Compressor Reliigeranl Reliigeranr Pressure in Pressure in

",..lIlemp. wall temp. air Iemp. surface lemp. in evaporalor in condenser evaporator condc:nser
29.24°C 5.15°C 6.2°C 44.65°C 54.6 g 1.4 g 3.51 bar 3.51 bar
General parameters:
R134a Refiigerant.
Tn =25°C Ambient temperature.
, Tn_b =27 °C Air temperature behind refrigerator.
~
Compressor parameters:
..:
jI,=3.13-10.j; m3 Cylinder volume.
A eom :: 0.065 m2 Outer surface area.
MCeom = 1950 11K Thennal capacity.
np = 1.09 Polytropic exponent.
Nrpm = 2850 RPM Speed of compressor motor in on-period.
Condenser parameters:
2
A rore = 1.55 m 2 Total effective outer surface area (total area '" 2.1 m ).
5
V.= 9.14-10. m) Total inner volume for refiigerant.
MC. = 11500 11K Thennal capacity of "wall".
A rorei = 0.08 m2 Total inner surface area.
a.i = 1500 Wfm 2K Heat transfer coefficient by condensation.
UI"t"h.= 0.75 Reduction of overall U-value in the subcooled section.
Void. = 0.7 Void of "saturated" two-phase section.
I These values are detcnnincd by running lhe simulalicn model until the period has become slab!e.
Energy Optimisation oCRefrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jaknbsen 90
Heat exchange parameters:

J~pH.= 0.4 - Fraction of pressure loss taking place in adiabatic zone.
VAH. = 0.1 W/rrIK Heat transfer coefficient pro length of capillary tube.
L H.=2.0 m Length of heat exchange zone.
Evaporator parameters:
A,ol< = 0.475 m2 Total effective outer surface area (total area:;:; 0.6 m2).
V. = 7.6'10. 5 m3 Total inner volume for refrigerant.
MCe = 850 JIK Thennal capacity of "wall".
A,orci = 0.0475 m! Total inner surface area.
2
ad = 750 W/m K Heat transfer coefficient by evaporation.
Vwlshc =0.75 Reduction of overall U-value in the superheated section.
Void. = 0.8 Void of "saturated" two-phase section.
Cabinet parameters:
VA,= 2.25 WIK Overall heat transmission coefficient.
Mer = 15500 JIK Thelmal capacity.
The estimated heat transfer areas for the condenser and for the evaporator are partly calculated
from the geometric areas., partly adjusted to obtain the right level of condensation and
evaporation temperature. For the lumped models of the condenser and the evaporator where
the actual temperature distributions not are taken into account the estimated area can be
interpreted as a kind of "effective area". In the case of the condenser it is very difficult to
determine how much of the external cabinet plate is involved in the heat transfer. Calculation
of fin-efficiencies have not been applied in the model.
•
Other parameters which are difficult to estimate are the thermal capacities especially for the
condenser, compressor and the cabinet. How much of the cabinet follows the dynamics of the
cabinet air temperature? A first estimate would be half of the cabinet walls since the other half
is "fixed" by the ambient air. Therefore the above mentioned parameters are adjusted within
reasonable limits in order to obtain agreement between the simulation results and the
experimental data.
The overall heat transmission coefficient VA r is calculated by the supplier of the refiigerator
(Gram Ltd.) and also validated by experiment.
.~.
i
.11I .1
It turned out that in order to obtain a reasonable distribution of refiigerant between the
condenser and evaporator (which affects the degree of subcooling and the degree of
superheat), the flow rate through the capillary tube had to be increased compared to the flow
estimated from the equations in Section 6.4.3.1. During the on-period the expression were
multiplied by a factor of 1.35. The main justification for this seemingly very large correction is
that the effect from the heat exchange on the flow rate has been disregarded in the mode\.
Qishen Van et. a\. [7] state, that the heat exchange in connection with capillary tubes increases
the flow by about 20 %. This correction will of course increase with increasing heat exchange.
9.3 Comparison between results from different dynamic models.

In this section results from DynFlo and from the thermal model DynTherm are compared. The
objective is to investigate to what extent the more simple thermal model can be used.
120 -
DynFlo
110 -
- - - - DyrtTh~rJft
100 -
90 -
80 -
70 -
~
~
60 -
50 -
40 -
30 -
20 -
10 -
I r I I I
10 20 30 40 50
Time n-unutcs
Figure 9. 6: Motor power. Comparison of dynamic models.
In Dyntherm the degree of subcooling and the degree of superheat are given as parameters:
..1T,. = 1.0 DC and L1T. h = 2.0 DC
I I
r
L
In Figure 9.6 the simulated compressor power from both models are shown. The agreement is
quite good. The power computed by DynTherm does not drop as much as the power
calculated from DynFlo during the start-up phase and the initial peak is not as high either. Both
discrepancies are caused by the assumption of having a constant degree of superheat. .,
.
60
Compressor surface
50
40
30
~
I 20
10
-10
-20 ~;-rT"T....rrT"'T......,...,......,...,;-r.".-,--.,...,...,--,rr...-r....rr...-r....rr...,,-,--.,...,...,--,rrTT-'''
10 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time minutes
Figure 9. 7: Temperatures. Comparison between dynamic models.
In Figure 9.7 above some simulated temperatures from the two simulation models are
compared. It appears that there is really close agreement, therefore the thermal behaviour is
sufficiently described by the thermal model.
The focus in this report is energy analysis/optimisation. In this context it is interesting to
compare the key energy figures from the two simulation models.
Average power Average cooling COP

DynF10 33.38 W 44.95 W 1.35
DynTherm 31.94 W 45.02 W 1.41
The calculated distribution of the thermodynamic losses are:
Compressor Condenser Cap. tube & h. e. Evaporator

DynFlo 69.3 % 8.1 % 8.3 % 14.3 %
DynTherm 69.2 % 7.9 % 8.2 % 14.8 %
The conclusion from the comparison is that the much simpler thermal model is sufficiently
accurate for an analysis of the thermal behaviour and the main energy aspects of a refiigeration
cycle.
The following phenomena are not described by the model DynTherm: '-
® Peak in .~tart-up power.

® Pressure build-up in condenser in start-up phase.
® Pressure equalisation in off-period.
® Thermal start/stop loss caused by evaporation in the condenser.
® Dynamic behaviour of superheat and subcooling.
® Influence of capillary length.
® Influence from charge ofrefiigerant.
,
~---~
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. Mareh 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 94
~
I
I I __ -I. I
~.iL_ I !
II III
9.4 Discussion.
The results from the simulation models contain much more information than the experimental
data from the tests that were earned out. One interesting point is the dynamic distribution of
refrigerant and the resulting degree of superheat and subcooling.
2.5
C017Jpressor flow
2.0
Capillary flow
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5 -!-r-.,....,-,-.,....,-,-.,.-,--,-.,.-,-.,....,...,....,-,r-r-.,....,-,-.,.-,-.,....,...,.....,...,....,-,r-r---r-r-,-"...,...,....,-,,......,-,
10 15 20 2S 30 35 40 45
Thne Dlinutes
Figure 9. 8: Simulation of Row of refrigerant.

At the beginning of the on-period the compressor flow is much higher than the flow of
refrigerant through the capillary tube. However, during a few minutes shortly after the
compressor-start the flow through the capillary tube may exceed that of the compressor until
the two flows eventually become equal.
The flow through the capillary tube drops immediately as the compressor stops. The main
reason for this is that the subcooling is assumed to disappear in the off-period as the gas and
liquid redistributes inside the condenser as the compressor stops.
In the off-period the compressor flow is zero and the capillary tube flow decreases towards
zero and falls even a little below zero at the end of the off-period (not noticeable in Figure 9.8
due to the scaling). The latter phenomenon means that there is a small flow from the
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Ame Jakobsen 95
II
evaporator to the condenser. This happens when the evaporator is getting hotter in the end of
the off-period.
55 ... - - - - - - -
50 - Refrig. in evaporator
:~
45
40
C!I
c
\'
c
0.c 35
::I
,Q
o~ 30
:a
c 25
E!
~ 20
;S
~
15
10
10 15 20 25 30 35 45
Time minutes
Figure 9. 9: Simulated refrigerant distribution.
The consequences of the f10wrates in Figure 9.8 in terms of refrigerant distribution can be seen
in Figure 9.9. In the beginning nearly all refrigerant is in the evaporator. But shortly after the
start-up most of the refrigerant is situated in the condenser. The effects on the superheat and
subcooling are illustrated in Figure 9.10.
1
r
• I • ..J ~ .
20
r
,
Degree ofsubcooling
Degree ofsuperheat
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time minutes
Figure 9.10: Simulated degree of superheat and subcooling.
The results from the simulation models appear very plausible. The simulation results agree very
well with the experimental data and the non-measured variables such as flow and refrigerant
distribution seem also very likely from the expectation from the "mind model" or from
reasoning.
The weak point of the lumped models are that parameters such as "effective" thermal
capacities and heat transfer areas can be difficult to estimate precise a priori.

Part 10/ : 'Energy Optimisation of a 1Jomestic

!B..f.frige.rator
EdLZL ....
c:>
n II
Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refrigerator Page 98
10. Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refrigerator.
The influence of various design parameters on COP and the energy consumption is
investigated theoretically in this chapter. The refrigerator of the type KS350 mentioned several
times in this report is used as an example.
10.1 Influence of control strategies.

The controlled variable is the frequency· of the compressor and the regulated (measured)
variable is the cabinet air temperature. That is, in a closed loop control strategy the actual
frequency of the compressor is determined in order to obtain a measured cabinet air
temperature equal to the set point value.
Small variations and deviations in the cabinet air temperature relative to the set point value
are acceptable. The traditional on-off control results in a timewise variation of the cabinet air
temperature of approximately ± 1.1 °C. The time period is, as seen previously in this report,
about 36 minutes for KS3S0 under the ISO standard test conditions.
In this section the COP variations of the refrigerator are investigated as a consequence of
various control strategies:
• Micloss control. That is the flow of refrigerant through the capillary tube is
prevented in the off-period by a solenoid valve.
• On-off control with variation ofthe time period.
• Continuos compressor control (steady state).
The dynamic model DynFlo is used to investigate the on-off control, and the steady-state
model StatFlo is used to investigate continuos control.
The use of DynFlo implies very long computing times because the integration of the energy
transfers involved in the calculation of COP must be done over a completely stable period.
Experience shows that about 8 periods must be simulated in order to obtain a (the last) stable
period, depending, of course, on the choice of initial values. The computing time becomes
about 24 hours for such a simulation.
I "Frequen~ of the compressor" means number of revolutions per time of the piSlon.
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Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refiigerator Page 99
J'lJo"""ol on/offcontrol
-'.A4'icloss·' control
20 30 50 60
TilTIc minutes
Figure 10.1: Pressures with Micloss control orrerrigerator.
In Figure 10.1 the simulated condenser and evaporator pressures are shown both for the
normal on/off control of the system and for the Micloss control. For the latter no pressure
equalisation occurs in the off-period.
The energy consequences of the use of the Micloss control are investigated by using the
simulation model DynFlo. The results are:
COP
INormal on/off control 1.346
I Micloss control 1.387
That is, the COP is increased by approximately 3 % by introducing the Mc10ss control. The
corresponding energy consumption decreases likewise by 3 %.
The result agrees reasonably with the literature. Wang et a1. [27] reports a 4 % reduction of
the energy consumption using the Micloss concept. Janssen et al [3] reports from 2 % to 10 %
reduction depending on the time period ofthe on-off control.
One of the main reasons for the modest saving potential using the Micloss system for the
refrigerator in question is that the charge ofrefiigerant is quite low C== 75 g RI34a), therefore
limiting the quantity of refiigerant that evaporates in the condenser when the compressor
stops.

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Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refrigerator

• Page 100
The next analysis carried out was a systematic study of the significance of the time period of
the traditional on/off control. From Figure 10.2 the behaviour of the evaporation temperature
and the cabinet air temperature are illustrated.
10
Norrn.a1 on/offcon~rol
r
-15
-20
-25
I I I I I I I I I i
20 30 40 50 60 70 eo 90 100 110 120
Time zr.I.ir.l.UTCS
Figure 10. 2: Evaporator and cabinet air temperature in nonnal on/ofT control.
The time period for the control is about 36 minutes as shown in Figure 10.2. In Figure 10.3
and Figure 10.4 the same temperatures are shown for control with a time period of 55 minutes
and with a time period of 10 minutes, respectively.
10
On/off con-erol """,,it:h long period
-5
-20
-25 -t--.--.----,-,--.---,-,--,--r---r-,--,--.---,---,-,--.--.----,-,---.----,--.---,
'10 20 30 40 SO 130 7'0 eo 90 '100 .,.,0 '120
Ti:l'nc Q"a,i:n.\,1'tcs
Figure 10.3: Control with time period of 55 minutes.
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Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Remgerator
II
Page 101
••
10
On/off control vvith. short period
u
0
III
-s
1:1
';j
~ -10
~
_15
-20
-25 -+--,----,--~ .....___r-~ .....___r-..__...,....__,.-~...,....__,.-..____r___r-..____r____,-.,_...,....__,._,

10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 eo 90 "100 1 '10 120
Tinl.c D1.inutes
Figure 10. 4: Control with time period of 10 minutes.

To complete the description of the variation of the time period for the control of the
remgerator the steady-state situation, which will arise in the case of continuous control, is
illustrated in Figure 10.5.
10
Continuos control or steady s't.a'te
u
0
III
-5
3
j -10
-15
-20
-25
I I i I i I I I I I
20 30 40 50 GO 70 eo 90 100 110 120
Tin1.c n'linutes
Figure 10. 5: Evaporation and cabinet air temperature in continuos control.
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Page 102
In Figure 10.6 COP is shown as function of the time period in the traditional on/off control.
1.20 -t..--rn-r-'--''''''--rT"TTl-n---'--'''1"TrrrT"TT'rn..-rTrrrT-rr""'r;-;"TOn-r..,..,...,
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Period minutes
Figure 10. 6: COP as function of time period in the on/ofT control.
The message seems to be clear: a short time period is preferable at least when the energy
consumption is the criterion. This result is contradictory to some investigations in the literature
(ref. (3] and ref. [19]) where an optimum tim" period has been found, where the benefit from
the reduction of the "thermal losses" are balanced by the increased start/stop losses.
In the present investigation the gain which results from the reduction ofthermal losses, due to
the fact that the relative span of time during which the evaporation temperature is very low is
reduced, more than counteract the losses connected with the increased frequency of the
pressure equalisation. When the time period becomes very short (less than,., 7 minutes), the
losses in the off-period decreases because pressure equalisation is only partly established.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen 102
Energy Optimisation ofa Specific Domestic Refrigerator Page 103
The electro-mechanical losses in the start-up phase are not included in the model, but the
following estimate indicates that they are of no significance even with relatively short time
periods in the control. In Section 3.5 the mechanical energy needed to accelerate the
compressor was estimated to be 7 1. No losses were taken into account, but even with losses
the stanup-energy is likely to be less than 50 J. Another way of estimating the electro-
mechanical loss is to multiply time and elecuical power in the ~ ·art-up phase. Danfoss Ltd.
informs that the compressor normally reaches the nominal speed within 50 ms. Let's assume
the initial power is 500 W, this leads to a start-up energy of 25 J. The average power
consumption in a period is at least 22.5 W (COP = 2.0), which gives an energy consumption of
1350 J assuming a time period of 1 (one !) minute. Even in this case the electro-mechanical
stanup-energy will not change the conclusion regarding the benefits of using a short time
period for the control.
The COP for the continuous control corresponding to steady-state conditions for the system
is shown in Figure 10.6 corresponding to a time period of zero. The shape of the COP curve
for variations in the time period indicates that the value approaches that of the steady state
when the time period approaches zero. In order to obtain the full gain from the very short time
period the length ofthe capillary tube must be adjusted (i.e. somewhat extended).
In the table below the. change of COP and the change of energy consumption relative to the
reference situation are shown. In the reference situation the time period is 36 minutes and the
COP is 1.346.
Tune 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 36 40 50 60
period min.
Relative 59 15 8.1 5.0 3.1 2.4 0.7 0.0 - 0.9 - 2.3 -3.4
COP %
Relative - 37 - 13 -7.5 -4.7 - 3.0 - 2.3 - 0.7 0.0 0.9 2.3 3.5
energy con. %
Compared to the reference situation the energy consumption decreases by 37 % when

continuous control is applied. If the period for the on/off control were increased to an hour the
energy consumption would rise by 3.5 %
II
• I
10.2 Influence of design parameters.

The effect on COP by manipulating the VA-values ofthe condenser, and that of the evaporator
and the isentropic efficiency of the compressor as sensitivity parameters are shown in Figure
10.7.
1.8. ]
1.75 30%
1.70
- I
- - -
I "i 25 %
1.65 ."
~---
- I
-
" is I
!... ~
20 % ~
1.60 ~
So
·5
~
0
1.55 15 % ~
0
ill
:EO
1.50 -5!
- - - - - ~ 10 % ~
1.45
5%
1.40
1.35 - I
- -I -. ,- 0%
1.30
10 15 20 25 30 35
% Increase in parameters: UA c ' UA e is
Figure 10. 7: Influence on COP of UA., UA. and 11,.
It appears that the influence of the sensitivity parameters on COP, to a good approY.imation,
are linear within the interval investigated (0 % ~ 30 %):
* 1 % increase in the VA-value of the condenser => 0.08 % increase in COP.

* I % increase in the VA-value of the evaporator => 0.3 % increase in COP.
* 1 % increase in the isentropic eff. ofthe compressor => 1.0 % increase in COP.
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigcr.ltion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 104
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Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refii3erator Page 105
It may be difficult to compare the cost of improving 11. with the cost of increasing the UA-
values of the condenser and the evaporator. However, Figure 10.7 supports the conclusion
from Section 3.7 that one should focus on the evaporator rather than the condenser, if it is
desired to reduce the energy consumption. This observation is of course not general valid, but
is relevant to this case, where the condensing temperature stays relatively low.
Another way to illustrate the pot.ential from the individual component optimisation is to
calculate the COP assuming one component at a time to be perfect. A "perfect" compressor is
described by setting the isentropic efficiency equal to unity, and a "perfect" condenser or
evaporator is obtained by multiplying the overall heat transfer coefficient by 100. The results
are shown in Figure 10.8.
15.0 Camet Process

COP = 13.9
14.0
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
B.O
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0 Actual
~System
1.0 COP = 1.35
Figure 10.8: COP, if components were perfect.
Energy Optimisation ofRemgeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 105
If one had the possibility to choose a single component to be perfect the biggest impact would
arise from having a perfect compressor. The COP would in this case change from 1.35 to 3.76
which is an improvement of 179 %. A perfect evaporator leads to a COP improvement of
74 %, namely from 1.35 to 2.35. The influence from a perfect condenser is moderate,
compared to the actual system the COP would only increase from 1.35 to 1.62 which
corresponds to + 20 %.
If one assumes all the three components mentioned to be perfect at the same time the COP
of the perfect system is approximately 11.7. The COP for a reversed Carnot process - working
between 5 °C and 25°C - is 13.9. The COP difference is caused by three factors. The gas from
the compressor is still superheated (i.e. above 25 0C), the throttling process is not isentropic,
and the cabinet air temperature and therefore the evaporator temperature is varying due to the
on/off control of the compressor.
One more design parameter is the level of heat exchange between the capillary tube and the
suction line. For most refrigerants it is advantageous to use an internal heat exchanger in the
refrigeration cycle, at least if the pressure drop in the heat exchanger is moderate. Ammonia,
however, is one exception. The remgerant in the present study is R134a, and to get an idea of
the influence of the heat exchange, simulations are carried out with (nearly) no heat exchange
and with maximum heat exchange. The first case corresponds to a VA-value of the heat
exchanger of zero (effectiveness likewise zero) and the latter case to a infinite VA-value
(effectiveness unity). The results are:
COP
I Maximum heat exchange 1.408
I No heat exchange 1.341
As it appears the heat exchange has only a moderate influence on the COP. By the use of
maximum heat exchange the COP is increased by approximately 5 % when compared to the
situation with no heat exchange.
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Page 107
10.3 Capillary length & amount of refrigerant charge.
The combined optimisation of capillary length and refrigerant charge is nonnally done
experimentally by the manufilL"turer of refrigerators. Industry need some guidelines which are
based on the fundamental physical laws. The recent change of refrigerants have accentuated
this need as the present experience primarily are based on R12.
The general focus on er.ergy efficiency have also lead to more care in the sizing of the va.rious
components.
Simulation models with the objective to describe the behaviour of the refrigerator depending
on the capillary tube length and the charge cfrefrigerant are facing one problem (at least): the
accuracy of the void fiaction models, that must be used, are rather poor.
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
0...
8 1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
j I I I I
-20 -15 -10 -5 10
Relative length of capillary %
Figure 10. 9: COP as function of charge and length of capillary tube.
Energy Optimisation ofRefrige:ation Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakob~en 107
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The results presented in Figure 10.9 are based on the steady state modei StatFlo. The COP for
a continuously working system (steady state) under the ISO conditions depending on the
relative change of charge and length of the capillary tube (the diameter is constant 0.66 mm,
and the reference length is 2.9 m) are shown in Figure 10.9.
It appears that the COP decreases quite fast when the capillary becomes too long. A
refrigerator with a capillary tube that is 5 % to 10 % too long experiences a severe negative
effect on COP. The length of capillary tube before which the COP starts falling off is only
weakly affected by the charge. A 5 % to 10 % reduction of the capillary tube length relative to
the optimum value does not influence the COP very much.
The COP also decreases significantly when the charge becomes too low. Seen from the a
narrow energy viewpoint it is on the safe side to choose a relative short length of the capillary
rube and a large refrigerant charge.
Let's consider what happens in the refrigeration cycle when the charge and the capillary tube
length are changed. The optimal process occurs when the outlet of the condenser is just
saturated liquid - no subcooling - and the outlet of the evaporator is saturated gas - no
superheat. In this way the phase transition of the refrigerant are accounting for most of the
heat transfers in the condenser and the evaporator.
When the capillary tube becomes comparatively shorter more refrigerant is stored in the
condenser and less in the evaporator. Consequently a longer capillary tube leads to a higher
degree of subcooling in the condenser and a higher degree of superheat in the evaporator. The
result is a decreasing COP.
If, on the other hand, the length of the capillary tube becomes too short some refrigerant gas
will not be liquefied in the condenser and will be "passively" transported around in the cycle
causing the COP to drop.
When the charge is somewhat smaller than the optimum value the evaporator lacks liquid
refrigerant and the superheat therefore increases. If the charge decreases further, gas will also
appear at the outlet ofthe condenser creating the above mentioned situation where some gas is
"passively" transported around the system. According to Figure 10.9 there does not seem to be
any problem with the COP resulting from a relatively high charge. However, liquid droplets
will appear in the outlet of the evaporator and the compressor may get a problem resulting
from liquid refrigerant in the inlet.
When accessing the results shown in Figure 10.9 one must recognise that they are found from
a model that is based on many simplifYing assumptions. Nevertheless the trend ofthe results
seem plausible. In Figure 10.10 a 3-D plot of COP as function of the relative change of the
I
length of the capillary tube and the relative change of the refrigerant charge is shown. The
information is the same as in Figure 10.9 but presented in an alternative way.
COP
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0 r---------- --,- 20

10
Change of
charge %
o
Change of length % -10
-I'-----~----:--,--=----T_-- _ _f. .20
5 o -5 -10 ·15 -20
Figure 10. 10: 3-D plot of COP.
10.4 Choice of refrigerant.

Because of the phase-out of CFCs many new refrigerants have been suggested and examined
for refrigerators during the last two years. The must frequent replacements for R12 mentioned
in literature - see e.g. Rivis [26] - are:
* R134a.
* Isobutane.
* Isobutane - propane mixtures.
Sometimes CO 2 is mentioned but the high pressures near the critical point necessitate some
design changes to the cooling system.
Both theoretical investigations and experimental tests have proven, that the change of the COP
for a refrigerator using any of the refiigerants mentioned above compared to the COP for a
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Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refrigerator Page liD
refrigerator using R12 is very small. The change is within ± 5 %. The COP for pure Isobutane
seems to be the best (:::< 5 % better than RI2).
10.5 Built-in versus external evaporators and condensers.

In many so-called modem refrigerators the condenser and the evaporator are built into the
respective walls. Seen from an aesthetic and cleaning point of view this design offers some
advantages. Seen from an energy point of view the construction is inferior. Two mechanisms
increase the energy consumption of the refrigerator: only one side of the evaporator and the
condenser is used for useful heat transfer and the other side increases the heat transfer to the
cabinet as heat is conducted directly from the condenser to the evaporator. The latter
mentioned "internal heat leakage" can be estimated as follows.
Built-in
\
Insulated cabinet wall
Figure 10.11: Built-in and external mounting of evaporator & condenser.
In Figure 10.11 above it is indicated that the temperature difference across the insulation is
increased from :::< 26°C to '" 40°C when the evaporator and the condenser are built-in. The
heat transfer through the backplate is hence increased by approximately 50 %. For the 325 I
refrigerator that is examined in this report the UA-value for the backplate is '" 0.35 WfK. The
contribution to the overall heat transfer from the backplate is then:
External mounting : 0.35'26 W = 9.1 W.
Built-in : 0.35'40 W = 14 W.
Energy Optimisation of Rerrigel1ltion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 110
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Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refrigerator Page III
The overall raise in the cooling demand is then about 5 W or approximately 10 % of the total
cooling demand.
10.6 Use of fans.

Use of a fan to enhance the heat tr;msfer between the evaporator surface and the cabinet air is
an interesting optimisation task. On one hand the cooling demand increases bl:cause the fan
power must also be removed from the cabinet. On the other hand the COP of the refrigeration
cycle will increase as the evaporation temperature is increased.
The following results are obtained using the steady-state model StafF/o. The fan power is
calculated as follows:
(IO.l)
u Speed of the air

A Cross-sectional area the air flows through.
Efficiency of the fan.
Density of air.
The heat transfer coefficient caused by the forced convection was found using the equations
for the flow along a free vertical plate. see e.g. Saustrup ref [1]:
Nu=0.036· PrO. 33 • Re os (10.2)
The characteristic length for this heat transfer is the height of the evaporator surface. It is
assumed to be 0.5 m. The duct for the air flow is assumed to consist ofa width of 0.4 m and a
depth of 0.2 m. That is A = 0.08 m2 •
The total convective heat transfer is a combination of the forced and the natural convection.
There exist no firm rules regarding how the interaction between these two phenomena should
be described ifboth of them are significant. As the most dominant mechanism tend to suppress
the other a "power summation" is frequently used. In this case the power ''2'' is chosen. That
is:
a",""=~a2,,,,",TOl +a}Q..-.J (10.3)
Radiation also contributes to the total heat transfer as described in Appendix B.

The optimisation criterion is to minimise the total power supply to the refrigerator, keeping the
cabinet air at 5 °C while the ambient air is 25°C. The total power is the sum of the power to
the compressor and the power to the fan. Since the cooling demand is no longer constant the
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen III
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maximisation of COP is not the relevant criteria. The variable to be optimised is the speed of
the air or the fan power. The results from the steady state simulation model under the ISO
conditions are shown in Figure 10.12.
23.0
22.5
/
22.0
;?;
~ 21.5
~
(3
+
21.0
r
~
§
~
0':
20.5
20.0
fmo-0.35
~
:fI
~ 19.5
19.0 ~~
T:A - ~ /an = 0.40
18.5 i I I i I I I I I I ii, I I I i I I l I I I i I I I I I
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Power to fan W
Figure 10. 12: Optimal use offan in the refrigerator.
It appears from Figure 10.12 that the optimum power consumption for the fan is about 0.4 W
and leads to an overall power consumption of approximately 19.0 W (a reduction of", 10 %)
depending on the fan efficiency. The power consumption for the continuously working system
without any fan is about 21.1 W. When the power consumption of the fan is above'" 2.3 W
nothing is saved compared to the situation where no fan is used.
1-
When the use of a fan in the refrigerator is discussed the added benefit from a much more
even temperature distribution in the cabinet air should also be mentioned.
Energy Optimisation of a Specific Domestic Refiigerator Page 113
10.7 Discussion.
Many parameters which influence the energy consumption ofthe refrigerator have been treated
in this chapter. Regarding the capacity control of the compressor there seems to be much to be
gained by the use of continuous control. According to the simulation model the COP wil1
increase by 59 % corresponding to a reduction ofthe energy consumption of37 %. An on/off
control with a short period is able to save part of this potential, depending on the time period
chosen as it appears from Figure 10.6.
The application of the so-called Micloss system has only a moderate influence on the energy
consumption. The COP improvement is found to be approximately 3 % in the simulations
carried out.
If a time period in the on-off control shorter than approximately 8 minutes is applied the
compressor motor design must be adjusted. The start-up torque must be sufficient to cope with
a system where pressure equalisation has not occurred, and the cooling of the motor windings
must be adequate.
For the refiigerator treated in this chapter two other parameters are important when the goal
is to increase the COP. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is quite low. The motor
efficiency is of the order 0.6 and an improvement here will increase the COP relatively by the
same magnitude (even slightly more). A higher overall UA-value for the evaporator will also
significantly reduce the energy consumption. In this case the optimal choice could be a
combination of increased area and use ofa small fan.
The condenser in itself seems to be sufficiently large. However, where it is built-in in the
backplate of the cabinet the design cannot be recommended. The additional cooling demand
originating from heat leakage from a built-in condenser to a built-in evaporator increases the
cooling demand by approximately 10 % when compared to the situation where both the
condenser and the evaporator are mounted apart from the cabinet wall.
Regarding the sizing of the capillary tube and the refrigerant charge, simulations show that
the COP will suffer severely if the capillary tube is too long. Seen from an energy point of view
it is safer to choose a relatively short capillary tube and a relatively high charge.
The heat exchange between the capillary tube is beneficial for the COP, but the increases is
only a few percent.
The choice of refiigerant - at least when the choice is among R12, R134a and propane f
butane· does not affect the COP much. From the literature it appears that isobutane is the best
alternative and will increase the COP about 5 % compared to the use ofRl2.
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Part 0/ : t£vafuation
Ph. D. Thesis Repon F-179-1
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Refrigerator Year 20 IO Page 114
11. Refrigerator Year 2010
In this chapter some visions regarding elements of the future design of an energy efficient
refrigerator are presented. It should be stressed that the content ofthis chapter is not the result
of a rigorously scientific analysis, but rather some personal ideas of what the future design
might look like.
. ~<1' Door
~¥ e".# Vacuum insulation panel
"'~ ..~~ \'-:-- /' /
~..,,'<§' ~~..;;a.~==:!~====~~'i'/
/1--"-----------'
.--
Ensure'dist:mcc to wan
Compressor MOlor Inverter
Power supply
Ma~etic clutch
.i Figure 11. 1: Refrigt'!"lltor Year 2010
insulation:
The use of vacuum panels instead of polyurethane foam can reduce the heat penetration from
the surroundings considerably. There are various ways to cope with the problem of mechanical
stresses in the construction due to the low pressure in the panels. The thennal conductivity will
depend on the actual solution chosen, but in the literature there seems to be general agreement
that the insulation (heat resistance) will become 5 times higher than the present value. At
present the heat transmission accounts for approximately 75 % of the cooling demand, which
Energy Optimisation ofRefrigeratior.. Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 114
Refrigerator Year 2010 Page 115
means it will be reduced to 40 % of the present level (0.4 . •

Q Q)
025· +.Q2!.
S • if vacuum
025·0+0.75·0
- -
panels are used.
Compressor.
In Figure 11.1 the motor is placed outside the hennetic compressor shell. The clutch is
assumed to be magnetic. The advantage of this design is that the motor is cooled directly by
the ambient air, whereby the refrigerant entering the compressor cylinder do::s not suffer from
additional superheating from the heat from the motor as is the case at present.
The speed of the compressor is controlled by the inverter which adjusts the compressor
capacity (frequency) to the actual need. The benefit from continuos control in comparison with
the traditional on/off control is treated elsewhere in this report.
In the proposed design air flows freely under the refiigerator cabinet and upwards around the
compressor, which ensures efficient cooling of the compressor shell.
Condenser.
The main part of the condenser is placed external to the backplate of the refrigerator. It is
tempting to place part of the condenser at the external surface of the cabinet door. Here the
surrounding air is coldest and there are no walls from other kitchen equipment that obstruct ':he
flow of air. The temperature of the surface will not rise much higher than 4 °C above the
temperature of the surrounding air. This proposal implies development of some kind of flexible
tube connections from the main cabinet to the door.
Evaporator.
The heat transfer area of the evaporator is maximised by the external mounting and by making
the height and width comparable with those of the backplate. The area could be even higher if
the top and the sides of the cabinet were also utilised by the evaporator.
Fan.
An adjustable speed and high efficiency fan enhances the heat transfer coefficient between the
evaporator surface and the cabinet air by changing the main heat transfer mechanism from
natural to forced convection.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration S)'Slems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen 115
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Refiigerator Year 20 I0 Page 116
However, there are two drawbacks to the use of a fan: the fan uses energy and this energy
increases the cooling demand. The first problem may be overcome, if the throttling process in
the capillary tube could be replaced by a turbine driving the fan. The exergy destruction in the
present throttling process and the expected level of power consumption for the fan are
comparable ( 0.5 ~ 3 W). The optimisation of the use of a fan in the cabinet was discussed in
Section 10.6.
Overall control strategy.

The are two control variables in the refrigerator depicted in Figure 11.1: the speed of the
compressor and the speed ofthe fan.
In order to avoid stan/stop losses, it would be beneficial if defrosting of the evaporator by
switching the compressor off could be omitted. One possibility is to ensure that the
temperature of the evaporator surface is generally above 0 DC. Today the average surface
temperature of the evaporator is about -10 DC leading to an average temperature difference to
the cabinet air of approximately 15 DC. In other words, the temperature difference has to be
one third (or smaller) of the present value in order to obtain a surface temperature above 0 DC.
Two factors make this goal realistic: better insulation reduces the cooling demand, and the use
offan and extended surface area ofthe evaporator should account for the remainder.
The control strategy might be as follows. The speed of the compressor controls the surface
temperature of the evaporator say to a value of 1.0 DC, and the speed of the fan controls the
cabinet temperature. If the cabinet temperature is to high the speed of the fan increases and
vice versa. If extra cooling is needed intermediately (the fan is working at the maximum speed
and the cabinet air temperature is still too high), the compressor can lower the temperature of
the evaporator surface below 0 DC. Once the peak load has disappeared thawing of the surface
can be achieved by adjusting the surface temperature upwards again.
Remarks.
It is quite certain that the refrigerator in Year 2010 will not contain all the elements described
in this chapter. Many, primarily economic, factors decide the future design of an energy
efficient refrigerator. The purpose of this chapter has been to describe some elements that
might be included in future designs, if the main criterion is to reduce the energy consumption
of the refrigerator.
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Evaluation ofMethods and Tools Page 117
12. Evaluation of Methods and Tools
The methods discussed in this chapter are:

• Thermodynamic loss analysis.
* Modelling approach.
The tools discussed are:

* DALI for numerical implementation of the dynamic models.
* EES for numerical implementation ofthe steady-state model.
• Computer.
* Experiments.
Thennodynamic loss analysis.

The use of the concept of process irreversibilities in order to tlescribe the thermodynamic
losses in a refiigeration cycle presents a logical and consistent approach based on first
principles. The quantification of the losses expressed as entropy generation or destruction of
exergy is likewise very instructive. The loss calculations pinpoint and quantifY the actual
process inefficiencies and in this context the method of "Thermodynamic Loss Analysis" is
found to be very helpful.
The use of the quantified losses in an optimisation scheme is, however, not straight forward.
Two aspects complicate the situation. In a refrigeration cycle the thermOdynamic losses are
interrelated in a complex manner and the main issue is to minimise the overall loss; the defined
gearing factors illustrate these process interactions. The other aspect which must be taken into
account is the economics. What is the overall cost of the losses, and what is the cost of
reducing the losses? In the literature the concept of "Thermoeconomics" (e.g. ref. [20] and
ref. [28]) are introduced, in which economics and exergy analysis are combined. For a closed
loop refrigeration cycle, where for some components it is difficult to identify the purpose in
terms ofexergy, no beneficial use of thermoeconomics has been found by the author.
Modelling approach.
The modelling approach used in the present study is based on a selection of phenomena that
are believed to be of importance for the simulation objective. It is not an automatic step by step
method that by guaranty leads to a successful result. To the author's knowledge no rigorous
method exist, which in a proper way guide the engineer through the modelling process. Much
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Syslems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 117
~
I
Evaluation ofMethods and Tools Page 118
more systematic knowledge have to be gained both regarding the numerical tools and the
physics of the refrigeration cycles and the components involved before a more standardised
method ofrnodelling can be developed.
DAL"::.
The equation-based model formulation in the progranuning language Pascal is straightforward.
It giv!:s the user much freedom to cope with numerical difficulties that may arise in the
equation solving process. The handling of discontinuities by the use of "state formulation" is
also very appropriate.
The following items are identified where "there is room for improvement":
.. Implementation of integration routines that are adequate for stiff systems.

.. State structure where both local and global states are possible.
.. Implicit equation solving, where constraints and tolerances can be applied
individually to the variables.
.. Graphical combination of submodels to a system model.
EES.
The power of£ngineering £quation ~olver is partly the enremely free format for the equation
writing, and partly the presence of the built-in property routines. The data-output facilities are
limited. For example it is not possible to store data automatically in a file. Nevertheless the
program appears so powerful that it is a petty that it is restricted to steady-state simulations.
Computer.
The most frequently used computer for the simulation purposes is a 60 MHz Pentium Pc. For
some of the dynamic simulations the computing time exceeded 24 hours. For such cases the
use of a more powerful computer would have been appropriate e.g. a Workstation, On the
other hand the relatively low prices of PC's makes it possible to run simulations on several
PC's at the same time.
By the end of the project Intel Corporation disclosed information about a design error in the
60 MHz Pentium chip that could lead to errors when performing divisions. Tl1e author has had
some difficulties caused by this fact, but the results presented in the report are believed to be
based on error-free calculations. To verify the results some simulations have been carried out
on a 80486 PC.
I I . 0'
0'\ .~'. ' ';" 0" . ,'.'

.11
Evaluation ofMethods and Tools Page Il9
Experiments.
I.
Some ofthe interesting process variables are very difficult to measure:
* Amount of refrigerant in the components.
* Mass flow rate of two-phase refrigerant flow.
* Heat transfer from the various surfaces.
* Distribution of refrigerant between evaporator and condenser.
* Amount of refrigerant dissolved in the oil in the compressor housing.
* Amount of oil in the evaporator and in the condenser.
In the present study only temperatures, pressures and electrical power have been measured. If
a very detailed experimental investigation is wanted then considerations must given to the
measurement ofthe above mentioned process variables.
...
J
• Conclusion and Summary
II
Page 120
I
13. Conclusion and Summary
Subject:
The subject "Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems" is treated in this Ph. D. thesis in
which energy analysis and energy optimisation of a 325 I domestic refrigerator is used as an
example.
Energy consumption:
Even though the actual energy consumption of refrigerators seen individually is rather low
(from 100 kWh/year till 400 kWh/year) the widespread use of refrigerators and freezers cause
their total energy consumption to be 20 % of the electrical energy consumption in Danish
households.
Efficiency:
When the energy consumption or the COP of the refrigerator is compared with their respective
values based on a reversed Carnot process a factor often appears! COP for the refrigerator in
question is approximately 1.35, while the COP for a Carnot refrigeration-process working
between 5 °C and 2S °C is 13.9. There is great potential for improving the efficiency and
thereby also reducing the energy consumption!
The relationship between the COP for the

ideai Camot process and the actual process is
derived by means of the laws of
thermodynamics. It is shown that the
Difference caused difference between these coefficients is caused
by thermodynamic by the irreversibilities taking place in the real
losses
process. These thermodynamic losses are
either described as destruction of exergy or
production of entropy related to the processes
in the various components.
COP
Actual Carnol
COP
Energy Oplimis:Jlion of Refrigeration Systems Marts 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 120
Conclusion and Summary Page 121
Simulation models:
Simulation models are developed in order to describe the behaviour of the selected
refiigerator. The main objective is to provide calculations of the energy consumption and loss
distribution which depend on a number of optimisation parameters, among these is the control
strategies of the compressor. Three simulation models are developed: a simple dynamic model
(DynTherm), an advanced dynamic model (DynFlo) and an advanced steady-state model
(StatFlo). The dynamic models are applied when simulation of the traditional onfoff controlled
compressor system is required, whereas the steady-state model is used for simulation of
continuous control of the compressor speed (the speed of the compressor is calculated as the
value where the desired cabinet air temperature is obtained in the steady-state). In the so-called
advanced models the refrigerant distribution between the evaporator and the condenser is
calculated; this is based on the actual flow of refrigerant from the compressor and the flow of
refrigerant through the capillary tube. The amount of refrigerant in the evaporator and in the
condenser implicitly determines the degree of superheat in the evaporator and the degree of
subcooling in the condenser. In the simple dynamic model the degree of superheat and the
degree of subcooling are given as parameters (that is, assumed to be constant).
The advanced dynamic model is validated against measurements carried out on the
refrigerator in question under the ISO test-conditions. Close agreement was found.
By comparison of the simulation results from the two dynamic models it appears, that the
simple dynamic model describes the transient course of the evaporator temperature, the
condenser temperature, the compressor temperature, and the compressor electrical power
consumption quite well. Naturally, the simple model cannot predict anything regarding
distribution of the refrigerant, the pressure equalisation, and pressure build-up in the
condenser after starting of the compressor. Likewise the direct influence from the length of the
capillary tube and the charge of refrigerant are not included in the model. In cases, where these
phenomena/parameters are of no relevance, and it is a question of an investigation of the
temperature behaviour, the simple thermal model provides an adequate description. In this
context it is noteworthy, that the computing time using a 60 MHz Pentium PC for simulation
of an hour la.ots only a few minutes, if the simple model is used. A corresponding simulation
with the advanced model lasts 5 to 10 hours depending on the model-formulation and the
prescribed numeric tolerances.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems Mans 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 121
•
Thennodynamic loss analysis:

The average cooling performance of the refrigerator is 4S W, and the average electrical energy -.
consumption of the compressor is approximately 33 W. These figures lead to a COP of 1.35.
The exergy flow related to the cooling performance is 3.2 W; the exergetic efficiency of the
system is accordingly about 10 %. From the simulation results it appears, that the average
exergy destruction of approximately 30 W is distributed as follows: compressor approx. 69 %,
evaporator approx. 14 %, condenser approx. 8 %, and the capillary tube including the heat
exchange with the suction line approx. 8 %. Hence, the major part of the irreversibilities takes
place in the compressor. In the compressor it is the motor losses that are of the greatest
significance. This fact appears from the relatively low motor efficiency ("'0.6). The superheat
of the refrigerant originating from the heat generated by the motor in the hermetic compressor,
together with the pressure loss through the valves etc., leakage, and mechanical friction, are
the main causes ofthe exergy destruction in the compressor.
In the evaporator, and likewise in the condenser, the exergy destruction is primarily due to
the heat transfer by the finite temperature difference. p
In the throttling process in the capillary tube the acceleration of the refrigerant caused by its
expansion and the pressure loss caused by the friction cause losses which are dissipated.
Thereby an opportunity to produce useful work is wasted.
In the thesis it is discussed, that interpretation of the distribution of the thermodynamic losses
is not a straightforward. For example it is wrong to conclude that the use of a perfect
evaporator will reduce the total exergy destruction by only 14 %. The use of a perfect
evaporator (infinite VA-value, and no pressure loss) will increase the evaporating temperature
and pressure significantly. Thereby the losses in the compressor and the losses in the throttling
process will also be reduced. The reduced power to the compressor will in tum decrease the
amount of heat transferred in the condenser, and therefore the thermodynamic losses are also
decreased in this component.
From the observations mentioned above there appears to be a need to quantitY the
interactions of the losses between the components. To fulfil this need so-called "gearing-
factors" are defined. They are defined as the ratio between the total reduction of the (system)
exergy destruction and the local reduction achieved by a marginal improvement of a local
component optimisation parameter. Based on simulations of the actual refrigerator it is found,
that a reduction of 1 W of exergy destruction in the evaporator by means of enlargement of
the VA-value results in an overall reduction of 6 W, while the corresponding factor is 3 for the
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems Mans 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 122
I
condenser, A reduction of the exergy destruction in the compressor of 1 W modelled as an

increase in the isentropic efficiency produces a gearing factor about unity (1.03).
Where does it best pay to optimise? It will in the end always be an economical issue, but from
the gearing factors - valid for the actual operation - it is learned that the cost of an absolute
reduction of the losses in the evaporator may be up to 6 times higher than the cost ofa similar
absolute improvement in the compressor, before it pays better to improve the compressor. On
the other hand the absolute value of the exergy destruction in the' compressor is about 8 times
higher than the loss in the evaporator, therefore the same relative reduction of exergy
destruction in the compressor will lead to a greater overall reduction than wiil an identical
relative reduction of the loss in the evaporator.
Energy optimisation of the selected refrigerator:

The influences on the energy efficiency of the refrigerator from various optimisation
parameters are investigated by use of the validated dynamic simulation model. An overview is
presented below for possible improvements of the COP of the refrigerator (reference COP =
1.35).
The first table deals with optimisation of the components, whereas the last indicates the
improvements by the use of alternative control.
Component Optimisation COP change

1 % increase of the isentropic efficiency of the compressor + 1%
Perfect compressor: isentropic efficiency = 1.0 + 179%
1 % increase ofthe UA-value ofthe condenser +0.1 %
Perfect (100 times greater UA-value) condenser +20%
1 % increase of the UA-value of the evaporator +0.3%
Perfect (100 times greater UA-value) evaporator +74%
Improvement by the use of maximum internal heat exchange compared +5%
to a situation with no internal heat exchange
Influence from choice of refiigerant (R12,R600a,R134a,R290). The ± 5%
results are from the literature. R600a seems to be the best choice.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems Mans 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 123
...
I I
Optimisation by means of Control COP change

Continuous control of compressor frequency +59%
Onloff control with shorter time-period 35 min ~ 15 minllO miniS min +5 % 1 +8%1 +15%
Obstruction of the pressure equalisation by means of a solenoid valve +3%
(Micloss system)
In addition to the optimisation parameters mentioned in the tables, the influences from the
charge of refrigerant. the length of the capillary tube, and use ofa small fan in connection with
the evaporator are investigated using the steady-state model. lt emerges that a too small charge
and a too long capillary tube increase the energy consumption of the refrigerator significantly.
The use ofa small fan, of say 0.5 W. reduces the total energy consumption by approximately
10 %. An additional benefit is that the temperature distribution in the cabinet air becomes much
more even.
The overaIl conclusion is that a lot of possibilities for improvement of the efficiency of a
refrigerator exist. The rapid development within electronics continues to reduce the cost of
advanced motor control. The cost is now at a level where the use of a continuous controlled
variable speed compressor - preferable with a motor with a higher efficiency than the present
single-phase asynchronous motor - is an apparent possibility to improve the efficiency of the
refrigerator. If this is combined with energy optimisation of the intake of the suction gas
(possibly with an external source of motor cooling, for example by using a "heat pipe") the
compressor will contribute further to an improvement of the exergetic efficiency of the system.
A small - but efficient - fan in connection with the evaporator will not only create a more even
temperature distribution of the air, but also possibly reduce the total energy consumption of the
refrigerator. When the mentioned improvements are supplemented with a reduction of the
cooling need using better means of insulation (vacuum panels), the energy consumption of the
refrigerator will decrease much further.
General results:
The results and conclusions stated so-far are valid for the specific refrigerator treated as an
example. However, many of the results are general valid for vapour-compression refiigeration
systems.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems Mans 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 124
The derived relationship between the actual COP for a refrigerator and the COP for the
corresponding Carnot l process is generally valid. It appears that the process irreversibilities,
either expressed as destruction of exergy or production of entropy, causes the difference from
the ideal situation. That is, the means of improving the COP of a refrigeration system is by
reducing the process irreversibilities (exergy destructions).
The optimisation parameters identified are relevant for most refrigeration systems, whereas
the quantitative COP improvements, which are stated, are valid for the specific refrigerator
investigated.
The conclusion, that a continuous control of the compressor will save energy compared to
the situation with a traditional on/off control, is general valid. The smaller duty cycle in the
on/off control the bigger is the saving potential.
In cases, where enlargement of the VA-value of the evaporator/condenser is not obtainable
by means of enlargement of the surface area, the use of a fan of a proper size is a promising
alternative. Besides providing a possible reduction in the energy consumption, and an added
capacity control possibility, a fan used in conjunction with a suitable evaporator will also create
a more even temperature distribution in the refrigerated space.
I Or any reversible cooling process working belwecn the cabinet air temperature as Ihe cold sourre temperature
and the ambient temperature as Ihe hOI sink lemperature.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems Mans 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Arne Jakobsen 125
Suggestions for Funher Work Page 126
14. Suggestions for Further Work
Experiments.
An experimental investigation of COP as a function of the time period (Figure 10.6) appears
to be wonhwhile because simulations indicate that an on/off control with a shan time period
increases the COP significantly. In order to perform such a validation the compressor must be
supplied with a motor with a high starting torque (HST), and the disconnecting of the auxiliary
winding, used during stan-up, must not be camed out by using a thermal switch (PTR), that
has to be cooled before the motor is able to restart.
The expected benefits from the use of a continuously controlled compressor motor is an
apparent subject for experimental examination.
A systematic investigation of how the degree of superheat, the subcooling and the COP
depend on the charge and the length of capillary tube is relevant; partly to validate Figure 10.9,
and partly to develop a method for energy optimisation of the length of the capillary tube and
the charge ofrefrigeranl.
Optimisation of the use of fans especially in connection with the evaporator also offers
possibilities for an empirical study.
In order to improve the accuracy of the models tor predicting the f10wrate of refrigerant
through the capillary tube, experimental data are needed, for which the heat exchange with the
suction line is taken into account.
Measurements of the spatial distribution of the air temperature in the cabinet - with and
without goods - must be camed out in order to define the true average temperature. The latter
is the natural feedback signal for the closed loop temperature control of the refrigerator.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. Mareh 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen 126
Suggestions for Further Work Page ]27
Modelling.
Introduction of the dissolution of refrigerant inside the oil in the compressor is a natural
extension ofthe system model DynFlo.
More detailed modelling of the phenomena that causes the thermodynamic losses in the
compressor must be developed to optimise the compressor. This means that instead of using an
expression for the isentropic efficiency, the most dominating loss phenomena will have to be
described directly (this work is in progress in another Ph. D. study by Bjame D. Rasmussen).
In order to investigate the limits for the use of the simple condenser and evaporator model
suggested in the present work the results should be compared with those based on distributed
models. Whether existing distributed models are sufficiently accurate or further development is
needed must be determined from an initial literature study.
Models of the spatial distribution of the air temperature in the cabinet are of interest for the
same reasons mentioned in the previous section describing the experiments. A model for the
flow of refrigerant through the capillary tube in which the heat exchange to the suction line is
included is likewise of interest.
The first step on the way to obtain a systematic modelling approach could be development of
general submodels based on mass, internal energy and entropy generation as the dynamic
variables, in which the other thennodynamic variables such as temperature and pressure are
derived algebraically depending on the refrigerant in question. The choice of dynamic variables
corresponds to the fundamental laws which leads to a so-called "conservative fonnulation".
The idea, as indicated below, is that distributed models are created as a serial combination of
the general submodels (fixed control volume).
~
-1 M.U,rs I~~I M.U,rs
V'l
'--!-=--""-
Q
The individual control volumes are assumed to be in internal equilibrium (stirred tank), which
means that the thennodynamic state of the flow out of an element is identical to that of the
I .1
Suggestions for Further Work Page 128
element itself. Possible pressure losses are calculated between the elements. The approach is a
kind of physical zoning of the distributed problem in which the pressure loss is assumed to be
uncoupled from the mass and the energy balances. The results from the suggested approach
could be compared with an approach where the fundamental partial differential equations are
discretised numerically.
Theory.
Further investigations regarding the use of exergy analysis or thermodynamic loss analysis, in
which the interaction between local losses and the overall loss are included. are needed if this
approach is to be used for quantitative energy optimisation. In other words the combination of
the discipline "thermoeconomics" and the analysis of refiigeration cycles has to be developed
further before this method reaches maturity, where it becomes useful for practical engineering
optimisation.
One of the challenges. general in life, is to pose meaningful questions. In the use of exergy
analysis this is indeed also the case. The exergy analysis shows the actual distribution of the
thermodynamic losses. It does not directly determine where it best pays to optimise. The use of
the gearing factors calculated in Section 3.6 answer the question: "where should I optimise if
the cost of reducing the absolute value of the local thermodynamic loss is the same allover?".
The author believes more questions have to be "developed" that can enlighten the pathway of
optimisation for refiigeration systems.
Konklusion og sammenfatning pa dansk Page 129
15. Konklusion og Sammenfatning

- Danish-
Emne:
Emnet "Energi optimering af Iwlesystemer" er behandlet i n~rv~rende Ph. D. rapport, hvor
energianlyse og energioptimering afet 325 I husholdningslwleskab er anvendt som eksempel.
Energiforbrug:
De faktiske individuelle energiforbrug af k.eleskabe er generelt beskedne (100 kWh/ar til 400
kWh/ar) , men pga. den store udbredelse af Iwleskabe og frysere UdgeT deres energiforbrug
a11igevel 20 % af elforbruget i danske hjem.
EfTektivitet:
Hvis Irnleskabets energiforbrug eller effektfaktor sarnmenlignes med en ideel Carnot proces
viser del sig, at her er en ti-faktor til forskel. COP for det unders0gte k£Jleskab er ca. 1.35,
mens COP for en Carnot Iwleproces, som arbejder mellem 5 °C og 25 °C er 13.9. Dvs. der er
et stort potentiale for foregelse af effektiviteten og denned reduktion af energiforbruget !
Sammenh~ngen mellem effektfaktoren for en

ideel Camot proces og den aktuelle proces er
udledt vha. tennodynamikkens hoved-
Forskel skyldes s:etninger. og det er pavist at forskellen
tennodynamiske mellem disse effektfaktorer skyldes den
tab
aktuelle proces' s irreversibiliteter. Disse
tennodynamiske tab kan enten beskrives som
exergi-Iab eller entropi-produktioner knyttet til
processeme i de forskellige komponenter.
COP
Carnol
Simuleringsmodeller.
Der er udviklet simuleringsmodeller Iii beskrivelse af driften af det valgte k.eleskab, hvor sigtet
er konsekvensberegning for energiforbrug og tabsfordeling afh~ngig af en T:ekke
Energi oplimering af kolesySlemer Mans 1995, Plio D. aIhandling ArneJakabsen 129

Konklusion og sammenfatning pa dansk Page no
optimeringsparametre. herunder styrestrategi for kompressoren. Der er udviklet tre

simuleringsmodeller: en simpel dynamisk model (DynTherrn), en avanceret dynamisk model
(DynFlo) og en avanceret statisk model (StatFlo). De dynamiske modeller er anvendt til
simulering, hvor kompressoren er traditionelt on/off styret. mens den statiske model er benyttet
til simulering af kontinuert kompressordrift (dvs. omdrejningstallet af kompressoren er
beregnet sadan at den Bnskede lufttemperatur i keleskabet opnaes i steady-state). I de s1l.kaldte
avancerede modeller beregnes kelemiddelfordelingen mellem fordamperen og kondensatoren
udfra den faktiske massestrBm af kelemiddel fra kompressoren og massestmm gennem
kapillarmret. Mamgden af kBlemiddel i henholdsvis fordamper og kondensator bestemmer
implicit overhedningen og underkBlingen. I den simple dynamiske model er overhedningen og
underkelingen pararnetre (dvs. antaget at va:re konstante).
Den avancerede dynamiske model er valideret mod malinger pa det aktuelle keleskab te~tet
under ISO-betingelser. Der er fundet god overensstemmelse mellem malingeme og
simuleringsresultaterne.
Ved sammenligning af simuleringsresultater fra de to dynamiske modeller er det fundet, at
den simple dynamiske model beskriver de dynamiske forleb af fordampertemperatur,
kondensatortemperatur. kompressortemperatur og den tilfBrte kompressor effekt ganske godl.
I sagens natur kan den simple model ikke forudsige noget om kelemiddel fordeling,
trykudligning og trykopbygningen i kondensatoren ved opstart. Ligeledes er den direkte
indflydelse af kapillarrersla:ngde og kelemiddelfyldning ikke modelleret. I tilfa:lde. hvor disse
fa:nomener/parametre ikke er relevante, og der blot er tale om en undersBgelse af temperatur-
forl"bene, udger den simple terrniske model en tilstr<ekkelig beskrivelse. Det skal i denne
sanunenha::ng na:vnes, at simuleringstiden pa en 60 MHz Pentium PC for en times
keleskabsdrift tager nogle ia. minutter ved anvendelse af den simple model. En tilsvarende
simulering ved anvendelse af den avancerede model tager 5 til 10 timer afhamgig af
modelforrnulering og ll0jagtighedskrav.
Analyse af tennodynamiske tab:

Keleskabet., hvis gennemsnitlige kuldeydelse er 4S W, tilfrares ca. 33 W (e1) i gennemsnit via
kompressoren. Delle give en COP pa 1.35. Exergien knyttettil kBlebehovet er 3.2 W, hvilket
ferer til en exergetisk virkningsgrad for systemet pa ca. 10 %. Simuleringsresu!ater viser, at det
gennemsnitlige samlede exergitab pa ca. 30 W er fordelt saledes: kompressor ca. 69 %,
fordamper ca. 14 %. kondensator ca. 8 % og kapillarmr inel. vanneveksling med sugeledning
8 %. St"rsteparten afirreversibiliteterne finder a1tsa sted i kompressoren 1 denne sammenha:ng
Energi opLimering afkclcsySiemer M3J1S 1995. Ph. D. afhandling Arne Jakobsen 130
I
er motortabene afst"rst betydning, hvilket fremgar afden relative lave el-virkningsgrad (:::0.6).
Varmeudviklingen fra motoren i den hermetiske kompressor bevirker en intern overhedning af
!<fIlemidlet, sam sammen med tryktab gennem ventiler etc., l.ekage og mekanisk miction er de
fu:nomener, som er de vigtigste arsager til de 0V1ige exergitab i kompressoren.
I fordamperen og Iigeledes i kondensatoren hidr"rer exergitabet primrert fr~
varmeoverfuringen ved den endelige temperaturdifference til den omgivende luft.

Ved dmvlingen gennem kapillarr"ret bliver acceleration af !<fIlemidlet, som er drevet af
ekspansionen, ikke udnyttet til nyttigt arbejde, sarntidig med at der er dissiperes exergi pga.
friktionstrykfaldet.
Det pavises i rapporten, at der generelt er mulighed for fejlagtige konklusioner ved inspektion
af fordelingen af exergitabene. Det er f. eks. forkert at konkludere. at anvendelse af en ideel
fordamper kun vii reducere det sarnlede exergitab med 14 %. En ideel fordamper (uendelig stor
UA-vrerdi, og ingen tryktab) vii bevirke at fordampertemperatur og tryk viI stige v.esentligt.
Hermed vii tabene i kompressoren og tabene i dn'lvlingen ogsa reduceres. Den formindskede
effekttilfurelse til kompressoren viI reducere den ruldvendige varmeoverf"relse
kondensatoren, hvorved tabene ogsa reduceres her.
I denne sammenh.eng er der blevet defineret nogle s3.kaldte "gearings-faktorer", som viser
sig hensigtsmressige til synliggglJrelse af disse procesinteraktioner. De er defineret som
forholdet melIem den samlede reduktion af (system)exergitabet i forhold til den lokale
redulcticn ved en marginal forbedring af en [okal optimeringsparameter. Det viser sig med
udgangspunkt i del aktuelle Irnleskab, at 1 W reduceret exergitab i fordamperen ved fomgelse
af UA-vrerdien giver en sarnlet redulction pa 6 W. mens det tilsvarende tal for kondensatoren er
3. En reduktion pa 1 W i kompressoren udtrykt ved en for"gelse af isentropvirkningsgraden
giver kun en gearings faktor pa godt en (1.03). Hvor det bedst kan betale sig at optimere, viI i
sidste ende v.ere et "konomisk sp"rgsmaI. men gearingsfaktorene - greldende for den aktuelle
driftssituation - fort.eller at en absolut redulction af tabene i fordamperen rna koste optil 6
gange mere end en tilsvarende forbedring i kompressoren, f"rend det bedre kan betale sig at
olTe pengene pa kompressoroptimering. Pa den anden side er st"rre1sesorden af exergitabet i
kompressoren godt 8 gange starre end tabet i fordamperen, hvorfor den samme relative
redulction af exergitab i kompressoren vii have en st"rre sarnlet effek1: end en tilsvarende relativ
reduktion aftabet i fordamperen.
Energi optimering af kolesJistemer Mans 1995. Ph. D. afhandJing Arne Jakobsen 131
I I .1
KonkIusion og sammenfatning pa dansk Page 132
Eoergioptimering af del "algte ksleskab:

De energima::ssige konsekvenser 'led a::ndring af diverse optimeringsparametre er undersllgt
'led anvendelse af de validerede simuleringsmodeller. Nedenfor er der i tabelform givet et
overblik over potent;elle forbedringer i kilieskabets effektfaktor (udgangspunkt COP = 1.35).
Den f"rste tabel omhandler komponent optimering, mens den sidste angiver forbedrings-
mulighedeme 'led hja::lp af alternative styringer.
Optimering af komponenter ca. COP 2ndring

1 % for"gelse afkompressor isentrop virkningsgrad + 1%
Ideel kompressor: isentrop virkningsgr.;;d = 1.0 +179%
1 % for"gelse af UA-vrerdi for kondensator +0.1 %
Ideel (100 faktor sterre UA-vrerdi) kondensator +20%
1 % foregelse af UA-va::rdi affordamper +0.3%
Ideel (100 faktor st"rre UA-vrerdi) fordamper +74%
Forbedring 'led maksimal intern varmeveksling i forhold til ingen intern +5%
varrneveksling
Indflydelse ITa valg afkDlemiddel (R12,R600a,RI34a,R290). Resultat er ±5%
fra litteraturen. R600a syntes at va::re det bedste kDlemiddel.
Optimering vha. styring ca. COP 2nd ring

Kontinuet regulering afkompressor omdrejningstal +59%
+5 %/+8%/+15%
==
On'offregulering med mindre periodetid 35 min ~ 15 min'I 0 min'S min
Obstruktion aftrykudligning vha. magnetventil (Micloss system) +3%
Udover de ovenna::vnte optimeringsparametre er der 'led anvendelse af den statiske

s:muleringsmodel - sam svarer til kontinuert drift af systemet - unders0gt indflydelsen af
kapillamnsla::ngde og kalemiddeltyldning samt anvendelse af ventilator i forbindelse med
fordamperen.
Det fremgar, at for Iille kalemioGel tyldning samt for langt kapillarr0r kan forage
energiforbruget afkaleskabet va::sentligt.
Anvendelse af en lille ventilator pa ca. 0.5 W vii kunne reducere det samlede energi forbrug
med ca. 10 %. Hertil kommer at der opnaes en ja::vnere temperatur fordeling indeni kDleskabet.
Energi optimering af kolcsystemer Mans 1995. Ph. D. afhandling Arne Jakobsen 132
I I II
--
I
.1
I I •
Samlet kan konkluderes, at der er rige muligheder for at forbedre effektiviteten af et koleskab.
Den hurtige teknologiske udvikling indenfor elektronik bevirker at fremstillingsomkostningeme
af avanceret motorstyring til stadighed falder. Priseme er nu nede i et niveau, hvor anvendelse
af en kontinuen omdrejningstalsreguleret kompressor - geme med en motor med Iwjere
virkningsgrad end den nuveerende en-faset asynkron motor - er en oplagt mulighed til
forbedring afk.eleskabes effektfaktor. Kombineres dette med energioptimeret indsugning (evt.
incl. extern koling af motoren f. eks. vha. en "heat pipe") ~I kompressoren yderligere bidrage
til en foragelse af systemets sarnlede eKergetiske virkningsgrad. En liUe - men effektiv -
ventilator i forbindelse med fordamperen vii ikke kun skabe en jeevnere temperaturfordeling,
men ogsa kunne reducere det samlede energiforbrug. Nar disse effektivitets fremmende tiltag i
fremtiden muligvis ogsa kombineres med en reduktion af kolebehovet pga. bedre
varmeisoleringsmetoder (vakuum paneler). vii energiforbruget til drift af keleskabe kurme
reduceres yderligere.
Generelle resultater:
De hidtil resumerede resultater og konklusioner gcelder specifikt for det undersagte keleskab.
En rcekke af resultateme har dog generel gyldighed for kompressionskelean1ceg i
almindelighed.
Den udledte sammenheeng meUem den aktuelle COP for et keleanlceg og COP for den
tilsvarende Carnot proces, hvor det fremgar at det er proces irreversibiliteterne, enten udtrykt
som exergitab eUer entropiproduktion, som er arsag til afvigelsen fra den ideeUe situation, har
almen gyldighed. Dvs. den genereUe metode til foragelse af et kelesystems effektfaktor er
reduktion af systemets irreversibiliteter (exergitab).
De identificerede optimeringsparametre er relevante for de tleste koleanlceg. mens de
kvantitative COP forbedringer, som er beregnet, gcelder specifikt for det undersagte k.eleskab.
Resultatet, at en kontinuert regulering viI kunne spare energi i forhold til en on/off
regulering, har generel gyldighed. 10 lnindre driftstid (duty cycle) som on/off reguleringen
opererer med, jo mere er der at spare.
I tilfcelde, hvor foragelse af UA-vcerdien af fordamperen/kondensatoren ikke praktisk kan
opnaes ved at forage overfladearealet, er anvendelse af en effektiv ventilator af passer.rle
storrelse et brugban altemativ. Udover at man hermed ogsa opnar en styringsmulighed mere,
viI en ventilator i forbindelse med fordamperen bevirke en jrevnere temperaturfordeling i det
k.elede rum.
Energi optimcring af Iwles)'stemer Mans 1995. Ph. D. afhandling AmeJakabsen 133

I L
References Page 134
List of References
I. H. Saustrup Kristensen. Formlcr til varmctransmission 4. udgave

Palyteknisk forlag 1978, p 15.
2. A. C. Cleland. Processes Food Refrigeration: Analysis, Design and Simulation.

Elsevier Science Publishers. London, pp 191-231.
3. M. J. Janssen, J. A. de Witt, L. 1. M. Kuijpers.

Cycling losses in domestic appliances: an experimental and theoretical analysis.
Int. J. Refrigeration 1992. Vol 15 no 3. pp 152-158.
4. Po B. Whalley. Boiling. condensation and Gas- Liquidflow.

Oxford Science Publications. Serie:; 21. Chapter 6.
5. C. Mela, et. at Evaluation ofHC-600a, HFC-J34a and CFC-12 massflow rates

through capillary tubes. Proceedings HR.-meeting. Hannover Mai 1994.
6. M. B. Pate, D. R Tree. An analysis ofpressure and temperature measurements along a

capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger.'
ASl-ffiAE TRANS. 1984 No. 2844 pp 291-301.
7. Qishen Yan, Xiao-Ling Wang. Studies on the behaviour ofa capillary tube in a small
refrigeration system. IIR. congress Montreal 1991. pp 1255-1259.
8. Seren Konrad Christensen, Anders Knudsen. DimensioneringafvtEskefordelersystem.

Eksarnensprojekt F-141-01. Jan. 1993. Refiigeration Laboratory, DTU Denmark.
9. Preben Buhl Pedersen. Engineering Analysis concerning Energy Efficiency Standards

for Refrigerators and Frezeers in Denmark. Report dk-Teknik. Feb. 1992.
ISBN 87-7782-028-2
10. DEFU. Prognosefor bo/igsektorens eiforbrog 1992-2010. Del 1. Elmodel-bolig.

Telalisk rapport 3li. p 51.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis Ame Jakobsen 134
•
I I
References Page 135
12. P. K. Bansal. , R. KrUger. Test standards for household refrigerators andfreezers I:

preliminary comparisons. Int. J. ofRefiigeration. 1995 vol. 18 or. 1. pp 4-20.
13. M. 1. Moran. Availability analysis. ASME PRESS, New York, 1989.
14. A. Bejan. Entropy generation through heat andfluidflow. Wiley, New York, 1982.
15. T. J. Kotas. The exergy method of thermal plant analysis. Butterworths 1985.
16. Eric Granryd. Optimum Circuit tube length andpressure drop on the refrigerant side of
evaporators. IIR Refiigeration Conference, Purdue 1992,
Proceedings- Vol 1. pp 73 -82.
17. W. F. Stoecker. Design ofthermal systems. McGraw-Hili, 3. e.d. 1989.
18. Edgar and Himmelblau. Optimization ofchemical processes.

McGraw-Hili, New York, 1988.
19. Joe Hamilton Andersen. Energioptimering af husholdningskeleskabe. M. Thesis

report FI94-01, Sep. 1994, Refrigeration Laboratory, DTU, Denmark.
20. Y. M. Sayed, R. B. Evans. Thermo-economics and the design ofHeat Systems. ASME
Paper No. 69-Pwr-A (1969).
21. D. J. Cleland, A. C. Cleland. Appropriate level ofmodel complexity in dynamic

simulation ofrefrigeration systems. Refiigeration Science and Technology. 1989.
22. K. A. James, R. W. James, A. Dunn. A critical survey ofdynamic mathematical models

ofrefrigeration systems and heat pumps and their components. Report. Tech.
memorandum no. 97. March 1986. Inst. of Environmental Eng. Polytech. of the South
Bank, London, UK.
23. EES. Engineering Equation Solver. F-Chart Software. 4406 Fox Bluff Road.
Middleton. Wisconsin 53562. USA. FAX: (608) 836-8536.
Energy Optimisation of Reliigeralion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis Ame Jakobsen 135
I I
I
References Page 136
24. Kim Friis Askjcer. Brogervej/edning til DALl. Report F94-02 1986. Refiigeration
Laboratory. DTU, Denmark.
25. H. J. H.0gaard Knudsen. Beregning afkolemidlers termodynomisk og termofysiske data.

Report F37-02 1990. Refrigeration Laboratory, DTU, DenmaJ"k.
26. R. Rivis, A. Bidone. Isobutane - Propane mixtures: Comparison with traditional and
non-traditional refrigerants. Proceedings IIR conf Padova Italy, Sept. 1994,
pp 345 - 353.
27. Jun Wang, Yezheng Wu. Start-up and shut-down operation in reciprocating compressor
refrigeration system with capillary tubes. Int. 1. of Refiig. 1990, Vol 13. pp 187 - 190.
28. G. Tsatsaronis. A review ofExergoeconomic Methodologies. Paper in Second Law

Analysis of Thermal Systems. (Ed.) Moran and Sciubba, ASME, New York, 87,
pp 81-87
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeralion Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 136
Table of Contents for Appendices Volume Page 137
Table of Contents Appendices Volume
Ai: Program listing ofDynThenn.
A2: Program listing ofDynFlo.
A3: Program listing of StatFlo.
B: Calculations of V-values for air side.
C: Derivation of equation for time derivative ofrefiigerant pressure.
D: Solution of differential equations in heat exchange model.
Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmI! Jakobsl!n 137
I
I
Appendi:l AI: Pro~ram DynTherm. Page AI-l
Program DynTherm:
{ Arne Jakobsen March 1995
{ Refrigeration Laboratory
{The Tcchniehal Unillersity of DenmaJk
{ ##### DynThenn ####II
{"A dynamic thermal modcl ofa domestic refrigerator"
ISM l2oo0,5000.635000}
Uses
constdef. {Modelsize
crt,
Typedef. {typedefi ni tions
Vardcfcm, {variable definitions common
-
{ for simulation and posttreatment
Vardcfsi, {variabeldefinitions for simulation
Simll, { routines to the simulation
Skrill, {printing routines
ligning, ( equation soilier
splin, { dill. spline routines
Dossys, { dill. routines to screen and file handling etc.
Daligraf, {div. routines to plOI in graphich mode
Starrop. {reading the coulor setup and draws the staI1 up picture
grafik4a. {Simple graphich routines
Kmfun34: { Properties of refrigerant R134a
{ _ }
const
{ General parameters }
Ta = 25+273.15; { Ambient temperature, K
Ta_b" 27.0+273.15; { Air temperature behind cabinet
( Compressor parnmetre }
Vs = 3.13c-6; {Geo. cylinderllolumen, mJ
Acorn = 0.065; ( Heat trans. area m'
MCcom = 1950; { Thermal capacity, JIK
np = 1.09; { Polytropic expo for temp.
{ Condenser parameue }
A1fac = 1500; { Inner heat trans. coef., W/(K m')
Ac = 1.55; ( Outer surface area., m'
Aci = 0.08: ( Inner surface area., m'
MCc = 11500; { Thermal capacity, JIK
DTsc = 1.0; { Subcooling, K
( Capillar)' tube parnmetre }
fphe = 0.4; { Frac. of pressure 1055 in adiab. pan
UA he = 0.1; { Heat trans. coer. W/(K rn)
Lhe- = 2.0; { Length of heal exchanger m
UAhe = UA_he*Lhe; ( Heat uans. coer. WIK
( Evaporator parnmetre }
A1fae = 750; ( Inner heat trans. coer., W/(K rn')
Ae = 0.475: ( Outer Swface area., m'
Aei = 0.0475: ( Inner surface area. m'
=
MCe 850; { Thermal capacity, JIK
DTsh = 2.0; { Superheat, K
{ Room/cabinet parnmetre }
KAr = 2.25; { Heat loss coer. WIK
MCr = 15500; { Thermal capacity of cabinet JIK
Appendix AI: Prol!ram DynTherm. Page AI-2
(Declaration of global variables }

var
Nrpm.Tcmax : Double; ( Frequency of compressor
outfile,Oun : Text: {Output file
Oldstate : Integer.
Function Power(yp,Xp:double) : double;

{ Calulates Yp"Xp = exp(Xp*ln(Yp»
Begin
Power:=elIl'{Xp*ln(yp));
end;
Function Elavf(pr:double) : double:

{ Calculates volumetric efficicncy for the compressor TI.ES3F
{ as function of pressure ratio
Var
Aux double;
Begin
AlL":=Pr,
If (AlL\': > II) then AlL\'::= 11:
If (AlL" < 2) then AlL,,:=2;
Eta\f:=O.542-{l.OS95J9·A~.2752J·SQRT(AlL\':);
end;
Function Etasf{Pr:dnuble) : double;

( Calculates Isentropic efficiency for the compressor TI.ESJF
( as function of evaporator pressure in bar
Var
AlL\': double;
Begin
AlLX:=Pr.
If (AlL" > 4) then Aux:=4:
If (Aux < 0.5) then AlLX:=O.5;
Etasf:~ 1.479-1.49157·Aux+3.240S6·SQRT(AlL")+O.OS 142*Sqr(Aux):
end;
{- Subroutine with model equations -}

procedure MODELligninger(val" x.r:statvektor. var Y.YdOI:d)llvektor):
(Declaration oflocal variables}
V31"
Twc.Twe.Tr.Tcom : double: { Dynamic var.
Twc dolTwe dOI.Tr dOlTcom dot : double; {Timederivalive
Tlii.P2.T4.T5 - -: double; { Static impliette var
{ Compressor output + inlemaJ \'lIriables }

F1ow.Qctcom. W.n,H2.E I.as.Elav : double:
HI.Sl.Rhol.Rhos.TIs.V2s.H2s.V2.Ucom.KAcom : double:
{ Condenser output + intemaJ variables }

Qd_c,P2_RPc,TJ.HJ.P3.Tc.Tc_RUc : doublc:
{ Capillary lUbe output + internal variables }

Qd_he.TJO.PJO.H4.T4_R.P4.T30sal : double:
A,B.Cpl : double:
( Evaporator outpul + internal variables }

Appendix AI: Pro~ram DynTherm. Page AI-3
: double:
{ Heal e.~changer oUlput + inlernal variables }

Tl_R.VI : double:
{ Cabinellroom oulpul + internal variables }

Qd_r : double:
Duml,Dwn2,Dum3,Dum4,Dum5 : double:
Wi.Wi_doI.Qi_e.Qi_e_dol.Tr_i : double;
{ Exua \'3Iiables needed 10 calculate entropy generations }

S2.S3,S4.55 : double; { spec. entropies
Pd_s_com.Pd_s_c.Pd_s_cap.Pd_s_e : double; { enlrtlpy productions
Qual : double: ( quali\)' inlel evap.
On.0ff : boolean:{ Compressor modes
begin
If Slatc = I thcn { Statc I modc is compressor on

begin
on := true: off:= false: Nrpm:=2850:
end:
If Slatc = 2 then ( State 2 mode is compressor off
begin
on:= false: off:= true; Nrpm:-():
end:
{ Variable transfcr }
Twc:=YII]; { Condcnser walltemperarore
Twe:=YI2): {Evaporatorwalltcmperature
Tr:=Y[3]: { Cabinel/room temperature
Tcom:=Y[4]: { Compressor temperature
Wi:=Y[5): { Inlegrated power consumption
Qi_c:=Y[6): { Integrated cooling
Tr_i:=YI7): { Intcrgratcd cabinct temp.
If on then
begin
Tl:=X[6]: { Compressor inlct tcmperature
Tc:=X[7): { Condensing temperature
Te:=X[8): { Evaporation lemperaturc
end;
Duml :=X(I]: {Dummyforoulput: Compressor power

Dwn2 := XI2]: {Dummy for oUlput: Cooling performance of evaporator
Dum3 := Xp I; {Dummy for OUlput: Heat uansmission to room
Dum4 := XI4]: l Dummy for OUlput: Heal rejection from compressor
Dum5 := XI5]: {Dummy for OUIpUI: Heat rejection from condenser
If on then Begin
( Detennination of pressure levels assuming condensation and evaporation
PI := PS(Te); I Suction pressurc
P2 ;= PS(Tc): I Discharge pressurc
end:
I
I
Appendix At: Progr:lm DynThl!rm. Page AI-4
{@@@@ Compressor model @@@@@ }

{------------}
{ Input : T1.PI.P2 }
{ Output : Flow.Qd_com,W.T2.H2,Tcom }
{ Aux. output: Hl.SI }
{ Paramelers : VS,Etas,Etav,KAcom,MCcom,np }
{ Control var: Nrpm }
{ }
Ucom:=6.66+Power(Tcom-Ta_b.0.45I); {Heat transfer coefficient
KAcom:=Ucom"Acom;
Iron then
begin
Etav:= Etavf(p2IP I);
Etas:= Etasf(P 11100000) *0. 85: ( Isentropic efficiency
Rhol := I.OtvrP(TI,PI); {Density inlct compressor
Rhos := Rho I; { Density inlet cylinder
Flow := Etav*Vs*Rhos"Nrpml60.0; ( Massflow refrigerant
SI := SGTP(TI.PI); ( Entropy inlet compressor
HI := HGTP(TI,PI); ( Enthalpy inlet compressor
TVSP(SI.P2,TIs,V2s); (T2.V2 by isentropic compression
IDs := HG1V(f2s,V2s); { Isentropic outlet enthalpy
W:=F1ow*(H2s-HI)/Elas; {Electrical Power input
{ Discharge temperature polytropic process }
T2:=O.5"(TI+Tcom)*Power(P2/PI,(np-I)/np);
Qd_com:.. KAcom*(Tcom-Ta_b); { Heat loss compressor
H2:=HGTPCf2,P2); { Enthalpy outlet
Tcom_dot:=(W-Qd_com-flow"(H2-HI»)lMCcom; { Time derivative temp.
end;
If off then
begin
F1ow:=O.O;
Qd_com:=KAcom"(Tcom-Ta_b):
W:=O.O;
Tcom_dot:=-Qd_comIMCcom:
end:
{------------
{@@@@ Condenser model @@@@@ }
{-------------}
{ Input : Flow,H2 }
{ Output : Qd_c,Pc,Tc.T3.H3 }
{ Parametcrs : hc.Ac.Aci.MCc,Ta.DTsc }
{ Control var: None }
{ }
Uc:"5.99+Power(fwc-Ta_b.0.461): (Heat transfer coefficient
If on then
begin
Qd e:'" Uc"AC"(Twc-Ta h); {Heat rejection condenser
1'3:'" Tc-DTsc; - { Temp. outlet
Pc :'" P2; ( Condensing pressure
H3:'" HLT(T3); ( Enthalpy outlet
Tc_R:=Twc+Flow*(H2-H3)/(Aci"A1fac); { Corrected condenser temperature
Twc dot :=(AIfac*Aci*(Tc-Twc>-Qd c)/MCc:{ Derivativecond. wall tcmp.
~~- -
Ifoff then
begin
Qd c := Dc"Ac*CTwc-Ta b};
T":;;_dot := -Qd_cJMCc: -
I
I
Appendix At: Pro2ram DynTherm. Page AI-5
end;
{------------
{ @@@@ Capillary tube & heat exch. @@@@@}
{ }
{ Input : Flow,n.H3.Tl,DTsh }
{Output : Qd_he.T30.PJO.H4.N,T5.H5,HI }
I Parameters: fphe,UAhe }
{ Control \'ar. None }
{ }
If on then
begin
P30 := P2·fphe"(p2-P I): ( Pressure outlet adiabatic part
nOsat :=Ts(p30); { Saturated temp.
I no detennined fiem RJO=RJ }
T5 := Te+DTsh; ( Evap. outlct tcmperature
H5:= HGTP(T5.PI): (Enthalpy outlet evaporator
HI := HGTP(TI.P t); I Enthalpy outlet heat e:.ch. suc.
QcI_he := Flow"(HI-HS): I Heattransmission in heat exch.
H4 := RJ-Qd_helFlow; { Outlet enthalpy
{Limet ofH4 during the equation during solving}
1f(H4 < 1.0) then H4:=1.0:
If (H4 > 300000) then H4:=300000;
{ no detennined using H30=H3 }
{ Saturation curve for R134a}
nO:=(273.15-39.999)+8.3769506e-4"H3-8.04123 7Ie-10"H3 "RJ;
If (DO > nOsat) then nO:=T30sat; { Saturated temp.
If (DO < Te) then nO:=Te:
{ no is delennined now}
Cpl := CPgas(TI.PI); ( Heat capacily suction gas
B := UAhcf(F1ow"Cpl): ( Intennidiale we.
A := E,,-P(-B): { -"-
n R:= TI0-(T30-T5)"(I-A)IB: {Outlet suction pipe of heat ex.
{ "." Temperature profile ...... in heat exchanger
( Capill3l)' sidc: TIO dO\\TI to T5 }
{ Suction pipe : T5 up (0 Tl )
P4 :=PI: { Saturation pressure in outlet

end;
If off then
begin
end:
{-----------
l@@@@ Evaporator @@@@@}
{-----------}
{ Input : Flow.Tr,H4 }
{ Output : Qd_e.Te.Pe.P5.T5.HS }
I Parameters: he.Ae.MCe.DTsh }
{ Control we: None }
I }
Ue := 5.09+Power(Tr-Twe.0.393): I Heat transfer coefficient
Ifon then
begin
QcI_e:= Ue"Ae"(Tr-Twe): I Heat input evaporator
Pe := P4; { Saturation pressure
P5 := P4: ( No pressure loss
Te_R:=Twe-Flow"(H5-H4)/(AIfae"Aei); { Updated e\'3paration temperature
II
I
Appendix AI: Pro~!"llJII DynTherm. Pagc AI-6
( T5,H5 are already determined in capillaIY tube module}
Twe_dot := (Qd_e-F1ow·(H5-H4))/MCe: {Derivative evaporator temp.

end;
If off then
begin
Qd_e ;= Ue·Ae·(Tr-Twe);
Twe_dot := Qd_eIMCe;
end;
{------------
{ @@@@ Heal exehanger @@@@@}
{------------}
{ Input : F1ow.H5,Qd_he }
{ Output : Tl_R }
{ Parameters: None }
{ Control ~"3r: None }
{ }
lfon then
begin
{ OutpUI state calculated in the capillaIY module
end;
lfoffthen
begin
end;
{-------------
{ @@@@ Cabinet/room @@@@@}
{------------}
{ Input : Qd_e }
{ Output : Tr.Qd_r }
{ Parameters: KAr.MCr,Ta }
{ }
QdJ := KAr"(Ta-Tr); { Heat transmission to cabinellroom
Tr_dot := (Qd_r-Qd_e)/MCr. ( Time derivative cabinet temp.
( }
{ @@@@ Entropy generations @@@@@l

{------------l
{ Compressor}
lfon then
begin
S2:=SGTP(T2,P2); ( Entropy compressor outlet
Pd_s_com:=F1ow*(S2-SI)+Qd_comtra; { Entropy generation compressor
end;
lfoffthen Pd_s_com:=Qd_comtra:
(Condenser }
lfon then
Begin
S3:=SLTm); { Entropy condenser outlet
Pd_s_c:=Flow·(S3-S2)+Qd_cffa: ( Entropy generation condenser
end;
If off then Pd_s_c:=Qd_cffa;
{ Capillary tube incl. heat exchanger}
lfon then
App"ndix AI: Pro~ram DynThom. Page AI-7
begin
QuaJ:=(H-t-HLT(Te»/(RT(Te»; ( Qualily outlet capillary
S4:=Qual"SGTI'(Te,Pe)+(I-Qua!)"SLT(Te);{ Entropy outlet capill3l)'
SS:=SGTP(TS.PS); ( Ent.ropy sue. gas inlet heat exeh.
Pd_s_cap:=F1ow"(SI+S4-S3-SS); {Entropy gen. capil. & heat exch.
end;
H off then Pd_s_cap:=O.O;
{ E\"3porator }
Hon then Pd_s_e:=F1oW'"(SS-S-t)-Qd_elTr: (Entropy generntion evaporator
H off then Pd_s_e:=-Qd_elTr;
( Residual equations to solye for the implicine variables )

Hon then
begin
R(6):= Tl - TI_R; ( Temperature inlet compressor
R(7):= Tc • Tc_R; { Condensing tcmperature
RI8]:= Te - Tc_R.: { Evaporation temperatUfC
cnd;
R(l):= Dum I - W;
R(2):= Oum2 - Qd_e:
R(3):= Own3 - Qd_r:
RI41:= Own4 - Qd_com;
RISI:= OwnS - Qd_c;
{ Integration of energy consumption}

Wi_dot:=W;
Qi_e_dot := Qd_e;
{ Variable transfer}
Ydot(l):=Twc_dot;
Ydot(2):=Twe_dot;
YdOI13):=Tr_dot;
Ydot(4):=Tcom_dot:
Ydot[S):=Wi_dot:
Ydot(6):=Qi_c_dot:
Ydot(7):=Tr:
{ Integration of cntropy generations }
Ydot(8):=Pd_s_com; { Compressor
Ydot(9):=Pd_s_c; ( Condell5er
Ydot[IO):=Pd_s_cap; { Capill3l)' lllbe incl. suc. gas heat exch
Ydot[ll):=Pd_s_e; ( Evaporator
end;
procedun: DISFUNC{\"3I' Y:d)l1ycktor);

Vax
Twe.Tr : double:
begin
Twc:=YI2): Tr:=Y(3);
(------------)
{@@@@ Control strategy @@@@@}
{ }
{ Input : Twe,Tr }
{ Output : Slale }
{ }
Appendix AI: Progl"llm DynThem"_ Page AI-8
case state of
{Used if evaporator surface temp. is feedback signal in conuel }
( I : G(2):=Twe-{-20.0+273.15);}
{ The cabinet air temperalUre is the feedback signal
I : G(2):=Tr-(4.01+273.15);
2 : G(I]:=6.2+273.15-Tr,
end:
end;
procedure PARflyt(var Y:dynvektor);

begin
end;
{* ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••"' ••••••• c: }
{SI Treclc.pas} {User routines}
{SI Procblk.pas} {Simulation routines}
BEGIN (1\1ain progl"lllD I

Nrpm := 2850; { Initi?Jization of compressor frequency}
INDLAES; {Input}
lNITIALISER: {Initialize}
SIMULER; {Do simulation}
END.
Appendix At: Prolilr2JD Dy"Tht!17tl. Page AI-9
" Input file

" File DynThenn.ind
" Input file to DynTherm.PAS
"
" Simulation title
"------
DYNTIlERM: A Dynamic Thennal Model oCa Domestic Refrigerator
" Defaults: II Number of states = I

Initial stae = I
Max /I iter. = 10
Max IIjac. = I
" /I dyn.var. (II States Initial state Max II iter Max II jac)
._----------------
II 15
"Time indication : Tinit < Tend => Dynamic simulation.

Tinit >= Tend => Static simulation for init statc.
" Output I => Solutions atlnit-. end- and disc. time.

" 2 => Solutions at any time.
3 => Debugging. Ali iterations with Jacobiants.
" Save date 0 => No Savefile.

I => Solution and coefficients are saved.
" Defaults: Relative eITor = 0.000 I

Output = 2
Save data = I
Hma." = (Tend-Tinit)/2
" Tinit Tend (Relative error Output Save data Hmax)
o 2500.0 0.0001 2 25
" Dynamic variable

"Nr. Name Initial value
"-------
I Twc 29.2~
2 Twe 5.15
3 Tr 6.2
4 Team -U.65
5 Wi 0
6 Qi_e 0
7 TU 0
8 Pi_s_com 0
9 Pi_s_c 0
10 Pi_s_cap 0
II Pi_s_e 0
TILSTAND I
8 STATISKE variable
"Nr. Namc Guess (for start-state)
"------------
I Duml 10 Dummy
I
Appendix At:
2 Dwn2 10 --
Pro~m DynTherm.
• Page AI-IO
3 Dum3 10 •
4 Durn4 10 --
5 OwnS 10 --
6 TI 295 Compressor inlet temp. K.
7 Tc 298.16 Condensing temp. K.
8 Te 274.15 Evaporation temp. K.
OPARAMETRE
TILSTAND2
5 STATlSKE variable
• Nr. Name Guess (for start-state)
I Dum I 10 Dummy
2 Dum2 10 Dummy
3 Durn3 10 Dununy
4 Dum4 10 Dumm)'
5 Dum5 10 Dununy
OPARAMETRE
• Nr. Name Value (for start-state)
II
Appendix A2: Program DynAo A2-1
Program DynFlo;
{ Arne Jakobsen March 1995
{ Refrigeflltion Laboratory
{ The Tech.'1!cal Univ~rsity of Denmark
{ ##### DynAo #####
{"A dynamic thermal and hydrodyn. model ofa domestic refrigerator"
ISM 20000.5000.635000}
(SDefineud}
Uses
COn::;I'!:.; 1."". ; ~'~ .>Gelsize
crt,
Typedef, { Iypedefinilions
Vardef(.'IIl, {variable definitions common
{ for simulation and posttrcabnent
Vardefsi. { variabeldelinitions for simulation
Simu. { div. routines to the simulation
Skriv, { div. printing routines
Iigning. { equation solver
SFlin. { div. spline routines
Dossys. ( div. routines to screen and file handling etc.
Daligrnf. {div. routines to plot in graphich mode
Stanop, {reading the cowor setup and dfllws the stan up picture
grafik4a, {Simple graphich routines
Kmfun34; { Properties of refrigerant R134a.
{ **••••••••••••••• }
COnsl
Rgas = 81.4882; ( Gas constant R134a, JI(kg K)
Ta = 25+273.15: { Ambient temperature. K

T3_b = 27.0+273.15; { Ambient lemperature behind cabinet. K
{ Compressor parametre }
Vs = 3.l3e-6; { Geo. cylinder volumen, m3
Acom = 0.065; { Heat trans. area. • m'
MCcom = 1950; { 1950 Thermal C3p:1city. JIK
np = 1.09; { Polytropic expo calc of djg:h. temp.
{ Condenser parametre }
U_red_sc = 0.75: { Reduction ofheat transfer in subcool.
Alolc = 1.55; { Swface area. m'
Vtotc = 9.14e-5; { Inner volume. m3
MCc = 11500; { Thennal capacity. JIK
Alfac = 1500; ( Hcat trans. coer. W/(K m:)
Atold = 0.08; I Total inner surface m:
Voidc = 0.7; { Void limit fo~ appearance of subcool.
{ Capillary tube parametre }
fphe = 0.4; { Ffllction of pressure loss adia. part
UA_he = 0.1; { Heat trans. coer. WI(K m)
Lhe = 2.0; { Length of heat exchanger m
UAhe = UA_he*Lhe; { Heat trans. coef. WIK
{ Evaporator paramelre 1
U_red_sh = 0.75; { Reduction of heat trans. in superheat.
Alote = 0.475: { Surface area. m:
VIole ~ 7.63e-5: { In:lcr volume m3
MCe = 850.0; { Thcnnal capacity. JIK
Alfae= 750; ( He:lt trans. coer. WI( K m:)
Atotei = 0.0475; { Total inner surface area m:
Voide =0.8;
~I
I I •
Appendix A2: Program DynF10 A2-2
{ Room/cabinet paramelle }
KAr = 2.25; { Hcat loss coe[ WfK
Mer = 15500: { Thennal capacity ofcabinet 11K
var
{ Declaration of global variables
Nrpm.,Tcmax,tidgarn,Tidh : Double;
{ Most variables are used to summate energy transfers }
tidp,Trp,Qep,Wp,Pscomp,Pscp.Pscapp,Psep : Double;
SumTr.SumQe,SumW.SumQcom.,SumQc,Qcomg,Qcg : Double;
SumPscom.,SumPsc,SwnPscap,SwnPse,SumQr,Qrg: Double;
SEcomi.SEcomo,SEci,SEco,SEcapi.SEcapo,SEei,SEco : Double;
Ecomi,Ecomo,Eci,Eco,Ecapi,Ecapo.Eci,Eeo : Double;
SEwei,SE.....eo,Ewei,Eweo : Double;
{ Entropy generations }
Pd_s_com.,Pd_s_c,Pd_s_cap,Pd_s_e : double;
outfile,oultid,outbug,outvek,periode : Text; { Output file
Oldstate,NI : Integer,
FejlQshe,FejIH4 : Boolean:
wg,Qxg,TIOg,xSg,L2phg.Etasg,Etavg,X3g,Rhog,TIg,Acg,Qicg : Double;
Function Power(Yp,Xp:double) : double:

{ Calulates Yp"Xp = e>.-p(Xp·ln(Yp»
Begin
If(Yp > 0) then Power:=e>'ll(Xp·ln(yp»
else Power:~.O;
end;
Function Etavf(Pr:double) : double;

{ Calculates volumeuic efficiency for the compressor TLES3F}
{ with the pressure ratio as input }
Var
Aux double:
Begin
Aux:=Pr.
If(Aux> II) then Awe:=II:
If (Awe < 2) then Awe:=2:
Etavf:=O.542-o.089539·Aux+O.27523 ·SQRT(Awe);
end;
FUDclion Etasf(Pr.double) : double;

{ Calculates Isentropic efficiency for the compressor TLES3F }
{ The evaporator pressure in bar is input }
Var
Awe dOUble;
Begin
Au..,,:=Pr,
If (Awe > 4) then Awe:=4;
If (Awe < 0.5) then AIL'\:=O.5:
Etasf:=-I,479-1.49157·AIL,\+3.24086·SQRT(Awe)+O.08142·Sqr(AIL,\J:
end;
Function Flocapf(Pc,Pe,v3.DTsc : double; "'loa: boolean) : double;

{ Calculates now through capillary tube }
Var
a,b.c,awe : double;
Appendix A1.: Program DynF10 A1.-3
Begin
a:9J.003755049; {L = 2.9 m D = 0.66 mm}
b:9J.0306893:
e:=O.0744 15;
If (pe > Pe) then a:=-a: {Back now from evaporator to condenser
aux:=a·sqn(abs(pe-Pe)1v3)+b·DTsc+c; {gfsl
{Pressure equalization when comp off}
if equa then alL~:=a*sqrt(abs(pe-Pe)1v3);
if(aux> 10) then aux:=IO;
if (aux < -2.0) then aux:=-2.0;
aux:=auxllOOO; { k~fs)
Flocapr:=alL~;
end;
Procedure HlVXP(Xp.pp : Double:Var Hp.Tp.Vp : Double);

{ Calculation ofH.T.v based on X,P }
Var
HI,Hg.Tm,Cpl Double;
Begin
Tm := Ts(Pp); { Saturation tcmp
HI :=lll..T(Tm); I Sat. liquid enthalpy
Hg := HI+RT{Tm); { Sat. gas enthalpy
Hp:=ID+Xp*(Hg-H1); { Enthalpy
If (Hp > Hg) then { Superheated gas

Begin
TVHP(Hp.PP,Tp.Vp):
end
else
If (Hp < HI) then ( Subcooled liquid
Begin
Cpl := CPLIQ(Tm);
Tp := Tm - (Hl-Hp)/Cpl;
Vp:= VLT(Tp);
end
else {Two - phase }
Begin
Tp:=Tm;
Vp:=(I-Xp)*'VLT(Tp)+Xp*'VTP(fp,PP):
end;
end; { End Procedure HIVXP }
{- Subroutine ....ith model equations -I

procedure MODELligninger(var x,r:statvektor, var Y,Ydol:dynvektor);
( Declaration ofloca\ variables I
var
Twe,Twe,Tr,Tcom.Me,Me,Pe'pc : double; { Dynamic va;,
Twc dot.Twe dot.Tr dot.Tcom dot : double; { Time derivative
Pe dot.Pe dot - - : double; ( Time derivative
XCn,TS:re,Te : double; { Static impliclle var
{ Compressor output + internal variables I

Flo_com.Qd_com,W,TI,H2 : double;
SI.Rhol,HI.Rhos.TIs.V2s.H2s.V2.Ueom : double;
Hsat.Ssat.Tl.vl.XI_R.XI_R_n.etav.etas.TIsat : double;
I
{ Condenser OUtpUI + inlernal variables}

Qd_ci,Qd_co,QcCsc,D_R.RJ,H3S3l,v3.X3 : double;
DTsc,Ac,Aci,Asc,Tc_R.Tc_R_o,D_R_n : double;
KC,Mgc,Mglc,Mlc,Pwc : double;
Pb,flp,f2,t2p,Zk,vbc,Uic_dol,UC : double;
{ capillary tube output + internal variables }

Flo_cap,Qd_he,nO.P30,H4.T4,A,B,v4 : double;
CPl,L2ph,Q2ph,T2ph,k,nOsal : double;
{ Evaporator output + internal variables }

Qd_she,Qd_ei,Qd_eo,T5_R.H5.HSsal : double;
QuaI5,Ae,Aei,Ashe,Te_R.Te_R_o,T5_R_n : double;
Ke,Mge,MgJe,Mle,Pwe,vbe,Uie_dOI,Ue : double;
{ Heat exchanger output + internal variables }

Tl o,Hl R n . double;
A3~B3,C3,TIm,H30sal : double;
{ Cabinet/room output + inlernal variables }
Qd_r : double;
Dum 1,Dum2.Dum3.Durn4,Dum5.Tli : double;
Wi,Wi_dOI,QLe,QLe_dOI,Tr_i : double;
{ Extra variables needed to calculate enuopy generations}

52,53,54,55 : double; { spec. entropies
Qual4,Tm5 : double; { quality inlet evap.
Oo,Off,Con_2ph,Con...,gas.Eva_2ph,EvaJas : boolean; { Logical states

Tcs,T3p . : double; {Auxiallery var
begin
If (State = 1) then
begin
on := true; off:= false; {Compressor on
Con_2ph:=true; Con...,gas:=false; {Condenser two-ph=
Eva_2ph:=true; EvaJ3S:=false; {Evaporator two-phase
end;
If (Stale = 2) then
begin
on := uue; off:= false; {Compressor on
Con_2ph:~se; Con.;tS:=true; {Condenser gas
Eva_2ph:=true; Eva...,gas:~se: {Evaporator two-phase
end;
If (State = 3) then
begin
Con_2ph:=false; Con...,gas:=true; {Condenser gas
Eva_2ph:=false; EvaJas:=true; {Evaporator gas
end;
If (Stale = 4) then
begin
Con_2ph:=true: Con.J:3S:=false; {Condenser two-phase
Eva_2ph:=false: EV3...,gas:=true; {Evaporator gas
rl
Appendix A1.: Program DynF!o A1.-5
end;
If (State ~ 5) then
begin
on :~ false; off:~ true; {Compressor off
Con_2ph:""\rUe; Con...gas:~alse; {Condenser two-phase
Eva_2ph:""\rUe; EvaJas:~alse; (Evaporator two-phase
end;
If (State = 6) then
begin
on := false; off:= true; {Compressor off
Con_2ph:=false: ConJas:=true; {Condenser gas
Eva_2ph:=true; EvaJas:~a1se; {Evaporator two-phase
end;
If (State ~ 7) then
begin
on :~ false; off:= true; {Compressor off
Con_2ph:~alse; ConJa5:=true; {Condenser gas
Eva_2ph:=false; EvaJas:=true; {Evaporalor gas
end;
If (State = 8) then
begin
on := false; off:= true; {Compressor on
Con_2ph:""\rUe; ConJa5:=false: {Condenser two-phase
Eva_2ph:=false; Eva...gas:=true; {Evaporator gas
end;
{ Frequccy of compressor}
If on then Nrpm:=2850;
If off then Nrpm:=O:
{ Variable transfer }
Twc:=YII): ( Condenser wall temperature
Twe:=YI2); ( Evaporalor walllemperaturc
Tr.=YI3): { Cabinet/room temperature
Tcom:~YI4); { Compressor temperature
Wi:~YI5); { Integrated power consumption
Qi e:=YI6); ( Integrated cooling
Tr=i:=YI7); { Integrated cabineltemp.
Me:=YI12j; {Refrigerant amount evaporator
Mc:=YI13J; {Refrigerant amount condenser
Pe:=YI14]; {Pr~sure in evaporator
Pc:=YII5]: { Pressure in condenser
Ifon then
begin
T5:=X(9): { Evaporator outlet temperature
T1i:=X[ 10); { Compressor inlet temperature implicit for display
XI:=X(Il\: { Quality inlet compressor
end;
Dum 1 := XII); {Dummy for output W
Dum2 :~ XI2); {Dununy for output Qde
DumJ := XIJ): {Dummy for output Qe
Dum4:= XI4]; {Dum.my for output Flo_cap
DumS :~ X(5); {Dununy for output Flo_com
'. .'
I III
• < • -. ~ .. -
011I
• ·f --' ~ ..
II
Appendix A2: Program DynFIo
Te := X(6); {Refrigerant temperature in evaporator

Tc := XI7): {Refrigerantlemperature in condenser
T3 := X[S); {Condenser oullel temperature
{ Protection ofvariables during implicine equation solving}

If (Tr > Ta) then Tr:=Ta;
Tc_R:=Te; Tc_R:=TC; TI_R:=TI;
If(Twe < 273.15-60) thcn Twe:=273.15-60;
If(Twe> 273.15+25) then Twe:=273.15+25;
If (Twc > 273.15+65) then Twc:=273.15+65;
If (Twe < Ta) then Twc:=Ta;
If on then If(Te R > Twe) then Te R=Twe;
If (Te_R < 273.15-40) then Te_R:=273.15-40;
If on then if (Te R < Twc) then Tc R=Twc;
If (Tc_R > 273.15+70) then Tc_R::2i3.i5+70;
If (Me < 0.000025) then Me:=O.OOOO25;

If (Me < 0.000025) then Mc:=O.OOOO25;
If (Mc > 75e-3) then Mc:=75e-3;
If (Me > 75e-3) then Me:=75e-3;
If (Pe < O.leS) then Pe:=O.le5; {Evaporator pressure
If (pe > 5.0e5) then Pe:=5.0e5;
If (pc < 1.5e5) then Pc:=1.5e5; {Condenser pressure
If (pc > IS.OeS) then Pc:=I8.OcS;
If (T3_R > Tc_R) then TI_R:=Tc_R;
If on then
begin
T5 R'=T5' Xl R=XI'
Ifen' R < Ta) i1~n TI' R:=Ta;
If (T5- R > Tr) then T5 - R:=Tr.
If(T5-R <Tc R) then 1'5 R:=Te R;
If (XCR < 0.2) then XUt:=O.2;"( Quality inlet compressor
If (XI_R > 1.5) then XI_R:=L5;
end;
{ calculation of mass limits evaporator}

Pwe:=PS(fwe); { Sal. pressure corres. to walilemp.
Mge:=VtoteIVTP(fwe,Pwe); { Lower mass limit for solely gas contenl
Mle:=Vtolc!VLT(fwe); { Upper mass limit to solely liquid
Mgle:=Voide"'Mge+(I-Voide)"'M1e;{ Mass limit for subcooled oullet
Ke:=Atolel(Mgle-Mge): { Superheated area pr less kg
{ Calculation of mass limits condenser}
Pwc:=PS(Twc); { Sal. pressure corres. 10 wall temp.
Mgc:=VtotcIVTP(Twc.Pwc); ( Lower mass limit for solely gas content
Mlc:=Vtotc!VLT(Twc); { Upper mass Iimilto solely liqUid
Mglc:=Voidc·Mgc+(I-Voidc)"'M!c; {Mass limit for subcoolcd oullel
KC:=Alotc/(Mlc-Mglc); { Subeooled area pr excess kg
{"'•• F1oWT3te capillary tube .... }

If (Mc < Mglc) then { Two-phase outlet
Begin
X3:=(Mglc-Mc)/(Mglc-Mgc); {Quality out of condenser
If off then X3 := (VtotcIMc-VLT(fc_R»/(VI1'(Tc_RPc)-VLT(Tc_R»; (Bulk
if(X3 < 1.0) then (Mi"e(\ gas and liquid
Begin
Tcs:=Ts(pc);
If (Tc_R < Tcs) then v3:=X3"'VTP(Tcs.Pc)+(l-X3)·VLT(fcs) else
I I
I
Appendix A2: Program DynFlo A1-7
v3 :=XJ*V11'(Tc_RPc)+(I-X3)*VLT(Tc_R);
end
else vJ:=V11'(Tc_R.Pc); { Only gas
end
else
Begin {Subcooled liquid
Ifon then vJ:=VLT(TJ_R);
If off then vJ :=VLT(Tc_R);
X3:=O.O;
end;
{ F10wrate capillary tube }
Ifon then Flo_cap:= Flocapf(pcllOOOOO,Pe/lOOOOO.v3.Te_R-D_r.false)*1.J5;
If (off and con_2ph) then Flo_cap:= Flocapf(pclIOOOOO.PeflOOOOO.VtotcIMe,O.true):
If (off and conJas) then Flo_cap:= Flocapf(pclIOOOOO,PeflOOOOO,VtolcIMe.O.true);
If on then if (flo_cap < 0.‫סס‬OO2) then flo_cap:=O.OOO02;
{@@@@
{ Input
Compressor model
{-------------
: Pe.Pc.XI_R
{Output : F1ow.Qd_com,W.TI,H2.Tcom
{More output: TI,HI,VI
{ Parameters: Vs.KAcom.MCeom.np
{ Control var: Nrpm
{
@@@@@
}
Ucom:=(6.66+Power(Tcom-Ta b.OA51»: { Heat transfer coeffiecient W/m'K
Qd_com:= Ucom*Acom*(Tcoiit-Ta_b): {Heat loss compressor
•
Qcomg:=Qd_com; {Variable transfer to IntCle
Ifon then
begin
{ Cale ofHI.Tl.vl based on XI.Pe }
HTVXP(XI_R.Pe.HI,TI,vl);
{Density }
Rhol := llvl; Rhos:= rho!:
Etav:=EtavfCPclPe): { Volumetric efficiency

Etas:=Etasf(pe/IOOOOO)"O.85: { Isentropic efficiency
{ Massflow refrigerant }
Flo_com := Etav*Vs*Rhos"Nrpml60.0;
Rhog:=Rhos:
{ Limiting the flO"'T.!.le }
1f(FI0 com*IOOO < 0.01) then Flo com:=O.OI/IOOO:
If (Flo- com" 1000 > 2.25) then Flo- com:=2.25/IOOO:
{ Entropy inlet compressor - }
1f(X1 R> I) then SI := SGTP(TI,Pe)
else SI:=XI_R"SGTP(Te_R.Pe)+(I-XI_R)"SLT(Te_R):
{ Power input}
If(XI_R> I) then {Superheated
Begin
TVSP(SI.Pe.TIs,V2s); { TI.V2 by isentropic compression
IDs := HGTV(T2s.V2s); { Isentropic outlet enthalpy
W := F1o_com*(H2s-HI)/Etas: { Electrical Power input
end
else { Assuming inlet sat. gas. Drops evaporate in compo shell
Begin
Ssat:=SGTP(Te_R.Pe):
Hsat:=HGTP(Te_R.Pe);
TVSP(Ssat.Pc,TIs.V2s);
IDs:=HGTV(T2s.V2s);
•
I
Appendix /\2: Program DynFIo /\2-S
W:=F1o_com·(H2s-Hsal)lEtas:
end:
{ Discharge temperature talc. as polytropic process}
T2:91.5·(f1 +Tcom)·Power(PclPe,(np-I)/np):
T2sat=TS(pc);
{ Ensure that 1'2 is gas also during equation solving}
If (I'2 < 1'253t) then 1'2:=1'253t;
If (I'2 > 1'253t+90.0) then 1'2:=1'2sat+90.0;
H2:=HGiP(T2,Pc); { Enlhalpy outlet
Tcom_dot:=(W-Qd_com-F1o_com*(H2.HI»IMCcom: { Time derivative temp.
Ecomi:=W; Ec:omo:=F1o_com*(H2-HI)+Qd_com:{To summation of energy lr.lJ1.
end;
If off then
begin
F1o_com:91.0;
W:=O.O;
Tcom_dol:=-Q<tcomIMCcom;
Ecomi:=O; Ecomo:= Qd_com;
end;
{ Variable transfer used in INTCLC
Wg:=W;
If on then
Begin 1'2g:=T2-273.15: Etasg:=Etas: E13vg:=E13v: end
else {off}
Begin T2g := 0.0; Etasg:=O.O; Etavg:=O.O: end:
{ @@@@@ Condenser model @@@@@ }

{---------------}
{ Input : Fio_COm.F10W_C3p,H2,Mc }
{ Output : Qd_c,Qd_sc,Pc,Tc.T3_R.H3,Ac.Aci,Ase.Tc_R }
{ Parameters: UC,Usc.Kc.Ksc,Atotc,MCc,Ta,Alfac }
{ }
{ Calculation of area distribution}

Ast; := Kc·(Mc-Mglc): { SUbcooling area
{ Limiting the subcooling area }
If (Ase < 0) then Ast; := 0.0;
If(Asc> O.S·Alotc) then Ast;:=O.S*Atotc;
Ac := Atotc·Asc; { Outer condensation two-phase area
Aci:=Atotci·AdAtotc; ( Inner condensation ."-
Uc:=(5.99+Power(fwc-Ta_b,0.461»; { Heat transfer coefficient W/m'K
{ Outer heat rejection condenser tw-ph }
Ifon then Qd_co := Ac"'Uc·(fwc.Ta_b);
If off then Qd_co :=AlotC·Uc·(Twc-Ta_b);
( Inner heat rejection condenser lW.ph
If on then Qd_ci := Alfac*Aci·(fc_R·Twc);
If off then Qd_ci:= O.OI·Alfac*Atotci*(fc_R-Twc);
{ Detennination of ouUet condition 3 }

If ( Mc > MgIc) then { Subcooling }
Begin
{ Outlet temperature}
If on then D_R_n:= Ta+(fc_R-Ta)*Exp(-Uc·U_red_sc*Asc/(FIo_C3p·CPLlQ(fc_R»):
Ifoffthen T3 R n := Tc R:
H3:=HLTm=R=n); - { Enthalpy ouUet
H3sat:=HLT(fc_R); { Enlhalpy saturated outlet
Appendix A2: Program DynFIo A2-9
{ Heat of subcooling }
If on then Qd_5C:~Ao_cap"(H3sat-H3):
If off then Qd_sc:=O.O:
end
else
Begin
{ No subcooling }
Qd_sc:=O;
D_R_n :~ Tc_R;
{ Enthalpy outlet }
If (X3 < 1.0) then H3 :=X3"HGTP(Tc_R.Pc)+(I-X3)"HLT(T3_R_n) else
H3::HGTP(Tc_R,Pc);
end;
{ Derivative condenser wall temp.
Twc_dot ::(Qd_ci-Qd_co)/MCc;
{ Dcrivative condenser pressure and refrigerant bulk tempcranue }
Vbc:=VtotcIMc: {Bulk specific volume
{ Overall energy balance }
Ifon thcn Uic_dot:=Ao_com"lU-Ao_cap"H3-Qd_ci-Qd_sc;
If off then Uic_dot:=Flo_cap"H3-Qd_ci-Q<Csc:
lfcon_2ph then { two-phase in condenser

Begin
Pb::PclIOOOOO.O:
If (pb < 0.5) then Pb:=O.5; If (Ph;' 25) then Pb:=25:
{ fl: (ug-ul)/(vg-\'I) }
{ f2: (vg"ul-vl"ug)/(vg-vl) }
{ flp: dfi/dp }
{ 12p = d12Idp }
{ Datafit for Rl34a updaled 19/1-95}
fl p::8.9638699-l2+O.05171258"Pb-l.3765118soLn(Pb);
12:: -4037.2488+20531.4 I982°Ln(pb)+ 17300.44042"Sqn(pb):
12p:=O.0505I S082+6.90 13e-S"Pb-O.O 1152506°Ln(Pb)+o.2338734S7IPb:
Pc_dot:= (Uic_dol-(FIo_com-F1o_cap)"12)/(VlotC"np+Mc"12p);
Tc_R_n::Ts(pc):
end;
If con...,gas t.'len { gas phase in condenscr
Begin
Tc R n:=TVP(vbc.Pc):
Tc~:=Ts(pc);
If (Tc R n < Tcs) then Tc R n:= Tcs: {Ensure gas region is used
Zk:=<pc*vbc)/(Rgas"Tc_R-=,n);
PC_dOI::Zk"Rgas"Uic_dotl(VlotC"CVgas(Tc_R_n,vbc»;
end;
Dp::Ts(pc);
X3g::(H3-HLT(T3p»/RT(T3p); (Quali!)' of autiel
Acg:=Ac; Qicg::Qd_ci; Qcg:=Qd_co+Qd_sc: { Variable lr.lnSfer
if on then Eci:=Ao_com"H2-F1o_cap"H3 else Eci ;= -Ao_cap"H3:
Eco:=Qd_co+Qd_sc;
(--------------
{@@@@ Capillary tube & heal e.,,<ch. @@@@@}
{ J
{ Input : TJ.H3.Tl.vJ.TS }
{Output : Qd_he.DO,PJO.H4.no_cap.HI.HS,X5 }
{ Paramelers : fphe.UAhe }
{ Control VaT: None }
{ }
I
Appendix Al: Program DynFIo Al-IO
Ifon then
begin
P30 := Pc-fphe·(pc-Pe); { Pressure outlet adiabatic part
{ TIO determined from IDO = H3 )
{ H4 = H3-QhelFlo_cap }
{ and Qhe = Flo_com·{HI-H5) }
{ H5 is determined as the first thing }
{ H I is already calculated previously }
{ ••• Temperature profile •••• in heat exchanger

{ Capillary side: TIO down to T5
{ Suction pipe: T5 up to TI
{ The calculated output of the next scx:tion is: H5
{ 11## Outlet of C\'lIporator superheated ###
If (Me < Mgle) then Begin
{ Enthalpy out of evaporator}
If (TS_R > Te_R) then HS := HGTP(T5_R.Pe)
else H5:=HGTP(Te_R.Pe);
QuaIS :=(Mle-Me)/(Mle-Mgle);
end
else
begin ( Two-phase oUl of evaporator
Qual5:=(Mle.Me)/(Mle.Mgle); ( XS
{ Limiting quality out of evaporator}
If (QuaIS < 0.2) then Qual5:=O.2;
If(QualS> 1.0) then Qual5:=1.0;
HS:=HLT(Te_R)-+QuaIS·RT(Te_R);
end;
{ Saturation pressure in outlet
{ Calculation of DO using H30 = HJ }
TIOsat:=Ts(P30);
H30sat:=HLT(T30sat);
( Sat curve for R13.Ja J
TIO:=(273.15-39.999)+8.3769S06e-4·H3-8.041237Ie-10·H3·H3;
If (T30 > nOsat) then nO:=TIOsat: {Saturated
If (T30 < Te_R) then TIO:=Te_R:
1f(T30 > TJ_R) then TIO :=D_R:
{ ##II Outlet of evaporator superheated ### }

If (Me < Mgle) then Begin
{ Heat capacil)' suction gas }
If (XI_R > I) then CPI := CPgas«TI+TS_R)/2.Pe)
else Cpl := CPgas(Te_R.Pe):
B := UAhel(FIo_com·Cpl); { Inlennidiate var.
A := EXP{-B); { .".
TI_n:= TIO-(TJO-T5_R)·(I-A)IB: {T Outlet suction pipe
{ Enthalpy into compressor }
If (T1_n > Te_R) then HI_R_n:= HGTP(TI_nJ'e) else
HI R n:= HGI1'(Te R.Pe);
L2ph:~; -
end
else
begin ( Two-phase out of evaporator
k:=(T30.T5)/Lhe; { Temp. slope capillary side
if (k < 0.‫סס‬OO1) then k:=O.OOOOI;
( calculation of two-phase length in suction line heal exchanger}
Q2ph:=F1o_com·(ffi.T(Te_R)+RT(Te_R)-H5); ( Heat of evaporation
{ Length of e\'lIporation in suction line}
II
I
L2ph:=SQRT(2'Q2ph/(UA_he'k»;
{ .. Two-phase to compressor U}
If (L2ph > O.99·Lhe) then
Begin
TI n:=Te R;
HI='R_n:=Hs+UAhe·O.S·(TJO-Te_R)lF1o_com;
end
else
Begin {Superheated input compressor
If (L2ph > Lhe) then L2ph:=O.999·Lhe;
T2ph:=TS_R+L2phILhc'(f3O-TS_R); {Cap. temp where two-phase ends
If (XI_R > I) then Cpl:=CPgasCTe_R.Pe)
else Cpl :=CPgas(CT I+TS_R)/2.Pe);
B:=UA_he'(Lhe-L2ph)/(Flo_com'Cpl);
A:=Exp(-B);
Tl_n:= TIO-(T2ph-T5_R)' A-{DO-T2ph)'(1-A)IB; {T Outlet suction pipe
If (fl n < TS R) then Tl n:=TS R;
If(f(n > Te=R) then Hl=R_n:=HGTP(fI_n.Pe)
else HI_R_n:=HGTPCTe_R.Pe);
end;
end;
{ Calculation of Qhe }
Qd_he := Flo_com'(HI-H5); { Heattransmission in heat c.xch.
TIOg:=no; X5g:=Qual5; L2phg:=L2ph;
{ Calculation of H~ }
H~ := H3-Qd_helF1o_c:ap; ( Outlet enlhalpy
If(H4 < I) then Begin H~:=I; Fej1H~:=True; end else FejIH~:=False;
If(H4> 300000) then Begin H~:=300000; FejIH4:=True; end;
nOg:=TIO; XSg:=QuaIS; L2phg:=L2ph;
end;
If olf then
begin
Qd_he:=O.O; (No heat transferred in heat c."changer
H~:=H3;
end;
Qxg:=Qd_he;
Ecapi :=Flo_c:ap'(H3-H4);
Ifon then Ecapo:=F1o_com'(HI-H5) else Ecapo:=O.O;
{ }
{ @@@@@ Evaporator @@@@@}

{-------------}
{ Input : Flo_corn.F1o_cap.Tr.H4.Me }
{ Output : Qd_e.Te.Pe.TS_R.H5.HSsat.Ae.Aei }
{ Par.unelers : Ue.Ushe.Atote.MCe.Ke.Kshe.A1fae }
{ Control wr: None }
{ }
Ashe := Ke'(Mgle-Me); { Superheat area

{ Limiting superheat area }
If (Ashe < 0) then Ashe := 0;
If (Ashe > O.S·Atole) then Ashe:= O.S*Alole;
Ae := Atole - Ashe; { Outer two phase area
Aei:= Atolei'AeiAtote; ( Inner two phase area
Ue:=5.09+Power(fr-Twe.OJ93); { Heal transfer coc[ W/m~K
{ Determination of outlet condition S

If (Me < Mgle) then { Superheat }
i
I I
BCgi.l
(Outlct temp.}
If On thcn TS_R_n:=Tr-{Tr-Tc_R)*E:ql(-Ue*UJed_sh*Ashcl(FIo_com*CPGASCTS_R.Pe))):
If off thcn TS R n:=Te R;
HSsat:=ffi.T(fc=R)+RTCTc_R); { Saturated enthalpy
If an thcn Q<tshe:=F1o_com*(H5-HSsat);
If off then Qd_shc:=O.O;
If(Qd_shc < -{).OOOI) thcn FcjIQshe:=True else FejIQshe:=False;
cnd
clse
Begin {No superheat
Qd_she :=0;
TS R n ;=Te R;
end;- - -
{ Outer heat input evaporator two phase 1
If on then Qd_co := Ue*Ac*(Tr-Twc);
lfoffthcn Qd_co;= Ue*Atote*CTr-Twc);
{ Inner heat input evaporator two phase }
If on then Qd ei := Alfae*Aei*CTwc-Tc R);
If off then Qd=ei ;= Alfae*Atotei*(Twe-Te_R);
{Derivative evaporator wall temperature.}

Tv."C_dot := (Qd_eo-Qd_ei)/MCe;
Ewei;=Qd_ei; Ev."CO:=Qd_eo;
{ Derivative evaporator pressure and refrigerant bulk temperature}
Vbe:=VtotelMc; {Bulk specific volwne
( Overall energy balance }
lfon then Uie_dot:=F1o_eap*H~F1o_com"HS+Qd_ei+Qd_she;
If off thcn Uic_dol:=F1o_cap*HHQd_ci+Qd_she;
lfeva_2ph then {two-phase in evaporator

Begin
Pb:=PclIOOOOO.O;
If (Pb < 0.5) then Pb:=O.S; If (Pb ;> 25) thcn Pb:=2S;
{ 0: (ug-ul)l(vg-vl) }
( 12: (vg*ul-vl*ug)/(vg-vl) }
{ Op = dflldp }
{ I2p = dl2ldp }
{ Datafit for R134a updated 1911-95 }
np:=8.927373014-+{).0424~774*Pb-l.3241S83*Ln(pb);
12:= -7637.29189+ 147S3.88369·Ln(Pb)+231 19. 19206*Sqn(pb):
I2p;9). 105896936+0.0053 109 19*Pb-{}.OS 108ISS*Ln(pb)+O.149929396IPb;
Pe_dot:= (lJie_dot-(FIo_eap-F1o_com)*I2)I(Vlote*n p+Me*l2p):
Te_R_n:=Ts(pe);
end;
If cvaJas thcn {gas phase in C\'lIporator
Bcgin
Te_R_n:=TVP(vbe.Pe);
Zk:=(pe*vbe)l(Rgas*Tc_R_n):
Pc_dOI:=Zk*Rgas*Uie_dot/(Vlole*CVgasCTe_R_n.vbc»);
end;
Eei:=Qd_eo+Qd_she:
lfon then Eeo;=Flo_com*HS-F1o_cap*H4 else Eco:= -Flo_cap"H4:
•
Appendix Al: Program DynFlo Al-13
{------------}
{ @@@@ Heat e.'(changer @@@@@ }
{ }
{ Input : HI_R_n.Te }
{Output : XI_R_n }
{ }
If on then
begin
{ Most output state calculated in the capillary module
XI_R_n:=(HI_R_n - HLT(Te_R»/RT(Te_R);
If(XI_R_n < QuaIS) then XI_R_n:=QualS;
If(XI_R_n> 2) then XI_R_n:=2.0;
lftXI_R_n < 0) then XI_R_n:=O.O;
end;-
If off then
begin
end;
{ }
{ @@@@ Cabinet/room @@@@@ }
{ }
{ Input : Qd_c.Q(Ulle }
{Output : Tr.Qd_r }
{ Parametcrs : KAr.MCr,Ta }
{ Control \'31": None }
{ }
Qd_r ;= KAr*(Ta-Tr); { Heat transmission to cabinetlroom }
Tr_dot := (Qd_r-Qd_eo-Qd_slle)/MCr. {Time derivative cabinet temp.
Qrg:=Qd_r.
{ }
f @@@@ Entropy generations @@@@@}
{ }
( Compressor)
lfon thcn
begin
S2;=SGTP(T2.Pc); { Entropy compressor outlet }
Pd_s_com:=F1o_com*(S2-SI)+Qd_comtra:( Entropy gen. compressor}
end;
lfolfthen Pd_s_com:=Qd_comtra;
{Condenser }
{ Enlrop~' condcnser ouLlet }
If(Con~as) then S3:=SGTI'(Tc_RPc) else
Begin
If(Mc < Mglc) then S3:=X3*SGTP(Tc_RPc)+(I-X3)*SLT(Tc_R)
else S3:=SLT(T3_R);
-
end;
lfon then Pd_s_c:=F10_cap"S3-F\0_com"S2+(Qd_co+Qd_sc)rra;
If off then Pd_s_c:=F1o_cap·S3+(Qd_co+Qd_sc)rra;
{ Capillary tube inc\. Ileat e.xchanger }
Qual4:=(H4-HLT(Te R»/(RT(Te R»; { Quality outlct capillary
If (QuaI4 < 0) then Q;;aJ4:=O: -
{ Entropy ouLlet capillary }
if(QuaJ4 < I) then S4:=QuaJ4*SGTP(Te_R.Pe)+(I~a\4)*SLT(Te_R)
else Begin TVHP(IRPe,T4. V4);
S4:=SGTP(T4.Pe);
(I
I
Appendix A2: Program DynFlo A2-IJ
end:
Ifon then
begin
{ Entropy suc. gas inlet heat exch.}
TmS:=TS(pe);
If (T5_R > Tm5) then SS:=SGTP(fS_R.Pe)
else SS:=QualS$SGTP(fmS.Pe)+(l-Qua1S)$SLT(TmS);
{.. Entropy generation capil. &. heat exch... }
Pd_s_cap:=Flo_com$(S I-SS)+Flo_cap-(SJ-S3);
end;
If off then Pd_s_C1p:=Flo_C1p-(S4-S3);
{ Entropy gen. evaporalor}
If On then Pd_s_e:=Flo_com-SS-Flo_C3p$S4-{Qd_eo-+Qd_she)fI'r,
If off then Pd_s_e:=-Qd_corrr-Flo_C1p$S4;
{ Residual equations to sol"e for the implicitte variables }

Ifon thcn
begin
R(9]:= TS • TS_R_n:
R(lO):= Tli - TI:
{ Tempcr.llure outlel evaporator
{ Temperature inlet compressor
11m_a.__
Rlll):= (XI - Xl_R_o)$lOO: {Quality inlet compressor
{ Temperature e\"3poration
end;
R[ 1]:= Dum 1 - W; { Dummy output
<1.!21:= Dum2 - (Qd_eo+Qd_she); { Cooling performance
R[31:= Dum3 - (Qd_co-+Qd_sc); { Heat rejection condenser
R[4):= Dum4 - Flo_cap$1000: ( Flow through capillary lUbe
R(S):= DumS - Flo_com· 1000; { Flow from compressor }
R[6):= Te - Te_R_n: { Temperature refrigerant evaporator}
R[7):= Tc - TC_R_n; { Temper:llure refrigerant condenser }
Rlg):= D - T3_R_n: { Temperature outlet condenser }
{ Integration of energy conswnption}

Wi dot:=W:
Qi:e_dot := (Qd_eo+Qd_she):
{ Variable transfer}
Ydot[1]:=Twc_dol;
YdotI21:=Twc_dot:
Ydot(3]:=Tr_dot;
Ydot(4]:=Tcom dot
YdotIS]:=Wi_rnn:
YdotI6]:=Qi_e_dot;
Ydot[7] :=(fr-273.1S);
{ Integration of entropy generntions }
Ydot[8]:=Pd_s_com; { Compressor
Ydot[91:=Pd_s_C", { Condenser }
Ydot[lO]:=Pd_s_cap; {CapillaJY tube inel. sue. g3S heatexeh }
Ydotlll):=Pd_s_e; {Evaporator }
{ Integration of refrigerant}
Ydot[l2):=Flo_cap-Flo_eom; {Evaporator
Ydot[13j:=Flo_com-Flo_cap: { Condenser
Begin
Ydot[l21:=O:
YdOI[13[:=O;
end;
Ydot[14]:=Pe_dot; { Derivative condenser pressure
Ydot[1Sj:=Pc_dot: { Derivative evaporalor pressure
I
I
II I J
end;
procedure DlSFUNC(v3r Y:dynvektor);

Var
Twe,Twc,Pwe,Pwc,Xbc.>"'be,vbc,vbc,Me.Mc,Pe,Pc,Tr : double;
Gal,Ga2,GbI.Gb2,GcI.Gc2.Tse,Tsc : double;
begin
Twc:=Y[l); Twe:=Y(2); Me:=Y[l2); Mc:=Y(13): Pe:=Y[14j; Pc:=Y[ 15);Tr:=Y[3);
( @@@@ Control strategy @@@@@)
{ }
{ Input : Twe or Tr }
( OutpUI : Slale I 10 4 on; slale 5·8 off }
{ Paramelers : None }
{ }
{ lis Ga 1 and Ga 2 thai swi!hes !he conpressor on and off }
{ Ga 1:= Twe-(-20.0+273.15); Change from on 10 off -20.0
{Ga2:= 2+273,IS-Twe; Change from off 10 on
Gal:=Tr-{4.01+273,15); { Change from on 10 off
{Gal:=888.0-Tid;) {Fixed On-period 8/12-94
Ga2:=(6.2+273.15)-Tr; {Change from off 10 on
{ Refrigerant slale in condenser}
Pwc:=Ps[fwc);
vb<::=VlotcIMc;
Xbc:=(vbc-VLT(Twc»/(VI'P(fwe,Pwe)- VI..TCfwe»;
Gbl:= l-Xbc; { Change from two-phase to gas
Gb2:= Xbc - 0.9999; ( Change from gas 10 two-phase
( Refrigeranl slale in !MIp.J!dlor )

Tse:=Ts(pe);
Vbc:=Vlote!Me;
Xbe:=(vbe-VI..T(Tse»f(Vl'PCTse,Pe)· VI..TCTS<'));
Gel:= l-Xbc; ( Change from two-phase 10 gas
Ge2:= ){be - 0.9999; { Change from gas to two-phase
case Slate of
1 : Begin
GI2):=Gbl; G(4):=GeI; G[5):=Gal;
end;
: &:gin
G[1]:=Gb2; G[3):=Gcl: G(6):=Gal;
end;
: Begin
GI2):=Gc2; G(4):=Gb2; G(7):=Gal;
enci;
: Begin
Gll):=Gc2; G13l:=Gbl; G[8):=031;
end;
: Begin
G[I):=Ga2; GI6J:=Gb1; G(8):=GeI;
end;
6 : Begin
G(2):=Ga2; G[=::=G~2; G[7):=Ge1;
end;
: Begin
GI3):=Ga2; GI61:=Gc2; G[8j:=Gb2;
end;
8 : Begin
.• I II
II
Appendix A2: Progrnrn DynFIo A2-16
G(41:=Ga2; GIS):=Gc2; G[7):=Gbl;

end;
end;
end;
procedure PARflyt(var Y:dynvektor);

begin
end;
{ }
{SI Treks350.pas} {User routines}
{SI i'rocblk.pas} {Simulation routines}
BEGIN { Main program }

Nrpm:=2850;
INDLAES; {Inpul}
INITIALISER; {Initialize}
SIMULER; {Do simulation}
I
" Inpul File 10 DynF1o.PAS

"
" Simulation title
DynF1o: A Dynamic model Incl. refrig. movement ofa domestic refrigeralor
" Defaults: # Number of states = I

Initial stae = I
Ma.'C II iter. = 10
Ma'C#jae. = I
" # dyn.var. (# Slales Initial state Ma.'C # iter Max # jac)

"-------------------
15 2 49 4
" Time indicllion : Tinil <: Tend => Dynamie simulation.

Tinit >= Tend => Slatic simulation for init state.
" Output I => Solutions at Init-. end- and disc. time.

... * 2 => Solutions at any time.
3 => Debugging. All iterations v.ith Jacobiants.
• Save date o => No Savefile.

I => Solution and coefficients are saved.
• Defaults: Relative error = 0.0001

Output =2
Save dala = 1
Hmax = (Tend-Tinit)/2
• Tinit Tend (Relative error Output Save data Hmax)

*-------------------
0.0 2500 0.0001 2 2.0
• Dynamic variable
• Nr. Name Initial value
*-------
I Twc 29.237
2 Twe 5.154
3 Tr 6.2
4 Tcom 44.651
5 Wi 0
6 Qi_e 0
7 Tr i 0
8 Pi-s com 0
9 pCs=c 0
10 Pi_s_cap 0
'II
II Pi_s_c 0
12 Me 54.595e-3 Refrigerant in evaporator R134a
13 Me 1.406e-3 Refrigerant in condenser RI34a
H Pe 5.145 °C. saturation pressure in evap.
15 Pc 5.145 °C. salUration pressure in condo
TILSTAND2
II STATISKE variable
* Nr. Name Guess (for start-slate)
•
Duml 10 Dummy
r I .,
I II II
Appendix A2: Program DynFIo A2-18
2 Dwn2 10 --
3
4
Dum3 10
Dum4 0.1
--
5 Dum5 0.4
6 Te 270 Evaporation temperature K.
7 Tc 301 Condensation tcmperatlll'e K.
g T3 298.44 Condenser outlet temp. K.
9 T5 277.92 Evaporalor outiel temp. K.
10 Tli 290 Compressor inlet lemp. K.
11 XI 0.4 Quality inlet compressor
OPARAMETRE
Tll..STAND 1
-.. 11 STATISKE variable
OPARAMETRE
Tll..STAND 3
11 STATlSKE variable
OPARAMETRE
'l1LSTAND4
11 STATISKF. variable
OPARAMElRE
Tll..STAND 5
g STATISKE variable
* Nr. Name Guess (for stan-Slale)
*
I Dum I 10
2 Dwn2 10
3 Dum3 10 Dummy
4 Dum4 0.1 Dummy
5 Dum5 0.3 Dummy
6 Te 257.94 Evaporation temperalure K.
7 Tc 307.54 Condensation temperature K.
8 T3 305.0 Condenser outlet tcmp. K.
't
OPARAMElRE
• Nr. Name Value (for stan-state)
*---------
Tll..STAND6
8 STATISKE variable
OPARAMETRE
Tll..STAND 7
g STATISKE variable
OP....RAMETRE
mSTAND8
8 STATISKE variable
OPARAMETRE
-.l"
','
.:.'.\," ". ,:·:~'··;:~;~0:>··.,;· . :::< ~ /:::;>·~'~\\~-:,:~~~·.:"~>·::.{;;,J~~~t'~~i~;:i~,:?~;j ·::~:~:.Y:·:,~::;::··:;·:·.·.~:<:' ':' ~ ..

Appendix B: Calculation of U-values Page Bl
Calculations of V-values for the condenser, compressor and

evaporator.
The dominant heat transfer resistance for the condenser, compressor and the evaporator is the
heat transfer to the surrounding air. In all three cases the total heat transfer is a combination of
both natural convection and radiation.
Consider the situation where a vertical plate transfers heat to the surrounding air by natural
convection and heat to an external wall by radiation. The radiation to the air itselfis negligible.
Surrounding
air
TH Tw .............
__on."e~
~
Ta ~
E)(ternalwall
Jt'Texw
1
Figure Bl: Heat transfer from vertical plate.
q=qconv +qrad (BI)
The equations above express that the total heat transfer, which consist of a convection and a
radiation part.
Appendix B: Calculation of U-values PageB2
q"""" =U• . (T" - T.) is the convective part, where U< is the convective heat transfer
coefficient.
grad =u'E.(T: - T:"')=U r ·(T" - T.) is the radiation part, where Ur is the corresponding
heat transfer coefficient.
cr = 5.67 10.8 W/(m2 K4) is Boltzmann's constant and
I: '" 0.9 is the emissivity for painted surfaces at '" 300 K.
q=U ·(T.. - 1",,) ,where U= U. + Ur
In the model developed T.. and T. are variables, whereas T.... is unknown (not modelled). In
this case the external wall (walls and shelves in the refrigerator cabinet or back plate behind the
refrigerator) will have a temperature, which is only slightly different from the air (0.5 °C -7
3 DC). In the following calculations it is assumed that Tat<' = T•.

The calculation of the heat transfer coefficient accounting for the natural convection is done
using an expression of the type (see e.g. S. Kristensen [1] ):
Nu=C·(Ra)" ,where
Nu: Nusselt number, and
Ra: Raleigh number.
By defimtlon
.. we get ;I'
U < = Nu A. , where H is the characteristic height and ..l,,/r is the
thermal conductivity for air.

For the condenser we assume:
H = 1.0 m , T.= 298.15 K (25°C)
The driving temperature difference /)"T= (T.. - T.) is obtained by variation of the surface
temperature of the condenser (T..). In Figure B2 the U-values for convection, radiation and the
total heat transfer are shown.
It rums out that the total heat transfer coefficient can be fitted as:
IU = 5.99+ tJ.TO. ~I forthe condenser.

61
(B2)
Data from this correlation are also shown in Figure B2.

, , .0
, 0 .0
9.0
a .0
7 .0
ROIl diatio n
S .0
5 .0
Convection
4 .0
J .0
2 .0
, .0
o .0
Figure B2: Condenser, heat transfer coefficients to air.
For the compressor where H = 0.17 m, the results are shown in Figure B3. In this case we get:
!U=6066+ll.T04SI ~I (B3)
13.0
12,0
3 1"
VI 1(. a Ie: >1
~
, 1 .0
10,0
S .0
8.0
7.0 Rildialion
6.0
5.0 __----------c;;o:-:.n V CO c: t: ion

•. 0
J .0
2.0
I
40 0 50 0
Figure B3: Compressor, heat transfer coefficients to air.

I I
Finally the results in the case of the evaporator are shown in Figure B4. which is based on:
H = 0.6 Il\ To = 5 °C and the definition ofthe temperature difference 6.T= (T. - Tw )'
, 0 .0
9.0 To la I: C ;I Ie u 101 tlo n _ n d r It
8.0
7.0
6.0
Convection
5.0
•• 0
1~
Radialion
3.0
2.0
, .0
~
I i i ' I ' i I I I
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 2 0 .0 25 .0 :J 0 .0
Figure B4: Evaporator. heat transfer coefficients to air.
For the evaporator we get the following datafit:
I.U=5.09+6.T
0393
W
m 2K
I (B4)
The derived datafits are used in the systemmodel of the domestic refiigerator.
I.
Appendix C: Equation for time derivative of pressure Page Cl
Derivation of equation for pressure of refrigerant.
In this appendix equations for the time derivative of the pressure of the refrigerant are derived
and are based on first principles. It is a lumped model (or equilibrium model), that is the
thennodynamic state is the same all over in the control volume in question.
For a two-phase mixture (gas-liquid) the following equations are valid:
U=Mg 'lI g + M, '/1, = M·(X· ug +(1- X)· u,) (Cl)

where the following notation is used:
V Internal energy of refrigerant.

M Mass of refrigerant (= Mg+Mt ).
X Quality of refrigerant (X = MglM)
g,l Indices indicating gas respective liquid phase.
The relationship between specific volume (v) and quality (X) is:
v=..!:::..=Vg+V1 M •. v.+,\t!,'v, X,v.+(I-X).v, (C2)
M M M -----~
or
v-v v - v
X=--'- and (1- X) = - "- (C3)
v g - vt vg - v,
Insening C3 in Cl leads to the following expression for the internal energy:
V-VI v.-v V ·u,-v"ug ug-u,

U=M·(---·u, +---u,)=M·( • +v._-) (C-I)
~-~ ~-~ ~-~ ~-~
U - II v. '/1, - v, ·u<
Defining: I, =-'--' and I: leads to :
v. - v, V. - v,
u =V . /, + M· /1 (C5)
It should be noted thatlt,f2 depends on the pressurep only_
--
Appendix C: Equation for time derivative of pressure Page C2
Ifwe differentiate C5 with respect to time we get:

dU d/, dM df. dJ; dp dM df. tip
- = V · - + f . · - + M ·_- =V·--+f.·-+M·---=-- (C6)
dT d T · dT dT dp dT - dT dp dr
From the equation above the time derivative of the pressure is found:
tip
(C7)
dT
At first hand it might be difficult to enjoy the beauty of the expression above but it turns out
that everything on the right h:!nd side is known.
dU comes directly ITom an energy balance of the control volume. dM is found from the
~ ~
equation of continuity (mass balance) and the equations involving 1/ and h can be found
numerically from the property routines. For Rl34a the following data-fit expressions are
found:
dJ; = 8.96387 +0.051713· p -1376512.ln(p)

dp
12 =- 403725 + 20531.42 ·In(p) + 17300.4 . .JP

d/~ = 0.05052 + 6.9013 . 10-5 • P _ 0.0 II 525 . In(p) + 0233873 5
tip P
The unit for the pressure is "bar" in the expressions above, but otherwise the units are SI. The
statistical errors of the fits are negligible when the pressure is between 0.5 bar and 25 bar.
The same approach as used above could be used for superheated gas. However it is
numerically more stable and faster to use a perfect gas law corrected by a compressibility
factor.
The gas law may be written:
p. v = Z· R· T , that is the compressibility factor Z is :
Z = p' v . In the modelling p and v are known from dynamic variables and T is found using a
T·R
property routine. That is Z can be calculated from the state of the refrigerant. So far the
approach is "exact". Now it is used so that the internal energy of a perfect gas depends on
temperature only:
. !
I
I
Appendix C: Equation for time derivative of pressure Page C3
dU d(Mon
U == M· CV • T =:> - == c 0 - - - from the perfect gas law we get:
d. • d.
po V d(M· T) V dp fi aI . fi . d' . f
M· T == Z R0 =:> ~ == Z. R . d. or n ly the expressIon or the tIme envauve 0
the pressure is:
dU
Z.R.
dp d.
(C8)
d. C.' V
I
L I
Appendix D: Solution of differential equations in heat exchange model PageDl
Solution of differential e~jJations in the heat exchange model.
In Section 6.4.3.2 in the main report the overall considerations regarding the heat exchange
model are given. The solution ofthe differential equations involved are treated in more detail in
this appendix.
LHe
Ts
. "
Figure D. I: Assumed temperature profile in heat exchanger.
• ·.k~ ..~"_ ,;':;.,
Three cases can occur depending on the state of the refrigerant in the suction line. If the exit
. . .; ..
... ... . '. .'~ ....
from the evaporator, state point ® is a mixture of gas and liquid, the first part of the heat
exchanger (L 2ph ) on the "suction side" will consist ofa two-phase flow with evaporation. If the
heat transferred is not sufficient to evaporate the liquid (L 2ph > L H .) the two-phase flow will
exist all the way and accordingly the temperature will be constant and equal to T. (remember
that pressure IOSlO is disregarded in the suction line).
First consider the case where the outlet of the evaporator is ~ (X.l ~ 1 and L 2ph = 0).
A differential energy balance gives:

m.... · en ·d~ =UA'H.-(T..,p - Tg)·dZ (DJ)
I
Appendix D: Solution of differential equations in heat exchange model PageD2
Tg is the variable temperature of the refrigerant in the suct:on line. Teap is the corresponding
temperature in the capillary tube. dZ is an infinitesimal length ofthe heat exchanger.
VA 'He =UAHJLHe is the heat transfer coefficient per unit length.
As mentioned in Section 6.4.3.2 in the main report the temperature profile in the capillal)' tube
is assumed to vary linearly with the length of the capillary tube.
- T. )
Inserting T""" =Ts + (T. 30 S. Z ; 05 Z :5; L Hr
L He
leads to
dT" =K·(a.Z+b-T,,)'dZ (D2)
Where K == UA' Hr and

riI...., ·Cpg
Substitution of y =a-K '(a 'Z+b- TrJ gives this differential equation
dy =- K· Y , which easily is solved: y = A 'exp(-K'Z) • where A is an integration constant.

dZ
When the back substitution is carried out the solution is:
A a
T = - . exp(-K·Z) - - + Q. Z +b (D3)
g K K
A is found from the boundary condition Tg(z=o) = Tj , which gives A = a.
T
g
=~(exp(-K.
K Z)-I) + a· Z.,..b (D4)
Recognising that T1 = Tg(Z=L",) gives:
(D5)
If the outlet of the evaporator is a two-phase flow eX, < 1) the length L2ph can be calculated as
follows:
Define Qz,.. =m«lm . (1 - X s)' Mevof'
&
The temperature difference across the heat exchanger is T<01' - Tr
as long a two-phase flow exists in the suction line.
I
Appendix D: Solution ofdifferential equations in heat exchange merlel . PageD3
The heat transferred is then:
6 =LoS'" (1;0 - T. ). Z. UA' .dZ (D6)

_2ph 0 LH~ H~
It means that the two-phase length is:

2· QzP' ·LH•
L zph =_1--,-=--':':":"'- (D7)
UA H.-(I;o - T.)
If L 2ph ;:: L H• then the state point <D (the inlet to the compressor) will still be a mixture of liquid
and gas. In this case is: T/ = T•.
If 0 <L2ph < L H• , the length "L H.-L2ph" is similar to the first case with gas in the suction line
side of the heat exchanger. Please refer to figure Dl for an illustration of the temperature
profiles. The temperature in the capillary tube decreases from T30 to T2ph , whereas the
corresponding temperature increase in the suction line is from Ts = Te to T/. Where:
L Zph
1;p. =T. + --·(7;0 - T.)
L H•
Equation D3 is in principle still valid for the "gas part" of the heat exchange, when the co-
ordinate interval is changed to 0 $ Z 5 LHe-L2ph . In this case b = T2ph , while a is unchanged.
The boundary condition Tg(z~o) = Ts gives A = (Ts-T2Pr) ·K + a

Inserting T/ = Tg(Z'L,...L..,) gives the following result:
(D8)
(1;0 - 7;p') ( \
1; =1;0 . 1- exp(-K . (L H• - L zp ' ))r (TZph - Ts)· exp( -K . (L He - L Zph ))
K· (L H • - L zph )
It can be shown that (D8) leads to (D5) if L 2ph = O. In this limiting case is Ts = T. = T2ph .
If L 2ph = L H• then (DB) is not defined but it can be seen that when L 2ph approaches L H• then
approaches T/: T3o-(T3o-T.) = Te •

Jakobsen (1995)

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I I.

1)KCi''-O.-tl?...(., .);Tl.L_LrJ<.- F -- 17"- I

* The Domestic Refrigerator - a Case Study *

Ph. D. Thesis Report F-179-1

DiSTRIBUTION OF THiS DOCUMENT is UNLIMITED

. ~ .'- ,._.... ...'"',. '

About the Report

Any questions regarding the report should be adressed to:

Lyngby. July 1995

Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems. March 1995, Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen ii

Background for Ph.D. Study

I Refrigeration Laboratory, DTU. Denmark

investigating the use of continuous capacity control of a refiigerator by the use of a

The report is structured in five parts:

Part I - Background: Section 1 ~ Section 2 provide information regarding the energy

Part m - Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator: Section 6 0+ Section 9 describe the

Part V - Evaluation: Section 11 -+ Section 15 describe initially a vision regarding elements of

a Heat transfer coeffic:ient (refrigerant).

a Ambient. 3 Exit condenser.

Table of Contents Page viii

About the Report _.. _ i

Background for Ph.D. Study iii

Table of Contents viii

2. Working Principle ofa Refiigerator __ 7

Part II: Theory

entropy generation and exergy destruction 13

4. General Energy Optimisation 26

5. Modelling of Thermal Systems in General 32

Part ill: Modelling of a Domestic Refrigerator

T:l.!;:.: of Contents Page x

8. Experimental Setup and Tests 77

Part IV: Energy Optimisation of a Domestic Refrigerator

Energy Optimisation ofRcfrigeration Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakabsen x

11. Refiigerator Year 2010 114

12. Evaluation ofMethods and Tools 117

13. Conclusion and Sununary 120

14. Suggestions for Further Work 126

15. Konklusion og Sammenfatning (Danish) 129

List of References 134

Table of Contents for Appendices Volume 137

Energy Optimisation of Refrigeration Syslems. Man:h 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen xi

'* The Domestic Refrigerator - a Case Study *

Ph. D. Thesis Report F-179-1

Energy Consumption ofToday's Domestic Refrigerators

1. Energy Consumption ofToday's Refrigerators

It is important to distinguish between energy consumption ( = electrical power consumption

Energy Consumption ofToday's Domestic Refrigerators Page 2

1.1 Actual energy consumption.

1.00 Typical energy consumption of new refrigerators

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Energy Consumption of Today's Domestic Refiigerators Page 3

1.2 Cooling demand.

Energy Consumption ofToday's Domestic Refrigerators Page 4

- 30 nun to - 60 mm of polyurethane foam with a conductivity of about 0.023 W/rrIK. If we

Cooling demand kWh/day W %

1.3 System efficiency.

The efficiency for the refrigerator is then;

1.4 Test standards.

Cooling demand ISO test kWh/day W %

2. Working Principle of a Refrigerator

Figure 2.1: Evaporation temperature is determined by the pressure.

Energy Optimisation of Rcfrigerntion Systems. March 1995. Ph. D. Thesis AmeJakobsen 7

Width -550 mm Depth - 600 111m

Roll bond evaporator Condenser tubes