#1. The bit rate of a digital communication system is 10 Mbits/s.

The modulation
used is 32-QAM. BPSKThe minimum bandwidth required for ISI free transmission
is ______?

5 bits/ symbol X Rs symbols/ second = 10 M Rs = 2 M  BW = Rs /2 = 1 MHz

#2. We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz. What is the maximum bit rate of this
channel?  200 Kbps

Pulse distortion due to high data rate relative to bandwidth.

bit-energy-to-noise density BEND or Ebee-En-
zero) ) Eb/N0
• The Eb/N0 measure states that the normalized performance of a data
communications system is independent of bandwidth.
• All that really matters is the input density of noise power across frequency
(assumed to be constant) and the received signal energy per symbol.
• This is very different from signal-to-noise ratio. As bandwidth is increased, snr will
decrease while Eb/N0 will not.
ratio of signal power (PS ) defined in a specified bandwidth,
over the locally present noise power (PN) measured in the
same bandwidth.
Relation between SNR and Eb/No

Note how the term of BW efficiency is affecting the relation

if a system is operating at the Nyquist bandwidth B = fS/2, then

the Eb/N0 value will be one-half of the snr

all instruments provide measurements of the SNR type, but DCS uses Eb/No
 dB/ dBW / dBm ? Know the difference?

What will be 10dBm = 10 mW and 0dBm = 1 mW ?

Factors affecting Data transmission
• Bandwidth and Frequency Response of channel
• (The transfer function of the channel and the shape of the transmitted
pulse decides the design of the transmitting and receiving filters )
• If the channel is band-limited, the pulse p(t) used should have a Fourier
transform that fits within the channel bandwidth. Otherwise, the
transmitted signal is distorted
• Attenuation (dB/Km) and Distance Limit ( loss of signal strength)
• Interference and Noise
(these lead to data-rate/capacity limitations, and minimum signal power
requirement)
Noise
• All undesirable signals lumped under the broad term noise, which are
random and unpredictable signals from causes both external and
internal.
• External noise might include interference from nearby channels,
faulty equipment, radiation, storms etc.
• Internal noise results from thermal motion of electrons in conductors
(KBT), random emission and diffusion or recombination of charged
carriers in electronic devices.
• Noise can be reduced but not eliminated. It is one of the basic factors
that sets limits on the rate of communication
 Noise /Interference/ Distortion
• Noise is always present as an impediment to achieving reliable (i.e. error free)
communication. Noise is present in the form of random motion of electrons in
conductors, devices and electronic systems (due to thermal energy), and can also be
picked up from external sources (atmospheric disturbances, ignition noise, etc.).
• Interference generally refers to the unwanted, stray signals picked up by a
communication link due to other transmissions taking place in same or adjacent
frequency bands or in physically adjacent transmission lines. [ Wireless is all about
interference ]
• Distortion : All Non-Ideal channels are FILTERING Channels [ Lowpass/ bandpass)

•Additive Noise. Random signals, unrelated to the input, get added in the channel.
•Additive Interference. Human-made signals, unrelated to the input, get added in channel
• Distortion is not additive … it is more difficult ( but can be removed)  Linear/Non-Linear
Meaning of linear distortion
• suppose an input has a 10 volt sine wave at 1 kHz, which comes out
as a 8 volt sine wave, still at 1 kHz. If the input also has a 15 volt sine
wave at 1 MHz, it must come out as a 12 volt sine wave still at 1 MHz.
• Note: the ratio of the input and output amplitudes is important , not
their difference. ( 1 KHz sinusoid drops 2 volts, and the 1 MHz
sinusoid drops 3 volts) .
 Phase and time delay

• phase response of the channel is the difference in phase between the

output and the input
• Phase shifts are often a result of delays through the channel.
• delaying a sinusoid is equivalent to changing its phase.
• A time delay of τ introduces a phase shift of −2πfτ (radians).
Phase function and Delay Distortion
• A phase function phi(f)=arg{H(f)} that is a linear function of f [say
phi(f)= -bf] results in no delay distortion through different relative
phase shifts imparted to different frequency components.
• This is because higher frequencies are shifted by larger phases
proportionally, so that all frequencies are delayed by the same time
delays. Not having delay distortion means that any delay that exists is
the same for all frequencies.
• for no delay distortion of a signal due to different phase shifts
imparted to its different frequency components, the phase should be
a linear function of frequency of the form phi(f)= (constant) x freq
Phase Distortion
• If the slope of phase is constant (linear in f), all the components are
delayed by the same time interval td. But if the slope is not constant, td,
the time delay, varies with frequency.
• Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium.
• Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they
had at senders end
• This means that different frequency components undergo different
amounts of time delay, and consequently the output waveform will not be
a replica of the input waveform
A typical telephone channel
(telephone voice 300 hz to 3400 Hz)
BW (approx.) = 4 KHz 8000 sam/sec
8 bits/ sample  ? ___64Kbps ( 32Khz)

AM/FM FDM 8 KHz ( Noise )

PCM-TDM digital transmission
Nature of Distortion
• Audio signals : Human ear insensitive to phase distortion For the
phase distortion to be noticeable, the variation in the delay (variation
in the slope of theta ) should be comparable to the signal duration.
• The human eye is sensitive to phase distortion but is relatively
insensitive to amplitude distortion. (smeared picture when we have
phase distortion of video signals)
• nonlinear phase characteristic of a channel causes pulse dispersion
(spreading out), which in turn causes pulses to interfere with
neighboring pulses.
• This interference can cause an error in the pulse amplitude at the
receiver; a binary 1 may read as 0, and vice versa
How to know which distortion?
• Put in a sine wave at frequency f, with amplitude A and phase theta.
• Measure the amplitude at the output, B, and the phase of the output, phi.
• Vary f, to get A(f), B(f), theta(f), phi(f)
• Plot A(f)/B(f) as a function of f. If this is a flat line, then there is no
amplitude distortion, anything else is amplitude distortion / filtering.
• Plot theta(f)-phi(f) as a function of f. If this is a straight line, then there is a
time delay, but no dispersion. If this is not a straight line, then there is
phase distortion / dispersion in the line.
• Sometimes, rather than plotting phase difference, people use the phase to
calculate the velocity, or velocity factor, at the at frequency. If the plot of
velocity, or VF, as a function of frequency is a flat line, there is no
dispersion. Anything other than a flat line indicates dispersion.
 Channel Equalization
An equalizer is a device that compensates for the amplitude and delay distortions in a band of frequencies. It is
usually inserted at the receiving end. Equalizer are ubiquitous in modems allowing data transmission over non-
ideal channels. They can be designed to automatically compensate for non-ideal channel characteristics

Repeaters may also include some form of equalization.

The magnitude of the channel frequency response must be a

constant, independent of frequency. This is known as the flat
frequency response condition:
Equaliser: compensate channel distortion (ISI) and/or multiuser detection for combating MAI