➢Spectroscopic methods- we explore the interaction
Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that
deals with the
separation, identification and quantification of
chemical compounds.
Chemical analyses can be qualitative, as in the
identification of the
chemical components in a sample, or quantitative, as
in the
determination of the amount of a certain component
in the sample.
Qualitative Analysis
• Reveals the identity of the elements and compounds
in a sample
• Establishes the chemical identity of the species in a
sample
• Deals with the methods for determining the
composition of limited
number of substances.
• Concerned with the solutions of electrolytes
Quantitative analysis
• Indicates the amount of each substance in a sample
• Determines the relative amount of each substance
in a sample
Quantitative Analytical Methods
-Mass or volume
-Some quantity that is proportional to the amount of
analyte in the sample such as mass, volume, intensity
of light, or electrical charge
➢Gravimetric method- determines the mass of the
analyte or some compound chemically related to it.
➢Volumetric Method- measures the volume of
solution containing sufficient reagent to react
completely with the analyte
➢Electroanalytical Method- measures the electrical
properties such as potential, current, resistance, and
quantity of electrical charge.
-potentiometry, amperometry, conductometry,
electrogravimetry, voltammetry, polarography,
coulometry.
between electromagnetic radiation and analyte atoms
or molecules or the emission of radiation by analytes.
➢Reagent Grade - Reagent-grade chemicals conform
to the minimum standards set forth by the Reagent
Chemical Committee of the American Chemical
Society (ACS) and are used whenever possible in
analytical work.
➢Primary-Standard Grade - Primary-standard
reagents have been carefully analyzed by the supplier,
and the results are printed on the container label.
3. SPECIAL-PURPOSE REAGENT CHEMICALS- Chemicals
that have been prepared for a specific application.
Included among these are solvents for spectrotometry
and high-performance liquid chromatography.
1)Analytical Balance – has a maximum capacity that
ranges from 1g to several kilograms and a precision at
maximum capacity of atleast 1 part per 10x5
2) Macrobalance- is the most common type of
analytical balance, and it has a maximum capacity
ranging between 160 tand 200 grams.
3) Semimicroanalytical balance- has a maximum load
of 10 to 30 grams and a precision of 60.01mg.
• 4) Microanalytical balance- has a maximum load of
1to 3 grams and a precision of 60.001mg.
5.) Equal-arm balance (tedious and time-consuming)
6) Single -pan analytical balance
7) Electronic analytical balance
WEIGHTING BOTTLES
 Desiccators
 Desiccants
 Oven drying is the most common way of
removing moisture from solids
 To minimize the uptake of moisture, dried
materials are stored in desiccators while they
cool.
PIPETS
 Pipets are glass or plastic utensils used to
transfer liquids, they may be reusable or
disposable.
 They are usually used for 20 mL or less; larger
volumes are usually transferred or dispensed
using automated pipetting devices or jar-style
pipetting apparatus.
 Pipets are designed to contain (TC) or to
deliver (TD) a particular volume of liquid.
  TC Pipet holds or contains a particular volume
but does not dispense that exact volume.
 TD pipet will dispense the volume indicated.
PIPETTING TECHNIQUE
 Using a pipet bulb or similar device, a slight
suction is applied to the opposite end until
the liquid enters the pipet and the meniscus is
brough above the desired graduation line,
suction is then stopped.
PIPETS
 When using either pipet, the tip must be
immersed in the liquid to be transferred to a
level that will allow it to remain in solution
after the volume of liquid has entered the
pipet - without touching the vessel walls.
 Blowout pipet (has a continuous etched ring
or two small, close, continuous rings located
near the top of the pipet.)
 self-draining
MEASURING OR GRADUATED PIPETS
 Capable of dispensing several different
volumes.
 The markings at the top of a measuring of
graduated pipet indicate the volume(s) it is
designed to dispense.
 Measuring pipets are used to transfer
reagents and to make dilutions and can be
used to repeatedly to transfer a particular
solution.
 Mohr
 Serologic
 Micropipets
TRANSFER PIPETS
 These pipets are designed to dispense one
volume without further subdivisions.
 Ostwald-Folin pipets are used with biologic
fluids having a viscosity greater than that of
water. They are blowout pipets, indicated by
two etched continuous rings at the top.
 Volumetric pipet is designed to dispense or
transfer aqueous solutions and is always self-
draining. This type of pipet is usually has the
greatest degree of accuracy and precision and
should be used when diluting standards,
calibrators, or quality-control material.
BURETTE
 A burette looks like a wide, long, graduated
pipet with a stopcock at one end.
 A burette's usual total volume ranged from 25
mL to 100mL of solution and is used to
dispense a particular volume of liquid during a
titration.
LABORATORY VESSELS
 Flasks, beakers, and graduated cylinders are
used to hold solutions.
 Volumetric and Erlenmeyer flasks are two
types of containers in general use in the
clinical laboratory.
 A Class A volumetric flask is calibrated to hold
one exact volume of liquid (TC)
 Erlenmeyer flasks - has a wide bottom that
gradually evolved into a smaller, short neck.
 Griffin beaker - has a flat bottom, straight
sides, and an opening as wide as the flat base,
with a small spout in the lip.
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 856
 "Code on Sanitation of the Philippines"
 Mandates the DOH to ptomote and preserve
public health and upgrade the standard of
medical practice
 Introduced the color-coding for waste
disposal
COLOR OF TYPES OF WASTE TO CONTAIN
CONTAINER BAGS
Black Non-infectious dry waste
Green Non-infectious wet waste
Yellow Infectious and pathological
wastes
Yellow with black Chemical water including heavy
band metals
Orange Radioactive waste
Red Sharps and pressurized
containers
SAFETY AWARENESS FOR CLINICAL LABORATORY
PERSONNEL
Employer's Responsibilities
 Establish laboratory work methods and safety
policies
 Provide supervision and guidance to
employees
 Provide safety information, training, PPE, and
medical surveillance to employees
 Provide and maintain equipment and
laboratory facilities that are free of recognized
hazards and adequate for the tasks required.
  Know and comply with the established
laboratory safe work practices
 Have a positive attitude towards supervisors,
coworkers, facilities, and safety training.
 Be alert and give prompt notification of
unsafe conditions or practices to the
immediate supervisor and ensure that unsafe
conditions and practices are corrected
 Engage in the conduct of safe work practices
and use of PPE
SIGNAGE AND LABELLING
 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
developed a standard hazard identification
system (diamond-shaped, color coded
symbol), which has been adopted by many
clinical laboratories.
 health hazards - blue quadrant
 flammable hazards - red quadrant
 reactivity/stability hazards- yellow
quadrant
 special information - white quadrant
Each quadrant shows the magnitude
of severity, graded from a low of 0 to
high of 4, of the hazards within the
posted area.
 Manufacturers of laboratory chemicals also
provide precautionary labelling information
for users.
- statement of the hazard
-precautionary measure
- specific hazard class
- first aid instructions for internal / external
contact
- the storage code
- personal protective gear and equipment
needed
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
 All laboratories are required to have safety
showers, eyewash stations, and fire
extinguishers and to periodically test and
inspect the equipment for proper operation
 It is recommended that safety showers deliver
30 to 50 gallons of water per minute at 20 to
50 pounds per square inch (psi) and be
located in areas where corrosive liquids are
stored or used.
 Eyewash stations must be accessible (i.e.
within 100 feet 10s travel) in laboratory areas
presenting chemical or biological exposure
hazards.
 Other items that must be available for
personnel include fire blankets, spill kits, and
first aid supplies
 Mechanical pipetting devices must be used for
manipulating all types of liquids in the
laboratory, including water
 Mouth pipetting is strictly prohibited
FUME HOODS
 Fume hoods are required to contain and expel
noxious and hazardous fumes from chemical
reagents
 The hood should never be operated with the
sash fully opened, and a maximum operating
sash height should be established and
conspicuously marked
 As an added precaution, personal air
monitoring should be conducted in
accordance with the chemical hygiene plan of
the facility
BIOSAFETY CABINETS
 Biological safety cabinet's (BSC's) remove
particles that may be harmful to the
employee who is working with potentially
infectious biologic specimens
 BCSs are designed to offer various levels of
protections, depending on the biosafety level
of the specific laboratory
 BSCs should be periodically recertified to
ensure continued optimal performance as
 filter occlusion or rupture can compromise
their effectiveness
CHEMICAL STORAGE EQUIPMENT
 Safety equipment is available for the storage
and handling of hazardous chemicals and
compressed gases
 Safety carriers should always be used to
transport glass bottles of acids, alkalis, or
organic solvents in volumes larger than 500
mL, and approved safety cans should be used
for storing, dispensing, or disposing of
flammables in volumes greater than 1 quart
 Steel safety cabinets with self-closing doors
are required for the storage of flammable
liquids, and only specially designed, explosion-
proof refrigerators may be used to store
flammable materials
 Only the amount of chemical needed for the
first day should be available at the bench
 Gas cylinder supports or clamps must be used
at all times, and larger cylinders should be
transported with valve caps on, using
handcarts
PPE AND HYGIENE
 Safety glasses, goggles, visors, or work shield
protect the eyes and face from splashes and
impact. Contact lenses do not offer eye
protection; it is strongly recommended that
they not be worn in the clinical chemistry
laboratory, unless additional protective
eyewear is also utilized. If any solution is
accidentally splashed into the eye(s),
thorough irrigation is required
 Gloves and rubberized sleeves protect the
hands and arms when using caustic
chemicals. Gloves are required for routine
laboratory use.
 Laboratory coats, preferably with knit-cuffes
sleeves, should be full length and buttoned
and made of liquid-resistant material. When
performing manipulations prone to splash
hazards, the laboratory coat should be
supplemented with an impermeable apron
and/or sleeve garters, constructed of suitable
material to guard against the substances
 Proper footwear is required; shoes
constructed of porous materials, open-toed
shoes, and sandals are considered ineffective
against spilled hazardous liquids
 Respirators may be required for various
procedures in the clinical laboratory.
Whether used for biologic or chemical
hazards, the correct type of respirator must
be used for the specific hazard
 Respirators with high-efficiency particulate
air (HEPA) filters must be worn when
engineering controls are not feasible, such as
when working directly with patients with
tubercolosis (TB) or when performing
procedures that may aerosolize specimens of
patients with a suspected or confirmed case
of TB
 All contaminated PPE must be removed and
properly cleaned or disposed of before
leaving the laboratory
 Hand washing is a crucial component of both
infection control and chemical hygiene. After
removing gloves, hands should be washed
thoroughly with soap and warm water, even
if glove breakthrough or contamination is not
suspected
 After any work with highly toxic or
carcinogenic chemicals, the face should also
be washed
BIOLOGIC SAFETY
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Consistent and thorough hand washing is an
essential component of infection control.
Antiseptic gels and foams may be used at
waterless stations between washes, but they
should not take the place of an actual hand
wash
 Centrifugation of biologic specimens produces
finely dispersed aerosols that are a high-risk
source of infection. Ideally, specimens should
remain capped during centrifugation, or
several minutes should be allowed to elapse
after centrifugation is complete before
 opening the lid. As a preferred option, the use
of a sealed-cup centrifuge is recommended
 Standard precautions or Universal precautions
 Says that all blood, body fluids, and unfixed
tissues are to be handled as though they were
potentially infectious.
 apply to the following potentially infectious
materials: blood, semen, vaginal secretions,
cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, pleural
fluid, any body fluid with visible blood, and
unidentified body fluid, unfixed slides,
microhematocrit clay, and salive from dental
procedures
 This is followed to protect medical
professionals from the risk of acquiring blood
borne pathogens )e.g. HBC, HCS, and HIV)
SPILLS
 Safe cleanup includes the following
recommendations
- Alert others in area of spill
- Wear appropriate protective equipment
- Use mechanical devices to pick up broken
glass or other sharp objects
- Absorb the spill with paper towels, gauze
pads, or tissue
- Clean the spill site using a common aqueous
detergent
Disinfect the spill site using approved
disinfectant or 10% bleach, using appropriate
contact time. Rinse spill site with water
- Dispose of all materials in appropriate
biohazard containers
BLOODBORNE PATHOGENS
 To minimize employee exposure, each
employer must have a written exposure
control plan
 The exposure control plan must be discussed
with all employees and be available to them
while they are working. The employee must
be provided with adequate training in all
techniques described in the exposure control
plan at initial work assignment and annually
thereafter
 Special precautions must be taken when
handling all specimens because of the
continual increase in the proportion of
infectious samples received in the laboratory.
Therefore, in practice, specimens from
patients with confirmed or suspected
hepatitis, AIDS, or other potentially infectious
diseases should be handled no differently
than other routines specimens
AIRBORNE PATHOGENS
 A TB exposure control program must be
established, and risks to laboratory workers
must be assessed
 The CDC guidelines require the development
of a tuberculosis infection control program by
any facility involved in the diagnosis or
treatment of cases of confirmed infectious TB.
TB isolation areas with specific ventilation
controls must be established in health-care
facilities. Those workers in high risk areas may
be required to wear a respirator for
protection. All healthcare workers considered
to be at risk must be screened for TB infection
 Other specific pathogens, including viruses,
bacteria, and fungie, may be considered
airborne transmission risks
 Protective measures in the clinical laboratory
generally involve work practice and
engineering controls focused on prevention of
aerosolization, containment/isolation, and
respiratory protection of N-95 (filtration of
95% of particles >o.3 um) or better
SAFETY DATA SHEET
 The SDS is a major source of safety
information for employees who may use
hazardous materials in their occupations
 A summary of the SDS information
requirements includes the following
 Product name and identification
 Hazardous ingredients
 Permissible exposure limit
 Physical and chemical data
 Health hazard data and carcinogenic
potential
 Primary routes of entry
 Fire and explosion hazards
 Reactivity data
 Spill and disposal procedures
 Handling
 Emergency and first aid procedures
 Storage and transportation
precautions
 Chemical manufacturer's name,
address, and telephone number
 Special information section