World Bank Technical Paper Number 234 About Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs (VOC) - 1994

WORLDBANKTECHNICALPAPERNUMBER234
Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs
RodrigoS. Archondo-Callaoand AsifFaiz - q

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(Ust continues on the inside back cover)
WORLDBANKTECHNICAL
PAPERNUMBER234
Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs
Rodrigo S. Archondo-Callao and Asif Faiz
The World Bank

Washington, D.C.
Copyright 0 1994
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/Tm WoRLD
BAsN
1818H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C.20433,U.SA
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing January 1994
Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community
with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with
the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors.
Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available.
The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and
should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank,to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its
Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy
of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their
use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for the convenienceof readers; the
designations and presentation of material in them do not implythe expression of any opinion whatsoever on
the part of the World Bank, its affiliates,or its Board or member countries concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof or concerningthe delimitation of its boundaries or
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The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be
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The cornpletebacklist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual IndexofPubcons, which
contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering infonnation) and indexes of subjects, authors, and
countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Distnbution Unit, Office of the
Publisher, The World Band, 1818H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.20433,US.A., or from Publications, The
World Bank, 66,avenue d'I6na, 75116Paris, France.
The HDM-VOCprogram was written to assist in the operational work of the World Bank. The authors, the
World Bank, the members of its Board of Executive Directors,and the countries they represent make no
representations or warranty with respect to the HDM-VOCprogram other than as specified in the User License
Agreement The purchaser assumes all risk for the installationand use of, and results obtained from the
program. The authors and the World Bank shall not be liable for any error contained ir. the program or in the
supporting manual or documentation supplied with the program or for incidental or consequential damage
resulting from furnishing, performance, or use of the program. Although every effort has been made to test
HDM-VOCand ensure its accuracy,the World Bank is not in a position to provide user support.
ISSN: 0253-7494
Rodrigo S. Archondo-Callao is a consultant to the Transport Division of the Transport, Water, and Urban
Development Department Asif Faiz is division chief of the Infrastructure Division, Latin America and the
Caribbean-Co.ntry Department I.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Archondo-Callao, Rodrigo, 1959-
Estinmatingvehicle operating costs / Rodrigo S.Archondo-Cafao
and Asif Faiz.
p. cm. - (World Bank technicalpaper, ISSN0253-7494; 234)
Includes index.
ISBN 0-8213-2677-5
1. Motor vehicles-Cost of operation-Data processing. L Faiz,
Asif. ll. Title. lll. Series: WorldBanktechnicalpaper ; no.
234.
TL151.5.A73 1993 93-37219
CUP
Contents
Chapter 1
Ilnstallng HDM-VOC on Your Computer 1
SystcmRequircomets 1
Hardware 1
Software 1
Insalng and Runningthe Program 1
FloppyDiskSystem 1
Hard DiskSystcm 2
ProgramDiskBadcmp 3
SoftwarePackageContents 3
Chapter2
Using the Program 5
TheModcl 5
TheMainScreen 5
ThePages 6
TheInputData 6
Thesteps 7
TheResuts 8
TheDefaulValucs 8
Available
Help 9
Chapter3
Main Menu Options 11
TheMainMenu 11
InputData forthe CurrentScreen 12
m
Modifythe DataDisplaycd 12
Savethe InputData 12
LoadInput DatafromDisk 13
Computeand Displaythe Results 13
DisplaytheInputData 13
Enter a Titleforthe Reportsor Tables 14
CreateReports 14
TheReports 14
Destination 14
CreateTables 15
TheTables 15
TheRequirement 16
Destination 16
RoughnessSensitivity Table 17
One VariableSensitivity Table 17
One VariableSensitivity Chart 18
TwoVariablesSensitvityMatrix 21
VehicleFleet OperatingCostsTable 24
VehicleOperatingCostsCoedcients 26
ListFileson Disk 2
Set all Input Variablesto Zero 28
Quit the Program 28
Chapter 4
The HDM-VOC Relationships 29
The Steps 29
VehicleSpeed 30
The Steady-StateSpeed 30
VDRIVEuand VDRIVEd 34
VBRAKEuandVBRAXEd 36
VCURVE 37
VROUGH 38
VDESIR 40
Fuel Consumption 40
LubricantConsumption 43
Tire Wear 44
CrewTime 47
PassengerTime 47
CargoHolding 47
iv
Maintcnance Parts 47
Maintenance Labor 49
Dcpreciation 50
Vehicle ServiceLife (LIFE) 50
Vehicle Annual Utilization (AXM) 51
Interest 53
Overhead 54
Chapter S
The Input Data 55
Surface Type 55
Roughness 56
Vertical Profile 57
Horizontal Profile 60
Altitude of Terrain 62
Effective Number of Lanes 62
Vehicle Type 62
Tare Weight 63
Payload 64
MaximumUsed Driving Power 65
Maimum Used Braking Power 66
Desired Speed 66
AerodynamicDrag Coefficient 67
Projected Frontal Area 67
Calibrated Engine Speed 68
Energy-EfficiencyFactor 68
Fuel Adjustment Factor 69
Tire Wear Information 69
Average Annual Utilizatio in Kilometers 70
Average Annual Utilization in Hours 70
Hourly Utilization Ratio 70
Average ServiceLife 70
Use Constant Servicelife? 71
Age of Vehicle in lrometers 71
Passengers per Vehicle 71
Unit Costs 72
New Vehicle Price 72
Fuel Cost 72
Lubricants Cost 72
v
Ncw Tirc Cost 72
Crcw Timc Cost 72
Passenger Dclay Cosl 73
Maintenance Labor Cost 73
Cargo Dclay Cost 73
Annual Interest Ratc 73
Overhead per vehidce-km 73
Maintenance Parts Parametcrs 73
Maintenance Labor Paramctcrs 73
Lubricant Parameters 74
Vehicle Speed Parameters 74
Fuel Parameters 74
Additional Options 75
Rolling Resistance Coefricient 75
Vary Engine Speed for Cars 75
SpecifyVehicle Speed 75
Index 77
vi
Foreword
While the costs of road construdion and maintenance consume a large

proportion of national budgets, the costs borne by the road-using public for
vehicle operation and depreciation are even greater. It is therefore impor-
tant that road policies take account of total transportation costs. This re-
quires quantitativemethods for predicting performance and costs of both
roads and vehicles over large and diverse road networks, and under various
investment and managementpolicies and strategies.
In order to develop such quantitative functions, the World Bank initiated
a study in 1969which later became a large-scale program of colaborative re-
search with leading research institutions and road agencies in several
countries. This HighwayDesign and Maintenance (HDM) Standards Study
focused on the rigorous empirical quantification of tradeoffs between the
costs of road construction,road maintenance and vehicleoperation, and also
on the developmentof planning models incorporating total life-cyce cost
simulation as a basis for highwaydecision- making.
This volume presents the methods and relationships developed for es-
timation of vehicleoperating costs, as a function of vehicletype and road
characteristics. These procedures are combined in a computer model,
HDM-VOC, for the calculation of user costs under a variety of road and traf-
fic conditions, but not including congested traffic operatio's. The relation-
ships were developed from controlled experiments and extensiveuser surveys
in Kenya, Brazil, India and the Caribbean, which together produced an enor-
mous body of knowledgeon road user costs in three continents with diverse
road conditionsand economicenvironments. They can be adapted to local
conditionsin other countries using estimates of local vehicleprices, labor
and repair costs,vehicle utilization and other parameters.
The study developed detailed mechanistic relationships for the predic-
tion of vehicle operating costs as a function of road and vehiclecharacteris-
tics. These are sometimesknownas the 'Brazil relationships",because of the
country for whichthey were first devcloped. However they have a robust for-
mulation which is suitable for application to other countries and vehi.ie
fleets usinglocal road and vehicle parameters.
vii
Thespeedpredictionmethodsusedin the Brazilrelationshipsgiveonly
theaveragefree-flowspeed for eachvehicletype,takingaccountof grades,
curves,surfaceroughnessand desiredspeed,but not the delayscausedby
othertrafficon theroad. HDM-VOCversion4.0givesan additionaloption
to directlyspccifyspeed,wherethe userhas othersourcesof information.
Thisfeaturecanbe uscdto take somcaccountof trafficcongestioneffects,
but doesnot addressall aspectsof congestioneffectson vehiclcoperating
costs.
Thisreportis one ofa seriesof documcntsarisingfrom theHDM study.
The othervolumesare:
VehicleOperatingCosts:
EvidencefromdevelopingCountries(1987)
Road Deteriorationand MaintenanceEffects:

ModelsforPlanningand Management(1987)
TheHghwayDesignand MaintenanceStandardsModel
Volume1.Descriptionof the HDM-IIIModcl(1987)
The HighwayDesign and Maintenance Standards Modcl

Volume2. Users Manualforthe HDM-UIModel (1987)
LouisY.Pouliquen
Director
Transport,Water and UrbanDevelopmentDepartment
viii
Abstract
Understandingthe costsof road construction,road maintenanceand

vehicleoperationisessentialto soundplanningand managementof road in-
vestments.Whilethe infrastructurecostsborne byroad agenciesare substan-
tial, the costsborneby road usersareevengreater. To qualifythese
relationships,theWorldBankinitiateda collaborativeinternationalstudy
whichledto the vehicleoperatingcostsrelationshipsdevelopedin this study,
and presentsthesein a smalleasy-to-usecomputerprogramwhichcanbe
usedindependendyof the largermodeLTheHDM-VOCprogrampredicts
the variouscomponentsof vehicleoperatingcostsbased on road and vehicle
characteristiesand unitcostsin a free-flowtrafficenvironment.Calculations
are providcdfor ten vehicletypesrangingfromsmallcar to articulatedtruck,
and computespeed,physicalquantitiesconsumed,and total operatingcsts.
Total fleetoperatingcosts,sensitivitytablesand costrelationshipsare also
developed.
ix
Chapter 1
Installing HDM-VOC on Your Computer
System Requirements
Hardware
e An IBM xr, AT, 803K, 80486,or compatiblecmputer.
- A minimuminstaIL-dmemory of 520 Kb.
* One floppydisk drive. A hard disk is optional.
- A coloror monochromemonitor.
- A printer capable of printing 102 c,aracters per line.
software
- DOSversion3.0or higher.
* OptionalLotus 1-2-3to analyzethe results.
Installing and Running the Program

FloppyDiskSystem
You can run the program fiom a floppy disk or from a hard dislk To rm
the programfromthe floppydiskA:, followthe stepsbelow.
* Turnon yourcomputerand at theDOSpromptA>, place the
HDM-VOC program disk in drive A..
* Run theprogramwithone of the foD,owing
commands.
1
2 Estimating
VehideOperatingCosts
for English version

HDM-VOC
for Spanish version
HDM-VOC ES
for French version
HDM-VOC FR
for Portuguese version
HDM-VOC PO
Hard Disk System

To installthe program on your hard disk, followthe steps below.
* Turn on your computer and at the DOS prompt C>, make a
directoryfor HDM-VOC with the command:
I MD\HDM-VOC
* Change to the HDM-VOC directory with the command:
CD\HDM-VOC I
* Placc the HDM-VOC program disk in drive A: and enter.
ICOPY A*.
To run the program from the hard disk, followthe steps below.
e Tum on your computer and at the DOS prompt C>, change to
the HDM-VOC ditory with the command:
ICD\HDM-VOC
e Run the program with one of the folowing commands
for English version
IHDM-VOC
for Spanish version
HDM-VOC ES
for French version
|HDM-VOC FR
for Portuguese version
HDM-VOC PO
0
Instaling HDM-VOCon Your Computer 3
Program Disk Backup

For safety,makea backupcopyofthe originalHDM-VOCprogramdisk
withtheDOScommand.-
I DISKCOPY A.: A.:
Referto the DOS mnual for detailedinstructionsaboutthiscommand.
Software Package Contents

Thetes suppliedOD the hDM-VOCprogramdiskare Wsted
below.
File Description
HDM-VOC.EXE HDM-VOCprogram
VOCXLP Help file
VOC.EN Englishlabels
VOCES Spanishlabels
VOC.FR French labels
VOC.PO Portugueselabels
CAR.VOC Sampledata for a passengercar
BUS.VOC Sampledata forbus
LIGHT.VOC Sampledata for lighttruck
MEDIUM.VOC Sampledata for mediumtruck
HEAVY.VOC Sampledata for heavytruck
ARTICYVOC Sampledata for articulatedtruck
README Latest documentation
Chapter2
Using the Program

The Model
The HDM-VOCmodelpredictsthevariouscomponentsofvehicle
operatingcosts(VOC)basedon the roadwaycharacteristics,vehiclecharac-
teristicand unit ostsin a free-flowtrafficenvironmentThe computations
are based on the Brazilrelationshipsderivedfromthe WorldBank'sHigh-
wayDesignand MaintenanceStandardsModel (HDM-HI).
TheBrazilrelationshipspredictthe vchicleoperatingcostsfor 10vehicle
typesrangingfroma smal car to an articulatedtrucl Althoughthemodel
requiresaround70 inputvariables,youhaveto inputonlya fractionof thesc
variablesbecausethe modelsuppliesmostof the vchiclecharacteristicsas
defaultvalues.Whn detailedinformationon vehiclecharacteristicsis avail-
able,youmaymodifythe defaultvaluesto obtainmoreaccurateresultsfor a
particularcountryand vehicleflect.
The modelcomputesfor eachvehicletypethevehiclespeed,physical
quantitiesof consumption, individualVOC componentsand totalVOC The
modelalso producessensitivitytables,computesthe total VOCfor a fleetof
vchicles,and computestheregressionequationcoefficientsthatrelatetotal
VOCto roughness.
The Main Screen

The MainScreenis dividedin the followingareas(see Figure1).
* TITLE Linesat the top of the screenthat displaythe nameof
the programand the title ofthe rn.
* PAGES Area belowthe titlewhcrethe programdisplaysthe
inputdata and the resultspages.There are nineinputdatapages
and sixresultpages.
5
6 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
* MAINMENU Linesat thebottomof the screenwhcrethe

programdisplaysa menuof options,coUectsthe required
informationand displayserrors or warings.
Figure1- TheMainScreen
C 4L.flW VOUICLEOPUrTIP COSS NOO. version 4.0 I4l

mI Car omp le
Page 1 I Du'JI I
Rewi Character itics
I Surface type Coe: 14Paved 0-4Impved 1
2 Average rahe (MI) Ik .0
Average poetive gradient a 00
0
* Avra negativo gradient , 0.00
iSProprtion of uphill travel * 0. 00
6 Average horizontal curvatare de/k .
7 Average sup mrlOVai0 f cation 0.00 D
a Alti tude of t*errai * 0.00
O effective numer of luIre Code:1-OnS 0-Hrre then on
Data input Sawv Reports Files Quit

V0C l"adi ,y Loa Table Nom_ Clear
Lad Input Data fromDial
The Pages
The program presents the input data and the resuts in 'pages of infor-
maion on a standardscreenformat.The programdisplaysthe pagenumber
and the typeofinformationbeingdisplayed(inputdata or results)at the top
of eachpage.
Youare alwaysfree to moveamongthe inputdata pagesand,after you
computethe results,amongthe resultpages.Pressthe followingkeysto
moveamongpages.
- Press PgDnto moveto the nextpage.
3 Press PgUpto moveto the previouspage.
- Press Hometo moveto the furstpage.
* Press End to moveto the lastpage.
* Press a numberto moveto the correspondingpage.
The Input Data

The inputdata is classifiedin the folowinggroups.
* Roadwaycharacteristics,displayedon inputpage1.
* Vehicletype,displayedon input page2.
* Vehiclecharacteristics,displayedon input page3.
* Tire weardata,displayedon inputpage4.
* Vehicleutilizationdata, displayedon inputpageS.
* Unit costs,displayedon inputpage6.
* Othervehiclecharacteristics,displayedon inputpages7 to 9.
Usingthe Program 7
Theprogramalwaysdisplaysthe up-to-datecontentsof all inputvari-

ables.Thereare two typesofinputvariables:variableswithoutdefaultvalues,
and variableswithdefaultvaluesthat havetheletter D displayedat theright
side ofthe currentvalue(seeFigure2).
Fpgure2 - TheVehicleCharactcristics
FM-.W VEHICLEOPERATINO
COSS EL w.veralm4.0 FllMaIg
Saul I Ca. -lam Oat.
-I P.S: 8 1 I DfllI
Vehicle COIrNctrlCaoit.c
I Term eight g 70.00 D
2 crrie
cad k 230 00
S
aNlew u driving power astric MP 37.00 D
4 N.i. au uad braking poer _stric W 20.00 D
5 o.ared apne" k.'ha.030 0
S Aerodnmic drag coefficient
7 Project." frn"ti a ro
dtn.
* 2
I. 0.
2.00 D
0°
S Calibrated egine ead rm 39000 00 D
9 Enerpy-efflciency fantor *;_ nl;< a 0.70 0
lOFuml adjustment factor dimensinless 1 1f D
IDate Input Save Reporta File, wit |

voc Eftd fy Lad Tabl Ma*e Clee
Load Input Data from Disk
The Steps
Whenyoustart the program,theprogramsets al variabes to zeroandis
yourtaskto fillali inputpagesand computethe resultswiththe following
steps.
3 Go to inputpageI (prcss the Homekey or thenumber I key).
3 input the roadwayinformation(usethe Input option).
* Moveto inputpage2 (pressthePgDn keyor the number2 key).
- Selecta vehicletype(usetheInput or Modifyoption).
NVote:Whenyou selecta vehide tpe, theproram collectsthe default
vehiclechdwctersics (D's).
* Input the remainingrequireddata(variableswithoutD's) on
pages 3 to 9 (usethe Input or Modifyoption).
* Modifyanydefaultinputvariable(use the Modifyoption).
* Correctanyinputvariableon inputpages 1 to 9 (usethe Modify
option).
* Computethe results(usetheVOC option).
* Viewthc resultson resultspages1 to 6 (use the PgUp and PgDn
keys).
* Create reports (usetheReportoption).
* Create sensitivitytables(usethe Tablesoption).
* Returnto the inputdata pages(useData option).
a EstimatingVehide OperatingCosts
The Results
Use the VOC option to obtain the results. The program displays the
result pages and you can now move amongthese pages with the same keys
used in the input data mode (PgUp, PgDn,Home and End). The results are
classifiedin the foUowinggroups.
* Physicalquantities of consumptionand vehicle speed, displayed
on page 1 (see Figure 3).
* Vehicle operating costs, displayedon page 2 (see Figurc 4).
* Pcrcentage of total VOC of individualVOC components,
displayed on page 3.
* Other computed intcrmediatevalues,displayed on pages 4 to 6.
Figurc 3 - PhysicalQuantities of Consumption
REE4LUV V841CLEOPERATIC COSTS MODELversion 4.0 o -F41p

Swell Car S a- Dta
Page I |RELTS
Pysical Quantitisa p.r 1000 vehicle-km
Fuel cmnwe_pt.io liters 78 .2
Lubr cants cin etion litert 1.93
Tire weer I of esivel ent new t; or
0.06
cr ti, hour. 11 46
Pasenger t;ie haumt 11.48
Caro holdig hours 11.46
"Iabor
aintenanc hurs 2 .3
aintenance atts I of nw vehicei Price 0.17
Deareciation S of nw vehicle price 0.60
Inte ret I of now vehicle Price 0.27
Veh iel spend ks/hr 87.27
OData I nut Save Reprts Filee Quit

voc MWify Lnad Tables ibe Clear
Copute end oiaplay the ReuIlts
Use the Data option to return to the input data pages, modifyany vari-
able and use the VOC option again to displaythe new results.
The Default Values

The program has default values(D's) for the superelevation (page 1) and
for vehidcecharacteristics. The superelevationis a function of horizontal cur-
vature, so when you enter the curvature the program colects the suggested
value for superclevation.If necessary,modifythe suggested superelevation
with the Modifyoption.
The program collects the default vehiclecharacteristicswhen you select
the vehicletype on page 2. The defaults are a function of the vehicle type and
four of the dcfaults (desired speed, BW,FRATI0o, and FRATIOI) are also
a function of the surface type and effectivenumber of lanes defned on page
1. Notc that if you change the surfacetype or the number of lanes after sedct-
ing the vehicletype, the program collects again the default values for desired
specd, BW, FRATIOo, and FRATIOI.
Usingthe Program 9
Figure 4 - The Vehicle Operating Costs
FtEE-R VEHI.CLEOPEATZINrCOSTSIWIODL ermion4.0 Fl-Help

Smal Car Semple Onto
-| Pam: 2 I |IREQrIT |
Total VOC per 1000 velhcle-km le.y87
Fuel 27.3
Lubricants 2. 9
Tire 3 .80
Crw time 11 46
Paaeneer tim e 0.00
Cargo holdin S 0.00
Ilaintefiseicn l1ior S
S.19
Heintenanco part. a 11.92
Depreciation 1 35.27
Interest 3 16.96
Overhead a 0.00
| Oata Input Save Reort Film Quit |

IVWC Modify Lead Tablea Name Ceer I
Cut and DieulIy the Re Its
AvailableHelp
Help is availableat the Main Screen. You have the followingoptions.
Press At To obtain
Fl The Main Screen Help on help
P3 The Main Screen ProgrAM

instructions
FS The Main Screen, Help on the

highlightinga particular particular
menu option menu option
F7 The Main Screen, Help on the

displayinga particular particular
page page
F9 The Main Screen Basic

information
required to
run the program
10 Estimating
VehideOperatingCosts
1. The HighwayDesignand MaintenanceStandardsModel
Volume1.DcscriptionoftheHDM-Il[ Model
Volume2. User's Manualfor the HDM-IIIModel
ThawatWatanatada,CheliG. Harral,WilliamD. 0. Paterson,

AshokM. Dbarcshwar,AnilBhandari,and KojiTsunokawa.
Washington,D.C.:TransportationDepartmcnt,WorldBank,1987.
Chapter 3
Main Menu Options
The Main Menu

TheMain Menuis locatedat the bottomof the MainScreen(see Fgure
5) and it is usedto accessall the program'sfeatures.
Figure5 -The MainMenu
F-PM VBIZCLEOPtATDC CDST MM

wersLal 4.0 FL-Help
Sl I Car SUmp D
Of
Selection d V- el- TyOr Vehicle Typ

1 S_emI car olk . 1300)
2 dowicr O,erolet - Opole)
3 Lar ar Uhrysler - Dadge Dart)
4 Uti lityeor pic-w olkeae Ki)
6 Light dsoline truck Fo F )
7 Light de1insl truck dF40
a Mmdiu, truck rcmedeu,z ./2 sl)
4 i6w!.a truck rcd e .1 mls
10 Articulate truck isn 1103)
Dot Input Save Reports FilS Sit

voc mudTf, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Load
Table oe C06
Dim9 ly thes Input Date
To select an option,highlightthe optionselectedand pressthe

<Enter> key or pressthe firstletterof the optionselected.
11
12 Estimating
VehicleOperatingCosts
Input Data for the Current Screen

The Input option allowsyou to enter informationfor all variables on a
given input page. The program displaysat the bottom of the screen the cur-
rent contents of each input variablc and gives you the opportunity to change
this value. If you press the <Enter> key, when prompted for a new value,
the variable retains its current value.
Use the Input option on page 1 to enter the roadway characteristics.
When you enter the horizontal curvature, the program collects the suggesteu
value for superelevation. If you want to use this value, press < Enter > when
prompted for the superelevation.
Use the Input option or the Modify option to select a vehicl type on
page 2 and use the Input option on pages 3 to 9 to enter the vehicle charac-
teristics after selecting the vehicle type.Note that the Input option is not ac-
tive while displayingthe result pages.
Modify the Data Displayed

The Modiryoption changes the value of a single variable on a given page.
The program prompts for line of the variable you want to modifyand dis-
plays its current value at the bottom of the screen. Enter the new value for
the variable or press the < Enter > key to retain its current value.
When you modifythe horizontal curvature in page 1, the program col-
lects the suggested value for superelevationand when you modifythe surface
type or number of lanes, the program colects the default vcicle characteris-
tics that are a function of surface type or number of lanes (desired speed,
BW, FRATIOo, and FRATIOI).
Use the Modify option or the Input option to select a vehicle type on
page 2 and use the Modify option in pages 3 to 9 to modifythe vebice chwac
teristics after selecting the vehicletype. Note that the Modify option is not ac-
tive while displayingthe result pages.
Save the Input Data

The Save option saves the input data on disk. The program prompts for
the name of the file to store the input data and you should provide a
legitimateDOS filename.If you press the <Enter> key, when prompted for
the filename,the program returns to the Main Menu without takdngany ac-
tion.
The program automaticallyadds .VOC"as a default extension for data
files,so enter a valid DOS filename without a file extension.
For example:
TRUCK
A:\MYCAR
C:\VOCDATA\MMIBUS
D:\PROJECT\VOC\PICKUP
MainMenu Options 13
Load Input Datafrom Disk

The Loadoptionloadsinputdata stored on disk.The programprompts
for thenameof the filethat containsthe inputdata and youshouldprovidea
legitimateDOSfilename.If youpressthe <Enter> key,whenpromptedfor
the filename,the prog returnsto the Main Menuwithouttaiduganyac-
tion.Note that thisoptionis not activewhiledispiayingthe resultpages.
The programexpects'.VOC as a defaultextensionfor data files,so
enter a validDOSrdenamewithouta fileextension.
Exmples:
TRUCK
A.\MYCAR
Q\VOCDATA\MINIBUS
D:\PROJECT\VOC\PICKUP
Notc Some input datafiles are inuded on the VOCpogram disk (seeSoftware
PackageContents). Usethesefiles to tests the progrwn's eatures.
Compute and Display the Results

The VOCoptioncamputesthevehiclespeed,the physicalquantitiesof
consumption,and the vehicleoperatingcosts.Theprogramdisplaystie
resultsin the sameformatas it displaysthe inputs (using pages"of results).
Whenyoucomputethe resultsfor the first time,the programdisplays
page1 of the resut pages.Moveamongthe sixresultspagespressingthe
PgDn,PgUp,Home or End keysand use the Data optionto returnto the
inputdata pages.Whenyoucomputethe resultsa secondtime,th program
displaysthe resultpagedisplayedwhenyouleft the resultpagestheprevious
time.
Note thatthe physicalquantitiesand the vehicleoperatig costsare
givenper 1000vehicle-km.
Display the Input Data

-the Dataopt_i4displaysthe inputdata pages.Use dtisoption,after
computingthe vehicleoperatingcostwiththe VOC option,to return to the
inputdatapages.
Whiledisplayingthe inputdata or the resultpages,pressthe following
kcysto moveamongpagesm
* PressPgDnto moveto the nextpage.
* PressPgUp to moveto the previouspage.
* Press Home to move to the first page.
* PressEnd to moveto the last page.
* Pressa numberto moveto the correspondingpage.
14 Estimating
Enter a Title for the Reports or Tables

The Name option allowsyou to enter a title for the reports and tables
The program displays the current title at the bottom of the screen. Edit the
title using the arrow keysor press lhe < Enter > key to retain its current
value. After you enter the title,the program displays it at the top of the
screen and prints it on each report or table.
Create Reports
The Reports
The Reports option creates the followingreports (see Figure 6).
* Input Data ReporL One page report with all the main input
variables.
* Results Report. One page report with the roadway data, vehicle
type, unit costs,and the results.
* Input Data Print-out. Two page print-out of all input variables.
* Results Print-out. Two page print-out of the results and other
intermediate values.
Figure 6 -The Reports Menu
-_ Reort I
Your c.tior are:
inut Onto Report
ResulIt Report
Input Onto end Umwlts Reports
Input Drts Print-out
S Rauwlt Print-ut
In paut Dots and Rewlts Print-out
0) Return to the Fhin 11m
Enter your selection:
DesUnation
You can print the reports or save the reports in ASCII text files (see
Figure 7). Print the reports on a printer capable of printing 102 characters
per line (12 pitch in an 8.5 inches widc paper). Note that to print the accets
correctly in spanish, french,or portuguese the printer must be set to print the
IBM US (PC8) SymbolsSet or the Epson Extended Graphics Characters.
If you want to import the reports into your word processor, save the
rcports into ASCiI text files.The program prompts for the filename of the
ASCII text filc to crcate and you should enter a valid DOS filename.
Main MenuOptions 15
Figur 7 - Reports Destination Menu
-1 Deti; -ti-
Your optione are:

13 Print the report
Save the report (SCII test file)
0) Rat,re to tlhe lin Menu
Enter your aeloent:
Create Tables
TheTables
The Tables option creates the folowing tables (see Figurc 8).
* Roughness SensitivityTablecTablc of VOC snsitivity to
roughness at three diffecrntlevels of curvature.
* OneVariable SensitivityTable. Table of VOC sensitivityto any
input variable.
* One Variable SensitivityChart Chart of VOC sensitivitYto any
input variable.
* Two Variables SensitivityMatri Matric of VOC snsiivity to any
two input variables.
Figure 8 - The Tables Meu
-| Tables |
Your optioneare:
S) Rauglan Saneit;w;ty Table
2) On Vriable SensitivityTable
3 One VariableSeneitivity Chert
) Two Variable Senaitivity Matrix
Vehicie Flaet Oerata Coset Table
Vehicle Opasting ot Coefficients
0) r
Retu to the Mi n Menu
Enter your selection:
* VehicleFleetOperatingCostsTable.Tableof total VOCfor a

givenvehice flet on a givenroad.
* VehicleOperatingCostsCoefficients.VOCsensitivityto
rouginessand coefficientsrelatingtotal VOC to roughness.
The Requirement
Enter the roadwayand vehiclccharacteristicsfor a vehicletypebefore
creatingthetables
Destnation
TheRoughnessSensitivity Table,the One VariableSensitivity Table, the
VehicleOperatingCostsFleet Table,and the VehicleOperatingCostsCoef-
ficientscanbe displayed,printedor savedon ASCIIfiles.Youhavethe fol-
lowingoptions(see Figurc9).
* Displaythe table. Use this o1 l__.. uviewthe tableon tbe screen.
* Print the table. Usethis optionto printthe table on a printer
capableof printing102charactersper line.
* Savethetable (ASCIItextfile). Use this optionto importtie
table intoyourwordprocessor.
* Savethetable (delimitedASCIIformat). Use this optionto
importthetable intoLotus 1-2-3.
Figure9 - TablesDestinationMenu
_I oBttiI
Your options ar:
Dielay tl tabli
2 Print tbh tble
3 Save the table (ASCII tezt file)
*Se the table (delimited ASCII ferat)
0) Return to the Main menu
If youselectto savethe table (ASCIH

text or delimitedASCHIformat),
the programpromptsforthe filenameand you shouldcater a legitimate
DOS filename.Note thatASCIItextfilescanhaveanyextensionbut
delimitedASCIIfilesshouldhavea .PRN extensionto be importedinto
Lotus 1-2-3.
MainMenuOptions 17
if you want to impon a table into your word proccssor, usc the import
ASCII file option of your word processor. If you want to import a Lableinto
Lotus1-2-3,use the/ (F)ile(I)mport(N)umbcrsoptionof Lotus1-2-3.Fol-
low the steps bclow.
* Create a table and save it in delimited ASCII format.
* Name the table using.PRN for the filnamte cxtension.
* Load Lotus 1-2-3.
* Changeto the VOC directorywiLhthe/ (F)ilc (D)irectory option.
* Importthe tablewiththe/ (F)ile(I)mport(N)umbersoption.
Roughness Sensitivity Table

Thistable contains the followinginformation (see Figure 10):
* The roadwaycharacteristicsand vehicletype.
* Thesensitivityof total VOCand vehiclespeedto roughncssat
three differentlevelsof horizontalcurvature.
* The costbreakdown(in percentageoftotal VOC)of all VOC
components
* The comparisonin percentage(C) ofthe totalVOCcomputedat
eachroughnesslevelagainstthetotal VOCcomputedat
roughness2.0IRL
Notethat thevehicleoperatingcostsare givenper 1000vehicle-kn.
F_gure10-RoughnessSensitivity
Table
FrE V841E OPEAT CSTMSND versin, 4.0

S91i Car Sm-le Onto
- lN S_siteity_
_nows
Aveureg positivo gradient 0.00 Suar. k 1
A rg n"tie radient 0.00 Effective u-r et 1. 0
sProitia' ef uphill travel SO.0 Altitude of terrain 0.00
9.1 1 car
Cost Brugadaunby Percentage end TIeI VOCPer 1000 vshicle-ku
CVIRv RFUEL
1 TM CRB PASS CAM M.L. I.P. DEPRIME OM TOTALWD C
dogm S S S S S £ S £ 5 5 VOC km/
0 2 2S 7 24 3.1 9.0 0.0 0.0 4.3 0.5 20.6 16.4 0.0 115.1 6 0
0 2 23.1 2.5 3.4 9.7 0.0 0.0 4.6 11.0 20.716.0 0.0 111.7 67 3
4 22 .4 2 .6 3. 9.4 0.0 0.0 4.0 12.7 21.6 15.5 0.0 1 612.6 7
0 S 21.5 2.7 3.6 9.2 0.0 0.0 5.2 14.6 27.8 16.1 0.0 127.6 6 11
0 6 20.6 2.6 4.0 9.1 0.0 0.0 5.6 16.7 26.8 14. 0.0 132.1 a 16
0 7 19.4 2.6 4.1 6.9 0.0 0.0 5.o 19.0 25.8 14.2 0.0 13o.7 20
21
0 a 18.2 2.6 4.2 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.0 21.5 24.7 13.7 0.0 147.4 77
One Variable Sensivity Table

The One VariableSensitiviyTablecontainsthefollowinginformation
(see Figure11)
* The roadwaycharacteristicsandvehicletype.
* Thesensitivtyof totalVOCandvehidcespeed to any input

variable.
* The cost breakdown (in percentage of total VOC) of aUVOC
components.
* The comparisonin pcrcentage(C)of the total VOC computedat
eachlevelofthe variableselectedagainstthe total VOC
computed using a selcted comparison value.
Notethat the vehicl operatingcostsare givenper 1000vehicle-km.
Figure11- Onc VariableSensitivityTable
FlE-PLN VS4ICLEOtATIC COST NOB vera:

iQo40.
Sal; Car sample OTDo
- Sensiti;vlty Table _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
variable : Average roughea (Iw

CI.) */km
Ml;nim wvlve: 2
Nau.mam value.
Interval : .5
C.Pariaon 3
C.et Brakdoen by Percentageand Totel VOC per 1000 vehicle-
VARIa.E FuE LUR TInC OlEWPASS CAROM.L. M.". 0WRDNIr 0M TOTALSPED C
I I I U U U U U
a s I Voc h/ U
U or
2.00 23.7 2.4 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.8 0.5 80.6 1.4 0.0 SlS.1 67
2.S0123.4 2.5 3.3 0.6 0.0 0.0 4.4 10.2ao.2 16.2 0.0 ssS.0 I -2
3.00 2J.1 2.5 3.4 *.7 0.0 0.0 *.6 11.0 20.7 16.0 0.0 6 0
2.7
3.S0 23.6 2.6 3.5 0.6 0.0 0.0 4.7 1s.62e.s 15.S 0.0 120.7 67 2
4.00 22.4 2.6 33. 0.4 0.0 0.0 4.0 12.7 2.8 sS.5 0.0 M2. 3
Whe yousclectthis option,theprogramdisplaysa list of allinputvari-

ables(se Fgurc 12).Enter the numberofthe variableyouwifshto use and
for this vanableenter a minimumvalue,maximumvaluc,an intenvalbetween
pointsto compute,and a comparisonvalue.
For example:
Selectvariablenumber1 (Averageroughness)
For roughness,enter.
munimumvalueequalto 2
maximumvalueequalto 4
intervalequalto 05
comparisonvalueequalto 3
Note: Thepropawndoes not che k ifyour inputsare outsid a normoatwge.
Therefor make sur you enterconsistentvaues for the vaibe sdeaeA
One Variable Sensitivity Chart

Thisoptionaeates a chart ofVOCsensiivitYto ay inputvariable(see
Figure13).Whenyouselectthisoption,the programdisplaysa listof al
inputvariables.Enter thcvariablenumberof the variableyouwishto use and
for this variableenter a minimumand maimumvalue.
MainMenuOptions 19
Figurc 12- List of Variablcs
-| Libt of Varinblao
I Avurage rouyhn CIRI) 21 V :r cefficient of trd 4 CLp "
2 Avergen poset.u- grO dit 24 A. rage nknual utiliat;e 44 CL "
3 Avergec negative grai;t 25 Average annual utilixat;o 47 COo Lu
* Proortoion of ujhll tray 26 Hourly utilization rutlo 40 ATI0 VC
5 Average boriaantal curvat 27 Awerg _rvieu life 49 FRATI1 VC
S Avrge auperailetion 25 Age ofrv ;clo in hiilrat SO MARVX WR
7 Altituad of tarrun 26 Pssngers per vehiclg St Oki VD
S Tore weight 30 Nsw vehicle price 52 ETA S
9 Lad Carr; ed 31 Fuel cost 53 E so
10 Mio. -- ed driving pJe 32
us Lubricants cost fi AO Fu
11 Heu;iw. used braking powe 33 Mm T;re cost S S Al Fu
12 Deslred speed 34 Crew tie cost 56 A2 Fu
3 As redynic drag coeffici 35 Passnger delay cost S7 A3 FP
1a Proj ctEd frontal area 38 Ma;ntnannce labor cost S A4 Fu
is Clibrtd enine speed 37 Cargo delay cst s9 AS Fu
16 Energy-efficiency factor 36 Annual interest rots 60 AG Fu
17 Fu-l adjustment factor 3J Oer par vehicle-k 61 A7 Fu
1S Number of tirem per vehic 40 KJP MaintenancePe U2 0 Fu
19 Wearablevolus rf rubber 41 CP MaintenancePe 63 RCI RMlling r
20 Retreaing cost per nsr t 42 CPa Maintenance pm 66 1|L Rol I n r
21 Maximumnumbr of recaps 43 QlP Maintenance pm 96 Vel c I aspeed
22 Constanttere of tread we* CL. Mintsnance t 6
For cxample:
Select variable number 1 (Averageroughness)
For roughness, enter.
minimumvalue equal to 2
ma,dmumvalue equal to 12
Note: Theprogran does not check if your inputs are outsidea nomwalrange.
Therefor4make se you enter conistent vaFuesfor the vadiabi slectedL
The program computes the rcsuls on elevenpoints between the mini-
mum and maimum values and displaysa chart of total VOC as a function of
the variable selected and a menu.
Figure 13 - VOC SensitivityChart
-- Sensitivity Chsrt
OChrt 12: Total VOC per 1000 vehicet4
Average roughness (WI) *h-
Predicted Values
3.0 116.7 Me""MM""INNHh NU111fol119

5.0 127.61 HmSm ,
6.0 1.33.1 sm j uueusneu P6H
7.0 139.7 jjjHUhIIHEUIHI H I I
6.0 147.4 IIHNHHINIHNHHI IUH HN HIIH PIN
9.0 156.4 IIIHI HN IHIUHIlI14f
10.0 1616.6 I UIH IHHUII HI N h
11.0 177.0 IIIIHuIMH*H IIHNPIIIIINI l IIH
12.0 187.5 HHIHYH; HNI U HHU PHI I HIUH
0.0 46.9 93.7 l40.6 157.6
Press: Eae - Return to _si.,
ennu P - Print Pml - Display previous chart
L - List C - Co C - Coeprin tch S - Sews PgOn - Display nest chart
Thc programalsostoresthc charts rorvehiclespeed,thcphysicalquan-

*tics of consumption,the opcratingcostsof cach VOCcomponent,and
other intermcdiatcvalucs.To displayanyof thcsccharts,use thc PgUp,
PgDn,Homc,and End keys(seeFigurc 14).
Figure14- VchicleSpeedScasitivityChart
-| SensltivityChart
Chart ili VehicleSPea km/he
Average rougse. (VtRI) r/lum
Predicted Valvwe
2 67.......
4 . nmuuuwMm..I .IHININ
. off"!
2.0 67.0 ii.us,s uee*e
4.0 u.H U 6J ffi#uoueun uguuu3uupeene
7.0 80.2 u,uuu..e0INIgl00u.0f
1i 01 u00.100 *i
90.0 733IIHOIIIH*IHUIPIMNHIII 11
11.0
i2.0
45.6
61.0
II---------
tII 190c
eceecccecuccccc1uucceccec.1
I---
cucq. 1f".ecc.cieuunNIIII
0.0 21.9 43.? 65.6 67.4
Preas: Ec - Return to min men P - Print Pr,u - D0 "Ipaprevious chart
L - List 0 - CD C - CAw.rimn switch S - Save Pfn - Displaynext chart
To obtaina listof aUavailablecharts,pressthe letterL (see Figure15).

The programdisplaysthe listin sixpages.
Figure 15L ist of Charts
-| Sensitivity Chart
Th-e avilahle charts are:
24 Total Vehicle OperutinrCasts T
25 Fuel S
25 Lubricants T
27 Ti r £
25 Cre tim S
29 Peamaanertime
30 Car=. hlzding T
31 Ib;ntenance i-bor T
32 Maintance parts S
33 Deprwcitian I
34 Interet S
3J Overhead T
to continue
Prom <Enter)
Eie - ReUm to minu
Prees: P - Print Pp - Mieaplypreviouschart
L - List C - Co C - Ccmparim sitch S - Save PeDn - Display
Rest chart
To comparethepredictedvalueson anychart,presstheletter C (Com-

parisonswitch).The programdisplaysthe compariso and addsnewop-
tions to theSensitivityChartMenu (see Figure16).Whenyoupressthe letter
C forthe first time,the programcomputesthe comparisonCmpercentage)of
eachpredictedvalueagainstthe predictedvalueof the minimumvalue.
MainMenuOptions 21
Figre 16- VOC ComparisonChart
Chart 12. Total VOC per 1000 vehicle-k

, - b-r snAverage as (011I)
Coeparison n Percentag *ith Call C )
.0 3.1 on
4.0 6.7 1111,,
5.0 10.1Ii 11
6.0 15.6 glgiu"'ue:i
7.0 211.3 le
9.0 35.9*O3i BUf g " Ofgof"
10.0 44.7 Of Ieuuuuunggguuuguggggg
11.0 53.7 gia0 ofgugligfgggggggugggggggg
12.0 62.AmhNIloOulglIulIeiglIuguuugou eggngH
0.0 15.7 31.4 47.1 62.8
Prse", Ejc - Return to _;n mnu P - Prit. Pub - Oilar previouschart
L - Li;t a - Oo C - Camparsen switch S - Save PgOn - Display nest chart
Ub. on arrowe - Change corparien cell
Whiledisplayingthe comparisons,you an changethecomparisonline

usingthe Up and Downarrowkeys(seeFigure17).To return to the
predictedvalueschart,pressthe letter C (Comparisonswitch)again.
To return to theMainMenu,pressthe Esc key.To printthe displayed
chart,pressthe letterP (Print).To savethe chartin delimitedASCIIformat,
pressthe letterS (Save).Thisfilecanbe later importedinto Lotus1-2-3.To
importthe filein Lotus 1-2-3,usethe / (F)ile(l)mport (N)umbcrsoptionof
Lotus1-2-3.
Two Variables Sensltvty Mat

Thisoptioncreatesa matrixof VOCsensitivityto anytwoinputvari-
ables.Whenyouselectthisoption,theprogramdisplaysa listof all inputvari-
ables(see rFgure18).Enter thevariablenumberof the firstvariableyouwish
Figure 17- VOC ComparisonChart (4IRI)
-1 Senstivity Chart
Chart 12: Total VOCper 1000 vehi.cle-m
K7 Averag. roughness(II)
Comparison
in Percentagewith Coll C
a/km
4.0 )
2.0 -6.2 fffl
4.30 0.O
S.a 3.9 *
6.0 8.4 gggggggg*
7.0
5.:0
1277
20.0
; ....
fOUOIg,f
e
9.0 27.4 ugH,Ngggggg
10.0 35.7 0,fh,g,gN0 NggOIg.,gggof
11.0 44,1 gpgggggsggegggggegggg
12.0 52.7 *...~ue.gg.g.g....~gnggg.
-6.2 8.s 23.2 37.9 52.7
Press: Eec - Return to main menu P - Print PUp - Display previous chart
L - LUat C - Co C - Comparison Switch S - Save PgDn - DiOl y sest chert
Up. Down arroy. - Change comparian cell
22 Estimating
Figure 18 - List of Variables
-l List of VmrI.blee
Averae re me (IRS) 22 Wear oefficlent of tread 46 Cap me
2 Average = 1 1redie,t
24 Avwnege manualutilailz e,46 C.q "a
3 Average neptive gradint Di Aver"ge nual utiliatie 47 C*o Lu
4 proportion of upd IIl troy Meinrl, utiliztiorn retio 46 FAT1O0 VC
Average hoeriontal ourvut 21 Averg eva;rvife life 49 PATM1I VC
Averege perelewatin Ago o hi cf ;r llmet 60
'le AAWIAX WR
7 Altitude of terrain 20 Posangro per vehicle a1 W VD
O Tere *eisht 38 iw vehicle price U2 UEA Sp
* Ld oeerried 31 Fuel coet as SD SP
10 Naslus usam drivIng poe 3 Lubricenlecoat M AO 4 u
11 tb ;oeuueed braking pme 3t Now Tir- moat SS Al u
12 Dea red speed 34 Crea tim coat 56 A2 iu
13 Aerodynamic drag cetflci 35 Pasaengr delay cot 57 AS Fu
14 Pro4ected frontal area 6 Melintenance Iaborcost SB A4 Pu
15 Calibrated engine epeed 37 Cargo delay cot 50 AS Fu
1i iErany-efflciencpy f*ctor S Annual interest rate 90 AS Fu
17 Fuel adjustment factor S3 Ovrhead Per vehiclo-b. 61 A7 Fu
16 Nuuber of tires per vehmc 40 KP Maintenance pea2 ID Pu
19 Wearable volum of rubser 41 CPo Maintenance pa iS XAMRol lin r
20 Retrading coat per now t 42 CPq Maintenance ae64 SL Rolling r
21 Maximum:uaber of recape 43 oZPo Ma;ntenance pa 65 Vehicle esped
22 Conatant tere of trad as 44 Cia Maintenance Is BS
Enter FIffT variable number:
to use and for this variable enter a minimumand maximumvalue.

For example:
Select variable number 1 (Average roughness)
For roughness, enter
minimumvalue equal to 2
maximumvalue equal to 9
After you enter the information for the first variable, the program dis-
playsagain the list of variables. Enter the variable number of the second vari-
able you wishto use and for this variable enter a minimum and maximm
value.
For example:
Selectvariable number 5 (Average horizontal curvature)
Figure 19 - VOC SensitivityMatrix
-1 Sensitivity Matrix
Matrix 12: Total VOC per 1000 vehicle-he 7
PredictedValu
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 3.0 0.0
0.0 11S.15 118.71 22.1 127. S 2J.14 139.69 147.40 156.48
20.0 115.18 11.75 122.85 127.1 13.11t 139.73 147.43 156.48
40.0 itS 28 11. 83 122 94 127 70 133 27 L30.32 14751 156.S5
60.0 115.42 118.98 123.I0 127. 384 133.41 13.5 147.64 156.67
80.0 l.S 60 119.1 123 .26 1211.02 133.58 140.12 147.60 156.82
*t0 115.81 119.37 123.47 128.21 13 .79 140.32 147.99 1S7.00
120.0 116 .06 119.62 123.71 126.47 134.02 140.54 148.20 lS7.20
140 .0 116 .33 19.89 I.23 . 128.73 1U.241 140.79 146.44 157.42
Colu
In-e A.erage roughness(IRTJ MAE
Rove Average horizontal curvature d-a/ku
Pre as Eac - Return to ain menu P - Print PgUp - Display rev;ioke chart
L - Liat C - CO C - Comparison owitch S - Save PgDn - D;iplay neat chart
MainMenu OpUons 23
For horizontalcurvature,enter
minimumvalueequaltoO
maximumvalueequalto 140
Theprogramcomputesfor eachvariablethe resultson sixpointsbe-
tweenthe minimumand maximumvaluesand displaysa matrixoftotal VOC
as a functionof the twovariablesselected(seeFigure 19)and a menu.
Theprogramalsostoresthe matrixesforvchiclesped the physical
quantitiesof consumption,the operatingcostsof eachVOCcomponent,and
otherintermediatevalues.To displayanyof thesematrixes,use thePgUp,
PgDn,Home,and End keys(see Figure20).
Figure20- VehicleSpeed SensitivtyMatrix
-I sen.t;i;vt etr;. 1
Patti; 11: Vehic;e Sed h-/hr
Pr.dicte Value
2.0 o3.0 4.0 8.0 .o0 r.0 .0 0.0
0.0 87. W.04 8.26 84.02 62.08 60.25 76.00 73.34
20.0 67 21 6862 .0s 6472 2.76 60.10 76.67 73.24
40.0 66.67 86.29 15.54 68.26 82.33 70.73 76.67 73.00
60.0 86.00 65.53 8.81 83.57 81.71 70.20 76.13 72_.6
60.0 84.04 84.50 63.91 82.73 60.06 78.S4 75.58 72.21
100 .0 3.115 63.S3 82.98 61.77 80.06 77.78 74.04 71.60
220.0 82.68 82.37 61.77 60.72 70.13 75.06 74 .24 71.1
140.0 81.46 61.16 10.S60 70.62 76.22 76.06 73.46 70.49
Caloue:
Row:
Awarage *qgee
: Awvrage hDri wl
(IlN)
curvature re--
r/
Pro..: Eec - Return to spin _enuP - Print PaLt - Oislay p*reim chart
L - L;-C C - Co C - Comp.rison _itd S - SmwP DO
- s lay neat dart
To obtama listof aUavailablematres, pressthe letterL The program

displaysthe listin sixpages
Figure21- VOC ComparisonMatrix
-1 Seniti,wtv Ketr;Ia
pltrix 12: Total VOCper 100 vshicl_nh 6
- aCome iean in Percentee with ClIl ( 0.0 . 2.0)
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 6.0 0.0
. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
0.0 0.00 3.00 6.65 10.70 15.63 21 32 28.01 36.67
20.0 0. a
3.13 6.60 10.82 1s.66 21 .3 2B.04 35.60
40.0 0.21 3.21 6.77 10.e0 15.74 21.42 28.11 3.as0
60.0 0.24 3.33 6.8e 11.02 1C.88 21.S4 28.22 36.06
10.0 0.39 3.40 7.04 11. 11 lS.01 21.1 28.36 36.10
100.0 0.58 3.6 7.22 l1.36 16.10 21.86 28.S2 36.35
220.0 0.79 3.68 7.44 11.57 16.30 22.06 28.71 38.52
140.0 1.93 4.12 7.67 11.80 16.62 2Z.27 28.01 6.n71
Columin : Awerage roughn_es CuRI) rnks
Roe : A.rage horizontal curvature dog/km
Pree.: Enc - Return to min menu P - Print PglJ - Oie.lay previous dcart,
L - Liet C - Co C - Comparison switch S - Save PgDn - Dislay nest chart
Up. Doen. Left. and Riot arrowe - OCanp comparison cell
24 Estimating VehicleOperating Costs
To comparethepredictedvalueson anymatruix, pressthe letterC (Com-

parisonswitch).The programdisplaysthe comparisonsand addsnewop-
tionsto the SensitivityMatrixMenu(seeFigure21).Whenyoupressthe
letterC for the firsttime,the programcomputesthe comparison(in percent-
age)of each predictedvalueagainstthe predictedvaluein column1,row 1.
Whiledisplayingthe compuisons,youcan changethe comparisoncel
usingthe arrowkeys(seeFgurc 22).To returnto thepredictedvalues,press
the letterC (Comparisonswitch)again.
Figure22- VOC ComparisonMatrix(40curv.,4 IRI)
-| S....ltvt.g sit,I. I
Outri a12: Total VOC per 100 vehIcle-h.
Comparlsn in Percentge with Col I C 40.0 . 4.0)
2.0 *.0 4.0 - 0 6.0 7.0 6.0 -. 0
0.0 4.34 -3.44 -0.1 8.77 6.00 13.6 10. .28
10.0 -6.31 -3.41 -0.6 .6 6.3 136 1.32 73
40. -6. 0.00 3.J7 8.40 13.73 19.06 27 .3
60.0 -6.2 -3.22 0.11 3.60 6.81 13.63 20.06 37.44
s0.0 -. 07 -3.07 .3 413 6.6 13.97 20.22 27.56
100.0 -5.60 -2.00 0.43 4.30 6.63 14. U 30.37 2. 70
10.0 -5.60 -2 .70 0.63 4.46 0.01 14.32 20.65 27.U3
140.0 -5.36 -2 .4 0.6 4*.71 *.22 14.U 30.74 21.04
Colum : Avere romhnem C/I )
RO e Average her amtal curvature u/hW
Pr,-: Erc - Return to min mwu P - Print Pgt - Dispahy erevies ckhrt
L-List C - O C - Comprie mit.ch S - Sav PDn - Disulw net chart
Up. Down. Left. and R;ght nrras - Change comperi;en el I
To printthe displayedmatrix,presstheletter P (Print).To savcthe

matrixin delimitedASCIIformat,pressthe letter S (Save)and to importthe
matrixintoLotus 1-2-3,use the/ (F)ile(I)mport(N)umbersoptionof Lotus
1-2-3.
To return to the MainMenu,pressthe Esc key.
Vehicle FleetOperatingCostsTable
Thisoptioncomputesthetotal VOCof a vehiclefleet usingthe roadway
informationdefinedon page1 and vehiclecharacteristicsstoredin disk filer
Thepreliminarystepsrequiredto createthis table are the folowing.
* Enter the roadwayand vehiclecharacteristicsfor a vehicletype
and savethe inputdata intoa disk file(see Savethe InputData).
* Repeat the step abovefor eachvehicletypeon the fleet,saving
the inputdata under differentfilenames.
To prepare thetable, enterthe flename and theAverageDailyTraf-ic
(ADT)of eachvehicletypeon thefleet,usingoption1 of theVehicleFleet
Menu(see Figure23).
Afterselectingoption1,usethe followingkeysto enterthe filenames
and the ADT,moveamongvehicles,switchamongfilenamesand ADT
columns,and to returnto the VehicleFleetMenu.
MainMenuOptions 25
Figure23 - VchiclcFleetMenu
-| Vehicle Fleet Table

Vehicle Filene_ Average Deily Traffic (ADT)
1
2
3
10_
Your optimsee,-
1)Edit *;lcnae_ and Averag Daiely Traffic CADT)

2}compute the Vehcicl Flent Table
O) Return tote ibn Now

Ma
_:Key Action
< Enter> Accept dang and mcvc to next vdbclc.

Upeaffow Move to prwviousvehidC
7 Down arrow Move to nextvchicle.
Tab Switchbetween.meas and ADTcolums
10
Esc Return to the Vchicle Fleet Mcnu.
If you enter an invalidDOS filename,the program rqecctsit, and if you

do not enter tbe filename extension,the program adds the dEauldte¢icnsion
forinput data files (.VOC.
Fiur 24 -Ex:ampleof Vehide leet Data
1 -
-1 Vehicle Fleet Tabl-e -
Vehicle Fil nu_ Average Daily Traffic CADT)
I c-r.vc 700
2 bu:-o eSO
3 m_;Ius. VW 250
4
<Ent r> - Acepwt chunoo

Y *rrrow Mv to preie I in
Down arrow Have to neat Iline
T ib f Switch etw n fdlenDrilyT rAfc TADIJ
Ec hh
Rtum
Rp to Flet Thhiclcle nu
26 Estimating
An exampleof vehiclefileetdata,usingthe sampledata filessupplied

withthe VOCpackage,is givenin Figure24
After enteringthe lenamesand the ADT,computeVehicleFleet
Table,usingoption2 of the VehicleFleetMenu.The programcomputesthe
VOCusingthevehiclecharactcristicsstoredin the diskfles and the roadway
informationdefmedon page1.Changeanyvariableon page 1 and compute
the fleetVOCagainto obtainthe correspondingresults.Thevehiclefleet
table containsthe followinginfonmation(see Figure25).
* The roadway characteristics.
* The fdenamesand theADT foreach vehide.
* TheVOC and the speed foreachvehicleand the totalVOC of the
fleet.
Notethat in this table theVOC is givenper km.
Figure25 -VehicleFleetTable
MM-RFUN VEBCLE OPMEU COSTSMOu version 4.0
S_il Car SamI*e ODta
- Veh;cl- Fleet Table
Averag poetitve graient 0.00 Surface ty" 1
Averag-enegativeii rdient 0 00 Effecti. number of l[nee 0
Proportion of uphill travel 50.00 Altitude of terrain 0.00
Average roughnessCR) 2.SD
Vehicle Filanaa Average Daily Traffic
1 ca r.voc 700.00
2 bwe.voc 50.00
3 aediu-.voc 25.00
TOTAL 1.000C00
Coat Breakdown by Percentage and Totel VOCper be

VY4UE FUBL LLUR T1REC PASSCMA .L. N.P. ORE TE OVER TOTALSPEED
* U sU * s S I U S 3 VOC km/
I hour
1 2.4 2.5 .3I 00 0.0 4.4 10.2 30.2 16.2 0.0 61. 67
2 17. 10 39 272 0.0 2.9 11.6 13.1 5.4 10.1 24. 74
S I30.3 1.6
l .0 12.4 1.2 0.0 4.0 13.4 £5.1 S.7 7.0 71.01 71
TOTAL 25.4 2.0 6.5 10.4 4.3 0.0 4.1 11.7 21.8 l0.5 4.2 1I7.
VehicleOperatng CostsCoefficients
This optionproducesa table of VOCsensitivityto roughnessand uses
this tableto computeregressioncoefficientsfor the followingtwoalternative
equationsthat relateroughnessto total VOC (see Figure26).
TotalVOC a + b *IRI + c IRtI 2
TotalVOC = exp(a + b I IRI)
Note that in this tableand for the aboveequations,VOCis givenper nm.

MainMenuOptions 27
Fguwrc26- VehicleOperatingCostsCoefricients
E-Rlw VBCLE OPiNATDaiCocS mas version 4.0
Small Caf Samle Dota
- VehicleOprartingsCast Co.ffic.nta
Average poitive gradint 0.00 Surface ty 1
A=r 0 neeative grd;ent 0 00 Effective number of lIae 0
P gortion df phll tral 50.00 Altitude of terrain 0.00
Average horizaontal curvture 0.00 Average superelevti.n 0.0000
SEMll ar
Cost Braeakdon by Percentage and Total VOC per vihicl_lo
DtI RIJE LLJ0t TIME CW PASSCARCO.L. M.P. EFR tNTE 0V TOTAL SPED
m £ * S 5 * s S * S U VOC ka/
he~~~ S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
our
2 28.7 2.4 3.1 0.9 0. 0. 4.3 . 0 14 0 05 67
3 3.1 2.5 3.4 0 7 0.0 0.0 6 1.0' 20.7 1 0' 0.0 0.ur7 67
| 22.4 2.6 3.Ct.4 0.0 0.0 4.9 12.7 23.6 1S 00 .l226 S6
5 21.6 2.7 3.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 5.2 14.6 27.6 15. 0.0 0.1276 as
6 20.6 2.8 4.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 S.5 U.7 25.6 14.6 0.0 0.1331 ,3
I 19.4 2.6 4.1 s.g o.o 0.0 8.6 19.0 25.6 14.2 0.0 0.o 37 60
s 10.2 2.8 4.2 a.6 0.0 0.0 6.0 21.5 26.7 13.7 0.0 0.1474 77
O 16.9 2.6 4.2 8.7 0.0 0.0 6.2 24.2 28.6 13.3 0.0 0.ISS4 73
10 15.7 2.6 4.2 86. 0.0 0.0 6.4 27.0 22.5 12.9 0.0 0.16o 6o
11 14.6 2.7 4.2 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.6 20.4 21.5 12.5 0.0 0.1770 u
1213. 2.7 4.2 8.6 0.0 0.0 6.6 31.1 20.6 12.2 0.0 0.1675 62
13 12.7 2.7 4.2 8.7 0.0 0.0 6.7 33.3 10.6 12.0 0.0 0.1O1 SS
14 12.0 2.6 4.2 6.7 0.0 0.0 6.7 36.0 10.1 11.6 0.0 0.2069 55
1S 11.3 2.6 4.2 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.7 36.5 1S.4 11.6 0.0 0.2107 S2
16 10.7 2.6 4.0 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.7 37.6 17.6 11.8 0.0 0.2203 40
17 10.2 2.6 3.o 8.g o.o 0.0 6.7 30.1 17.3 11.4 0.0 0.2408 47
16 9.9 2.5 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.6 40.2 16.6 11.3 0.0 0.2515 44
19 0.7 2.5 3.5 9.0 0.0 0o. 6.6 41.2 16.3 11.1 0.00 02620 42
20 9.6 2.5 3.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 5. 42.0 156 11 0 0 2743 40
Eaustion: VOC- a bel-! * c*R'2
a . .1018802
b 4.31796VE-03
a . 2.238201E-04
t2 _ .00799
S.d Err 2.486609E2-0
Eouation: VOC EXP(C bhMRI)
a _ -2 300476
b _ 5.1217SE6-02
R2 -. 906341M
Srd Err 1.786657E-
list Fileson Disk

The Fles option lists the les stored in a floppy disk or a ard disk direc-
tory.Theprogrampromptsfor the filespecificationsand youshouldprovide
a legitimateDOS filespec(youcan includetheglobalfilenamecharacters?
and '). If youpressthe < Enter > key,the programlistall ilesin the current
diskand directory.
For example:
Enter To
<Enter> ListaUfilesin currentdisk anddirectory

A.-\ List all filesin driveA:
.VOC Listall .VOCfles in currentdiskand directory
A.\-.PRN List all .PRN files in drive A:

C:\VOC\*. List all filcs in directory VOC
C:\DATA\Z*.* List all filesthat begin with Z in directory DATA
?V77????.1 List all fileswith the second charactcr V
Set all Input Variables to Zero

The Clear option resets all input variables to zero and erases the titlc.
Make sure to save your input data before using this option.
Quitthe Program
The Quit option ends the program. Make sure to save your input data
before using this option.
Chapter4
The HDM-VOC Relationships

This chapter descrnbesthe relationships used by the HDM-VOC model.
The set of relationships are those derived from the Brazil study by GEIPOT,
the Texas Research and Development Foundation, and the World Bank
(GEIPOT, 1982;Chesher and Harrison, 1987;Watanatada, eLaL 987).The
followingsections are a summaryand adaptation of the information con-
tained in the followingWorld Bank publications
* Watanatada, T, A. Dhareshwar, and P.RS. Rezende-Lima. The
HighwayDesignand Maintenanc Standard Model Volume II,
VeJucleSpeeds and OperatingCosts:ModelsforPoad Plawmngand
ManagemenLWashington,D.C.: Transportation Department,
World Bank, 1987.
* Watanatada, T. and others. The HighwayDesignand Ma_ntace
StandardsMode4 Volume 1, Descr]ptonof the HDM-UIIModel.
Washinagton,D.C.: Transportation Department, Worid Bank, 1987.
* Chesher, A. and R. Harrison. TheHghwayDesignand
MaintenanceStandardsMode4 Volume l, Vehcde Operaing Costs:
Evidencefrom DevelopingCounwies.Washington, D.C.:
Transportation Department, World Bank, 1987.
Refer to these publications for a complete description of the model
relationships,information on parameter estimations,model transferability,
and model calibration.
The Steps
The steps followedby the modcl to compute the vehicle operating cost
for a givenvehicle type are the following:
29
30 EstimatingVehide OperatingCosts
1.Computethe averageoperatingspeed forthe vehicle.

2. Computethe amountofresourcesusedper 1000vehicle-kmfor
the followingcomponents:
Fuel consumption
Lubricantconsumption
Tue wear
Crewtime
Passengertime
Cargoholding
Maintenancelabor
Maintenance parts
Depreciation
Interest
Overhead
3. Applyunitcoststo the resourceconsumptionamountsto getthe
operatingcostper 1000vehicle-kmfor eachcomponent.
4. Sumtheoperatingcost for each componentto computethe total
vehicleoperatingcostper 1000vehicle-km.
Note that on this versionof the HDM-VOCmodel(4.0),the user has the
optionof specifyingthevehiclespeed.In previousversionsof the VOC
mxodeland on theH1DM-Mmodel,the vehiclespeedis alwayscomputedby
the modelfollowingthe Brazilequations.
The followingsectionsdescribethe relationshipsused by the modelto
computethe vehiclespeed,resourcesused,and operatingcosts.
VehicleSpeed
The predictionof vehiclespeedis an aggregateprobabilisticlimiting
velocityapproachto steady-statespeed prediction.Note the following;
a) Aggregateimpliesthat the predictionmethodworkswith ag-
gregatedescriptorsofroad geometryand surfaceconditionrather
hanwithdetailed nformationaboutthe road.
b) Steady-stateimpliesthat the modeldoes not considerthe transi-
tionaleffects,that is, speed-changecyclesalongthe road.
c) Probabilisticlimitingvelocityapproachbecauscthepredicted
speed is a probabilisticminimumof severallimitingor constrair;ng
speeds.
The Steady-State Speed

The predictionof a vehicle'ssteady-statespeed on a givenroad segment
speeds,correspondingto severaldif-
usesa set of limiting(or "constraining")
ferent factorsthattend to limitthe speed.The constrainingspeedsare a func-
tion of suchfactorsas characteristicsof the vehicle(forexa. iple:engine
power,brakingcapacity,loadcarried)and of the road (for cxample:vertical
gradient,roughness,curvature).The constraningspeedsaiu.
The HDM-VOCRelationships 31
* VDRIVE,the limitingspeedbased on verticalgradientand

enginepower.
* VBRAKE,the limitingspeedbasedon verticalgradientand
brakingcapacity.
* VCURVE, the limitingspeed determined by road curvature.
* VROUGH,the limitingspeedbasedon road roughnessand
associatedride severity.
* VDESIR,the desiredspeedwithoutconstraints,based on
psychological,economic,safety,and otherconsiderations.
For example:For a largecar travelingon a pavedlevelsegmentwithcur-
vatureequal to 200degrees/kmand roughness= 4.5IRI, the constraining
speedscouldbe:
VDRIVE = 148 km/h
VBRAKE =a
VCURVE = 103km/h
VROUGH = 181km/h
VDESIR = 98km/h
givinga predictedsteady-statespeed.V, = 80 km/h.
The followingplots illustratethe constrainingspeedsand theresulting
steady-statespeedon a pavedsegmentfora heavytruckcarryinga net load
of 6,000kg.Each of the plotsshowsthe constrainingspeedsand the
predictedsteady-statespeed (V) as wevaryone speed-influencing factorand
maintainconstantthe remainingfactors.The speed-influencing factorsob-
servedare: a) Roughnessvaryingfrom2 to 12 IRI rn/n, b) Gradientvarying
from-10 to 10percent,and c) Curvaturevayingfrom0 to 500degresm
Figure27ashowsthe effectof surfaceconditionon the steady-state
Figure27a- SurfaceCondition
Speed(km/h) vuP*E
30_
250
200
\VROUIGH
so _ \ ~~~~~~~~~~VDFNVE
too _VOESIR
50 V
2 3 4 5 o 7 B 9 10 11 12
Roughness
(IRImIkm)
Curvatr - 25 deGnmebn
Gradier - -3.5
speedfor a straightand downward-slopesegment.At any givenpointon the

roughness axis, the liniting sprcd with the lowestvalue is the linding' speed
as it exercisesthe predominantinfluenc on the resultingsteady-statespeed
at that point;otherlimitingspeedshaveonlymarginaleffects.The higherthe
valueof the limitingspeed,the moremarginalits influenceOn the predicted
steady-statespeed.In this instance,overthe lowerrangeof road roughness
(below6.5IRI), the desiredspeed (VDESIR)becomesthe bindingspeed
and on the upperrange,VROUGHbecomcsthe bindingspeed.Note that
roughnesshas no influenceoverVDESIRand VCURVE,but has a slightin-
fluenceon the gravity-rclatedconstrainingspeeds,VDRIVEand VBRAKE
throughthe rollingresistancecoefficicnt.
F.ure 27bshowsthe cffectof verticalalignmenton the steady-state
speed for a slightlycurvcdand lowroughnesssegmentIn this figure,three
differnt constrainingspeedsare bindingoverthe -10.0to + 10.0pcrcent
rangeof the road gradienLOn the one extreme,for negativegradessteeper
Figure27b - Vertical Alignment
Speed nlmh)
250
*10 4 4 4 -2 a 2 4 a 8 10
Gradient(1)
Pmghns - 31RInVln
CufOm - 25idgtm
than 7.5percent,the limitingspeedbased on brakingcapacity(VBRAKEis

binding.At the oppositeend, for slighdynegative(-02 percent) and positive
gradientsthe limitingspeedbased on enginepower(VDRIVE)bcomes
dominant. In the mid-range the desired speed (VDESIR) determines the
steady-statespced.Note that for slighdynegativeand positivegrades,the
valueof VBRAKEis infnity,that is, it has no influenceon the resulng
steady-statespeed overthis range,whileroad gradienthas no influenceon
VDESIR,VCURVE,and VROUGH.
Figure27cshowsthe effectof horizontalalignmenton the steady-state
speed fora smoothand downward-slope segment.In this casetwoconstrain-
ingspcedsare binding.Thedesiredspeed (VDESIR)is the primarydeter-
Figure 27c - Horizontal Aliguncnt
Speed man/h)
200 2W ~~~~~~~
150 VORH
VCURVIE
100 V~~~~~~~OESA
50so
_V v
O.
0 80 100 110 I00 250 20 20 400 480 tlO
Curvature
(degrees/ki)
Roughme - 3 I mr1n
Gimi-it -
minantovercurvatureup to 250degrees/km,beyondwhichthe curvature

speed (VCURVE) constraint prevails. Note that VDESIR, VBRAKF,
VDRIVEand VROUGH are all independent ofhorizontal aligunenL
Themodelcomputeslth predictedsteady-statespecd (V) for the seg-
ment using de respective values of the fivelimitingspeeds for each road seg-
ment Thetheorybchindthese computationsinvolvestreatingeachof the
limitingspeedsfor a segmentas a randomvariableand the resuting steay-
state speedpredictionas the averagevalueofthe minimumof theserandom
variables.Theprobabilitymodelused is the Weibulldtribution whic is one
of th standard extremevalue"distnibutions.The formulasare:
Vu = ED/ [(1NRIVEu) + (/VBRAKEu) +
(1/VCURVE)P + (VVROUGH) + (WbDESIR)"PJIP
Vd = Eo/[(JVDlRVEd)v + (IVBRAKEd)'P +
(I/VCURVE)'p + (1IVROUGH) 1 + (1IVDESIR)'P]P
V = 3.6J [(LP / Vu) + (1- LP) l VdJ
Vu is the predictedvehiclespeedforthe uphillsegment,in
n/s.
Vd is the predictedvehidespeedfor the dowmhilsegment,
in m/ls.
V isthe vehiclespeedin kn/hour.
LP is the proportionof uphil travelecpressedas a fraction.
Note that the programcollectsLP!as a percentage.
3.6is the conversionfactorfrommusto km/h.
Eo is the bias correctionfactor.
BETA (f) b is theWeibulldistributionshapeparameter.
In the aboveformulas,the subscriptsu and d stand forthe uphilland

downhillsegment,respectively.Note that onlythc twoconstrainingvelocities
involvingverLicalgradict carrythcscsubscripts.
The cocfricicntBETA(,B)dctcrmincsthe shape ofthe assumcdWdibull
distributionand is a memberof Lhcsct of paramctcrsestimatcdfor each type
of vehiclc.As the estimnationinvolveda logarithmictransformationof the
variables,the predictionformulasincludethe bias correctionfactorEobased
on the standarderror ofresidualsin the estimation.Table 1 liststhe numerri-
cal valuesof BETA(,B)and Eo,as estimatedfromthe Brazildata set.
If the user dccidesto specifythe vehiclespeed,the modelperformsthe
followingstepsto computethe corrcspondinguphilland downhilsegments
speeds:
L Computesa base downhillsegmentspeed and a base uphillseg-
mentspeedfor thegivenroadwayand vehiclecharacteristicsusing
the sameBrazilequationsdescribedabove
2. Computesthe ratiobetweenthebase uphillspeedand the base
downhillspeed.
3. Computesthe correspondinguphillspeedand the downhfllspeed
byconsideringtheratio betwcenthe uphillspeed and downhil
speedto be the sameas the ratio of thebase uphillspeed and base
downhillspeed.
The equationsusedare the following:
VRATIO = VBASEu / VBASEd
V = VSPEC
Vu = VSPEC (LP + (1-LP) VRATIO) /3.6
Vd = Vu/VRATIO
VBASEuis thebase uphillspeedin rns.
VBASEdis the base downhillspeed in mns.
VSPECis the specifiedvehiclespeed in klnhour.
VDRIVEuand VDRIVEd
VDRIVE,the speedlimitedby drivig powerfor a givenroad segment
as determinedby powerand gradient,derivesfrom thehypothesisthat the
vehicleis drivenat steady-statespeed on a smooth,straightroad usinga high
level of power called the drivingpower, HPDRIVE. Maximumused driving
powerwasfoundgenerallyto be lessthanthe rated powerofthe engine,
especiallyfor gasolineenginevehicles.Reasonsfor the differenceare largely
behavioral(unwillingncssof driversto usefullpowcr)and perhaps partly
mechanical(operationat less thanrated rpm,powerlost in the transmission
and usedbyaccessories).
VDRIVErelatesto HP1RIVE and the gradientthroughthe balanceof
forceswithoutacceleration
[DriveforceJ= Rollingresistance]+ [Graderesistance]+ [Air
resistance]
wherethevarioustcrms,all mcasurcdin ncwtons,arc givcnby the following

expressions:
Driveforce = 736HPDRIVE/VDRIVE
Rolling resistance g GVW CR
Gradc resistance = g GVWGR
Air resistance - 05 RHO CDAR VDRIVE2
736is the numberof wattsin one metrichp.
GVWis thegrossvchiclewcight,in kg.
g is the gravitationalconstant,equal to 9.81m/s.
CR is the dimensionless coefficientof roilingrcsistance.
GR is theverticalgradientcxprcssedas a fraction.
RHO isthe massdersityof air,in kg/nm 3.
CDis thedimensionlcssaerodynamicdrag coefficient.

AR is theprojectedfrontalarea, in m2.
Substitutingthesevaluesin the forcebalanceyieldsa cubicequationfor
VDRIVEthat alwayshasa singlepositiveroot. Thus,givenvaluesof
HPDRIVEand the othervariableslistedabove,the modelcomputesa uni-
que VDRIVEvalue.Solvingthe cubicequationwithGR = positivegradient
(PG) wouldyieldthevalueof VDRIVEu,and solvingwithGR = - negative
gradient(NG) wouldyieldthe valuefor VDRIVEd.The stepsarez
1) Computethe rollingresistancecoefficient(CR):
Therollingresistancecoeficient, CR,wasfoundempirical-
ly to be a function of road roughness.
If thevehicleis a car or utlity
CR = 0.0218 + 0.0006071RI
f the vehicleis a bus or a truclc
CI. = 0.0139 + 0.0002574RI
RI is the road roughnessexpressedin the
InternationalRoughnessIndexunits,IRI
(mlkin).
2) Computethe massdensityof air (RHO), in kglm3:
RHO = 1225 1 - 2.26ALT /100000J 4 25s
ALT is the road altitude,definedas the elevation
ofthe road abovethe meansea lcvel,in meters
3) Computethe grossvehicleweightof the vehicle(GVW),in kg:
GVW = TARE + LOAD
TARE is the vehicletare weight,in kg.
LOADis the vehiclepayload,in kg.
4) Computethe drivingpower-constrainedspeed for uphilltravel,
VDRIVEu,in mls:
Thecubicequationis:
36 Vehile OperatingCosts
Estimating
0.5 RHO CDAR VDRIVEu3 + GVWg(CR +

PG) VDRIVEu-736HPDRIVE 0O
gradientcxpressedas a
PG is the posiLive
fraction.Note that the programcoliccts
thc positivegradientas a percentage.
First computethe followingintcrmediatevalues:
A = 0.5 RHO CD AR
B = HPDRIVE736/ (2 A)
Cu - GVW g (CR + PG) / (3 A)
Du - B2 + Cu 3
The solutionfor the cquationis:
VDRIVEu = (Du + B)W - (Du - B)It3
5) Computethe drivingpower-constrained speed for dowhill
travel,VDRIVEd,in m/s:
The cubicequationis:
0. RHO CD AR VDRIVEd + GVWg (CR -
NG) VDRIVEd-736HPDRIVE = 0
NG is the negativegradientexpressedas a
fraction.Notethat the programcoLects
the negativegradientas a prcentage.
First computethe folowingintermediatevalues:
Cd = GVWg(CR-NG)/(3A)
Dd = B2 + Cd3
The solutionof thcequationis:
If Dd is positive,then
VDRIVEd = (Dd + B)W - (Dd - B)W
If Dd is negativeor zero,the roots are:
r = 2 (- Cd9)
z = V3 arc cos {(-2B) / (Cd r)}
vl = r cos(z)
v2 = rcos(z + 2 sr/ 3 )
v3 = rcos(z + 4'/3)
sinceonlyone of thethree roots is positive,set
VDRIVEdto the positiveroot.
VDRIVEd = mac {vi, V2,v3}
VBRAKEuand VBRAKEd
VBRAKEP the speed for a givenroad segmentas limitedbybraking
capacityandgradient,derivesfromthe conceptof usedbrakingpower,u
whichis a positivequantity,reprcsentedbyHPBRAKE,in metrichorse-
The HDM-VOC
Relationships 37
powerunits.The assumptionunderlyingthe conceptisthat the braking

capacity,HPBRAKE,whichdependson the vchidcetype,limitsthe steady-
state speed acquiredona long,smooth,straightdownhillsection.
On an uphillsegmentthe brakingcapacityconstraintdoesnot apply.
Conceptually,whenthe brakesare not used the valueof VBRAKEis infinity
and 1/ VBRAKEis zero.More generJly,the constraintis not applicabk
wheneverthe vehicleneedspositiveenginepowerto move.This wouldbe thc
caseon a downhillsegmentif the rollingresistanceis greaterin absolute
valuethan the gradient-resistance;
in symbols,wheneverCR a NG.
Whenthe constraintapplies,VBRAKErelatesto HPB.LAKE,as before,
throughthe forcebalance:
[Driveforce]= [Rollingresistance]+ [Graderesistance]+ [Air
resistance]
However,sincethe brakingcapacityconstraintislikclyto becomebind-
ing onlyfor steepnegativegradeswithlowsteady-statespeeds,the modelig-
noreswithoutsignificantcrror the air resistance.ThusVBRAKEis
computedwitha first degreeequation
VBRAKEu= X
if CR a NG:
VBKRAKd= X
if CR < NG:
VBRAKEd = 736 HPBRAKE/ [gGVW (CR - NG)]
VCURVE
VCURVE,the curvature-limited speed, is derivedfromthe postulate
that whencurvatureis significantthe tendencyofthe wheelsto skidlimitsthe
speed. A good indicatorof the tendencyto skid is the ratio of the sideforce
on the vehicleto the normalforce,FRATIO.
For the vehicletravelingat a steady-statespeedV, the lateralor side
forceon the vchiclein the directionparalel to the road surface,LF, in new-
tons,is givenbythe followingkinematicrelationshipc
LF = [Centrifugalforce] + [Gravitationalforce]
LF = (GVWV2/ RC) cossp - (GVWg) sin sp
sp is thesuperclevationanglm.
RC is theradius of curvature,inmeters
The forceon the vehiclein the directionperpendicularto the road sur-
face,the normalforcerepresentedby NF, in newtons,is givenby:
NF = GVW g cos sp + (GVW V2 I RC) sin sp
Sincecurvesuperclevationnormallydoes not excced20 percent,use the
followingapproximations:
Cossp 81
sin sp -SP
SP is thesuperelvation expressedas a fraction.
consequently,the cquationssimplifyto:
LF - (GVW V21 RC) - GVW gSP
NF - GVWg + (GVWV2/ RC) SP
FRATIO,the "usedperceivcdfrictionratiodis givenby the ratio of the
lateralto the normalforce:
FRATIO - LF / NP
Substitutingthe LF and NF equationsand furthersimplifying
by neglect-
ingthe term (V I g / RC) SP,producesthe equation:
FRATIO - (V 2 I g RC) - SP
SolvingforV, one has the curvature-limitedspeed constraint,VCURVE,
expressedas:
VCURVE - [(RATIO + SP) gRC] 05
The allowablevalueofFRATIOwasderivedas a functionof the payload
of the vehicle:
FW.TIO = max (0.02, FRATI0o - FRAT101 LOAD)
whereFRATIOoand FRATIO1are parameterswhichdependon thevehide
typeas uell as the surfacetypeof the road. Table 1 liststhe valuesestimated
fromthe Brazildata set forFRATI0oand FRATIOI.
he radiusof curvature,RC,is a simplefunctionof averagehorizontal
curvature:
RC = 180000D/Tmax(l8/I
( T, C)
C = thehorizontalcurvature,in degreesper km.
Note:For practicalpurposesthe modelconsidersthe curva-
ture-constrainedspeed onlywhenthe radius of curvature
(RC) issmallerthan 10000meters.
If youdo not supplyvaluesfor superelevation,SP,the modelestimates
the superelevationfromthe followingformulas:
SP = 0.012C forpavedroads
SP = 0.017C forunpavedroads
Thesefornulas are approximations to suggesteddesignstandardsfor typical
speedson these surfaces,and maybe unrealisticfor actualconditionsin par-
ticularcases.Therefore,wheneverpossibleyou shouldprovidesupereleva-
tionvaluesbased on actualroad geometry.
VROUGH
VROUGH, the roughness-limited speed constraint,derivesfrom the
'averagerectifiedvelocity'measure(ARV) that is recommendedas an ade-
quate measureof ride discomfort,or severity.ARV is definedin generalfor
a givenvehiclewitha rigidrear-axdeas the averagerate or rear-axlesuspen-
sionmotion,morespecificalyas the rate of cumulativeabsolutedisplace-
ment of the rear-axderelativeto thevehiclebodyCmmmls).ARV is related
to the vehiclespeed,V,by meansof the folowingidentity
ARV = VARS
TheHDM-VOC
Relationships 39
Table 1- Defauhs Values for Speed Prediction

aU0.f Ugto Mi
Sail Medkum Large USi. aD _ Madum Hay Nd
C. Car Car
q t so Tnrck Truk Thic Truck
Repmanlsle Vain Ch1w Chip Valn Mom Ford Ford Marc. Mac sca
, n l wagan Bug t Se No1
model 1fi0 a ZI K 0bl F-400 F-oe 1113 1113 lleS
DU 2Su Iwas 39
Taweight 910 1200 1610 1320 e100 3120 3370 5400 Om 14730
rARE (kg)
Paj$ad LOAD(kg) 400 400 400 9w0 4000
S&iggaukdSdue
q;gcoatclwa 0.4 OA0 04 0AS 0.05 0.70 0.70 ate a.as 0.6
FtonKam 1AD 0.0 220 2.72 .30 3as 325 020

5.30 L7
HPDRiVEpmic 30 70 as 40 100 s0 so 100 100 210

hp)
HPUPAKE
(mtric 17 21 27 30 160 100 100 250 25O M0
hp)
FRAIIOO 0.250 026 0 0t21 0.233 0.253 02! 0*2 020Z 0M17m
Paved rods
FRATIOO 0.124 0.124 0.124 0117 Q0*5 0.099 OS1 0.057 ODa7 O.OrO
Unpavedrads
FRANo1 0 0 0 0 a 0Itim 0 0.12 OD
04 00 0.02
Pasd frods (IOE.4)
FRAOIO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Unpaved roas
ARVMAX 259.7 25L7 2507 2307 212J 194.0 19W. 177.7 177.7 130.O
(mnVs)
VOERo 96.3 9B.3 96.3 .9 93A 61.0 iU 6. 6L6 64.
uVh) Pad roaws
VOESIRo 8Z2 il.2 6z2 70.3 *A 712 71. 72.1 72.1 48.6
(knuh)Unpavedrads
BWaingle-la 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73
SWmorelhanone t 1 1 1 I 1 1 1
BETA43J 0.274 0274 0.274 O.00 0.273 0.304 3J04 0.310 0310 0244
ED 1.003 1003 1.003 10 1.012 1.0 1.06i J
1.013 1.03 ltiu
where ARS is tie "averagerectified slope"measure, defined as the amount of

rear-axle suspension motion per unit travel distance (in m m or m/km).For
modellingpurposes ARV and ARS measures are those of the "calibrated'
standard Maysmeter-equipped Opala passenger car used in the Brazil study.
The ARS measure is related to IRI, the international roughness index,
through the followingrelationship:
ARS = 1.1466 RI
RI is the road roughness expressed in the International
Roughness Index units,IRI (m/km).
1.1466is a constant for unit conversion.
The constraining speed due to ride severity, VROUGH, is govcrned by

the maximumpracticalARV,calledARVMAX,as foRovw
VROUGH - ARVMAX /1.1466/ RI
whereARVMAXis an estimatedparameter.TableI lists thevaluesof
ARVMAX,as estimatedfromthe Brazildata set.
VDESIR
VDESIRis the desiredspeed constraint,i.e thespeed at whicha vehicle
is awmed to be operatedwithoutthe constraintsbased on the vertical
grade,curvature,and roughness.The desiredspeedresultsfrom the drivers
responseto psychological, safety,economic,and otherconsiderations.
The Brazilstudyconsiders,for eachsurfacetype Ci.e.pavedor un-
paved),VDESIRto be a constantfor eachvwhicletypc.Howecr, for narrow
roads (that is,thosewith effectivenumberof lanesequal to one or single-
lane roads),the modelassumesVDESIRto be lower.The folowingformulas
were adopted,based on an analysisof speeddata fromIndia.
VDESIR = VDESIRn BW
VDESIRois the unmodifieduser-specifiedvalueof the
desired speed, in km/.L
BW is the widtheffcctparameterapplicableto single-lane
roads.
Table I lists the originallyestimatedvaluesofVDESIRo,as estimated
from theBrail data set, and the valuesof BW.
Fuel Consumption
The programexpressesthe fuelconsumptionper 1000vehicle-km(FL)
as the nuniberof litersconsumedper 1000vehicle-kn.The fuelconsumption
cost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby.
Costper 1000veh-km= FL fuelcostper liter
The fuelconsumptionpredictionmodelusesof the concept oftime-rate
fuelconsumptionor unitfuelconsumption,representedbyUFC (C mVs).
Basicprinciplesof internalcombustionenginesuggestthat, under idealized
environmentalconditions,the unit fuelconsumptionis a functionof power
output(HP, in metrichp) and enginespeed (RPM,in rpm).
For a vehicleoperatingon a givenroad sectionof specifiedgeometry
alignment,the averagefuelconsumption,FL, in liters/1000vehicle-knis
given by@.
FL = 1000al a2 (UFCu LP / Vu + UFCd (1-LP) / Vd)
UFCu is the predictedunitfuelconsumptionfor the upbill
segment,in m/s.
UFCd is the predictedunitfuelconsumptionfor the
downhillsegment,in mVis.
LP is the proportionof uphilltravelexpressedas a fraction.
ai isthe relativeenergy-efficiency
factor.
ae is thc fueladjustmentfactor.
Vu,Vd are the estimatcdspeedsin m/s.
Sincethe testvehiclcsused in the Brazilstudyare makesand modelstypi-
cal in the rmid-1970s,a 'relativeenergy-efficiencyfactor,"represcntedby a,
has beenintroducedto allowto incorporatechangesin vehicletechnology.
This factorhas a valueof 1.0for makesand modelscloseto the ones
employedin theBrazilstudy.However,you mayspecifylowervaluesfor
newer,more fuel-efficient vehicles.For passengercars,the followingenergy-
efficiencyfactorsare recommendedfor late-1980svehiclesand are the
defaultsof the HDM-VOCmodel:
Smallcar 0.7
Mediumcar OA
Lagercar 0.4
To accountfor the differencesbetweenexperimentalconditionsand real
life drivingconditions,a fueladjustmentfactor",representedby a2 has been
introduced.The modcluscsas default,the valuesdeterminedby calibrating
the mechanisticfuelpredictionmodelto the Brazilroad usercost survey
data. It is 1.16for carsand utilitics,and 1.15forbusesand trucks.
Whileit is not possibleto deducethe preciseformof the UFC function
from ticoreticalconsiderations,the functionis knownto be convexin both
arguments.In the Brazilstudy,a quadraticformwasemployed,withseparate
coefficientsfor positiveand negativepowerregimeLThe experimentbasical-
ly involvedrunningthe testvehicleson 51 selectedtest sectionsof constant
slope under differcntloadsand speedsvaryingin thcrange10-120kmAnL
The predictedunitfuelconsumptionis givenseparatelyfor the uphill
(UFCu)and downhill(UFCd)road segments,as foHows:
UFCu = (UFCo+ a3 HPu + a4 HPu RPM + a5 HPu2) 10E-5
if HPd > 0:
Table 2 - DefaultValuesfor Fuel and LubricantsConsumption
Snm Mdum p Ulhl- GM uI edlunm y td

cm cv em t am Tra Tnak Tnk Tn Tnak
Fu Cmmplan
CRPM ( 3500 3000 3300 33m0 2300 3300 2600 1800 18a0 17W0
d2 .1201 2343 -23705 6014 -7276 -46361 -418113 -225 -2356 4100
d JA33A 40. 100. 37.6 635 127.1 71. 150 85.0 1561
*2 0 0.012140 0 0 0 0 a o 0
3 5a3 m7 2784 3846 4323 56 512 5 4002
.14 0 0 0A308 1318 0 0 0 0 0 0
.5 0 0 1391 0 04 4.70 0 10.12 19.12 4A1
ds 44EO 6552 4590 304 2470 383 2853 2394 2394 4435
d7 0 0 0 0 11.50 0 0 13.76l 137 2608
NH0 -10 -12 -15 -12 410 40 40 46 45 45
ff1 0.7 OA OA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C12 1.16 1.18 1.16 1.16 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15
LsbIcuitoCoruptmipnu
COo 1.55 1.55 1.5 1.55 3.07 220 2.20 307 30 5.15
42 Estimating VehicleOperatingCosts
UFCd = (UFCD + a3 HPd + a4 HPd RPM + a5 HPd2 ) 1OE-5

if NHO s HPd < 0:
UFCd = (UFCo + a6 HPd + a7 HPd2 ) 1OE-5
if HPd < NHO:
UFCd = (UFCo + a6 NHO + a7 NHO2 ) lOE-5
UFCo is the idling component obtained at idling speed and
expressed as follows:
UFCo = aO+ al RPM + a2 RPM2
RPM is the engine speed in rpm. The Brazil study found
tbat a satisfactory prediction of fuel consumption could be
obtained by using a constant calibrated engme speed
(CRPM) instead of the actual engine speed, and that a
good estimate of CRPM is given by the followingformula.
RPM = CRPM 2 0.75 MRPM
MRPM is the maximum rated engine
speed, in rpm.
CRPM is the user-specified calibrated en-
gine speed, in rpm.
New research for this publication has shownthat for pas-
senger cars, tbe fuel consumption prediction can be im-
proved if RPM is a function of the vehicle speed when the
vehicle is at top gear. Therefore, for passenger cars, this ver-
sion of the HDM-VOC model (4.0) gives you the option of
varying the engine speed for passenger cars using the foLow-
ing formulas:
Top gear RPM = MRPM V/ Vmax
Lzss tha top gear RPM = MRPM Vtop / Vmax
MRPM is the mawimumrated engine speed that is
equal to CRPM / 0.75.
V is the vehiclespeed in km/hour.
Vmax is the maximum vehicle speed equal to
VDRIVEd in km/hour.
Vtop is the speed at the start of top gear (45kan/hr
for small cars and 55 km/hr for medium and large
cars)
HPu, HPd are the vehicle powers on the uphill and
downhillroad segments,in metric hp, givenby:
HPu = [(CR + PG) GVW g Vu + 0.5RHO D
ARVu 3 ]/736
HPd = [(CR - NG) GVWg Vd + 0.5 RHO CD
AR Vd' /736
The cocfficients aOthrough a7 and NHO(lower Umiton

ncgativc powcr) are the paramcters of the mechanistic fucl
prediction model cstimated using data frnm controled ex-
periments.
Table 2 Cststhe default values for CRPM, aOthrough a7 and NHOfor
the represcutative vehicles used in the Brazil study.
Figure 28 shows the effect of vehicle speed on vehiclc power (HP) and
fuel consumption (FL) for a heavy truck on a level tangent good condition
road. The figure shows that as the speed increases, the power rises, partly
due to increased air resistance and partly due to the need to overcome resis-
tance forces at a faster rate; however, the fuel consumption drops initiallyto
a minimumbefore rising
Figure 28 - Fuel Consumption
Fui Conrmmplon reiI/000hml P_n (inOIde

hp)
Lubrin\tFu CnComtmplin
40
300
20
10 20 30 40 50 so 70 so
Vehicde
SpeedOcm/h)
LubricantConsumptin
The program expressesthe lubricant consumption per 1000vehide-km
(AOIL) as the number of liters consumed per 1000vehicle-km.The lubricant
consumptioncost per 1000vehicle-kmis given by
Cost per 1000veh-km = AOIL lubricant cost per liter
Lubricants consumptionwas not part of the Brazil study. For complete-
ness, the model uses the followingrelationship where lubricants consumption
is a function of roughness. The relationship is as modified by Chesher and
Harrison (1987) from those obtained from the India study (CRRI, 1982):
AOIL = COo + 0.151RI
COois Lheconstanttcrmof the lubricantsrelationship.

COodependson thc vchicletype.Table 2 liststhe derault
valucsfor COo.
RI is the road roughncssexpressedin theInternational
RoughnessIndcx units,IRI (ni/km).
TireWear
The programexprcssesthe tirewear per 1000vehicle-km(EQNT)in
"costequivalent"or simply"cquivalent"newtircsper 1000vehicle-km.The
tire wcar costper 1000vehiclc-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000vehidc-km= EQNTnewtire cost
The modelemploystworclationshipsobtainedin the Brazilstudyfor
predictingtire wear one for cars and utilities,and anotherfor trucksand
buses.Becausethe tire datafor cars and utilitiesobtainedin the Brazilstudy
were inadequate,the relationshipsconstructedwiththe data forthesevehicle
typesis relativelycrude.On the other hand the morecomprehensivedata for
trucks and busespermitteda moreelaborateanalysison mechanisticprin-
ciplesand idealizeduphilland downhillroad segmentsas in the speed and
fuel relationships.The relationshipsare:
a For passengercars (small,mediumand large)and utilitiesthe tire
wea (EONT)is givenby:
EQNT = NT (0.0114+ 0.001781RI) for0 < RI & 15
EQNT = NT0.0388 for RI >15
NTis thenumberof tiresper vehicle.Table 3 liststhc
defaultvaluesfor NT.
RI is the road roughness expressed in the International
RoughnessIndexunits,IRI (in .1km).
b) For light(gasolineand diesel),medium,heavyand articulatedtrucks
and largebusesthe tfirewear (EQNI) is givn b:
E:NT = CrV/CN
CIV isthe tire wear costper 1000vehicle-km.
CN is the cost of anew ti
The tire wearcostper 1000vehicle-km(CTV)is expressedby:
CTV = NT (CN + CRT NR) / DISTOT
NTis the numberof tiresper vehiclc.
CNis the cost of a newtire.
CRT isthe costof one retreading.
NRis the numberof retreadings.
DISTOTis the total distanceof travelprovidedbythe tire
carcassthroughits newtread and retreads,in 1000km.
The tire wear(EQNT)canbe expressedas:
EONT = NT (1 + 0.01RREC NR)/ DISTOT
The HDM-VOC
Relationships 45
RREC isthe ratio of cost of one retreadingto the costof

one newtire, in percent.Table3 listthc defaultvaluesfor
the RREC.
The numberof retreadings,NR, is cxpressedas: -
NR - NROcxp(-0.03224RI - 0.00118min(C, 300)) - 1

NROis the base numberof retreads.Table3 liststhe default
valuesforNRO.
C is the horizontalcurvature,in degreesper km.The cffcct
of curvatureis limitedto a maximumvalueof 300degres
per km.
The total traveldistanceper tire carcass,DISTOT,is givenby:
DISTOT = 1/TWN + NR / TWR
TWNis the tread wear of newtreads expressedas the frac-
tion oftread wornper 1000tire-km.
TWRis the tread wear of retreadsexpressedas the fraction
of tread wornper 1000tire-km.
and assumingthat TWNand TWRare equal,then:
TWN = TWR = TWT IVOL
TWTis the predictedvolumeof rubber loss,in dm3 /1000
tire-km.
VOLis the avcragevolumeof rubber per tire for a given
vehicleaxde-wheel configurationand nominaltire size,in
di 3 . Table 3 liststhe default values for VOL.
TWTis givenby the expression:
TWT = Cotc + Ctcte CFI / NFT
Cotcis the corstant term of the tread wear modeL
Ctcteis the wear cocfficientof thetread wear modeL
The parametcrsCotcand Ctcte are specific,not to
the vehicleclass,but mainlyto the type oftire (con-
ventionalor radialply),and secondarilyto the
makeof the tire.Table 3 lists the defaultvalues
whichapplyto conventional(biasply)typeof tires
of the Pirellimake.
NFTis the averageforceper tire in the directionperpen-
Table3 - DefaultValuesforTire WearPrediction
Smnl MUlum t_g. UUiJ- Gm a Madlum 14_ blEd

Car CU Car t Bus Tnck Trurk Tn Tnj Tfuek
NT 4 4 4 4 8 E 6 6 10 18
RREC 4 - i-s I 15 s5 15 15
NRao 3. t.3 1I.3 3.J 339 4.57
ViOL (d 4.30 43 7.9 7.30 .33
Oe - - - - 0.104 0.164 0.164 .164
0.16 0.1
CIG CO[10E-3 12.78 12.78 12.78 1Z78 12.78 12.78
46 EstimatingVehide Opeting Costs
dicularto the road surface,in newtons,givenby:

NFT = GVWg/NT
2
CFT is the averagesquaredcircunferentialforceper tire,
givenby.
CFr2 = 0.5(CFU2+ CFd2 )
CFuis thdaveragecircunferentialforcr
per tire (in the directiontangentialto the
road surface)on the uphiUroad segment,
in newtons.
CFdis the averagecircunferentialforce
per tire (inthe directiontangentialto the
road surface)on the downhilroad seg-
ment,in newtons.
The circunferentialforceCfu and CFd are com-
putedas thevehicledrivcforce dividedby thenum-
ber oftires ofthe vehicle:
CFu = [(CR + PG) GVW g + 05 RHO
CDARVU 2]/NT
CFd = [(CR- NG) GVW g + 0.5 RHO
CDAR Vd2 ] / NT
Finally,the tire wear(EQNT)is exprcssedas:
EQNT = NT [(1 + 0.01 NR) TWT /(1 + NR) /VOL + 0.00271
0.0027is a correctionterm forthe predictionbias due to
modelnonlinearity.
Figure29showstirewear consumptionas a functionofvehiclespeed for
a heavytruckon a tangentlevelpavedroad.
Figure29 -lire WearConsumption
0.20
01 Roughness- 6 IRIn*km
0.18
O.14 Raughms - a2R nmAn
0.12
0.10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 s0
VehicleSpeed ,kmih)
TheHDM-VOC
Relationships 47
Crew Time
The programexprcsscsthe crewrequirementsper 1000vehicle-km
(CRH)as the numberof crew-hoursspenttravelingper 1000vchicle-m.
The crewcost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Cost per 1000veh-km= CRH crewcostper hour
CRH is givenby:
CRH = 1000/V
V is the computedvehiclespeed, in km/h
Passenger Time
The programexpressesthepassengerdelaysper 1000vehicle-km(PXH)
as the numberof passenger-hoursspent travelingper 1000vehice-km.The
passengerdelaycost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-hn = PXH passengertime costper hour
PXH is givenby:
PXH = 1000PAX / V
PAX is the user-specifiedaveragenumberof passengers
per vehicle.
V is the computedvehiclcspeed,in kmhL
Cargo Holding
The programcxpressesthecargoholdingper 1000vehicle-km(VCH) as
the numberof vehicle-hoursspent in transitper 1000vehicle-knLThe cargo
holdingcostsper 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-km= VCH cargoholdingcost per hour
VCH is givenby:
VCH = 1000/V
V is the computedvehiclespeed,in km/h
Maintenance Parts
The programexpressesthemaintenanceparts consumptionper 1000
vehicle-km(PC) as a percentageof the averagenewvehiclecost.The main-
tenanceparts cost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-km= PC / 100newvehiclepricecost
The maintenanceparts consumptionisrelatedto roughnessand vehicle
age (Chesherand Harrison,1987).Theeffectsof thesetwo factorsare multi-
plicative.Holdingthe age constant,therelationshipbetweenmaintenance
parts consumption(PC) and roughnessis generallyexponential,especially
for relativelylowvaluesof roughness.However,the exponentialrelaton
tends to ovcrpredictPC at highervalues.Therefore,the recommendedeqra-
tionis a compositeof exponentialand linear - exponentialup to a transition-
al valueof roughness,QlPo, whichis differcntfor differentvehiclctypcs,and
then linearfor highervalues.The linear extensionis tangentto the exponen-

tial relationshipat QIPo.Sincethe Brazilrelationfor truckparts consump-
tionwasfoundto be linear overall valuesof roughnessencounteredin
practice,OlPo isset to zerofor all trucks.The maintenanceparts consump-
tion(PC) isgivenby:
For RI s QIPo:
PC = 100CKM 1 P CPocxp(CPqRI 13)
For RI > QlPo:

100CKMK'p (aO+ al RI 13)
CKMis the averageage of the vehiclegroupin kwn,defined
as theaveragenumberof kilometersthevehicleshavebeen
driven since they were built.
KP is the ageexponent,a fixedmodelparameter.
CPois the constantcoefficientin the exponentialrelation-
shipbetweenspare parts consumptionand roughness.
CPq isthe roughnesscoefficientin the exponentialrelation-
shipbetweenspare parts consumptionand roughness
QIPo is thetransitionalvalueof roughness,inIRI, beyond
whichthe relationshipbetweenspare parts consumption
and roughnessis linear.
RI is the road roughnessexpressedin the International
RoughnessIndexunits,IRI (m/ki).
aGand al arecoecficints of he linear-tangentialextension
of the exponentialrelationshipsand maybe expressedas
functionsof modelparameters.
aO= CPo exp(CPqQIPo) (1- CPqQIPo)
al = CPo Cpq exp(CPqQIPo)
The predictionof PC requiresfour parameters,namelyKP, CPo,CPq
and QIPo.Table4 liststhe defaultvalues,as estimatedfromthe Brazildata
set.
Table4 - DefaultValuesfor MaintenancePredictions
UgHt Lught At-

SmalI Medium Lag UtiM Ga DOil Madum ldy be
Cr Cer Car ty Buk T Truc Truck T Trock
nruc
Mairleranc.Paris
KP 0308 030 0.30B 0.308 0.483 0.371 0.371 0 0.371 0.371
CPo(IOE-6) 32.49 32.49 32.49 32.49 1.77 1.49 1.49 1.48 8.61 13.4
CPqIIOE-3) 13.70 13.70 13.70 13.70 3.5 251.79 251.79 251.79 35.31 15.65
OlPo 923 9.23 923 9.23 14.62 0 0 0 0 0
MahtananceLabor
CLo 77.14 77.14 77.14 77.14 293.44 242.03 242.03 022 301.46 652.51
CLp 0.547 0.547 0.547 0.547 0.517 0.519 0.519 0.519 0.519 0.519
CLQ 0 0 0 0 0.0055 0 0 0 0 0
Figurc30 showsmaintcnanceparts consumptionas a functionofvchicic

specd fora hcavytruckon a tangentlevelpavedroad. Notcthat thcvchicle
speedhasno effectonmaintenanceparts consumption.
Figure30 -MaintcnancePartsConsumption
Pemun of Vehici Pdc911/lONm

0.35
0.30 - lmRhn. - RI mikm
0.25
020 _
PbughNes 2IR! Wnmn
00 _1
10 20 30 40 9 70 s
Vshide Speedsanh)
Maintenance Labor
Theprogramexpressesthe maintenancelabor requirementsper 1000
vehicle-km(LB) as the numberof maintenancelabor-hoursrequiredper
1000vehicle-km.Themaintenancelaborcost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-km= LH laborcost per hour
Maintenancelaborhoursrelatesprimarilyto maintenanceparts require-
ments,and in somecases,to roughness.Whensignificant,thelatter hasbee
foundto be exponentialand the twocffectsare multiplicative. The relation-
shipinits generalformiswrittenas:
LH = CLo (PC/100)CLP exp(CLqRI 13)
PC is the standardizedparts cost per 1000vehicle-kmex-
pressedas a fractionof newvehicleprice.
CLo is the constantcoefficientin the relationshipbetween
laborhoursand parts costs.
CLp is the exponentof parts cost in the relationshipbe-
tweenlaborhoursand parts costs.
CLq is the roughness coefficientin the exponential relation-
shipbetweenlaborhoursand roughness.
RI is the road roughnessexpressedin the International
RoughnessIndexunits,IRI (m/lkn).
The predicLionof LH requircsthree paramcters,namclyCLo, CLp,and

CLq.Table 4 lists the defaulLvalucs,as estimatedfrom the Brazildata set.
Depreciation
The programcxpressesthe depreciationper 1000vchiclc-km(DEP)as a
percentageof the averagenewvehiclecost.The dcpreciationcostper 1000
vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000vch-km= DEP I 100newvehicleprice cost
A vehicleis a medium-tcrmcapitalasset;its purchasecostsrepresents
an investmcntwhichyieldsservicesoverseveralyears.The marketvalueof
the assetdeclineswithboth the passageof timeand, usualy to a much
smallerdegree,withthe amountand typeof usage.
It is this lossof marketvalue(as distinctfromsome physicalor account-
ing concept)that representvehicledepreciation.The vehicledepreciation
per km is a functionof the averageannualdepreciation(ADEP) and the
vehicleannualutilization(AKM).
DEP = 1000ADEP I AIKM
ADEP is theaverageannualdepreciation,expressedas a
percentageof the averagenewvehiclecost, givenby.
ADEP = (1/LIFE) 100
LIFE is the averagevebicleservieelife,in
years.
AKMis the averagenumberofkilometersdrivenper
vehicleper year.
Figure 31showsdepreciationand interest as a functionof
vehice speed for a heavytruckon a tangentlevelgoodcon-
ditionroad.
Vehicle Service Life (UFE)

Thereare twomethodsavailablefor computingthe vehidleservicelife:
the ConstantVehicleLifeMethod,and the de WeiJle'sVaryingVehicleLifc
Method.
ConstantVehicleLife Method
This methodusesa straight-linedepreciationand assumesthe life,LIFE,
to be constantirrespectiveofvehiclespeed and equala user-specifiedvalue
LIFE = LI:EO
LEFEoisthe user-specifiedbaselineaveragevehicleservicc
life,in years.
de Weile's Voynhg VehicdeLife Method
This method,suggestedby de Weille(1966),also usesa straight-line
depreciationovera predeterminedvehicleservicelife that decreasessome-
whatas vehiclespeed increases,so lifetimekilometerageincreasesin less
proportionthan speed.
LIFE = minimum{ 1.5LIFEo; (Voa V + 2) LIFEo/3 }

Vois the baselineaveragevehiclespeed,in km/h,givenby:
Vo = AKMO/ HRDo
AKMois the user-specifiedbaseline
avcragenumberof kilometersdrivenpcr
vchicleper year.
HRDois the user-specifiedbaselinenum-
bcr of hoursdrivenper vehicleper year.
V is the computedvehiclespeed,in km/h.
LIFEois the user-specifiedbaselineaveragevehicleservice
life,in years.
Note:The modelimposesthe maximumlimitof 15 LlFEoto prevent
computingunreaisticaliylongvehiclelives.
Vehicle Annual Utilization (AKM)

The modelusesthe 'adjustedutilization"methodto computethe annual
utilization.Twootherrnethods the 'constantannualkilometeragc"method
and the'constant annualhourlyutilization'methodare particularcases of
the 'adjustedutilization"method.
Adjusted Utlizaton Method
The "adjustedutilization"methodassumeseachvehicleto operate on the
sectionunder considerationas a fied routeoverthe analysisyear,withthe
total time,per roundtrip, 7T, givenby.
IT = TN + TD
Figure31- Depreciationand Interest
PercontageatN.wVehIcIePriacOOku
0.30 -
025-
020 - \
0.15 \
0.10 Ir_
aDO
10 20 30 40 50 eo 70 50
VehicleSpeed Qcm/h)
52 EstimatingVehiceOperatingCosts
TN - thc timespenton non-drivingactiviticsas part ofthc

roundtrip tour, includingloadingand unloading,refueling,
layovcrs,ctc., in hoursper trip.
TD = thc drivingtimcon thc section,in hourspcr trip.
TD = RL/V
RL is the round trip drivingdistanceor
routclength,in km.
V is the vehiclcspeed,in km/h.
The modelassumesvehicleoperaLorstry to maximizevehicleproduc-
tivityby makingas manytrips as possiblewithinthevehiclcavailabilitycon-
straint.Lct HAVrcprcsentthc vehicleavailability,defmedas the total
amountof timethe vehiclcis availablefor vehicleoperation.In general,
HAVis equalto the total numberofhoursper yearless the timeallowedfor
crewrest, infeasibiityofvehiclcoperation(e.g. holidaysor hourslabordoes
not normallywork),vehiclerepairs,etc. The modelassumesHAV to be inde-
pendentof vehiclespeedand route characteristics.Underthis assumption
the kilometeragedrivenper yearis dcrivedas:
AKM = (numberof roundtrips per year) * (route length)
AKM = (HAV / Tr) RL
AKM = [HAV/ (N + RL/V)]RL
AKM = HAV/(TNIRL + 1/V)
The term IN / RL, the number of non-drivinghours per vehicle-km of
traveLis expressedas folows:
TN/ RL = (HAV- HRDo)/ AKMo
AKMois the user-specifiedbaselineaveragenum-
ber of kilometersdrivenper vehicleper year.
HRDois the user-specifiedbaselinenumberof
hoursdrivenper vehicleper year.
and substitutingthis expressioninto the aboveexpressionforAKMyields:
AKM = HAV / ((HAV - HRDo) /A1Mo + 1/ V)
Thusif the valuesof HAV,HRDoand AKMoare available,the model
predictsthe annualkilometeragedriven,AK14 as a functionof the predicted
operatingspeed,V.
The user providesdirectlythe baselineparametersHRDoand AKMo.
The HAVparametcris derivedfrom the followingformula
HURATIO = HRDo / HAV
whereHURATIOis the "hourlyutilizationratio' for the baselinecase,
definedas the ratio of the annualnumberof hoursdrivento the numberof
hours availablefor operation.Substitutingthis formulain the expressionfor
AKMaboveyieldsthegeneralformulafor predictingvehicleutilization.
AKM = AKMoHRDo/ [HRDo(1- HURATIO) + AKMo
HURATIO/Vl
AKMois the user-specifiedbasclineaveragenumberof
kilometersdrivenper vehicleper year.
HRDois the user-speciriednumberof hoursdrivenper

vehiclcper year.
HURATIOis the user-speciricdhourlyutilizationratio.
V is the computedspecd of the vehicle,in km/h.
Basedon the data fromthe Brazilstudy,Watanatada,et aL(1987)es-
timatedtypicalvaluesof hourlyutilizationratio forvariousclassesof
vehicles.The resultsled to the followingdefaultvaluesof HURATIO.
ycbiyic l v timition Rstin
Cars 0.60
Utilities 0.80
Buses 0.75
Trucks 0.85
Thesedefaultvaluesare basedon the operatingcharacteristicsoftypical
vehiclesin Brazil.Howevcr,sincehourlyutilizationratiosare expectedto
varyconsiderablyacrosscountries,youshouldprovidevaluesappropriateto
the localoperatingconditions.
ConstantAnnual KGlometerage
Method.
The"constantannualkilometerage" methodis obtainedwhen
HURATIOequalsto zero and the formulabecomes:
AXM = AKMo
Theassumptionof constantannualkilometerageis appropriatefor non-
commercialvehiclessuch as privatepassengercars,of whichthe trip distan-
ces and frequenciesare usuallyrelativelyinsensitiveto changesin average
travelspeed.However,commercialvehiclestendto be usedfor more re-
quentor longertrips if timefor a givenlengthtrip is reduced.
ConstantAnnual Hourly UtilizatonMethod.
The"constantannualhourlyutilization"methodis obtainedwhen
HURATIOequalsto one and the formulabecomes:
AKM = HRDo V
Theconstantannualhourlyutilizationmethodassumesthat the average
annualnumberof hours drivenper vehicleis constant.Note that thismethod
tendsto overprcdicttime-relatedbenefits.As the averagespeed increases
thenumberof trips a commercialvehiclemakesin a yeartend to rise.
However,in additionto the drivingtimethe total time needed to complete
eachtripalsoincludesa largeproportionof non-drivingactivitiessuchas
loading,unloading,vehiclerepairs,and layovers.This meansthat the number
of tripsper yeardoesnot increasein directproportionto speed.The effectis
particularlypronouncedfor short tripswithmanystopsfor pickupsand
deliveries.
Interest
Theprogramcxpresscsthe interestdhargeper 1000vehicle-Irm (}NT)as
a pcrccntageof the averagenewvehiclecost. The interestcost per 1000
vehiclc-kmis given by.
53
54 EtimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
Costper 1000veh-kln- INT /100 newvehiclepricecost

Sincedepreciationoccursgradually,at anygivenpointin time there is a
residual(undepreciated)amountof capitaltied up to the vehicle,whichnor-
mallycouldbe investedelsewhere,so an annualinterestchargeis incurred.
The modeltakesthe annualinterestas the averageof theresidualvehicle
value,decreasingin a linear fashionfromfunpurchaseprieeat the end of
year0 to zero at the end of yearLIFE.
INT = 1000AINT / AKM
AINTis averageannualinterest on thevehicle,in percent.
AINT = AINV12
AINVis the user-specifiedannualinterestcharge
on the purchasecost of a newvehicle,in percent.
AKMis the averagenumberof kilometersdrivenper
vehicleper year.
Note:Refer to the VehicleAnnualUtilizationtopicin the Depreciation
sectionof this chapterfor informationonthe computationofAKM.
Overhead
The programexpressesthe overheadper 1000vehicl-km(OVER) as a
1Unp sumoverheadcostper vehicle-klm.
The overheadcost per 1000vehicle-
km is givenby:
Cost per 1000veh-km= OVER/1000
OVERis the user-specificdoverheadcost per vehicle-km.
Chapter 5
The Input Data

SurfaceType
The model provides two options for road surface type: (i) Paved and (ii)
Unpaved. Enter 1 to select a paved road, and 0 to select an unpaved road.
The paved roads include primarily asphalt concrete roads and surface
treatment roads, and the unpaved roads include compacted gravel and earth
roads. The surface type affects directly the foUowingpredictions
* VCURVE, the curvature-limited constraint speed
* VDESIR, the desired constraint speed
Note that the model followsthe steps below:
1 - Computes the constraint speeds (VDRIVE, VBRAKE,
VCURVE, VROUGH, VDESIR).
2 - Computes the predicted vehicle speed (V) from the constraint
speeds.
3 - Computes the resources used for each vehicleoperating costs
component (ie., liters of fuel, hours of labor, depreciation, etc.).
4 - Applies the unit costs to the resource consumption amounts to
obtain the vehicle operating costs.
The vehicle operating costs components listed below are a function of the
predicted vehiclespeed (V) and the predicted vehiclespeed is a function of
the constraint speeds (VDRIVE, VBRAKE, VCURVE, VROUGH,
VDESIR). Therefore, an input variable that affects any constraint speed will
affcct directly the predicted vehiclespeed and indirectlythe followingvehicle
operating cost components:
55
56 EstimatingVehicleOperatirigCosts
* Fuel consumption
* Tire wcar
* Crew time
* Passengertime
* Cargoholding
* Depreciation
* Interest
Roughness
The road roughnessis deined as the deviationsof a surfacefrom a true
planarsurfacewith characteristicsthat affectvehicledynamics,ride quality,
dynamicloadsand drainage.Enter the averageroad roughnessin IRI units
(InternationalRoughnessIndex,in ni/kn).If you haveroughnessin 01 units
(roughnessmeasuredby a quarter-ca indexscale),convertit intoIRI units
usingtheformula:
IRI = QI /13
If youhaveroughnessin BI units(roughnessmeasuredbyBumpIntegrator
trailerat 32km/h),convertit intoIRI units usingthe formula:
IRI = BI /715
If youhaveroughnessin otherunits,convertit intoIRI unitsusingan ap-
propriatecalibrationmethod.Referto the followingpublicationfor morein-
formationaboutthe InternationalRoughnessIndex and its relationshipto
otherroughmessunits.
Sayers,M.W.,T.D. Gillespieand W.D.O.Paterson.Guidelinesfor
Conductingand CalibradngRoadRoughness Measmuements.Techni-
cal Paper No.46,The WorldBank.Washington,DC, 1986.
If a roughnessvalueis not availablein anyof the aboveunits,translateyour
subjectiveassessmentofthe road roughnessinto IRI unitsby usingthe five-
pointscalegivenbelow(sincetheseguidelinescanonlyprovideverybroad
approxAmations, youare urged to workwithactualroughnessmeasures,if
possible):
Quantitative Roughness IRI (m/km)

Evaluation Paved Road Unpaved Road
Smooth 2 4
Rcasonably smooth 4 8
Medium rough 6 12
Rough 8 15
Very rough 10 20
The roughnessaffectsdirectlythe foUowing

predictions:
* VDRIVE,the drivingpower-liniitedconstraintspeed
The Input Data 57
* VBRAKE,the brakingpowcr-limitcdconstraintspced
* VROUGH,the roughness-limited
constraintspced
* Fuelconsumption
* Lubricantconsumption
* Tirc wear
* Maintenanceparts
* Maintenancelabor
Vertical Profile
Youcan identifythree distincttypesofjourneyson a road betweentwo
points,sayA and B.Thescare:
(i) one-wayjourneyfromA to B;
(ii) one-wayjourneyfromB to A; and
(iii)round tripjourneyeither fromA to B and backto A, or from B
to A and backto B.
Of the three,the firsttwoare basicin the sensethat youmayobtainpredic-
tionsfor the round-tripjourneyfromthe predictionsfor the twoone-way
journeysby appropriateaverages.Homogeneoussectionsof the road be-
tweenA and B whichwouldhavea positivegrade in (i)win havea negative
gradein (ii),and viceversa.The road studiedin (iii)is conceptuallyidentical
to a road whichis twicein lengthand has the homogeneoussectionsofboth
(i) and (ii).
To obtainthe desiredpredictionsfor eachjourneytype,the modelre-
quiresthree aggegate attributesofverticalgeometryof the road:
* Positivegradient(PG, in percentage)definedas the ratio ofthe
sumof aUascents(or rises) alonga road by the lengthof the
sectionsconstitutinguphilltraveL
* Negativegradient(NG, in percentage)defunedas the ratio of the
sumof absolutevaluesof all descents(or falls)alonga road bythe
lengthof the sectionsconstitutingdownhilltraveL
* Proportionof uphilltravel (LP,in percentage)definedas the ratio
of the total lengthofroad sectionswithpositivegradeby the total
lengthof the road.
However,the aggregateinformationon verticalgcometryobtainedfor either
journeytype(i) or (ii) is also sufricientforthe other typeand also for the
round tripjourney.For most applications,predictionsfor a roundtrip are
adequate.The onlysignificantexceptionis the caseof a truckwithverydif-
ferentloadlevelsin the twooppositedirections.In this case,obtainpredic-
tionsseparatelyfor (i) and (ii).
Followthe stepsbelowto computethe verticalgeometricaggregates
froma detailedgeometricprofile:
1- Startwitha detailedverticalprofileof the road as shownin
Figure32.
58 EstimatIng
VehicleOperiting Costs
Figurc32- Sampleof Horizontaland VerticalProfile
042 Vertical Profile

044 064
A PaSUW.
. ~ ~ ... .. ..
1,300 450 400 6oo 670
Horizontal Profile
200 350 150 15~04 7 B
A B
2- Dividethe roadwayintosectionswithcrests andtroughsas

boundary points. Determine the lengths (16)and avcrage gradients
(as a faction and withsignsretained)of thesections(ga)and forma
tabularprofileof verticalgeometry.Figur 33showsthat and givesa
numericalexampleof the computationofverticalaggregatesfor the
road definedin Figure32fromA to B.
3 - Determinethe 'positivegradient (ps)of eachsections (column
d):
If the gradientof sections is positive,i.e.,gs a 0, then:
ps = 1>.
f the gradientof sections is negative,i.e.,gs < 0, then:
p'S = u
4 - Determinethe negativegradient7(n) of eachsections (column
e):
If the gradientof sections is positive,i.e.,g. a 0, then
ns = O
If the gradientof sections is neptive, i.e.,gs < 0, then:
Ds = I gs I, where I gs I is the absolute value of gs
5- Determinethe 'rise' of eachsection.Multiplycolumnsb and d to
get pIS(columnf):
Ps = Psi
6 - Determinethe 'fall' of eachsection.Multiplycolumnsb and e to
get nl, (columng):
nL= usI
The Input Data 59
Figure33- Computationof VerticalAggrcgalcs
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) () (0) ()

PodIum Nggatve UpId
Sbub, ehlZt
e am&= usTa
I oeo 4M44 a ao.o o 17^A

2 400
o 44 0.044 0 3710 a
4 MD O0307 6137 0 3am 0 Goo
I 37a 4e4 0 0.004 0 4.0 a
XMO 42.0 1166 1.050
L P1L NL P
Bom point A to B
Posuldwm
Grdlt (PC)- 42ao 1.060 * 100 - 4.0%
NIgl uCradwt tNC) - 119.01 3,420-1.060)* 100 - 4.9%

Tve (1P)
UphiLl 1.06013.420* IO - 3071%
7 - Specify the segments with positivegradient (uphill travel)

(column h). Enter the length Is of the section if the section has a posi-
tive gradient; enter zero if the section has a negative gradient
Ps = 1 if gs 2 0
PS = O if gs < O
8- Form the totals of columns b, f, g and h as L, PL, NL and P,
rcspectively.
9 - Compute the average vertical geometric characteristics from the
formulasbelow:
Average GcOnitric one= TfiTp RnundTrip

Chearctistic Symbol A to 1 R to A
Averagepositive PG PL/P10O NIJ(L-P)100 (PL+ NL)AL00

gradient
Average ncgative NG NI/(L - P) 100 PUP 100 (PL + NL)/L 100
gradient
Proportionof LP P/L 100 (L-P YLI00 SD
uphill travel
The recommended range for positivegradient (PG) and negative

gradient (NG) is from 0 to 12 percent. The range for the proportion of uphill
travel (LP) is from 0 to 100 percent.
60 EstimatingVehicleOperalingCosts
NoLethat the HDMprogramcomputesthc vehiclcopcratingcostsonlyfor

roundtripjourneysand derivesthcaggrcgatevcrticalgcomctricinformation
fromthe ascragcriseplus fall(RF)valucof the road. Rccallingthat the risc
and fall(RF,in m/krn)is thesumof absolutcvalucs(in m) of all thc asccnts
and dcscentsalongthcroad dividcdbythe lcngthof thc road (in km),we
havethe followingrclation:
L. rgram HDWMPrngram
P6 RF/ 10
NG RF/ 10
LP 50
The verticalprorilcaffectsdirectlythe followingpredictions:

* VDRIVE,the drivingpower-limitedconstraintspecd
* VBRAKE,the brakingpower-limitedconstraintspeed
* Fuel consumption
* Tire wear
Horizontal Profile
Twomeasuresthat are independentof directionof travelrepresentthe
horizontalprorlle:
* Averagrhorizontalcurvature(C), definedas the weighted
averageofthe curvaturesofthe curvysectionsof the road, the
weightsbeingthe proportionof the lengthsof curvysections.Its
unitsare degrees/kmL The horizontalcurvatureof a curvysection
is the angle(in degrees)subtendedat the cenmerby a unit
arc-lengthof the curve(in kn). Note that the curvatureof a curvy
sectionis an inversefNnctionof the radius of curvature:
Cs= 180,000/Vwrcs
wherercsis the radiusof curvature,in meters.Further,the angle

subtendedbyan arcof a c;rcleat the center is equalto the
externalanglemadeby the tangentsto the circleat the endsof the
arc.Thus the curvaturealsoexpressesthe absoluteangular
deviationof the twotangentlinesat the end-pointsof the curveby
the arc-length.
* Averagesuperelevation(SP),defined as the weightedaverageof
thesuperelevationsofthe curvysectionsof the road, the weights
beingthe proportionofthe lengthsof curvysections.It is a
dimensionless quantity.The superelevationof a curvysecion is
the verticaldistancebetweenthe heightsof the innerand outer
cdgesof the roaddividedbythe road width.
The Input Data 61
Figure34- Computationof HorizontalAggregatcs
(a) (b) (a) (d) (a) E (9)
Boca=h ON CM) IdmuJka) (tmam) doi lb

I 340 135 34.76 0.037 61.147 .33
2 33e 6 36o 6.040 3.864 13.20
3 33 3m
uo3 isi.0 66.673 I,: '7
4 33 ~~~IN UI11 0.04 mini3 3.13
* IM 300 36. 0.O 43 e U6
6 170 we .4 6.o033 li343 31
7 zw 13 466.3 SAI e364. 1U.10
Road Lena* - 3.40 m 4____7___91
K S
Hodoata Cos. (C) - 437.1W13.420 * 12L.S

Sup.r.1vmdnS M - _ LN13.42D M 0.019
Foilowthe stepsbelowto computethe horizontalgeometricaggregates

froma detailedgeometricprofile:
1- Startwitha detailed horizontalprofileof the road as typifiedif
Figure32.
2 - Dividethe road into sectionswithuniformcurvatureusingthe
end pointscf the curvesas boundarypoints.Determinethe lengths
(l6),curvatures(cs)and superelevation(sr.)of the curvysectionsand
forma tabularprofileof horizontalgeometry.Figure34 showsthat
and givesa numericalexampleof thecomputationof horizontalag-
gregatesforthe road definedin Figure32.
3- Multiplycolumnsb and d to getcls (columnf):
cs=c s I
4 - Multiplycolumnsb and e to getsls(columng):
s6 = 6 Is
5 - Form the totals of coliuns f and g as K and S respectively.
6 - Computethe total lengthof theroad (L), in km.
7 - Computethe averagehorizontalgeometriccharacteristicsfrom
the formulasbelow:
Avcragc Geometric One iyTrip RoundTrip
Characteristies SYmbol A to n R to A
Averagp C KIL KIL K/L

Curvature
Average SP S/L S/L SJL

S upcrlevation-
If youdon't knowthc superelevation,cithcr on a detailedbasisor on an

avcragebasis,the modclestimatcsa valuefor the averagesuperclevationas a
functionof the averagehorizontalcurvature.If youdon't enter the super-
elcvation,the modelusesthe followingformulasobtainedfrom a sampleof
roads in Brazil:
SP - 0.00012C for pavedroads
SP = 0.00017C for unpavedroads
The rccommendedrangcforLorizontalcurvature(C) is from0 to 1200
degrees/kmand for supcrelevation(SP) is from0 to 0.20.
The horizontalcurvatureand superdelvationaffectdirectlythefollowing
prediction:
* VDRIVE,the curvaturc-limited constraintspeed
Altitudeof Terrain
The modelusesthe altitudcof tcrrain (the averagcelevationof the road
abovethe meansea level,in meters)to computethe airresistanceto the
vehiclemotion.The recommendedrange for altitude(AL) is from0 to 5000
meters.
The altitudeof terrain affectsdirectlythe foUowing
predictions:
* VDRIVE,the drivingpower-limitedconstizintspeed
J Fuel consumption
* Tire wear
EffectiveNumberof Lanes
The modelprovidestwooptionsfor the effectivenumberof lanes:(i)
One lane and Cii)More thanone lane.Enter 1 to selecta single-laneroad,
and 0 to selecta morethan onelane road.
The modelmakesa distinctionbetweensingle-laneroads and other
roads.If the carriagewaywidthis lessthan 4.0m designatethe road as single-
lane (vehiclestravelingin twooppositedirectionsshareboth wheelpaths). If
the road is widerthan 5.5ni, designateit as havingmorethan one lane
(vehiclestravelingin twooppositedirectionseither shareone wheelpath or
havedistinctwheelpaths). Designateroads withwidthbetween4.0and 5.5 m
based on otherfactorssuchas,shoulderwidthand condition,dailytraffic,
and trafficcomposition.
The effcctivenumberof lanesaffectsdirectlythe followingpredictionc
* VDESIR,the desiredconstraintspeed
Vehicle Type
You canselectthe vehicletypeamongthe vehicleclasseslistedin Table
5.Table 5 also liststhe representativemakesand modelsas employedin the
Bra7il study and the main vehicle characteristics.
TheInputData 63
Table5 - VchicdcClassesand StandardCharactcristics
Medium Ugh Ught AIcu.

Sinai Medium Lage Ut- Gm OlzIa Mt dkiun He ldad
Ca Cw Cw ty Bus Truck Truck Tn*ck Tu Thcek
RaprentaVe Vail- Chl, iye. Vdok- Mac Fod Ford Mar. Mwc. Sca.
vehicle,make ugan rolat ag
=r Benz 9.nt Benz rnl
moda 1300 Opl Dodg I 0362
0m F410 F.400
. 1113 1113 110l
DLt 2atiu 3axln 30
Vehiclcoda 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10
Wetght(kgl:
TWOwalghl 6 120W l050 1320 8100 3120 3270 5400 6600 14730
(TARE)
carrled 400 400 400 g00 4000
LOAD)
DlrIvngpo trdc hp):

Madmum uaed 30 70 85 4t 100 80 0o tO0 10W 210
Maidmumrabd 46 146 16 60 147 IN 102 147 147 266
(HPRATEO)
BrakIngpow (metik hp):

Maidmumueed 17 21 27 30 160 100 100 250 250 500
(4PBRAKE)
Engne speed (rpmr*

CeibraWd 3500 3000 330 3300 23W 3300 2S00 160 1aw 1700
(CRPM)
Maidumn adted 4600 40D0 4400 400 26800 4400 3000 2Ul0 20 2200
hrontatae (2 1.80 2.011 220 2.72 6330 3.25 3.25 1. 5.20 5.78
Aarodynantl drg O.5 0.50 0.45 0.46 0.6 0.70 0.70 0.85 0.65 0.63
Thes:
Number 4 4 4 4 6 6 0 a 10 10
Nombi dimeter rmm) 0w0 900 lo 1000 100 1100
Wearrubba voklu (din) 6.J5 4.3 4.3 7.8 7.3 69
TareWeight
Themodelused thetare weight(TARE) to computethe grossvehicle
weight(GVW)usingthe formula:
GVW = TARE + LOAD
TARE is the vehicletare weight,in kg.
LOADis the vehiclepayload,in kg.
The modelprovidesdefaultvaluesfor tare weight(see Table 1) and the
rccommcndcdrangefor grossvehicleweight(GVW)isgivenbelow:
Vehicle RecommendedGrossVehicleWeightRange(1g)
Cars 8,000- 2,000
Utilities 1,1000-2,500
Buses 7,500-12,000
Lighttrucks 3,000- 6,500
64 Estimating
Mediumtrucks 5,000-16,000
Heavytrucks 6,000- 22,000
Articulated trucks 13-,00 - 45,00
Thetare weightaffectsdirectlythe followingpredictions

* VDRIVE,the drivingpower-limitedconstraintspeed
* VBRAKE,the brakingpower-limitedconstraintspeed
* VCURVE,the curvature-limited constraintspeed
* Fuelconsumption
* Tirewear
Payload
Themodelusesthe payload(LOAD)to computethe grossvehicice
weight(GVW)and to estimatethe tendencyto skid ratio (FRATIO)usedin
thecalculationof VCURVE.
Themodeldoesn't providedefaultvaluesfor payload.If the vehicleis a
car,a busor a utilty, the payloadrepresentsthe weightof the passengersand
somelightload.Suggestedvaluesfor payloadare givenbelow.
Vehicle Suggested Payload (kg)

Cars 400
Utilities 900
Kuses 4,000
If thevehicleis a truck,enter the valueof load carriedafter considering

factorssuchas the loadingpracticeand the maximumrated tonnagefor the
vehicle.Theorder of magnitudeinvolvedfor each typeoftruck is given
Loading Magnitude of PayloadOUg)

CDndition Light Medium Heavy Articulated
Truck Tru*f+ Truck Track
Unloaded 0 0 0 0
Partially loaded 1,800 4.$00 6,000 13,000
Fullyloaded 3.6f 9000 12000 26000
The recommendedrangefor payload(LOAD)is givenbelow:
Vehicle RecommendedPayloadRange(k?
Cars 0 -400
Utilities 0- 1,400
Buses 0-4,500
Lighttrucks 0-3,500
TheInput Data 65
Mcdiumtrucks 0 -11,000
Heavytrucks 0 - 16,000
Articulatcd trucks 0- 32,000
The payload affccts dircctly the followingprcdictions:

* VDRIVE, the drivingpower-limited constraint speed
* VBRAKE, the braking power-limited constraint speed
* VCURVE, the curvature-limited constraint speed
* Fucl consumption
* Tirewcar
Maximum Used Driving Power

The modelusesthemaiimumdrivingpower(HPDRIVE)to compute
the drivingpower-limitingconstraintspeed (VDRIVE).The modelprovides
dcfault values for maximumdrivingpower (see Table 1, Page 39) and the
recommended input range is given below
Vehicle Recnmmended Ma3dmumUsed Driving Power (Metric _)

Cars 25- 100
Utilities 35-100
Buses 80- 120
Light trucks 50-100
Mediumtrucks 80-120
Heavy trucks 80-120
Articuilted trucks 1RO- 230
Youcan estimatethe maximumdrivingpower(HPDRVW Eromthe
maximum rated power of a vehicle (HPRATED), that is availablefrom the
vehicle manufacturer. Based on the test vehicles data fromthe Brazil study,
separate relationships were developed for gasoline and diesel vehicles
For gasoline vehicles
HPDRIVE = 2.0 HPRATED 0.7
For diesel vehicles:
HPDRIVE = 0.7 HPRATED
where HPRATED is the SAE maximum rated power of the vehicle. Note
that since HPRATED is usually quoted under standard atmosphcric condi-
tions, the value of HPRAT-D should be adjusted where the operating atmos-
pheric conditions depart from the standard conditions (e.g, in high-altitude
driving or drivingin severelycold weather).
The maximumdrivingpower affects directly the followingprediction
* VDRIVE, the driving power-limited constraint specd
MaximumUsed Braking Power

The model uses the maximum braking power (HPBRAKE) to compute
the braking powcr-limitingconstraint spced (VBRAKE). The model
provides default valucs for maximumbraking power (see Table 1, Page 39)
and the recommended input rangc is givcn below:
Vehicle Re-commendedMaxNimum
M~edB3rakingPnwer (Metric HP)
Cars 15 -30
Utilities 20 - 35
Buses 140-180
Light trucks 90-120
Medium trucks 230 - 270
Heavy trucks 230 - 270
Articulated trucks 460 - 540
You can estimate the maximumbraking power (HPBRAKE) from the

manufacturer's rated gross vchicleweight (GVWRATED). Based on the test
vehicles data from the Brazil study, use the foUowingsimple formula:
HPBRAKE = 14 GVWRATED or 15 GVWRATED
wbere GVWRATED is the manufacture's rated gross vehicleweight.This
formula is based on the assumption that vehicle designers strive to rmatchthe
vehicle's braking capacitywith its design weight.
The maximumbraking power affects directly the followingprediction:
0 VBRAKE, the braking power-limited constraint speed
DesiredSpeed
The desired speed constraint (VDESIR) is the desired vehicle speed
without the effect of road severity factors. On a straight, flat and smooth
road, although the driving, braking, curve and ride severity speed constraints
do not exist, the vehiclestill does not normally travel at the speed afforded by
its own maximumor even used power. Rather, its speed is usualy governed
by subjective considerations of such factors as fuel economy,vehicle wear,
safety or blanket speed limits.Since it was not possible to separate thesc ef-
fects in the study data, they were combined in the parameter "desired speed
constraint VDESIR
The model uses the user-specified desired speed (VDESIRo) to compute
the desired speed constraint (VDESIR). Based on observed speed data from
Brazil, it was found satisfactoryto assume that the desired speed constraint
(VDESIR) for a vehicleclass depends only on the surface type of the
homogeneous section. However, in the extension to the steady-state speed
prediction model based on Indian data, (VDESIR) depends also on the
width class of the homogeneous section. Thus the desired speed constraint
(VDESIR) is given by the followingformula:
VDESIR = VDESIRo BW
The Input Data 67
BW is the width cffect paramcter applicable to single-lane

roads.
VDESIRo is the user-specified desired speed, in km/h.
The model provides default valucs for BW and for VDES'RRo. The
default valucs for VDESIRo are a function of the surface type (see Tahlc 1,
Page 39).
The desired speed affccts directly the followingprcdiction:
* VDESIR, the desired speed-limited constraint speed
Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient

The model uses the aerodynamic drag cocfricient (CD) to compute the
air resistanee to the vehicle motion.The drag coefficient represents three
sources of air resistance: (i) Form drag, (ii) Skin friction and (iii) Interior fric-
tion.
The recommended range for the aerodynamic drag coefficient is from
03 to 1.0 (dimensionless)and typicalvalues for different types of vehicles are
given below-
Vehicle Tvpical Values of Acrad rnic Drag Coefficient

Cars 03 -0.6
Buses 0.6 -0.7
Trucks O0R-1 0
The aerodynamicdrag coefficientaffects directly the followingpredic-

tions:
* VDRIVE, the driving power-limited constraint speed
* Fuel consumption
* Tire wear
Projected Frontal Area

The model uses the projected frontal area (AR) to compute the air resis-
tance to the vehicle motion.
The recommended range for projected frontal area is given below:
Vehicle Recommended PrQoected Frontal Area (m2)

Cars 1.5 - 24
Utlities 23-32
Buses 6.0 -7.0
Light trucks 3.0 -5.0
Medium trucks 5.0 -8.0
Heavy trucks 5.0 - 8.0
Articulated trucks 5.5 -10.0
68 EstimatingVehicleOperating Costs
Thc projccted frontal arca afCcctsthc followingprcdictions:

* VDRIVE, thc drivingpowcr-limitcd constraint speed
* Fuel consumption
* Tirc wcar
Calibrated Engine Speed

Thc modcl uses thc ca:ibrated cngine speed (CRPM) to compute the
fuel consumption. You can cstimate the calibrated engine speed from the
maximumrated engine speed (MRPM), that is availablefrom the vehicle
manufacturer. Based on the test vehicles data from the Brazil study, the fol-
lowing relationship was developed-
CRPM = 0.75 MRPM
where MRPM is the maxinum rated engine speed, in rpm.
The fuel consumption is a function of the engine speed and the engne
speed is a function of thc gear speed. The problem is that for a combination
of vehicle speed and power there can be more than one feasible gear and the
choice of gear depends on the behavior of individual drivers. The approach
used by the model is to make a assumption of constant or nominal engine
speed and to determine or "calibrate' it using the collected fu;l consumption
test data.
The calibrated engine speed affects directly the followingprediction:
* Fuel consumption
Energy-Efficiency Factor
The sample of test vehicles for the Brazil study was chosen before the
two major oil crises, in the early and late seventies,that stimulated an un-
precedented change in vehicle technology to improve fuel economy. To allow
you incorporate changes in vehicle technology, a 'relative energy-efficiency
factor," denoted by ixl, has been introduced.
This factor has a default value of 1.0 for makes and models close to the
ones employed in the Brazil study. You may specifylower values for newer,
more fuel-efficientmakes and models. Some typicalvalues ar given below
Relative FnejVFf rmenic Factor (pf1

Comparable Modern Possible
VehiCle TestVehicle nesign Inesih" Rnare
Smallcar VW-1300 1.00 08S 0.70-LOO
Medium car Chevrolct Opala LOO 0.5 0.70-LO0
Largecar Dodge Dart 10 0.95 00LOO
Utility VW-Kombi 1.00 0.95 0.80M-LO
Bus Mcrcedes -326 1.00 0.95 0O0LOO
light gas. truck Ford 400 LOO 0.95 0O0-LOO
Light diesel truck Ford 4000 1.00 0.95 00LOO
Medium truck Mercedes 1113(2ax) 100 0.95 O00-O0
Heavy truck Mercedes 1113(3ax) LOO 0.95 O00-LOO
ArticuInted truck Scania ll1/39 1 00 ORD 06S-1 00
The Input Data 69
The energy-efficiencyfactor affects directly the followingprediction:

0 FucI consumption
Fuel Adjustment Factor

The fuel consumption data employed in the devclopmentand validation
of the fuel consumption predietion model were obtained under rather ideal-
ized controlled conditions in favor of fuel efficiency.Predictions by the
model were found to be generally lower than values experienced by vehicle
operators in the same geographic region but under actual conditions. There-
fore, an adjustment factor, denoted by a2, was developed to bring the predic-
tions closer to vehicleoperators' values.
The default values of the adjustment factor, a2 , were obtained from
calibrating the mechanistic fuel prediction model to the road user cost survey
data in Brazil. They are 1.16for cars and utilities, and 1.15for trucks and
large buses.
The fuel adjustment factor affects diretly the followingprediction:
e Fucl consumption
Tire Wear Information

The model uses the followingvariables for tire wear prediction:
* Number of tires per vehicle
WYearablevolume of rubber per tire (dmi)
- Retreading cost per new tire cost ratio (fraction)
3 Maximum riumber of recaps
- Constant term of tread wear model (dm3 /m)
* Wear coefficientof tread wear model (10-3 dm3 /W)
The model provides default values for all tire wear parameters for the
representative makes and models of the Brazil study (see Table 3, Page 43).
Note that the default value for retreading cost per new tire cost ratio (0.15),
based in the Brazil case, is quite low in comparison with many countries.
The recommended range for wearable volume of rubber per tire is given
below-.
Vehicle Recommended Wearable Volume of Rubber per Tire (d)

Buses 5.6 -8.0
Light trucks 2.0 -3.5
Medium trucks 6.5 - 93
Heavytrucks 63 -8.8
Articulated trucks 6.0 - 8.5
The model uses the constant term of the tread wear model and the wear
cocfficicnt of thc trcad wear modcl to predict the volumeof rubber loss, in
dm3/1000tire-km.
70 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCost
The tire wear information affects directly the followingprediction:

* Tire wear
AverageAnnual UtilizationIn Kilometers

Thc average annual utilization in km (AKM) is the number of kilometers
driven per vehicle per year. The model uses the user-speeified base average
annual utilization in km (AKMo)to compute the predicted vehicleannual
utilization (AKM) which is a function of the predicted vehicle speed. The
model doesn't provide default values fi'r annual utilization in km.
The average annual utilization in km affects directly the followingpredic-
tions:
* Depreciation
* Interest
AverageAnnualUtilizationin Hours
The average annual utilization in hours (HRDo) is the number of hours
driven per vehicle per year. The model uses the user-specifitedbase average
annual utilization in hours (HRDo) to compute the predicted vehicleannual
utilization (AKM). The model doesn't provide default values for annual
utilization in hours.
T-heaverage annual utilization in hours affects directly the following
predictions:
* Depreciation
* Interest
Hourly UtilizationRatio
The hourly utilization ratio (HURATIO) is the ratio of the annual num-
ber of hours driven to the number of hours available for operation. The
model uses the hourly utilization ratio to compute the predicted vehicle an-
nual utilization (AKM). The model provides default values for the hourly
utilization ratio (see Page 52).
The hourly utilization ratio affects directly the followingpredictions:
* Depreciation
* Interest
AverageServiceLife
The model uses the base uscr-specifredaverage service life (UFEo) to
compute the predicted servicelife (LIFE) which can be a function of the
predictcd vehicle specd. The modcl doesn't provide default values for the
base average service life.
The average scrvice life affects directly the followingprediction:
* Depreciation
The Input Data 71
Use ConstantServiceUfe?
The modelhas providesoptionsfor computingthe servicelife (LIFE).
Enter 1 to usea constantscrvicelifewhichis equalto the base user-specified
averageservicelife(LIFEo),and enter 0 to computethe servicelife as a func-
tionof thepredictedvehiclespeed, the user-specifiedserice life (LIFEo)
and thebase vehicleutilization.
Theservicelife computationmcthodaffcctsdirectlythe foliowingpredic-
tion:
0 Dcpreciation
Age of VehicleIn Kllometers

The modelusesthe averageageof the vehiclegroupin km (CKM),
deimed as the averagenumberofkilometersthe vehiclesbelongingto the
particularvehicleclasshavebeendrivensincetb.y wvercbuilt,to predict the
maintenanceparts and laborcosts.The modeldoesn't providedefaultvalues
for CKM.A convenientformulato arriveat a goodestimateof CKMis:
CKM = min(0.5LIFEoAKMb,CKM1)
LIFEois the user-specifiedbase averagevchicleservicelife.
AKM is the user-specifiedbase averagenumnberof
kilometersdrivenper year.
CKM1is a ceilingon averagevehicleagein km givenbelwr.
Vehicle Ocml
Car and utility 3,000,0DO
Bus 1,000,000
Lighttruck 600,000
Heavytruck 600,000
Articulatedtruck 600.000
Theaverageageof vehiclein km affectsdirectlythe folowingpredic-
tions:
* Maintenanceparts
* Maintenancelabor
Passengersper Vehicle
The modelusesthe numberof passengerper vehicle(PAX) to compute
the passengertime costs.The modeldoesn'tprovidedefr.zt valuesfor num-
ber of passengersper vehicle.
The numberof passengerper vehicleaffectsdirectlythe followingpredic
tion:
* Passenger time
Unft Costs
You mayspecifyunitcostsin cithr financialor economicterms.The
modelcomputesthe vehidleoperatingcostsin the correspondingterm.
Fmancialcostsrepresentthe actualcostsincurredbytransportoperatorsin
owningand operatingthe vehidcsovcr the road. Economiccostsreprcsent
the real coststo the economyof that ownershipand operation,whereadjust-
mentsare madeto allowfor marketpricedistortionssuch as taxes,formign ex-
changerestriclions,laborwagelaws,etc, and wherethe implicitcostsof
passengers'timeand cargoholdingare accountedfor.
Note that youcanentcr the unitcostsin anycurrency,but bc awarethat
youmayhavesomeproblemsin the formatof reports and tablesif themag-
nitudeof yourinputcurrencyis muchdifferentfromUS dollars.A sugges-
tionis to usethousandsor millionsof the currcncyunit.
The modeldoesnot providedefaukvaluesfor unitcosts.The unitcosts
requiredare the following:
New Vehicle Price

The new vehicle price (cost per new vehicle) affects dircctly the folow-
ingpredictions:
* MaintenanceParts
* Dcpreciation
e Interest
Fuel Cost
The gas or dieselcost (costper liter) affectsdirectlythe following
prediction:
* Fuel cost
Lubricants Cost
The lubricantcost(cost per liter) affectsdirectlythe followingprediction:
* Lubricantcost
New Tire Cost

The newtire cost(cost per ncwtire) affectsdirectlythe following
prediction:
* Tire wear
Crew Time Cost

The crewtimecost (costpcr crew-hourofvehicleoperation)affects
directlythe followingprediction:
* Crewcost
The Input Data 73
Passenger Delay Cost

The passengerdelaycost (cost per passenger-hourdclayed)affects
dircctlythe rollowingprcdiction:
* Passengerdclaycost
Maintenance Labor Cost

The maintenancelaborcost (cost pcr labor-hourofvehiclerepairsand
maintenance)affcctsdircctlythe followingprediction:
* Maintenancelabor
Cargo Delay Cost

The cargodelaycost (costper vehicle-hourdelayed)affectsdirectlythe
followingprediction:
* Cargodelaycost
Annual Interest Rate

The annualinterestrate (annualinterestchargeon purchaseof new
vehicle,%/year)affectsdirectlythe followingprediction:
3 Interest
Oierhead per vehicle-km

The overheadper vehicle-km(lumpsumoverheadcost per vehiclc,in
inputcurrencyper vehicle-km)affectsdirecdyhe followingprediction:
- Overhead
MaintenanceParts Parameters
The modelusesthe followingparametersto predictthe maintenance
parts costs:
_ KP is the ageexponent.
* CPois the constantcoefficientin the exponentialrelationship
betweenspareparts consumptionand roughness.
* CPqis the roughnesscoefficientin the exponentialrelationship
betweenspareparts consumptionand roughness.
* QIPo isthe transitionalvalueofroughness.
The modelprovidesdefaultvaluesforthese parameters(see Table 4,
Page 48).
MaintenanceLabor Parameters
The modelusesthe foliowingparametersto predictthe maintenance
labor costs:
* CLois the constantcoefficientin the relationshipbetweenlabor
hoursand part costs.
* CLp is the cxponent of part cosls in the rclationship betweon

labor hours and part costs.
* CLq is the roughness coefficientin the exponential relationship
betwccn labor hours and parl costs.
The model provides default valucs for these parameters (see Table 4,
Page 48).
Lubricant Parameters
The model uses the followingparameter to predict the lubricant con-
sumption:
* COo is lhe constant term of the lubricants relationship.
The model provides default values for this parameter (sec Table 2, Page
41).
Vehicle Speed Parameters

The modelusesthe folUowingparametersto predict the vehiclespeed:
_ FRATIOOis the perceivedfrictionratio (dimensionless).
_ FRATIOI is loadparameterfor adjustingperceivedfrictionratio
(tons-1).
_ ARVMAXis the maximumaveragerectifiedvelocityof
suspensionmotion(m/s).
* BWis thewidthparameterfor adjustingthe desiredspeed
(dimensionless).
_ BETAis the Weibullshapeparameterfor speed distrbution
(dimensionless).
_ EOis the biascorrectionfactor.
The modelprovidesdefaultvaluesfor theseparameters(see Table1,
Page39).
Fuel Parameters
The model uses the followingparameters to predict the fuel consump-
tion:
* AOthrough A7 are coefficients used in the prediction of the unit
fuel consumption.
* NHOis the lower limit on negative power.
The model provides default values for these parameters (see Table 2,
Page 41).
TheInput Data 75
Additlonal Options
Coeficient
RollingResistance
Youmayspecirythe rclationshipbetweentherollingresistancecoefri-
cicntand roughness.You mayenter thc constantvalue(a) and the slope (b)
forthe followingequation:
CR - a + bIRI
The defaultvaluesfor a and b arc fromthe Brazilstudy.
Vary Engine Speed for Passenger Cars

Youmayvarythe cnginespeed as a functionof thevehiclespeed for pas-
sengerscarsto improvethe fuelconsumptionprediction.The defaultis to
varythe enginespeed.Note that the HDM-IIImodeldocs not havethis op-
tion.Therefore,to obtainthe sameresultsas the HDM-IIImodelyoushould
not varythe enginespeed.
Specify Vehicle Speed

Youmayspecifythe vehiclespeed,bypassingthespeed prediction
modeLThedcfaultis to computethevehiclespeed
Index
A
Accents, 3-14
Aerodynamic drag coefficient,5-67
Age of vehicle group in kn, 448,5-71
Air resistance, 4-35
Altitude of terrain. 5-62
Annual utilization in hours, 5-70
Annual utilization in kilometers,5-70
Avcrage rectified velocity,4-38
B
Backup data files
See Save option
Backup program disk, 1-3
Base number of retreads, 4-45
BI, 5-56
Bias correction factor, 4-33
C
Calibrated engine speed, 4-42,5-68
Cargo delay cost, 5-73
Cargo holding, 4-46
Change data
See Modify the data displayed
Change pages
See Move among pages
Circunferencial force, 446
Clcar option, 3-27
Compute and displayresults, 3-13
Constant service life, 5-71
Constraining speeds, 4-30,5-55
Create reports, 3-14
Creatc tables, 3-15
Crew time, 4-47
77
Crewtimecosl,5-72
Curvature
See Horizontal curvature
D
Data files
See Sample files
Data option, 3-13
Default data files extension,3-12 - 3-13
Default values, 2-8,3-12
Default values (or fuel consumption, 4-42
Dcfault values for specd prediction, 440
Default values for Lircwear prediction, 4-46
Depreciation, 4-50
Desired speed, 5-66
Disk requirements, 1-1
Displayresults
See Cornpute and display results
Display the input data, 3-13
DOS requirements, 1-1
Drag cocfficient,4-35
Drivc force, 4-35
E
Effectivenumber of lanes, 5-62
End program
See Quit option
Energy-efficiencyfactor, 4-41,5-68
Engine speed, 4-40 - 4-42,5-68,5-75
English version, 1-2
Enter a tiLle,3-14
Enter data
See Input data for current screen
Epson extended graphics characters, 3-14
Exit the program
See Quit option
F
Fl key, 2-9
F3 key, 2-9
F5 key, 2-9
F7 kcy, 2-9
Filcs option, 3-27
Floppy disk system, 1-1
French acccnts, 3-14
French version, 1-2
Fuel adjustment factor, 4-41, 5-69
Index 79
Fuel consumption,4-40
Fuel cost,5-72
Fuel parameters,5-74
G
Grade resistance,4-35
Grossvehicleweight,4-35,5-63
H
Hard disksystem,1-2
Hardwarerequirements,1-1
HDM-IIImodcl,5-60
HDM-Mpublications,4-29
Help, 2-9
Basicinformation,2-9
Help on a particularmenuoption,2-9
Help on a particularpage,2-9
Help on help,2-9
Programinstructions,2-9
Horizontalcurvature,4-38,5-60
Horizontalprofile,5-60
Hour drivenper year,4-51
Hourlyutilizationratio,4-52,5-70
I
IBMUS (PC8)symbolsset, 3-14
Import reportinto a wordprocessor,3-14
Import tableintoa wordprocessor,3-16
ImporttableintoLotus 1-2-3,3-16
Input data,2-6,5-55
Input data filesextension,3-12-3-13
Input data print-out,3-14
Input data report,3-14
Input option, 3-12
Insert data for the current screen,3-12
Installation,1-1
Interest,4-53,5-73
K
Kilomctersdrivenper year,4-50
L
Lancs
See Effectivenumberof lanes
Latestdocumentation,1-3
Listfileson disk,3-27
Loadinputdata from disk,3-13
Loadoption,3-13
Lotus 1-2-3
so EstimatingVehicleOperating Costs
Import tables, 3-16

Lubricant consumption, 4-43
Lubricant parameters, 5-74
Lubricants cost, 5-72
M
Main menu, 2-6,3-11
Maintenance labor, 4-49
Maintenance labor cost, 5-73
Maintenance labor parametcrs, 5-73
Maintenance parts, 4-48
Maintenance parts parameters, 5-73
Mass density of air, 4-35
Maximumrated power, 5-65
Maximum used braking powcr, 5-66
Maxmum used driving power, 5-65
Memory requirements, 1-1
Modify option, 3-12
Modify the data displayed,3-12
Monitor requirements, 1-1
Move among pages, 2-6,3-13
N
Name option, 3-14
Negafive gradient, 4-36,5-57
Ncw tire cost, 5-72
New vehicleprice, 5-72
Number of lanes
See Effective number of lanes
Number of retreadings, 4-45
Nurnber of tires, 4-44
0
One variable sensitivitychart, 3-18
Contents,3-19
Example, 3-19
Options, 3-20
Onc variable sensitivitytable, 3-17
Contents, 3-17
Example,3-18
Overhead, 4-54,5-73
p
Pages, 2-5 - 2-6
Passcngcr delay cost, 5-73
Passcngcr timc, 4-47
Passcngcrs per vchiclc, 5-71
Payload, 5-63 - 5-64
Portuguese accents, 3-14
Index 81
Portuguesevcrsion,1-2
Positivcgradient,4-36,5-57
Powcroutput,4-40
Printer requiremenLs,1-1
Programdiskbackup,1-3
Programfiles,1-3
Programsteps,4-29
Projcctcdfrontalarea, 4-35,5-67
Proportionof uphilltrawl, 4-33,5-57
Q
01,5-56
QuiLoption,3-28
Quitthe program,3-28
R
Radiusof curvature,4-37
Relationships
See VOC relationships
Reports
Destinatior,3-14
Input data print-out,3-14
Input data report,3-14
Options,3-14
Resultsprint-out,3-14
Resultsreport,3-14
Reset variables
See Clear option
Results,2-8
Resultsprint-out,3-14
Rcsultsreport,3-14
Retreadingcost ratio,4-45
Rollingresistance,4-35,5-75
Rollingresistancecoefficient,4-35,5-75
Roughness,4-39,5-56
Roughnesssensitivitytable,3-17
Contents,3-17
aunmple,3-17
Run the program,1-1- 1-2
S
Samplefiles,1-3
Saveoption,3-12
Savethe inputdata, 3-12
Sensitivitychart,3-18
Contents,3-19
Example,3-19
Options,3-20
Sensitivitymatrix,3-21
82 Estimating
Contcnts,3-23
Examplc,3-22
Options,3-23
Sensitivitytable, 3-17
Contcnts,3-17
Example,3-18
Service life
See Vehicleservicelife
Set allvariablesto zero,3-28
Softwarepackagecontents,1-3
Softwarerequirements,1-1
Spanishaccents,3-14
Spauishversion,1-2
Speed
See Vehiolespced
Steady-statespeed,4-30
Steps,2-7
Computationsequence,4-29
Superelevation,4-37,5-60
Surfacetype,5-55
Systemrequirements,1-1
T
Tables
Destination,3-16
Options,3-15
One variablesensitivitychart,3-18
One variablesensitivitytable,3-17
Requirements,3-16
Roughnesssensitivitytable,3-17
Twovariablessensitivitymatrix,3-21
Vehiclefleet operatingcoststable,3-24
Vehicleoperatingcostscoefficients3-26
Tare weight,5-63
Themainscreen,2-5
Theprogram,2-5
Threwear,4-44
Trrewear information,5-69
Title,2-5,3-14
Treadwear,4-45
Tread wearmodel,4-46
Twovariablessensitivitymatrix,3-21
Contents,3-23
Example,3-22
Options,3-23
Index 83
U
Unit costs, 5-72
Used perccivcd friction ratio, 4-38
Using thc program, 2-5
V
VBRAKE, 4-31,4-36
VCURVE, 4-31
VDESIR, 4-31,440
VDRIVE, 4-31,4-34
Vehide annual utilization, 4-51
Constant annual hourly utilization method, 4-53
Constant annual kiloinetcrage method, 4-53
Vehicle fleet operating cost table, 3-24
Contents, 3-26
Examplc, 3-26
Menu, 3-25
Options, 3-25
Vehicle operating costs coefficients,3-26
Vehicle service life, 4-51,5-70
Vehicle speed, 4-30,4-33,5-75
Vehicle speed for downhillsegment, 4-33
Vehicle speed for uphill travel, 4-33
Vehicle speed parameters, 5-74
Vehicle types, 5-62
Vertical profile, 5-57
VOC components, 4-30
VOC option, 3-13
VOC relationships, 4-29
Model calibration, 4-29
Volume of rubber, 4-46
VROUGH, 4-31,4-38
w
Weibull distribution, 4-33
Weibull distribution shape parameter, 4-33
Width effect parameter, 4-40,5-67
World Bank publications, 4-29,5-56
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World Bank Technical Paper Number 234 About Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs (VOC) - 1994

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World Bank Technical Paper Number 234 About Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs (VOC) - 1994

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WORLDBANKTECHNICALPAPERNUMBER234

Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs

RodrigoS. Archondo-Callaoand AsifFaiz - q

Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs

Rodrigo S. Archondo-Callao and Asif Faiz

The World Bank

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

While the costs of road construdion and maintenance consume a large

Road Deteriorationand MaintenanceEffects:

The HighwayDesign and Maintenance Standards Modcl

Understandingthe costsof road construction,road maintenanceand

Installing HDM-VOC on Your Computer

Installing and Running the Program

for English version

Hard Disk System

Program Disk Backup

Software Package Contents

Using the Program

The Main Screen

* MAINMENU Linesat thebottomof the screenwhcrethe

C 4L.flW VOUICLEOPUrTIP COSS NOO. version 4.0 I4l

Data input Sawv Reports Files Quit

The Input Data

Theprogramalwaysdisplaysthe up-to-datecontentsof all inputvari-

IDate Input Save Reporta File, wit |

REE4LUV V841CLEOPERATIC COSTS MODELversion 4.0 o -F41p

OData I nut Save Reprts Filee Quit

The Default Values

Figure 4 - The Vehicle Operating Costs

FtEE-R VEHI.CLEOPEATZINrCOSTSIWIODL ermion4.0 Fl-Help

| Oata Input Save Reort Film Quit |

Fl The Main Screen Help on help

P3 The Main Screen ProgrAM

FS The Main Screen, Help on the

F7 The Main Screen, Help on the

F9 The Main Screen Basic

1. The HighwayDesignand MaintenanceStandardsModel

ThawatWatanatada,CheliG. Harral,WilliamD. 0. Paterson,

Main Menu Options

The Main Menu

Figure5 -The MainMenu

F-PM VBIZCLEOPtATDC CDST MM

Selection d V- el- TyOr Vehicle Typ

Dot Input Save Reports FilS Sit

To select an option,highlightthe optionselectedand pressthe

Input Data for the Current Screen

Modify the Data Displayed

Save the Input Data

Load Input Datafrom Disk

Compute and Display the Results

Display the Input Data

Enter a Title for the Reports or Tables

Figur 7 - Reports Destination Menu

Your optione are:

Enter your aeloent:

* VehicleFleetOperatingCostsTable.Tableof total VOCfor a

If youselectto savethe table (ASCIH

Roughness Sensitivity Table

FrE V841E OPEAT CSTMSND versin, 4.0

One Variable Sensivity Table

* Thesensitivtyof totalVOCandvehidcespeed to any input

FlE-PLN VS4ICLEOtATIC COST NOB vera:

variable : Average roughea (Iw

Whe yousclectthis option,theprogramdisplaysa list of allinputvari-