Google Buzz was a social networking, microblogging and messaging tool that was

developed by Google and integrated into their web-based email program, Gmail.
Launched February 9, 2010. Current status Discontinued December 15, 2011.

Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text of
scholarly literature.

Face book is a social networking service launched in February 2004, owned and
operated by Face book, Inc.Created by Mark Zuckerberg, Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum,
Dustin Moskovitz, Chris Hughes. Written in C++ and PHP.

Google+ (pronounced and sometimes written as Google Plus, sometimes abbreviated

as G+) is a multilingual social networking and identity service[2][3] owned and
operated by Google Inc. It was launched in June 28, 2011. Google has described
Google+ as a "social layer" consisting of not just a single site. Slogan "Real-life
sharing rethought for the web."

Delicious (formerly del.icio.us) is a social bookmarking web service for storing,

sharing, and discovering web bookmarks. The site was founded by Joshua Schachter
in 2003 and acquired by Yahoo! in 2005. By the end of 2008, the service claimed
more than 5.3 million users and 180 million unique bookmarked URLs.The site was
sold to AVOS Systems on April 27, 2011 and relaunched in a "back to beta" state on
September 27 that year.

LinkedIn is a social networking website for people in professional occupations.

Founded in December 2002 and launched on May 5, 2003,it is mainly used for
professional networking. Traded as NYSE: LNKD. Founded Santa Monica, California
(2003). Headquarters Mountain View, California, U.S. Founder(s) Reid Hoffman
Allen Blue, Konstantin Guericke, Eric Ly, Jean-Luc Vaillant. Slogan(s) Relationships
Matter.

Year Web browsers

1991 Worldwide Web (Nexus) 4

1992 ViolaWWW, Erwise, MidasWWW, MacWWW (Samba)

1993 Mosaic, Cello,[3] Lynx 2.0, Arena, AMosaic 1.0

1994 IBM Web Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Slipknot 1.0, Mac Web,
IBrowse, Agora (Argo), Minuet

1995 Internet Explorer 1, Netscape Navigator 2.0, Omni Web, UdiWWW,

Internet Explorer 2, Grail

1996 Arachne 1.0, Internet Explorer 3.0, Netscape Navigator 3.0,

Opera 2.0,PowerBrowser 1.5,[5] Cyberdog, Amaya 0.9,[6] AWeb, Voyager

1997 Internet Explorer 4.0, Netscape Navigator 4.0, Netscape Communicator 4.0,
Opera 3.0,[7] Amaya 1.0
1998 iCab, Mozilla

1999 Amaya 2.0,[6] Mozilla M3, Internet Explorer 5.0

2000 Konqueror, Netscape 6, Opera 4,[8] Opera 5,[9] K-Meleon 0.2, Amaya 3.0,[6]
Amaya 4.0

2001 Internet Explorer 6, Galeon 1.0, Opera 6,[10] Amaya 5.0[6]

2002 Netscape 7, Mozilla 1.0, Phoenix 0.1, Links 2.0, Amaya 6.0,[6] Amaya 7.0[6]

2003 Opera 7,[11] Safari 1.0, Epiphany 1.0, Amaya 8.0[6]

2004 Firefox 1.0, Netscape Browser, Omni Web 5.0

2005 Safari 2.0, Netscape Browser 8.0, Opera 8,[12] Epiphany 1.8, Amaya 9.0,[6] AOL
Explorer 1.0, Maxthon 1.0, Shiira 1.0

2006 SeaMonkey 1.0, K-Meleon 1.0, Galeon 2.0, Camino 1.0, Firefox 2.0, Avant 11,
iCab 3, Opera 9,[13] Internet Explorer 7

2007 Maxthon 2.0, Netscape Navigator 9, NetSurf 1.0, Flock 1.0, Safari 3.0,
Conkeror

2008 Konqueror 4, Safari 3.1, Opera 9.5,[14] Firefox 3, Amaya 10.0,[6] Flock 2,
Chrome 1, Amaya 11.0[6]

2009 Internet Explorer 8, Chrome 2-3, Safari 4, Opera 10,[15] SeaMonkey 2, Camino
2, Firefox 3.5

2010 K-Meleon 1.5.4, Firefox 3.6, Chrome 4-8, Opera 10.50,[16] Safari 5, xxxterm,
Opera 11

2011 Chrome 9-16, Firefox 4-9, Internet Explorer 9, Maxthon 3.0, SeaMonkey 2.1-
2.3, Opera 11.50, and Safari 5.

2012 Chrome 17-22, Firefox 10-15, Internet Explorer 10, Opera 12, and Safari 6?

Drop box is a file hosting service operated by Drop box, Inc. that offers cloud storage, file
synchronization, and client software. Drop box allows users to create a special folder on each of their
computers, which Drop box then synchronizes so that it appears to be the same folder (with the same
contents) regardless of the computer it is viewed on. Files placed in this folder are also accessible
through a website and mobile phone applications. Drop box, Inc. was founded in 2007 by MIT
graduates Drew Houston and Arash Ferdowsi, as a Y Combinator startup company. Drop box provides
client software for Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS X, Linux, for Google Android, Apple iOS, and
Blackberry OS, and web browsers.
Developer(s) Drop box, Inc.

Initial release September 2008

Stable release 1.6.0 (November 17, 2012; 0 days ago

Preview release 1.5.48 (November 14, 2012; 3 days ago

Development status Active

Written in Python

Operating system Microsoft Windows, Mac OS 10.4 and later, Linux, iOS, Android, Symbian,
. Blackberry OS, MeeGo Harmattan (Nokia N9)

Available in English, Japanese, German, Spanish, French, Italian, Korean

Type Online backup service

License Proprietary software (Windows & Mac clients and Linux Dropbox daemon), GPLv2 ------
. (Linux Nautilus)

Alexa rank 127 (November 2012)[3]

Website www.dropbox.com

Spotify is a Swedish music streaming service offering digitally restricted streaming of selected
music from a range of major and independent record labels, including Sony, EMI, Warner Music
Group and Universal. Launched in October 2008 by Swedish startup Spotify AB, the service had
approximately ten million users as of 15 September 2010. Spotify has been developed since 2006 by a
team at Spotify AB, Stockholm, Sweden. The company was founded there by Daniel Ek, former CTO
of Stardoll, and Martin Lorentzon, co-founder of TradeDoubler. The parent company is now Spotify
Ltd in London, while research and development remains carried out by Spotify AB in Stockholm.The
Spotify application was launched for public access on 7 October 2008.
Developer(s) Spotify LTD

Initial release 2008; 4 years ago

Stable release 0.8.5.1333 (October 25, 2012; 25 days ago) [±]

Preview release None [±]

Development status Active Written in C++ (With some third party libraries)

Operating system Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, .

. Windows Phone, Linux, BlackBerry OS, Android, iOS and Mac OS X

Available in Over 50 languages Type Music Platform License Proprietary

Website www.spotify.com

Airbnb

Type Private
Founded 2008
Headquarters San Francisco, USA
Brian Chesky (CEO, Co-Founder)
Key people Joe Gebbia (Chief Product Officer, Co-Founder)
Nathan Blecharczyk (CTO, Co-founder)
Industry social networking service
Website airbnb.com

Airbnb is an online service that matches people seeking vacation rentals and other
short-term accommodations with hosts who have an unused space to rent, generally
private parties that are not professional hoteliers. The site was founded in August
2008 by Nathan Blecharczyk, Brian Chesky and Joe Gebbia. In July 2012, the
company had over 200,000 listings in more than 26,000 cities and present in 192
countries with over 1,000,000 hosts and travellers on its platform.Listings include
private rooms, entire apartments, castles, boats, manors, tree houses, tipis, igloos,
specialty design housing, private islands and other properties.

Foursquare is a location-based social networking website for mobile devices, such as

smartphones. Users "check in" at venues using a mobile website, text messaging or a device-specific
application by selecting from a list of venues the application locates nearby.Location is based on GPS
hardware in the mobile device or network location provided by the application. Each check-in awards
the user points and sometimes "badges". The service was created in 2009 by Dennis Crowley and
Naveen Selvadurai. Crowley had previously founded the similar project Dodgeball as his graduate
thesis project in the Interactive Telecommunications Program (ITP) at New York University. Google
bought Dodgeball in 2005 and shut it down in 2009, replacing it with Google Latitude. Dodgeball user
interactions were based on SMS technology, rather than an application.

Type Private

Founded New York City, New York, USA

Headquarters New York City, New York, United States

Area served Worldwide

Founder(s) Dennis Crowley, Naveen Selvadurai

Key people Dennis Crowley, Co-Founder, CEO Naveen Selvadurai, Co- .

. Founder

Employees approx. 100

Website foursquare.com

Alexa rank 807 (August 2012)[1]

Type of site Social Networking

Registration Required Users 20 million[2]

Available in English, German, French, Indonesian, Italian, Korean,-----------

-- Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Thai, Japanese, Turkish

Launched March 11, 2009

Current status Active

Berne Convention – Protection of literary works-1886-by Victor Hugo-in
Berne-copyrights within the country- revised in Paris in 1971

Paris Convention-For protection of industrial works

Herzberg’s theory –Motivation

Principle of literary warrant- W.Hulme

WIPO-World Intellectual property Organisation -1967

National library for visually handicapped- Dehradun

All the computers are connected to a centre is called star

Iyyanki Ramanayya – Born-Kunkuduru Andhra- Library Week

Celebration –Starts-1968-Got First KAula Medal –First state library
association in India. Library Movement in Andhra

National Library –is in Belvedre (Calcutta) - Second largest library in

India after Anna Centenary Library Before it is the official residence of
Governor of Bengal. National library formed in 1836 It Combines with
imperial library and imperial library in 1891-by Lord Curzon-After
independence Imperial library was changed into National library in 1953,
Feb.
INFLIBNET- CALIBER

Iaslic-1955
Aslib-1924

FID was established in the year-1895 in Brussels – dissolved in 2002-

called international institute of bibliography – Brussels institute

Program evaluation review technique – us navy special project office- in

1950 – program management tool- completion of projects-Nodes

BUBL is a online public access catalogue-gives the list of web resources-

like the catalogue in a library

Hypertext coined- Ted nelson

12 rules for relational database – edger F. Codd

IATLIS-1969-Dr. D. B. Krishna Rao as its Chairman and Mr. P. N. Kaula as the
Secretary

Bibliographic coupling or co-citation- introduced by M.M Kessler-Occurs

when two works represent a common third work in their bibliographies

Million book project – now called as universal digital library project-

initiated by Carnegie Mellon university- Bibliotheca Alexandria is also
one of the partner

GSDL-Gender and Science digital library is a collaborative project between

the Gender & Diversities Institute at EDC and the Eisenhower National
Clearinghouse at Ohio State University, with funding from the National
Science Foundation (NSF). The GSDL is an interactive collection of high-
quality, gender-equitable science, technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) resources for K-12, higher education (community college and
university), women's studies, teacher preparation programs, and informal
learning

NSDL-National Science Digital Library Funded by National science

foundation-(NSF)

First artificial satellite was the Soviet Sputnik 1, launched on October 4,

1957

1977 NICNET NIC

1986 CALIBNET, Kolkata NISSAT
1988 INFLIBNET UGC
1992 DELNET, Delhi NISSAT
1993 ADINET, Ahmadabad NISSAT
1993 MALIBNET, Chennai INSDOC
1994 MYLIBNET, Mysore NISSAT
1995 BALNET, Bangalore NISSAT

Dublin core metadata -15elements-name of the Dublin-Ohio

Raja Ram Mohan Roy-development of public libraries-Kolkata

The Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) was founded by Eugene

Garfield in 1960-publishes – Current Contents -Science citation index-
social science citation index- Journal citation report-JCR –is a part of
science citation index
Web of science- Thomson scientific
Biological Abstracts- Thomson Reuters

Index Medicus (IM) is a comprehensive index of medical scientific

journal articles, published since 1879. It was initiated by John Shaw
Billings, head of the Library of the Surgeon General's Office, United
States Army

The Index Medicus was amalgamated with the American Medical

Association's Quarterly Cumulative Index to Current Literature (QCICL)
as the Quarterly Cumulative Index Medicus (QCIM) in 1927

The last issue of Index Medicus was published in December 2004

(Volume 45).
Five Laws of Library Science 1931
Colon classification 1933
Classified catalogue code 1934

Thesaurofacet- Atchinson

Rules for dictionary catalogue-Cutter’s

Subject Classification-Browne’s

Brain boost · Chunk It! Clusty · Deeper Web · Dog pile · Excite ·
Harvester42 · HotBot · Info.com, Mamma ...are Meta Search Engines or
Meta crawlers

Metasearch engines are the one which give the information from the
search engines

SOSIG-Social Science Information Gateway-Lesley Huxley-Funded by

ESRC-Economic and Social Research Council-ESRC

In AACR2-GMD-General Material Designation-For special kinds of

Materials-Given after the title Proper

The Nehru Memorial Museum & Library (NMML) is a library in New

Delhi

UNESCO- Head quarters-Paris

ASTINFO-Cooperative program-For exchange of information in Science
& Technology among countries in the Asia/Pacific region
Indian Science Abstracts-NISCAIR-From 1965-Semimonthly abstracting
Journal
Statesmen yearbook-UN Statistical Office-Contains the happenings in a
Country-ED. Dr. Barry Turner
Biological Information-Institute of Scientific Information
Cumulative Book list-H.W. Wilson
SLIM-System for library information management-Algorhythms
consultant ltd.

First full time Library School in the world-London University

E-Granthalaya software-2002-National information centre -1st version
released by Karnataka state of NIC

Blake-Leadership style
INIS-International Nuclear Information System
IAEa-1957-International Atomic Energy Agency

Prolegomena to library classification -1931

Theory of Library catalogue 1938
Element of library Classification 1945
Classification and Intl. Documentation-1948
Classification and Communication-1951
Headings and Canons-1955

IFLA –Scotland 1927

National Library of Netherland-Royal library
ASLIB 1924(UK)

DDC-1876

Library and information science UGC NET Guide-Ramasamy’s

Cumulative book index is a database that cites English language book

published throughout the world.

R.R. Bowker the official us ISBN agency the publisher of books in print

All Indian public library association -1918

First all India conference of librarians was sponsored by Lahore 1918

First state library association Andhradesa library association 1914

Bengal-1928, Madras -1928, Punjab-1929, Bihar 1936, Assam-1938 and
kerala 1945

The first national association was the Indian library association-Calcutta-

1933
GILA- 1933 – Government of India Libraries Association –Name
Changed- Govt. of India Librarians Association changed to AGLIS

Special libraries has changed its name to strategic knowledge

professionals

Information retrieval coined by Calvin mooers

UNESCO joined with ICSU to establish UNISIST

UDC –origin 1904-1907 Hendri la fontaine (Nobel prize winner) and

Paul Otlet- managed by FID (International federation for information and
documentation) from 1900

Expansive classification – Charles Ammie cutter – 1882 on seeing DDC

he got the idea to prepare.

Public libraries act 1850 by United Kingdom

Aacr1967
Aacr2 1978
International conference on cataloguing principles held at Paris 1961

Coaxial-TV
Twisted wire-Phone

Vir Sanghvi- Hindu times

Humlog – Oldest soap opera
Addline Knowing Everything is- BBC world
India’s First Kids TV- Nick Jr

Democratic decentralization- A.D Gorwala Committee’1951

Basic education or nai talim- wardha education plan

In India Election Commission of India recognizes a political party as a

national party or regional party

CCF -1924
The first Maritime Library Association was founded April 17, 1918 at Acadia University name changed to
Atlantic Provinces Library Association" (APLA) was made in 1957

The largest number of newspaper published in Uttar Pradesh

Tim O'Reilly attempts to clarify just what is meant by Web 2.0, the term
first coined at a conference brainstorming session between O’Reilly...

Lista – Ebsco publishing

‘Libraries as gateways to knowledge’ is the title of the document national

knowledge commission

The Library development in Maharashtra is based on the recommendations of a Fyzee

Committee, appointed by the then Government of Bombay province, for the
development of libraries in the State. The Committee constituted in 1939 and
submitted its report in 1940. The recommendations of the Committee could not be
implemented up to 1947 because of the Second World War. After the independence,
the then Government

Physical, Data link, network, transport, session, presentation, Application

Early English Language Cataloguing Codes

British Museum Rules

 The first major English-language cataloguing code was that developed by Sir
Anthony Panizzi for the British Museum catalogue. Panizzi’s 91 rules were approved
by the British Museum in 1839, and published in 1841[1].
 The British Museum rules were revised up until 1936.
 The library departments of the British Museum became part of the new British
Library in 1973.

Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalog

 The first edition of Charles Ammi Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalog was published
in 1876 [2].
 Cutter’s rules set out the first principles of cataloguing, and included a statement of
the objectives of the catalogue.
 The code covered rules for dictionary catalogues including both entry (for authors,
titles, subjects, and form headings), and description.

Return to Top of Page

 Anglo-American Code
Developments in the United States

 The American Library Association (ALA) cataloguing rules “Condensed Rules for an
Author & Title Catalog” were first published in the Library Journal in 1883 [3].
 In 1900 ALA appointed a committee led by J.C.M. Hanson of the Library of
Congress to revise these rules. Of particular focus was agreement of the ALA rules
and the rules of the Library of Congress due to the upcoming introduction of
Library of Congress printed cataloguing cards.
 In 1902 an advance edition of the revised ALA rules was produced by the Library of
Congress.
 Efforts were made to bring about uniformity between the ALA rules and the fourth
edition of Cutter’s rules (published in 1904).

Developments in the United Kingdom

 In 1893 the “Cataloguing Rules” of the Library Association (LA) were published [4].
 In 1902 a Committee was formed to revise these rules, and in its work drew heavily
on the British Museum rules, and the advance edition of the revised ALA rules.
 A draft revision of the LA rules was discussed at the 1904 meeting of the Library
Association.

Co-operation

 In light of the similar work being done on both sides of the Atlantic, Melvil Dewey
suggested that there should be co-operation to produce an Anglo-American code.
The American Library Association and the Library Association formally agreed to
co-operate in 1904. Consultation between the two bodies occurred by
correspondence.
 The first international cataloguing code was published in 1908 in an American
edition (Catalog Rules, Author and Title Entries [5]) and a British edition (Cataloguing
Rules, Author and Title Entries [6])
 Both editions contained 174 rules covering both entry and heading for authors and
titles, and description.
 Areas of disagreement between the two editions centred on authors and publications
that changed names or titles.
 In both editions disagreements were explained either in a note or by printing two
versions of the rule. Library of Congress supplementary rules were also included
where necessary.

Return to Top of Page

A.L.A. Cataloging Rules

1941 edition

 In the 1930s committees of American Library Association and the Library

Association discussed revision of the 1908 rules. The two bodies co-operated until
1939 when the Second World War ended British involvement.
  A preliminary second edition of the American edition of the 1908 rules was
published by the American Library Association in 1941, and contained 324 rules in
two parts: Part I, Entry and Heading; Part II, Description of book; as well as various
appendices, including one on “authority cards.” [7].

1949 edition

 The 1941 edition was criticized for being too detailed and complex, and in 1949
A.L.A. Cataloging Rules for Author and Title Entries was published [8]. This edition
contained only rules for entry and heading.
 American alternative rules in the 1908 code were reflected in the 1949 code.

Return to Top of Page

Rules for Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of

Congress
 As the 1949 ALA code did not contain rules for descriptive cataloguing, the Library
of Congress took responsibility for documenting rules of this nature. As Library of
Congress catalogue cards were widely used by American libraries, there was interest
in the rules used by the Library of Congress.
 Rules for Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of Congress was published in 1949, and the
rules were adopted by the American Library Association [9]. Included were rules for
separately published monographs, serials, and some non-book materials.
 Supplementary rules were subsequently issued for additional non-book formats.

Return to Top of Page

Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules

AACR 1967

 In 1951 the American Library Association asked Seymour Lubetzky, of the Library
of Congress, to analyse the 1949 ALA code. An approach was also made to the
Library Association regarding co-ordination of revision of the 1949 code.
 In 1953 Lubetzky’s report (Cataloging Rules and Principles [10]) was published. This
work advocated a move towards a principle-based rather than case-based code.
 In 1956 Lubetzky was appointed editor of the revised code, and in 1960 he produced
the draft Code of Cataloging Rules; Author and Title Entry [11].
 The International Conference on Cataloguing Principles was held in Paris in 1961 to
examine the choice and form of headings in author/title catalogues. The outcome
was a statement of 12 principles known as the Paris Principles [12].
 In 1962 C. Sumner Spalding, of the Library of Congress, became the new editor of
the code.
 The American Library Association and Library Association co-operated by
exchanging minutes and working papers, and attending each other’s meetings. In
addition, the Library of Congress assisted with revision of the descriptive cataloguing
rules, and the Canadian Library Association was involved in reviewing drafts of the
rules.
  In 1967 two versions of the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR) were published,
a North American text [13] and a British text [14].
 Both texts of AACR contained three parts:

Part I, Entry and Heading

– Based on the Paris Principles, the 1949 ALA rules, and Lubetzky’s
1960 draft.

Part II, Description

– Consisted of revised rules from the 1949 Library of Congress rules.

Part III, Non-book materials

– Contained rules for both entry and description of non-book materials.
– Consisted of revised rules from the 1949 Library of Congress rules,
and supplementary Library of Congress rules.

 Each text contained an appendix listing rules for entry and heading that differed in
the other version.
 In 1966 there was a “memorandum of agreement” for continued revision of AACR
between ALA and LA. In light of their earlier involvement, the Library of Congress
and the Canadian Library Association were also formally represented in the revision
process.
 Amendments and changes from 1969-1975 were published for the North American
text in the Library of Congress Cataloging Service and for the British text in the Library
Association Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules Amendment Bulletin.

ISBD and AACR Revisions

 At the International Meeting of Cataloguing Experts in Copenhagen in 1969, a

program of International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD) was developed.
The objective was to identify components in a bibliographic description, their
preferred order, and the necessary punctuation.
 The first ISBD standard to be produced was that for Monographs (ISBD (M)) in
1971 [15].
 AACR chapter 6 was revised in line with ISBD (M), and published in two versions in
1974 [16, 17]. The revised chapter contained rules for printed monographs and
reproductions of printed monographs (including microform reproductions).
 Other ISBDs were developed, leading to the publication by the American Library
Association of revisions to AACR chapter 12 (AV and Special Instructional
Materials) [18], and AACR chapter 14 (Sound Recordings) [19].
 In 1975 work began on developing a general framework, known as ISBD (G) [20].

AACR2 1978

 In 1974 the Joint Steering Committee for the Revision of AACR (JSC) was
established, with membership from the American Library Association, the British
Library, the Canadian Library Association (represented by the Canadian Committee
on Cataloguing), the Library Association, and the Library of Congress.
 The JSC was charged with incorporating the North American and British texts into a
single version. The JSC appointed two editors for the revised code, Michael Gorman
of the British Library, and Paul W. Winkler of the Library of Congress.
 The Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, Second edition (AACR2) was published in one
version in 1978 [21].
  AACR2 was divided into two parts:

Part I, Description
– Based on the ISBD(G) framework.
– Included a general chapter (chapter 1), and chapters for individual
formats, including new chapters for machine-readable data files (chapter
9) and three-dimensional artefacts and realia (chapter 10).
– The rules for non-book materials were based on alternative codes that
were published in the 1970s.

Part II, Entry and Heading

– Rules were brought more closely into line with the Paris Principles.

 AACR2 was adopted by the Library of Congress, the National Library of Canada,
the British Library, and the Australian National Library in January 1981.
 In 1981 an abridged version, the Concise AACR2 was published [22].
 Revisions to AACR2 were adopted in 1982, 1983 (published 1984), and 1985
(published 1986).
 A draft revision of AACR2 chapter 9 (renamed: Computer Files) was published in
1987 [23].
 From 1981 an Australian Committee on Cataloguing (ACOC) representative was
sent to JSC meetings, and from 1986 ACOC became a full JSC member.

1988 Revision

 The 1988 Revision of AACR2 incorporated the 1982, 1983, and 1985 revisions plus
subsequent unpublished revisions [24].
 The 1988 Revision was published in both book and loose-leaf format.
 One set of amendments was published in 1993.

1998 Revision

 The 1998 Revision of AACR2 incorporated the 1993 amendments, and revisions
approved between 1992 and 1996 [25].
 The 1998 Revision was published in book and CDROM format.
 Amendments packages were published in 1999 and 2001. The 2001 amendments
included a complete revision of chapter 9 (renamed: Electronic Resources).

2002 Revision

 The 2002 Revision of AACR2 incorporated the 1999 and 2001 amendments, and
changes approved in 2001, including complete revisions of chapter 3 (Cartographic
Materials) and chapter 12 (renamed: Continuing Resources) [26].
 The revision of chapter 12 arose from a recommendation of the International
Conference on the Principles and Future Development of AACR, and IFLA-led
efforts to harmonize ISBD (CR), ISSN practice, and AACR2.
 In 2002 AACR was published only in loose-leaf format.

For more information of the history of AACR, see also the 1978, 1988 and 1998 AACR2
prefaces.
The British Library Automated Information Service (BLAISE

LIBRI is in Germany(doubt)
The Indian Patent Office is administered by the Office of the Controller General of Patents, Designs
& Trade Marks (CGPDTM). This is a subordinate office of the Indian government and administers the
Indian law of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks.

The CGPDTM reports to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion(DIPP) under the Ministry
of Commerce and Industry and has five main administrative sections:

 Patents
 Designs
 Trade Marks
 Geographical indications
 Patent Information System

The patent office is headquartered at Kolkata with branches in Chennai, New Delhi
and Mumbai, but the office of the CGPDTM is in Mumbai. The office of the Patent
Information System is at Nagpur.

The Controller General, who supervises the administration of the Patents Act, the
Designs Act, and the Trade Mark's Act, also advises the Government on matters
relating to these subjects. Mr. P.H.Kurian was the first IAS officer to serve as the
Controller General. Mr Chaitanaya Prasad has assumed charge as CGPDTM recently.

Standard deviation is a widely used measure of variability or diversity

used in statistics and probability theory. It shows how much variation or
"dispersion" exists...

The term "web log" was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997. The
short form, "blog," was coined by (Peter Merholz), who jokingly broke the
word web log ... in the question paper only the answer Jorn Barger is present for
blog.

Www invented by Tim Burners lee

After 20 years a book got outdated

Grogan divided the documents into primary, secondary and tertiary

Hanson divided the books into primary and secondary

Ranganathan divided the documents into conventional, neoconventional

and micodocuments

Eprints is a institutional repository software

LIS link is a social network software

ILA-1933 DELHI

IASLIC – 1955- KOKKATTA

ALA-CHICAGO-1876

Universal availability of publications- IFLA

In simplex transmission, data flow only in one direction -- from the sending device to the
receiving device.

Simplex transmission is used only when the sending device does not require a response
from the receiving device.

Security systems and fire alarms that contain a sensor use simplex transmission.

In half-duplex transmission, data can flow in either direction -- from the sending device to
the receiving device, and back -- but only in one direction at a time.

Many fax machines, credit card verification systems, and automatic teller machines use
half-duplex transmission.

In full-duplex transmission, data can flow in both directions at the same time.

A regular telephone line supports full-duplex transmission

so that both parties can talk at the same time.

Farmington plan – library cooperation

Drupal software- content management software

Moodle and Claroline- Learning management system

DSpace was developed at - Massachusetts Institute of

Technology (MIT)

Melvin J. Voigt - Categorized information need into current

approach, everyday approach, and exhaustive approach.
“Where is the Wisdom, We Lost in Knowledge...” is - T. S.
Eliot
The term ‘Cyberspace’ was first used by - William Gibson
Renardus- Academic subject gateway or multisubject gateway

Humbul – Reviewed and catalogued websites in humanities

Encyclopedia of library and information science – publisher

Marcel Decker
Entire web is a search engine that finds what you’re looking for on the
web, and returns relevant web sites, images and real-time results.

Vivisimo is a privately held enterprise search software company in

Pittsburgh that develops and sells software products to improve search on
the web and in enterprises. The focus of Vivisimo's research thus far has
been the concept of clustering search results based on topic: for example,
dividing the results of a search for "cell" into groups like "biology,"
"battery," and "prison." This process allows users to intuitively narrow
their search results to a particular category or browse through related
fields of information, and seeks to avoid the "overload" problem of
sorting through too many results.- specialized information organization
specialized tool.

Encyclopedia Britannica- Propaedia- ready reference service

India a Reference manual – Year book

Cover to cover translation – Current awareness service

Micropaedia – 11 Volumes

Encyclopaedia Americana – 30 volumes

DMOZ - Open directory project

SENDOC-HYDERABAD

NASSDOC-New Delhi

BARC-Mumbai
The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA-1998 ) is a United
States copyright law that implements two 1996 treaties of the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It criminalizes prod
The Information Technology Act -2000 has been passed to give
effect to the UN resolution and to promote efficient delivery of
Government services by means of reliable electronic records.

Indian Copyright act – 1957

Universal copyright convention-1952

Wipo copyright act – 1996

ASLIB- 1924

MARC – 1960

ISBD-1981

Ccf-1990

FRBR, FRAD and FRSAD models – IFLA

The FRBR model (Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records) is a
conceptual model that was developed by an IFLA group of experts from 1992
to 1997. It was officially approved by the IFLA Cataloguing Section’s Standing
Committee on September 5, 1997.

Biological abstracts- Thomson Reuters

Chemical Abstracts.CAS History: Milestones ... Research, an

abstracting publication begun by Arthur Noyes in 1895 that was the
forerunner of Chemical Abstracts.

Baroda Library Association (1910), Andhra Desa Library Association (1914), Bengal
Library Association (1927) and Madras Library Association (1927). The Indian
Library Association was founded in 1933. The Post-independence period has
witnessed an

Coaxial cable-Tv
Fibre optic cable- computer networks
Twisted pair cable- telephone

Table 1 – Subdivisions

Table 2 – geographical areas

Table 3 – Subdivisions used with literature poetry etc

Table 4 - Subdivision used with languages

Pascal is an influential imperative and procedural programming language,
designed in 1968–1969 and published in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth as a small
and ...

One of the oldest programming languages, the FORTRAN were developed by a team
of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, and was first published in 1957. The
name FORTRAN is an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, because it was designed
to allow easy translation of math formulas into code.

Often referred to as a scientific language, FORTRAN was the first high-level

language

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was one of the earliest

high-level programming languages. It was developed in 1959

BASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy

emphasizes ease of use; the name is an acronym from Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code.

The original Dartmouth BASIC was designed in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene
Kurtz

ccc- 1934

National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India (NUCSSI) is

the first indigenous database that serves as an ideal tool to
access Journal holdings information

OAI- open archives initiative

Berne Convention – Protection of literary works-1886-by Victor Hugo-in
Berne-copyrights within the country- revised in Paris in 1971

Paris Convention-For protection of industrial works

Herzberg’s theory –Motivation

Principle of literary warrant- W.Hulme

WIPO-World Intellectual property Organisation -1967

National library for visually handicapped- Dehradun

All the computers are connected to a centre is called star

Iyyanki Ramanayya – Born-Kunkuduru Andhra- Library Week

Celebration –Starts-1968-Got First KAula Medal –First state library
association in India. Library Movement in Andhra

National Library –is in Belvedre (Calcutta) - Second largest library in

India after Anna Centenary Library Before it is the official residence of
Governor of Bengal. National library formed in 1836 It Combines with
imperial library and imperial library in 1891-by Lord Curzon-After
independence Imperial library was changed into National library in 1953,
Feb.
INFLIBNET- CALIBER

Iaslic-1955
Aslib-1924

FID was established in the year-1895 in Brussels – dissolved in 2002-

called international institute of bibliography – Brussels institute

Program evaluation review technique – us navy special project office- in

1950 – program management tool- completion of projects-Nodes

BUBL is a online public access catalogue-gives the list of web resources-

like the catalogue in a library

Hypertext coined- Ted nelson

12 rules for relational database – edger F. Codd

IATLIS-1969-Dr. D. B. Krishna Rao as its Chairman and Mr. P. N. Kaula as the
Secretary

Bibliographic coupling or co-citation- introduced by M.M Kessler-Occurs

when two works represent a common third work in their bibliographies

Million book project – now called as universal digital library project-

initiated by Carnegie Mellon university- Bibliotheca Alexandria is also
one of the partner

GSDL-Gender and Science digital library is a collaborative project between

the Gender & Diversities Institute at EDC and the Eisenhower National
Clearinghouse at Ohio State University, with funding from the National
Science Foundation (NSF). The GSDL is an interactive collection of high-
quality, gender-equitable science, technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) resources for K-12, higher education (community college and
university), women's studies, teacher preparation programs, and informal
learning

NSDL-National Science Digital Library Funded by National science

foundation-(NSF)

First artificial satellite was the Soviet Sputnik 1, launched on October 4,

1957

1977 NICNET NIC

1986 CALIBNET, Kolkata NISSAT
1988 INFLIBNET UGC
1992 DELNET, Delhi NISSAT
1993 ADINET, Ahmadabad NISSAT
1993 MALIBNET, Chennai INSDOC
1994 MYLIBNET, Mysore NISSAT
1995 BALNET, Bangalore NISSAT

Dublin core metadata -15elements-name of the Dublin-Ohio

Raja Ram Mohan Roy-development of public libraries-Kolkata

The Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) was founded by Eugene

Garfield in 1960-publishes – Current Contents -Science citation index-
social science citation index- Journal citation report-JCR –is a part of
science citation index
Web of science- Thomson scientific
Biological Abstracts- Thomson Reuters

Index Medicus (IM) is a comprehensive index of medical scientific

journal articles, published since 1879. It was initiated by John Shaw
Billings, head of the Library of the Surgeon General's Office, United
States Army

The Index Medicus was amalgamated with the American Medical

Association's Quarterly Cumulative Index to Current Literature (QCICL)
as the Quarterly Cumulative Index Medicus (QCIM) in 1927

The last issue of Index Medicus was published in December 2004

(Volume 45).
Five Laws of Library Science 1931
Colon classification 1933
Classified catalogue code 1934

Thesaurofacet- Atchinson

Rules for dictionary catalogue-Cutter’s

Subject Classification-Browne’s

Brain boost · Chunk It! Clusty · Deeper Web · Dog pile · Excite ·
Harvester42 · HotBot · Info.com, Mamma ...are Meta Search Engines or
Meta crawlers

Metasearch engines are the one which give the information from the
search engines

SOSIG-Social Science Information Gateway-Lesley Huxley-Funded by

ESRC-Economic and Social Research Council-ESRC

In AACR2-GMD-General Material Designation-For special kinds of

Materials-Given after the title Proper

The Nehru Memorial Museum & Library (NMML) is a library in New

Delhi

UNESCO- Head quarters-Paris

ASTINFO-Cooperative program-For exchange of information in Science
& Technology among countries in the Asia/Pacific region
Indian Science Abstracts-NISCAIR-From 1965-Semimonthly abstracting
Journal
Statesmen yearbook-UN Statistical Office-Contains the happenings in a
Country-ED. Dr. Barry Turner
Biological Information-Institute of Scientific Information
Cumulative Book list-H.W. Wilson
SLIM-System for library information management-Algorhythms
consultant ltd.

First full time Library School in the world-London University

E-Granthalaya software-2002-National information centre -1st version
released by Karnataka state of NIC

Blake-Leadership style
INIS-International Nuclear Information System
IAEa-1957-International Atomic Energy Agency

Prolegomena to library classification -1931

Theory of Library catalogue 1938
Element of library Classification 1945
Classification and Intl. Documentation-1948
Classification and Communication-1951
Headings and Canons-1955

IFLA –Scotland 1927

National Library of Netherland-Royal library
ASLIB 1924(UK)

DDC-1876

Library and information science UGC NET Guide-Ramasamy’s

Cumulative book index is a database that cites English language book

published throughout the world.

R.R. Bowker the official us ISBN agency the publisher of books in print

All Indian public library association -1918

First all India conference of librarians was sponsored by Lahore 1918

First state library association Andhradesa library association 1914

Bengal-1928, Madras -1928, Punjab-1929, Bihar 1936, Assam-1938 and
kerala 1945

The first national association was the Indian library association-Calcutta-

1933
GILA- 1933 – Government of India Libraries Association –Name
Changed- Govt. of India Librarians Association changed to AGLIS

Special libraries has changed its name to strategic knowledge

professionals

Information retrieval coined by Calvin mooers

UNESCO joined with ICSU to establish UNISIST

UDC –origin 1904-1907 Hendri la fontaine (Nobel prize winner) and

Paul Otlet- managed by FID (International federation for information and
documentation) from 1900

Expansive classification – Charles Ammie cutter – 1882 on seeing DDC

he got the idea to prepare.

Public libraries act 1850 by United Kingdom

Aacr1967
Aacr2 1978
International conference on cataloguing principles held at Paris 1961

Coaxial-TV
Twisted wire-Phone

Vir Sanghvi- Hindu times

Humlog – Oldest soap opera
Addline Knowing Everything is- BBC world
India’s First Kids TV- Nick Jr

Democratic decentralization- A.D Gorwala Committee’1951

Basic education or nai talim- wardha education plan

In India Election Commission of India recognizes a political party as a

national party or regional party

CCF -1924
The first Maritime Library Association was founded April 17, 1918 at Acadia University name changed to
Atlantic Provinces Library Association" (APLA) was made in 1957

The largest number of newspaper published in Uttar Pradesh

Tim O'Reilly attempts to clarify just what is meant by Web 2.0, the term
first coined at a conference brainstorming session between O’Reilly...

Lista – Ebsco publishing

‘Libraries as gateways to knowledge’ is the title of the document national

knowledge commission

The Library development in Maharashtra is based on the recommendations of a Fyzee

Committee, appointed by the then Government of Bombay province, for the
development of libraries in the State. The Committee constituted in 1939 and
submitted its report in 1940. The recommendations of the Committee could not be
implemented up to 1947 because of the Second World War. After the independence,
the then Government

Physical, Data link, network, transport, session, presentation, Application

Early English Language Cataloguing Codes

British Museum Rules

 The first major English-language cataloguing code was that developed by Sir
Anthony Panizzi for the British Museum catalogue. Panizzi’s 91 rules were approved
by the British Museum in 1839, and published in 1841[1].
 The British Museum rules were revised up until 1936.
 The library departments of the British Museum became part of the new British
Library in 1973.

Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalog

 The first edition of Charles Ammi Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalog was published
in 1876 [2].
 Cutter’s rules set out the first principles of cataloguing, and included a statement of
the objectives of the catalogue.
 The code covered rules for dictionary catalogues including both entry (for authors,
titles, subjects, and form headings), and description.

Return to Top of Page

 Anglo-American Code
Developments in the United States

 The American Library Association (ALA) cataloguing rules “Condensed Rules for an
Author & Title Catalog” were first published in the Library Journal in 1883 [3].
 In 1900 ALA appointed a committee led by J.C.M. Hanson of the Library of
Congress to revise these rules. Of particular focus was agreement of the ALA rules
and the rules of the Library of Congress due to the upcoming introduction of
Library of Congress printed cataloguing cards.
 In 1902 an advance edition of the revised ALA rules was produced by the Library of
Congress.
 Efforts were made to bring about uniformity between the ALA rules and the fourth
edition of Cutter’s rules (published in 1904).

Developments in the United Kingdom

 In 1893 the “Cataloguing Rules” of the Library Association (LA) were published [4].
 In 1902 a Committee was formed to revise these rules, and in its work drew heavily
on the British Museum rules, and the advance edition of the revised ALA rules.
 A draft revision of the LA rules was discussed at the 1904 meeting of the Library
Association.

Co-operation

 In light of the similar work being done on both sides of the Atlantic, Melvil Dewey
suggested that there should be co-operation to produce an Anglo-American code.
The American Library Association and the Library Association formally agreed to
co-operate in 1904. Consultation between the two bodies occurred by
correspondence.
 The first international cataloguing code was published in 1908 in an American
edition (Catalog Rules, Author and Title Entries [5]) and a British edition (Cataloguing
Rules, Author and Title Entries [6])
 Both editions contained 174 rules covering both entry and heading for authors and
titles, and description.
 Areas of disagreement between the two editions centred on authors and publications
that changed names or titles.
 In both editions disagreements were explained either in a note or by printing two
versions of the rule. Library of Congress supplementary rules were also included
where necessary.

Return to Top of Page

A.L.A. Cataloging Rules

1941 edition

 In the 1930s committees of American Library Association and the Library

Association discussed revision of the 1908 rules. The two bodies co-operated until
1939 when the Second World War ended British involvement.
  A preliminary second edition of the American edition of the 1908 rules was
published by the American Library Association in 1941, and contained 324 rules in
two parts: Part I, Entry and Heading; Part II, Description of book; as well as various
appendices, including one on “authority cards.” [7].

1949 edition

 The 1941 edition was criticized for being too detailed and complex, and in 1949
A.L.A. Cataloging Rules for Author and Title Entries was published [8]. This edition
contained only rules for entry and heading.
 American alternative rules in the 1908 code were reflected in the 1949 code.

Return to Top of Page

Rules for Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of

Congress
 As the 1949 ALA code did not contain rules for descriptive cataloguing, the Library
of Congress took responsibility for documenting rules of this nature. As Library of
Congress catalogue cards were widely used by American libraries, there was interest
in the rules used by the Library of Congress.
 Rules for Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of Congress was published in 1949, and the
rules were adopted by the American Library Association [9]. Included were rules for
separately published monographs, serials, and some non-book materials.
 Supplementary rules were subsequently issued for additional non-book formats.

Return to Top of Page

Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules

AACR 1967

 In 1951 the American Library Association asked Seymour Lubetzky, of the Library
of Congress, to analyse the 1949 ALA code. An approach was also made to the
Library Association regarding co-ordination of revision of the 1949 code.
 In 1953 Lubetzky’s report (Cataloging Rules and Principles [10]) was published. This
work advocated a move towards a principle-based rather than case-based code.
 In 1956 Lubetzky was appointed editor of the revised code, and in 1960 he produced
the draft Code of Cataloging Rules; Author and Title Entry [11].
 The International Conference on Cataloguing Principles was held in Paris in 1961 to
examine the choice and form of headings in author/title catalogues. The outcome
was a statement of 12 principles known as the Paris Principles [12].
 In 1962 C. Sumner Spalding, of the Library of Congress, became the new editor of
the code.
 The American Library Association and Library Association co-operated by
exchanging minutes and working papers, and attending each other’s meetings. In
addition, the Library of Congress assisted with revision of the descriptive cataloguing
rules, and the Canadian Library Association was involved in reviewing drafts of the
rules.
  In 1967 two versions of the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR) were published,
a North American text [13] and a British text [14].
 Both texts of AACR contained three parts:

Part I, Entry and Heading

– Based on the Paris Principles, the 1949 ALA rules, and Lubetzky’s
1960 draft.

Part II, Description

– Consisted of revised rules from the 1949 Library of Congress rules.

Part III, Non-book materials

– Contained rules for both entry and description of non-book materials.
– Consisted of revised rules from the 1949 Library of Congress rules,
and supplementary Library of Congress rules.

 Each text contained an appendix listing rules for entry and heading that differed in
the other version.
 In 1966 there was a “memorandum of agreement” for continued revision of AACR
between ALA and LA. In light of their earlier involvement, the Library of Congress
and the Canadian Library Association were also formally represented in the revision
process.
 Amendments and changes from 1969-1975 were published for the North American
text in the Library of Congress Cataloging Service and for the British text in the Library
Association Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules Amendment Bulletin.

ISBD and AACR Revisions

 At the International Meeting of Cataloguing Experts in Copenhagen in 1969, a

program of International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD) was developed.
The objective was to identify components in a bibliographic description, their
preferred order, and the necessary punctuation.
 The first ISBD standard to be produced was that for Monographs (ISBD (M)) in
1971 [15].
 AACR chapter 6 was revised in line with ISBD (M), and published in two versions in
1974 [16, 17]. The revised chapter contained rules for printed monographs and
reproductions of printed monographs (including microform reproductions).
 Other ISBDs were developed, leading to the publication by the American Library
Association of revisions to AACR chapter 12 (AV and Special Instructional
Materials) [18], and AACR chapter 14 (Sound Recordings) [19].
 In 1975 work began on developing a general framework, known as ISBD (G) [20].

AACR2 1978

 In 1974 the Joint Steering Committee for the Revision of AACR (JSC) was
established, with membership from the American Library Association, the British
Library, the Canadian Library Association (represented by the Canadian Committee
on Cataloguing), the Library Association, and the Library of Congress.
 The JSC was charged with incorporating the North American and British texts into a
single version. The JSC appointed two editors for the revised code, Michael Gorman
of the British Library, and Paul W. Winkler of the Library of Congress.
 The Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, Second edition (AACR2) was published in one
version in 1978 [21].
  AACR2 was divided into two parts:

Part I, Description
– Based on the ISBD(G) framework.
– Included a general chapter (chapter 1), and chapters for individual
formats, including new chapters for machine-readable data files (chapter
9) and three-dimensional artefacts and realia (chapter 10).
– The rules for non-book materials were based on alternative codes that
were published in the 1970s.

Part II, Entry and Heading

– Rules were brought more closely into line with the Paris Principles.

 AACR2 was adopted by the Library of Congress, the National Library of Canada,
the British Library, and the Australian National Library in January 1981.
 In 1981 an abridged version, the Concise AACR2 was published [22].
 Revisions to AACR2 were adopted in 1982, 1983 (published 1984), and 1985
(published 1986).
 A draft revision of AACR2 chapter 9 (renamed: Computer Files) was published in
1987 [23].
 From 1981 an Australian Committee on Cataloguing (ACOC) representative was
sent to JSC meetings, and from 1986 ACOC became a full JSC member.

1988 Revision

 The 1988 Revision of AACR2 incorporated the 1982, 1983, and 1985 revisions plus
subsequent unpublished revisions [24].
 The 1988 Revision was published in both book and loose-leaf format.
 One set of amendments was published in 1993.

1998 Revision

 The 1998 Revision of AACR2 incorporated the 1993 amendments, and revisions
approved between 1992 and 1996 [25].
 The 1998 Revision was published in book and CDROM format.
 Amendments packages were published in 1999 and 2001. The 2001 amendments
included a complete revision of chapter 9 (renamed: Electronic Resources).

2002 Revision

 The 2002 Revision of AACR2 incorporated the 1999 and 2001 amendments, and
changes approved in 2001, including complete revisions of chapter 3 (Cartographic
Materials) and chapter 12 (renamed: Continuing Resources) [26].
 The revision of chapter 12 arose from a recommendation of the International
Conference on the Principles and Future Development of AACR, and IFLA-led
efforts to harmonize ISBD (CR), ISSN practice, and AACR2.
 In 2002 AACR was published only in loose-leaf format.

For more information of the history of AACR, see also the 1978, 1988 and 1998 AACR2
prefaces.
The British Library Automated Information Service (BLAISE

LIBRI is in Germany(doubt)
The Indian Patent Office is administered by the Office of the Controller General of Patents, Designs
& Trade Marks (CGPDTM). This is a subordinate office of the Indian government and administers the
Indian law of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks.

The CGPDTM reports to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion(DIPP) under the Ministry
of Commerce and Industry and has five main administrative sections:

 Patents
 Designs
 Trade Marks
 Geographical indications
 Patent Information System

The patent office is headquartered at Kolkata with branches in Chennai, New Delhi
and Mumbai, but the office of the CGPDTM is in Mumbai. The office of the Patent
Information System is at Nagpur.

The Controller General, who supervises the administration of the Patents Act, the
Designs Act, and the Trade Mark's Act, also advises the Government on matters
relating to these subjects. Mr. P.H.Kurian was the first IAS officer to serve as the
Controller General. Mr Chaitanaya Prasad has assumed charge as CGPDTM recently.

Standard deviation is a widely used measure of variability or diversity

used in statistics and probability theory. It shows how much variation or
"dispersion" exists...

The term "web log" was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997. The
short form, "blog," was coined by (Peter Merholz), who jokingly broke the
word web log ... in the question paper only the answer Jorn Barger is present for
blog.

Www invented by Tim Burners lee

After 20 years a book got outdated

Grogan divided the documents into primary, secondary and tertiary

Hanson divided the books into primary and secondary

Ranganathan divided the documents into conventional, neoconventional

and micodocuments

Eprints is a institutional repository software

LIS link is a social network software

ILA-1933 DELHI

IASLIC – 1955- KOKKATTA

ALA-CHICAGO-1876

Universal availability of publications- IFLA

In simplex transmission, data flow only in one direction -- from the sending device to the
receiving device.

Simplex transmission is used only when the sending device does not require a response
from the receiving device.

Security systems and fire alarms that contain a sensor use simplex transmission.

In half-duplex transmission, data can flow in either direction -- from the sending device to
the receiving device, and back -- but only in one direction at a time.

Many fax machines, credit card verification systems, and automatic teller machines use
half-duplex transmission.

In full-duplex transmission, data can flow in both directions at the same time.

A regular telephone line supports full-duplex transmission

so that both parties can talk at the same time.

Farmington plan – library cooperation

Drupal software- content management software

Moodle and Claroline- Learning management system

DSpace was developed at - Massachusetts Institute of

Technology (MIT)

Melvin J. Voigt - Categorized information need into current

approach, everyday approach, and exhaustive approach.
“Where is the Wisdom, We Lost in Knowledge...” is - T. S.
Eliot
The term ‘Cyberspace’ was first used by - William Gibson
Renardus- Academic subject gateway or multisubject gateway

Humbul – Reviewed and catalogued websites in humanities

Encyclopedia of library and information science – publisher

Marcel Decker
Entire web is a search engine that finds what you’re looking for on the
web, and returns relevant web sites, images and real-time results.

Vivisimo is a privately held enterprise search software company in

Pittsburgh that develops and sells software products to improve search on
the web and in enterprises. The focus of Vivisimo's research thus far has
been the concept of clustering search results based on topic: for example,
dividing the results of a search for "cell" into groups like "biology,"
"battery," and "prison." This process allows users to intuitively narrow
their search results to a particular category or browse through related
fields of information, and seeks to avoid the "overload" problem of
sorting through too many results.- specialized information organization
specialized tool.

Encyclopedia Britannica- Propaedia- ready reference service

India a Reference manual – Year book

Cover to cover translation – Current awareness service

Micropaedia – 11 Volumes

Encyclopaedia Americana – 30 volumes

DMOZ - Open directory project

SENDOC-HYDERABAD

NASSDOC-New Delhi

BARC-Mumbai
The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA-1998 ) is a United
States copyright law that implements two 1996 treaties of the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It criminalizes prod
The Information Technology Act -2000 has been passed to give
effect to the UN resolution and to promote efficient delivery of
Government services by means of reliable electronic records.

Indian Copyright act – 1957

Universal copyright convention-1952

Wipo copyright act – 1996

ASLIB- 1924

MARC – 1960

ISBD-1981

Ccf-1990

FRBR, FRAD and FRSAD models – IFLA

The FRBR model (Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records) is a
conceptual model that was developed by an IFLA group of experts from 1992
to 1997. It was officially approved by the IFLA Cataloguing Section’s Standing
Committee on September 5, 1997.

Biological abstracts- Thomson Reuters

Chemical Abstracts.CAS History: Milestones ... Research, an

abstracting publication begun by Arthur Noyes in 1895 that was the
forerunner of Chemical Abstracts.

Baroda Library Association (1910), Andhra Desa Library Association (1914), Bengal
Library Association (1927) and Madras Library Association (1927). The Indian
Library Association was founded in 1933. The Post-independence period has
witnessed an

Coaxial cable-Tv
Fibre optic cable- computer networks
Twisted pair cable- telephone

Table 1 – Subdivisions

Table 2 – geographical areas

Table 3 – Subdivisions used with literature poetry etc

Table 4 - Subdivision used with languages

Pascal is an influential imperative and procedural programming language,
designed in 1968–1969 and published in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth as a small
and ...

One of the oldest programming languages, the FORTRAN were developed by a team
of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, and was first published in 1957. The
name FORTRAN is an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, because it was designed
to allow easy translation of math formulas into code.

Often referred to as a scientific language, FORTRAN was the first high-level

language

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was one of the earliest

high-level programming languages. It was developed in 1959

BASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy

emphasizes ease of use; the name is an acronym from Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code.

The original Dartmouth BASIC was designed in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene
Kurtz

ccc- 1934

National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India (NUCSSI) is

the first indigenous database that serves as an ideal tool to
access Journal holdings information

OAI- open archives initiative

 LIS Objective Type Questions with Answers
1. ‘Fair use’ is a term most relevant to……………
Copy right
2. Handling of Information in the sense of production is called:………..
Information Industry
3. Informal communication among knowledgeable person is known as:…………
Invisible College
4. The invisible web refers to…………
that part of the internet, which is hidden from the search engines
5. Who was the chairman of National Library Committee of India?
B.S. Jha
6. Which organization applied Library and Information Policy in India at national level?
RRRLF
7. Where is the head quarter of Patent Information System in India?
Nagpur
8. The act enacted in India in 1856 on Intellectual Property Right was based on………..
British Patent Law 1852
9. The term communication came from which language?
Latin
10. Who is the profounder of the term information transfer?
Bissman
11. To which country the credit is given to coin the term information society?
Japan
12. Now a days what is a most important vital resource for societal development of a country?
Information
13. What is the unit of information?
Bit
14. Who is the Father of a computer?
Charles Babbage
15. When was Dr.S. R. Ranganathan was appointed as a National research professor of Library science
1962
16. Which Indian University first started M.Lib.Sc. & M.Phil courses?
University of Delhi
17. Which Commission recommended 6.5% to 10% of the total college budget for development of
Libraries?
Kothari committee
18. Where did Dr. S. R. Ranganathan put forth his five laws of library science?
Meenakshi college, Annamalainagar
19. When did ILA became the member of IFLA?
1957
20. In which year ASLIB was acquired by MCB group, the holding company for emerald group
publishing?
2010
21. Which association`s tagline is “managing information”?
ASLIB
22. Which association`s tagline is “connecting people and information”?
SLA
23. When was the International institute of Documentation established?
1931
24. Which organization has introduced the concept of “Sister libraries” for children`s and young adults
reading?
IFLA
25. In which year the ISBN allocation office in India shifted from Kolkatta to Delhi?
2011
26. Which two organizations jointly publish survey on digitization and preservation?
IFLA + UNESCO
27. Who said that “Librarianship is not a profession”?
Madden, Moon, Moore, Mc Pheron
28. Which organization was joined with Library Association to form CILIP in 2002?
Institute of Information Scientists.
29. In which year International institute of Documentation changed to International federation of
Documentation?
1937
30. In which year headquarter of FID was shifted from Brussels to The Hague?
1934
31. Who gave the sixth law of library science “Every reader his/her freedom”?
James R. Rettig
32. Where was the first library noticed in India?
Sravasti, Gonda, UP
33. When was the curriculum development committee on LIS instituted?
1990-93
34. Who published the journal International classification?
ISKO (International Society for Knowledge organization 1989 )
35. Which association in India awards teachers in LIS?
IATLIS
36. Where is the headquarter of SLA?
New York
37. Which law of library Science relates to the growth of libraries?
Fifth law
38. Library Technology Report is a publication of…………..
ALA
39. Encyclopedia of library and Information Science is published by:…………..
Marcel Dekker
40. The secondary source of information comprised of:…………
Indexing and Abstracting periodicals
41. Who categorized information source into conventional, non conventional, neo conventional and
micro documents:
Ranganthan
42. What is the Thesaurus?
 A collection of selected terminology
 Synonymous terms
 List of words
43. What is a Patent?
An agreement between the inventor and the Government
44. World of learning is a what source of information…………..
Secondary source
45. Indian books in Print are published from………….
New Delhi
46. Cumulative book index is published from………….
USA
47. Statesman year book is published from……………
London (MacMillan, Annual), 1864
48. Word of learning is published by ……..
Europa publication , London), 1947 (annual)
49. Who is the editor of “Library Herald”
Krishan Kumar
50. Who was published the monthly Journal “The Library World’
J. D. Brown
51. Facts of File is weekly digest of …………..
World events
52. Who is the first editor of “Modern Librarian”?
F.Monbrary Volte
53. Indian national Bibliographical first appeared in …………..
1957
54. Who is the author of “Dictionary of anonymous and pseudonymous literature”
S. Halkett & J. Laing
55. Compton year book contains ……………..
Outstanding events
56. Online Europa year book has coverage since…………
1985
57. Which of the following is a multi-subject gateway?
Renardus
58. Which of the following is a specialized information organization online tool?
Vivisimo
59. Reference sources are those………..
Which used to obtain particular information?
60. Retrospective search service is a type of …………
Responsive service
61. Which part of new encyclopedia Britannica is useful for ready references?
Propaedia
62. Year book are also known as ……………
Annual
63. What is India: A reference annual?
Year Book
64. What is Trade bibliography?
List of books in print or for sale compiled by a publisher
65. Who publishes INIS Atom Index?
INIS (Viena)
66. Which of the following is not the document?
(A) Manuscript (B) Book (C) Inscription (D) Periodical
67. Information sources are divided mainly in to following categories?
Documentary and non-documentary
68. What are non- documentary sources?
Which are in not printed form?
69. Today which type of information sources is most useful?
Non- Documentary source
70. Cover to cover translation is treated as ………….
Current awareness services
71. What are the suitable reference sources to know about the information of a particular place?
(A) Directory (B) Gazetteer (C) Encyclopedia (D) Year book
72. What is the suitable reference source to find out the list of historical monuments of Delhi?
Guide book
73. What do you call a collection of maps, tables, charts, etc.?
Atlas
74. How many volumes Micropaedia of new Encyclopedia Britannica is published?
12
75. Encyclopedia Americana consists of………….
30 Volumes
76. Which of the following are not the secondary sources?
(A) Encyclopedia (B) Digest (C) Thesis (D) Text book
77. What is the publication frequency of books in print?
Annually
78. What is National bibliography?
List of books published in a particular Nation
79. What is the frequency of I.N.B.?
Monthly
80. ‘Facts on File’ is a …………….
Weekly list
81. The term “Information Service” is an improvised name …
Reference service
82. Abstracting service provides…………
Whole bibliographic description along with abstracts of article
83. “Reference service is the contact between the right reader and the right book in the right personal
way” was stated by…
S R Ranganathan
84. CAS is defined as ………
A process of dissemination of current information
85. The person who provides reference service is called …………
Reference Librarian
86. Questionnaire is a:………….
Tool for data collection
87. ‘Cranfield Studies’ are an example of:…………….
Experimental Research
88. Research is……………
Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem
89. First step in starting the research process is……………
Identification of problem
90. A common test in research demands much priority on……………
 Reliability
 Usability
 Objectivity
91. Action research means………..
A research initiated to solve an immediate problem
92. A reasoning where we start with certain particular statements and conclude with a universal
statement is called……………..
Inductive Reasoning
93. Research is conducted to………….
 Generate new knowledge
 Obtain research degree
 Reinterpret existing knowledge
94. Which of the following variables cannot be expressed in quantitative terms?
(A) Socio-economic Status (B) Marital Status (C) Numerical Aptitude (D) Professional Attitude
95. The essential qualities of a researcher are……………
 Spirit of free enquiry
 Reliance on observation and evidence
 Systematization or theorizing of knowledge
96. In the process of conducting research ‘Formulation of Hypothesis” is followed by……….
Selection of Research Tools
97. A research paper is a brief report of research work based on………..
Both Primary and Secondary Data
98. Who Invented the Dictionary Catalogue?
C. A. Cutter
99. What is another name of Added entries?
Secondary entries
100. When was MARC project completed?
1967
101. Who defined notation as shorthand sign?
E. C. Richardson
102. How many Auxiliary tables are there in DDC 23rd Edition?
6
103. Phoenix schedules are part of which classification …………….
DDC
104. Sear’s List of Subject Headings (SLSH) is mainly useful for …………
Small and medium libraries
105. In which year DDC 23rd edition was published ……………..
2011
106. The word classification comes from the Latin word ……………..
Classis
107. MESH is a ………………
Thesaurus
108. The First edition of DDC Consisted of ………….
44 pages
109. What are the four entity of FRBR model?
Work, Expression, Manifestation, Item
110. When was the different typological study towards mode of formation of subjects done?
1950
111. In which edition “Auxiliary table for area” was first introduced?
DDC 17
112. What does LED stands for in CC?
Latest Effective Decade
113. The Dewey Decimal Classification divides human knowledge into …………..
10 basic categories.
114. Editor in Chief of 19, 20, 21, 22, 23th ed. of DDC?
Benjamin A. Custer 19
John P. Comaromi 20
Winton E. Matthews 21
John S. Mitchell 22
John S. Mitchell 23
115. Who said the demand and supply theory of books?
Mc Colvin
116. Theory X and Theory Y is developed by ……………….
Douglas Mc Gregor
117. Herzberg’s theory deals with……………
Motivation
118. Who is the father of Scientific Management?
F.W. Taylor
119. CPM (Critical Path Method) is developed by…………
Dupoint Company
120. Theory X and Theory Y related to ……………..
Motivation
121. When Zero Base Budgeting system was first prepared…………..
1970
122. Posting the right person at the right place is called ________
Recruitment
123. TQM is a system of continuous improvement employing participative management and centered on
needs of the ________
Organization
124. Financial support given to libraries are of two types - Recurring and ……………..
Endowments
125. Principle of maximum aggregate benefit is concerned with……………
Library service
126. …….. takes items of expenditure for libraries as the working data for allocation of funds.
Library budget
127. A budget which mainly covers items of current revenue and expenditure is called __.
Capital budgeting
128. The library budget of a university is passed by the?
Executive Council
129. In fund accounting, _______ fund cannot be used for other purposes.
Recurring
130. Scrutiny of financial transactions is called……………
Auditing
131. What are the two parts of the annual report of the library?
Descriptive and Statistical
132. Who is the pioneer of open access system in British libraries ?
James Duff Brown
133. When was Browne charging system started?
1895
134. Who started New York Charging system?
John Cotton Dana
135. When did electrically operated book charging system introduced first?
1932
136. When was PERT developed?
1958
137. Zero based budgets is concerned with …………
Future
138. Who is the father of Classical School?
Henri Fayol
139. Another term of PERT is ……………
CPM
140. POSDCORB is related to …………..
Library administration
141. Who introduced three card systems?
S. R. Ranganathan
142. ________ are the storage areas for the various types of documents kept in a library.
Stacks
143. Study carrels are exclusive areas meant for……………
Researchers
144. Information Gatekeepers come under ________ sources.
A. documentary B. human C. institutional D. neo-conventional
145. …………… categorizes documents into three types such as primary, secondary and tertiary.
Grogan
146. ________ is a legal document and can be used as a source of industrial information.
Specification
147. In Encyclopaedia Britianica, ___________ acts as an index to macropaedia.
Micropaedia
148. Payments for the books purchased can be made only after……………..
Accessioning
149. Books misplaced on the shelves by readers are restored. This work is referred to as .
Shelf rectification
150. The three card systems introduced by Ranganathan are
 Register Card
 Check Card
 Classified Index Card
151. Outdated and seldom used books are withdrawn from the library is known as ___________.
Weeding
152. The objective of library binding is ________of the library materials.
Durability
153. All part and pages of a volume are correctly sequenced in the first stage of binding process known
as?
Collation
154. Sheets before and after the text of a book is called _________.
End papers
155. Leather being used as one of the binding materials i.e., _________ is the strongest leather.
Sheep skin
156. ________ has prescribed certain standards for library binding.
ALA
157. A skillful method of providing means mechanism and structural elements to streamline
organizational work is known as _______
Strategic planning
158. Posting the right person at the right place is called …………..
Induction
159. _______ budgeting does not take into account what happened in the past but emphasizes on current
activities.
Performance
160. Getting books back from the users and releasing the borrower’s ticket is known as…………
Discharging
161. Physical condition of the books should be property maintained. this is known as……….
Conservation
162. ________ is an important record of books, which shows the position of any book on the shelves.
Shelf List
163. ________ is a process of helping employees in an organization to acquire new skills and
competence on a continuing basis
Total Quality Management
164. On which of the following technologies semantic web is not based?
(A) RDF (B) Ontologies (C) Cloud seeding (D) URI
165. Which generation computers uses integrated circuits(ICs)?
Third
166. The concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) belongs to ____________________
Fifth Generation Computers
167. Computer memory is measured in ____________________
(A) Bytes (B) Kilobytes (C) Megabytes
168. The term "Cyberspace" was first used by _________________
William Gibson
169. The term hypertext was coined by whom?
Ted Nelson
170. What are three types of basic languages used in computer programming?
Machine, Assembly and high level languages
171. When CD-ROM was prepared and made?
1985
172. In how many ways switching system can be established?
Three
173. Which type of switching system is telephone network?
Circuit switching
174. Which of the following software is useful for word processing?
WordStar
175. NICNET and INDONET are the networks of which category?
WAN
176. Who designed analytical engine?
Charles Babbage
177. Calculating machine is developed by…………
Pascal
178. What is a bug?
Error in a Programme
179. Which is not a programming language?
(A) FORTRAN (B) BASIC (C) COBOL (D) ASCII
180. ENIAC stands for?
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
181. ISO-9960 is related with?
Standard for encoding data on CD-ROM
182. ASCII has how many codes?
256
183. Raw, unevaluated, unprocessed and unorganized facts is known as: …………
Data
184. Information retrieval is fastest from …………..
Hard Disk
185. An University providing Open Access to Sanskrit dissertations through Internet
Delhi University
186. Term “Truncation” is used in………………………..
Search Formulation
187. UNIX is a…………………………………………...
Multi user operating system
188. The CD alphabets in CDS/ISIS stands for……………..
Computerized Documentation
189. LYCOS is a …………..
Search engine
190. Electronic telecommunications system joining millions of computers together.
Internet
191. Following is not a social bookmarking site:
(A) Digg (B) Delicious (C) Sqidoo (D) Facebook
192. Following is not a network protocol:
(A) HTTP (B) SMTP (C) TCP/IP (D) Z39.50
193. LOCKOSS (Software) is an international community initiative by:
Stanford University
194. Identify the odd one from the following:
(A) Koha (B) VTLS (C) SLIM++ (D) SOUL
195. Following is not a Web 2.0 tool:
(A) Blog (B) Facebook (C) UGC-INFONET 2.0 (D) RSS feeds
196. PDA stands for:
Personal Digital Assistance
197. PLONE is a:
Content Management System
198. “Pi” is the e-book reading device by:
Infibeam
199. ___________ is an example of microblogging:
Twitter
200. Who invented OSI Model in 1982?
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
201. Where ISDN was first started in 1990
Singapore
202. Now-a-days how many types of Protocol are used ?
2
203. Which type of protocol is used by interface for public data network (PDN) ?
X.25
204. In Which five year plan the INFLIBNET was established?
7th five year plan (1985-1990)
205. Which network in India provided the first e-mail service in the country?
ERNET
206. Who publishes Annals of Library Science and documentation?
INSDOC
207. What is full text e-Resource?
ACS (American chemical society)
208. __________is E-Bibliographic database?
ISID
209. Virtua accommodates Different version of the MARC Standard?
(A) USMARC (B) UKMARC (C) CANMARC (D) SWEMARC/All of above
210. _________is the journal of Library and Information Science?
Inter-lending and Document supply
211. The Electronic Library is......................
A Journal Name
212. What is e-prints?
A repository Software
213. What two is a Library Management Software for small libraries?
Library Solution and Follet
214. What is APS?
A Full-text e-resourse
215. One of Library and Information Science Journal name is……….
Reference Reviews incorporating ASLIB Book Guide
216. "Shodhganga" is a national level repository of:
E-Theses
217. One of the following is not an open source software :
(A) D’space (B) Windows (C) Green-stone (D) Linux
218. ”It is a library with little or no physical presence of books, periodicals, reading space or support
staff, but are that disseminate selective information directly to distribute library customers, usually
electronically”. Said by whom?
Powell
219. ”A library is a public institution or establishment charged with the care of collection of books, the
duty of making them accessible to those who require the use of them and the task of converting
every person in its neighborhood into a habitual library goers and reader of books.”Quoted by
whom?
Dr S R Ranganathan
220. Classification of all types of libraries has been made by-
UNESCO
221. ”Special libraries serve a specialist clientele, located within a single establishment or group and all
engaged in working towards one common purpose.” Who said this
R.A stall
222. Which library first introduced the printed catalog ………..
British Museum
223. UNISIST is a……….
Programme
224. Informal self education is possible in what kind of library?
Public Library
1) Hybrid library deals with 8) According to General Financial Rules,
(A) Print Collection 2005, loss of how many volumes per
(B) Digital Collection thousand volumes issued / consulted in a year
(C) Both (A) and (B) is to be taken as reasonable.
(D) None of the above (A) Three
(B) Four
2) Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) is (C) Five
now looked after by? (D) Six
(A) UNESCO
(B) CILIP 9) According to Ranganathan, many
(C) ALA collections lose its relevance in how many
(D) OCLC years?
(A) 20 years.
3) Which type of books should be weeded in (B) 30 years
a library? (C) 40 Years
(A) Superseded editions (D) 50 years.
(B) Theasurus
(C) Dictionary 10) Annual withdrawals from the collection
(D) Encyclopaedia should average at least how many percent of
the total collection.
4) The standard size of a catalogue card is (A) 5%
(A) 12.5 cm X 7.5 cm (B) 10%
(B) 12 cm X 7 cm (C) 15%
(C) 11 cm X 5 cm (D) 20%
(D) 10 cm X 4 cm
11) The standard size of a catalogue card is
5) The Library of Congress Classification (A) 5 inch X 3 inch
system divides human knowledge into (B) 4 inch X 3 inch
(A) 20 major classes. (C) 4 inch X 4 inch
(B) 21 major classes. (D) 3 inch X 3 inch
(C) 25 major classes.
(D) 30 major classes. 12) IFLA Head office located at
(A) Paris, France
6) The Delivery of Books (Public Libraries) (B) Netherlands, in The Hague
Act, 1954 was not implemented in (C) Canada
(A) Assam (D) London
(B) Jammu and Kashmir
(C) Haryana 13) The head office of Indian Library
(D) Delhi Association (ILA) is
(A) Delhi
7) Who invented World Wide Web (WWW) (B) Kolkata
(A) Vint Cerf (C) Bengalore
(B) Charles Babbage (D) Mumbai
(C) Tim Berners-Lee
(D) Steve Jobs
 (B) Information is data of value to decision
making
14) The word “Archives” is most relevant to (C) Mathematical Theory of Information
(A) Historical material (D) Bradfords Law of Information
(B) National bibliography
(C) Free of charge 21) Delivery of Books (Public Libraries Act)
(D) Family members enacted in
(A) 1977
15) The word “Referral service” is most (B) 1944
relevant to (C) 1967
(A) Database search service (D) 1954
(B) Inter Library Loan
(C) Information scouting 22) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan related to
(D) Retrospective searching (A) The disciple of Melvil Dewey who
worked in India
16) Which of the following is a Library (B) The first professionally qualified
Management Software? university librarian in India
(A) LibSys 7 (C) He for the first time in India, DDC and
(B) EPrints AACR rule introduced.
(C) Joomla (D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library
(D) Drupal (now National Library, Kolkata)

17) Which of the following is an Open 23) First university to introduce MPhil and
Source Software? PhD in LIS in India
(A) E-Granthalaya (A) Aligarh Muslim University
(B) SOUL 2.0 (B) University of Calcutta
(C) Koha (C) University of Delhi
(D) LibSys 7 (D) University of Madras

18) Which of the following is a Secondary 24) UGC Curriculum Development

source of information? Committee formed in
(A) Journal (A) 1993
(B) Text book (B) 1991
(C) Bibliography of Bibliography (C) 1968
(D) Bibliography (D) 1989

19) First generation computer uses 25) Second generation computer uses
(A) Microprocessor (A) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or
(B) Transistors electronic valves
(C) Integrated circuits (B) Microprocessor
(D) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or (C) Integrated circuits
electronic valves (D) Transistors

20) Shannon and Weaver related to

(A) Psycho-biology of language: An
introduction to dynamic philosophy
26) Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine related (C) Massachusetts Institute of Technology
to (MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs
(A) Sears List of Subject Heading (D) Wikimedia Foundation
(B) Library of Congress Classification
System 33) C. W. Hanson
(C) UDC (A) Categorized information need into
(D) Dictionary Catalogue current approach, everyday approach, and
exhaustive approach.
27) CCF was developed by (B) Divides documentary sources of
(A) UNESCO information into primary and secondary.
(B) IFLA (C) Divides documentary sources of
(C) FID information into primary, secondary and
(D) Library of Congress tertiary.
(D) Classified documentary sources of
28) Berne Convention and Universal information into Conventional, Neo
Copyright Convention was revised in Paris in Conventional, Non Conventional and meta
(A) 1949 document.
(B) 1952
(C) 1971 34) The First and Oldest University Library
(D) 1931 was established in British India at
(A) University of Delhi
29) The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto (B) Calcutta University
was last revised in (C) Aligarh Muslim University
(A) 1956 (D) University of Madras
(B) 1931
(C) 1972 35) Deleted email can be found in the
(D) 1994 (A) Trash folder
(B) Inbox folder
30) Which of the following is a social (C) Starred folder
network? (D) Spam folder
(A) BUBL Link
(B) LIS Links 36) RDA related to
(C) Intute (A) Classification
(D) DMOZ (B) Cataloguing
(C) Searching
31) Peter A. Phyor related to (D) Browsing
(A) Ranganathan formulated his first law of
library from his casual hint. 37) George Kingsely Zipf related to
(B) Library legislation (A) Psycho-biology of language: An
(C) Living with book introduction to dynamic philosophy
(D) Zero Based Budget (B) Mathematical Theory of Information
(C) Information is data of value to decision
32) Koha was developed at making
(A) Katipo Communications Ltd, New (D) Bradfords Law of Information
Zealand
(B) University of Waikato, New Zealand.
 43) Reference and information service is
most relevant to
38) WIPO was established by the WIPO (A) Referral Service
Convention in (B) SDI
(A) 1977 (C) CAS
(B) 1944 (D) Retrospective searching
(C) 1954
(D) 1967 44) Which of the following is an Institutional
Repository Software Package?
39) Alireza Noruzi related to (A) Joomla
(A) Application of Ranganathan's Laws to (B) EPrints
the Web (C) Koha
(B) The disciple of Melvil Dewey who (D) Drupal
worked in India
(C) Our Singular Strengths 45) Which of the following is a Tertiary
(D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library Sources of Information?
(now National Library, Kolkata) (A) Journal
(B) Bibliography
40) E. B. Ross related to (C) Encyclopaedia
(A) Ranganathan formulated his first law (D) Bibliography of Bibliographies
of library from his casual hint.
(B) Library legislation 46) First library act was enacted in Great
(C) Living with book Britain in
(D) Zero Based Budget (A) 1847
(B) 1850
41) Denis Grogan (C) 1867
(A) Categorized information need into (D) 1840
current approach, everyday approach, and
exhaustive approach. 47) Michael Gorman related to
(B) Divides documentary sources of (A) Application of Ranganathan's Laws to
information into primary and secondary. the Web
(C) Divides documentary sources of (B) The disciple of Melvil Dewey who
information into primary, secondary and worked in India
tertiary. (C) Our Singular Strengths
(D) Classified documentary sources of (D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library
information into Conventional, Neo (now National Library, Kolkata)
Conventional, Non Conventional and meta
document. 48) Dr. Nihar Ranjan Roy related to
(A) Application of Ranganathan's Laws to
42) The Head Office of IASLIC located at the Web
(A) Kolkata (B) The first professionally qualified
(B) Delhi university librarian in India
(C) Mumbai (C) He for the first time in India, DDC and
(D) Chennai AACR rule introduced.
(D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library
(now National Library, Kolkata)
 55) Fourth generation computer uses
49) The Head Office of UNESCO located at (A) Microprocessor
(A) Paris, France (B) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or
(B) Netherlands, in The Hague electronic valves
(C) London (C) Transistors
(D) England (D) Integrated circuits

50) M. C. Yovits related to 56) UNIMARC was developed by

(A) Psycho-biology of language: An (A) UNESCO
introduction to dynamic philosophy (B) IFLA
(B) Information is data of value to decision (C) FID
making (D) Library of Congress
(C) Mathematical Theory of Information
(D) Bradfords Law of Information 57) Universal Copyright conventions was in
(A) 1949
51) The Press and Registration of books Act (B) 1952
was enacted in (C) 1971
(A) 1847 (D) 1931
(B) 1850
(C) 1867 58) The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto
(D) 1840 first issued in
(A) 1949
52) First B.Lib. Science Course was (B) 1952
introduced in (C) 1971
(A) Aligarh Muslim University (D) 1931
(B) University of Calcutta
(C) University of Delhi 59) Which of the following is not a web
(D) University of Madras browser?
(A) Firefox
53) J. C. M. Hanson related to (B) Internet Explorer
(A) Sears List of Subject Heading (C) Google Chrome
(B) Library of Congress Classification (D) DMOZ
System
(C) UDC 60) Haines related to
(D) Dictionary Catalogue (A) Ranganathan formulated his first law of
library from his casual hint.
54) Third generation computer uses (B) Library legislation
(A) Microprocessor (C) Living with book
(B) Transistors (D) Zero Based Budget
(C) Integrated circuits
(D) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or 61) Which of the following is not a Learning
electronic valves Management System (LMS)
(A) Moodle
(B) Claroline
(C) Drupal
(D) ATutor
 66) The head office of Good Offices
62) DSpace was developed at Committee is at
(A) Katipo Communications Ltd, New (A) Kolkata
Zealand (B) New Delhi
(B) University of Waikato, New Zealand. (C) Bangalore
(C) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (D) Chennai
(MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs
(D) Wikimedia Foundation 67) The first university to establish a full-
fledged Department of Library Science
63) Melvin J. Voigt (A) University of Delhi
(A) Categorized information need into (B) Calcutta University
current approach, everyday approach, (C) Aligarh Muslim University
and exhaustive approach. (D) University of Madras
(B) Divides documentary sources of
information into primary and secondary. 68) An Invisible college is a typical example
(C) Divides documentary sources of of:
information into primary, secondary and (A) Informal channels of communication
tertiary. (B) Formal channels of communication
(D) Classified documentary sources of (C) Both (A) and (B)
information into Conventional, Neo (D) None of the above
Conventional, Non Conventional and meta
document. 69) Berne convention was adopted in the
year :
64) GSDL was developed at (A) 1911
(A) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (B) 1886
(MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs (C) 1900
(B) Katipo Communications Ltd, New (D) 1947
Zealand
(C) University of Waikato, New Zealand. 70) FID was dissolved in the year :
(D) Wikimedia Foundation A) 2002
(B) 2005
65) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan (C) 2000
(A) Categorized information need into (D) 2003
current approach, everyday approach, and
exhaustive approach. 71) Who had given the Minimal, Middling
(B) Divides documentary sources of and Maximum theories of reference service?
information into primary and secondary. (A) C. M. Winchell
(C) Divides documentary sources of (B) S. R. Ranganathan
information into primary, secondary and (C) James I Wyer
tertiary. (D) Samuel Rothstein
(D) Classified documentary sources of
information into Conventional, Neo
Conventional, Non Conventional and meta 72) PERT was developed by :
document. (A) The Navy special project office
(B) Booz Allen Hamelton
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above (C) 1987
(D) 1988
73) The term hyper text was coined by :
(A) Ted Nelson 80) First time efforts for the development of
(B) Charles Babbage libraries in India were made
(C) Tim Berner Lee (A) S. R. Ranganathan
(D) Tay Vaughan (B) S. Radhakrishnan
(C) Sayaji Rao Gaekwad I
74) The 12 rules for relational database were (D) Sayaji Rao Gaekwad III
given by:
(A) Larvy Page 81) Emerald full text Database is published
(B) Linus Tolward from
(C) J. Bill Gates (A) USA
(D) Edgar. F. Codd (B) Germany
(C) France
75) Bibliographic coupling was first (D) U.K.
advocated by :
(A) B. K. Sen 82) Who propounded “Conservative,
(B) M. M. Kessler moderate and liberal theories of reference
(C) S. C. Bradford service” ?
(D) S. R. Ranganathan (A) William A Katz
(B) S. R. Ranganathan
76) Granthana is an official publication of : (C) James I. Wyer
(A) ILA (D) R. Emery
(B) IASLIC
(C) RRRLF 83) Which national agency in India is
(D) APLA assigning the ISBN?
(A) Raja Ram Mohan Roy National
Education Resource Centre
77) Million Book Project was initiated by: (B) Delhi Public Library
(A) Pittsburg University (C) Federation of Publishers in India
(B) Carnegie Mellon University (D) National Library of India
(C) MIT, USA
(D) Michigan University 84) The term ‘Cyberspace’ was first used by
(A) Andrew Pollock
78) The quotation “Where is the Wisdom, (B) William Gibson
We Lost in Knowledge...” is by (C) John Postal
(A) John Keats (D) Joe Flower
(B) M. P. Carter
(C) T. S. Eliot 85) The simple Dublin Core Metadata
(D) Marshall McLuhan Element Set (DCMES) consists of
(A) 10 elements
79) CONPOLIS (India) was set up in the (B) 15 elements
year (C) 14 elements
(A) 1985 (D) 18 elements
(B) 1986
86) “Libraries as Gateways to Knowledge” is 93) ISBN changed from 10 digits to 13 from
the title of the document of (A) January, 2007
(A) National Information Policy, 1986 (B) January, 2008
(B) Information Technology Act, 2000 (C) January, 2006
(C) National Knowledge Commission on (D) January, 2005
Libraries, 2007
(D) None of the above 94) IASLIC was founded in the year
(A) 1955
87) The Library Association (UK) is now the (B) 1965
component of (C) 1975
(A) ASLIB (D) 1985
(B) CILIP
(C) ALA 95) WorldCat is maintained by
(D) None of the above (A) Library of Congress
(B) Online Computer Library Center
88) Real Time Access refers to (C) American Library Association
(A) Access in advance (D) None of the above
(B) Access after some time
(C) Access when searched for 96) Number of States in India which have
(D) None of the above enacted Public Library Legislation till date is
(A) Eighteen
89) Theory X and Theory Y relate to (B) Fourteen
(A) Planning (C) Thirteen
(B) Motivation (D) Sixteen
(C) Innovation
(D) None of the above 97) Which publication was not authored by
S.R. Ranaganathan?
90) INSDOC has been merged with (A) Prolegomena to library classification
NISCOM and is now known as (B) Reference Service
(A) DELNET (C) Ramanujan : The man and the
(B) NISCAIR Mathematician
(C) DESIDOC (D) Living with Books
(D) NASSDOC
98) JSTOR is an online system for archiving
91) ISBN consists of and accessing academic journals. It is located
(A) 6 digits in
(B) 8 digits (A) Germany
(C) 13 digits (B) UK
(D) 15 digits (C) USA
(D) Budapest
92) Bibliographical coupling is related to
(A) Bibliometric studies 99) ‘Five Laws of Library Science’ was first
(B) Bibliography compilation published in
(C) Modes of subject formation (A) 1925
(D) Vocabulary control (B) 1930
(C) 1931
(D) 1933 Organisation

100) What is Dublin Core? 104) Handling of Information in the sense of

(A) Content management tool production is called:
(B) E- Library software
(C) Metadata standard (A) Information Marketing
(D) Internet Protocol
(B) Information Industry

(C) Information Production

101) Information is …
(D) Information Revolution
(A) Raw data

(B) Raw knowledge

105) BERN CONVENTION (1886) is
(C) Input data concerned with:

(D) Organized data (A) Translations

(B) Copyright
102) ‘Fair use’ is a term most relevant to:
(C) Patent
(A) Intellectual Property Rights
(D) Standards
(B) Books borrowed for home reading

(C) Copy right

106) Informal communication among
(D) Use of reference books knowledgeable person is known as:

(A) Invisible College

103) WIPO stands for: (B) Information Gatekeeper

(A) World Information and Patents (C) Communication Gatekeeper

Organisation
(D) Knowledge Management
(B) World Intellectual Property
Organisation

(C) World International Property 107) Which one of the following is not
Organisation associated with the communication system?

(D) World Information Protection (A) Receiver

(B) Channel 111) Where is the head quarter of Patent
Information System in India?
(C) Sender
(A) Pune
(D) Entropy
(B) Mumbai
108) The invisible web refers to-
(C) Nagpur
(A) The internet, since we cannot see
it (D) Delhi

(B) That part of the internet, which is

hidden from the search
engines 112) The act enacted in India in 1856 on
Intellectual Property Right was based on.
(C) The telecommunication signals which
are not seen (A) American Patent Law
1810
(D) The failure in accessing the web
pages (B) British Patent Law 1852

(C) The Patent Bill

109) Who was the chairman of National (D) The Design Act of 1911
Library Committee of India?

(A) B. S. Jha
113) Whether intellectual property can be
(B) K. P. Sinha sold.

(C) S. Mudaliar (A) No

(D) C. D. Deshmukh (B) Sale is possible

110) Which organisation applied Library (C) Yes

and Information Policy in India at national
level. (D) None of these

(A) NISSAT 114) The term communication came from

which language?
(B) INSDOC
(A) Greek
(C) UNESCO
(B) Latin
(D) RRRLF
(C) German (C) Gram

(D) French (D) Hertz

115) Who is the propounder of the term 119) Delivery of Book Act passed in the
information transfer? year

(A) Ranganathan (A) 1963

(B) J. Martin (B) 1972

(C) Beesman (C) 1960

(D) Calvin Moores (D) 1954

116) To which country the credit is given to 120) Now a day’s what is a most important
coin the term information society? vital resource for societal development of a
country ?
(A) USA
(A) Books
(B) France
(B) Kowledge
(C) Japan
(C) Information
(D) India
(D) Data
117) Today information is regarded as
which of the following? 121) Who is the Father of a computer

(A) Wealth (A) Steve Jobs

(B) Commodity (B) Vint Cerf

(C) Products (C) Tim Berners-Lee

(D) All the above (D) Charles Babbage

118) What is the unit of information? 122) When was Dr. S. R. Ranganathan was
appointed as a National research professor of
(A) Bit Library science

(B) Byte (A) 1942

(B) 1962 126) Where did Dr. S. R. Ranganathan put
forth his five laws of library science?
(C) 1972
(A) Meenakshi College, Annamalainagar
(D) 1952
(B) Hindu College, New Delhi
123) Which Indian University first started
M.Lib.Sc. & M.Phil courses (C) City College, Bangalore

(A) University of Delhi (D) Christ College, Bangalore

(B) University of Madras

(C) S.N.D.T. Women University, Bombay 127) When did ILA became the member of
IFLA?
(D) Aligar Muslim University
(A) 1952

(B) 1955
124) Which Commission recommended 10%
of the total college budget for development (C) 1957
of Libraries?
(D) 1965
(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan Committee

(B) Mehrotra Committee

128) In which year ASLIB was acquired by
(C) Kothari Committee MCB group, the holding company for
emerald group publishing?
(D) Curriculum Development Committee in
LIS (A) 2003

(B) 2005

125) UNISIST is a (C) 2009

(A) Software (D) 2010

(B) A Programme 129) Which association`s tagline is

“managing information”?
(C) Welfare association
(A) IFLA
(D) A committee
(B) ASLIB
(C) ALA Delhi?

(D) LC (A) 2009

130) Which association`s tagline is (B) 2010

“connecting people and information”?
(C) 2011
(A) SLA
(D) 2012
(B) IFLA

(C) ALA
134) Which two organizations jointly publish
(D) COMLA survey on digitization and preservation?

(A) IFLA + UNESCO

131) When was the International institute of (B) ALA + UNESCO

Documentation established?
(C) IFLA + ALA
(A) 1931
(D) IFLA + LC
(B) 1934

(C) 1940
135) Who said that “Librarianship is not a
(D) 1945 profession”?

(A) Madden, Moon, Moore, Mc Pheron

132) Which organization has introduced the (B) Goode, Rossi, Shaffer, Gullis
concept of “Sister libraries” for children`s
and young adults reading? (C) Dewey, Rundey, Reeves, Aishen

(A) UNESCO (D) Ranganathan, Dewey, Cutter

(B) IFLA

(C) LC 136) Which organization was joined with

Library Association to form CILIP in 2002?
(D) LA
(A) Institute of Bibliography

(B) Institute of Information Scientists

133) In which year the ISBN allocation
office in India shifted from Kolkatta to
(C) Institute of Documentation 140) Where was the first library noticed in
India?
(D) Institute of Librarianship
(A) Taxila

(B) Nalanda
137) In which year International institute of
Documentation changed to International (C) Vallabhi
federation of Documentation?
(D) Sravasti
(A) 1931

(B) 1937
141) When was the curriculam development
(C) 1945 committee on LIS instituted?

(D) 1948 (A) 1988-89

(B) 1990-93

138) In which year headquarter of FID was (C) 1994-97

shifted from Brussels to The Hague?
(D) 1999-02
(A) 1925

(B) 1928
142) Who published the journal International
(C) 1930 classification?

(D) 1934 (A) IFLA

(B) UNESCO

139) Who gave the sixth law of library (C) ISKO

science “Every reader his/her freedom”?
(D) ALA
(A) Walt Crawford

(B) Michael Gorman

143) Which association in India awards
(C) James R. Rettig teachers in LIS?

(D) Lenart Bjorneborn (A) IATLIS

(B) ILA
(C) IASLIC (A) Library cooperation

(D) SIS (B)Library Administration

(C)Library Management

144) Where is the headquarter of SLA? (D)Library Cataloging

(A) New York

(B) Lagos 148) The five laws of Library Science

published in the book form in the year
(C) Shimla
(A) 1924
(D) New Delhi
(B) 1931

(C) 1928
145)) Which law of library Science relates to
the growth of libraries (D) 1930

(A) Forth law

(B) First law 149) Library Technology Report is a

publication of
(C) Second law
(A) ALA
(D) Fifth law
(B) IASLIC

(C) LA
146) UAP stands for what of the following
(D) ILA
(A) United Academy of publication

(B) Universal Association of Publishers

150) ABGILA is a quarterly publication of
(C) Universal Availability of Publications.
(A) Assam Library Association
(D) Universal Association of Publishers
(B) Andhra Desa Library Association

(C) Indian Library Association

147) Resource sharing is a part of
(D) Raja Ram Mohun Roy Foundation
 (C) Book fair and Exhibition

151) When was the American Library (D) All

Association established

(A) 1876
155) The first library school was started by
(B) 1872
(A) Melvin Dewey
(C) 1875
(B) Charles Williamson
(D) 1880
(C) John Macfarlane

(D) William Allenson Borden

152) Which term was coined by Dr. S. R.
Ranganathan for mobile libraries?

(A) Moving Library 156) Encyclopedia of library and

Information Science is published by:
(B) Library on Wheels / librachine
(A) H. W. Wilson
(C) Library Machine
(B) R. R. Bowker
(D) All of above
(C) Marcel Dekker

(D) Andrew Deutsch

153) The Librarian Day celebrated on

(A) 15th Sep

157) The secondary source of information
(B) 24th Nov comprised of:

(C) 11th Dec (A) Text books and research monographs.

(D) 12th Aug (B) Subject periodicals and encyclopedias

(C) Indexing and Abstracting periodicals

154) Forms of Extension service (D) Bibliography and patents

(A) Library Websites

(B) Library Orientation 158) Who categorized information source

into conventional, non conventional, neo
conventional and micro documents: (D) An agreement between library and
Publisher
(A) Ranganathan

(B) Bradford
162) World of learning is a what source of
(C) Grogan information

(D) Henson (A) Primary source

(B) Documentary source

159) Article published in research journal (C) Secondary source

are…
(D) Tertiary source/ Directory
(A) Reference sources

(B) Secondary sources

163) Indian books in Print are published
(C) Primary sources from

(D) Tertiary sources (A) Tamil nadu

(B) Chennai

160) What is the Thesaurus? (C) Bombay

(A) A collection of selected terminology (D) New Delhi

(B) Synonymous terms

(C) List of words 164) Cumulative book index is published

from
(D) All of the above
(A) India

(B) USA
161) What is a Patent?
(C) Canada
(A) An agreement to the Government
(D) Thailand
(B) Document of the library

(C) An agreement between the inventor

and the Government 165) Statesman year book is published from
(A) London

(B) New york 169) Facts of File is weekly digest of

(C) Calcutta (A) Indian events

(D) Chicago (B) American events

(C) World events

166) Word of learning is Published by (D) England events

(A) Asian events

(B) Keesing’s 170) Who is the first editor of “Modern

Librarian”?
(C) Europa publication
(A) F. Monbrary Volte
(D) Harper & Row
(B) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(C) J. D. Brown
167) Who is the editor of “Library Herald”
(D) Krishan Kumar
(A) Krishan Kumar

(B) C. K. Sharma
171) Indian national Bibliographical first
(C) S. R. Ranganathan appeared in

(D) F. Monbray Volte (A) 1947

(B) 1957

168) Who was Published the monthly (C) 1967

Journal “The Library World’
(D) 1937
(A) Krishan kumar

(B) J. D. Brown
172) Who is the author of “Dictionary of
(C) H. W. Wilson anonymous and pseudonymous literature”

(D) K. Navlavi (A) S. Halkett & J. Laing

(B) Robert Proctor 176) Which of the following is a specialized
information organization online tool?
(C) Ralph De sols
(A) Mamma
(D) Hanuman Sastri
(B) Dogpile

(C) Vivisimo
173) Compton year book contains
(D) Entireweb
(A) Political events

(B) Cultural events

177) Research periodicals are which
(C) Outstanding events category of sources?

(D) Economic events (A) Primary

(B) Secondary

174) Online Europa year book has coverage (C) Tertiary

since
(D) Non documentary.
(A) 1965

(B) 1975
178) Reference sources are those
(C) 1984
(A) Which are large in size?
(D) 1985
(B) Which are read at home easily?

(C) Which used to obtain particular

175) Which of the following is a multi- information?
subject gateway?
(D) Which are costly?
(A) Renardus

(B) Humbul
179) Who is the publisher of Encyclopedia
(C) Sapling of Library and information science?

(D) EdWEb (A) Boweker

(B) H. W. Wilson company

(C) M. Dekker (A) Year Book

(D) H. W. Wilson (B) Almanac

(C) Gide book

180) Retrospective search service is a type of (D) Hand book

(A) Referral service

(B) Reference service 184) What is Trade bibliography?

(C) CAS (A) List of Author Bibliography

(D) SDI (B) List of Special Bibliography

(C) List of books in print or for sale

compiled by a publisher
181) Which part of new encyclopedia
Britannica is useful for ready references? (D) List of books of trade Library

(A) Macropaedia

(B) Propaedia 185) Who publishes INIS Atom Index?

(C) Micropaedia (A) INIS (Viena)

(D) Premedia (B) LC

(C ) ICSU

182) Year book are also known as (D) AGRIS

(A) Hand book

(B) Annual 186) What is the meaning of E-Documents?

(C) Directory (A) All Documents other than printed

(D) Dictionary (B) Non-Paper documents

(C) In electronic form such as Cassettes,

CD-ROMs, etc.
183) What is India: A reference annual?
(D) Audio visual tools
 (B) Documentary source

187) Which of the following is not the (C) Non- Documentary source
documents?
(D) Both the Documentary and Non-
(A) Manuscript Documentary sources

(B) Book

(C) Inscription 191) Cover to cover translation is treated as

(D) Periodical (A) Selective dissemination service

(B) Current awareness services

188) Generally the information sources are (C) On demand services

divided mainly in to following categories?
(D) Anticipatory services
(A) Primary and secondary.

(B) Reference and information sources.

(C) Documentary and non-documentary
(D) Books and periodicals
192) What is the suitable reference sources
to know about the information of a particular
place?
(A) Directory

(B) Gazetteer
189) What are non- documentary sources?
(C) Encyclopedia
(A) Which are in printed form?
(D) Year book
(B) Which are in not printed form?

(C) Which are nor documents

193) What is the suitable reference sources
(D) None of these to find out the list of historical monuments of
Delhi?

(A) Atlas
190) Today which type of information
sources is most useful? (B) Gazetteer

(A) Reference sources (C) Guide book

(D) Globe (B) 25 Volumes

(C) 28 Volumes

194) What is world of learning? (D) 30 Volumes

(A) Directory

(B) Encyclopedia 198) Which of the following are not the

secondary sources?
(C) Dictionary
(A) Encyclopedia
(D) Year book
(B) Digest

(C) Thesis
195) What do you call a collection of maps,
tables, charts, etc.? (D) Text book

(A) Globe

(B) Gazetteer 199) What is the publication frequency of

books in print?
(C) Atlas
(A) Monthly
(D) Map
(B) Weekly

(C) Annually
196) How many volumes Micropaedia of
new Encyclopedia Britannica is published? (D) Quarterly

(A) 2

(B) 10 200) What is National bibliography?

(C) 11 (A) List of books of National Library

(D) 12 (B) List of books published in a particular

Nation

(C) List of books written by National

197) Encyclopedia Americana consists of government

(A) 20 Volumes (D) List of books on a nation

 (C) Library machine

201) What is the frequency of I.N.B.? (D) All of the above

(A) Quarterly

(B) Monthly 205) Abstracting service provides…

(C) Weekly (A) Abstract of articles

(D) Annual (B) Whole bibliographic description of

articles

(C) Whole bibliographic description

202) ‘ Facts on File’ is a along with abstracts of article

(A) Weekly list (D) Whole bibliographic sources

(B) Fortnightly

(C) Monthly

(D) Quarterly 206) Which service demands the creation of

a ‘user’ profile?

(A) CAS
203) The term “Information Service” is an
improvised name … (B) Information retrieval

(A) Administration (C) SDI

(B) Documentation (D) Reference service

(C) Bibliography

(D) Reference service 207) “Reference service is the contact

between the right reader and the right book
in the right personal way” was stated by…

204) Which terms was coined by S.R. (A) D J Fockett

Ranganathan for mobile libraries
(B) S R Ranganathan
(A) Moving library
(C) James I Wyer
(B) Library on wheels
(D) A. L. A Glossary of library terms
 (B) Grade One Librarian

208) CAS is defined as (C) Deputy Librarian

(A) A process of dissemination of (D) Reference Librarian

information

(B) A process of information

(C) A process of dissemination of current
information
(D) A simple information service
212) Reading centre, story hours, exhibition
and reading to literature are form of
(A) Extension service
(B) Service of Public library

(C) Both
209) Feedback mechanism is a part of which
service? (D) None

(A) Reprography service

(B) CAS 213) Who Invented the Dictionary

Catalogue?
(C) Translation service
(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan
(D) SDI
(B) C. A. Cutter

(C) D. B. Krishna Rao

210) Mobile library is a kind of which
service? (D) K. N. Raj

(A) Reference service

(B) Extension service 214) What is the another name of Added

entries?
(C) Ready reference service
(A) Main entry
(D) Long range reference service
(B) Cross reference entry

(C) Secondary entries

211) The person who provides reference
service is called (D) Subject entry

(A) Chief librarian

215) When was SLSH published?

(A) 1903 219) Who enunciated the subject

Classification
(B) 1897
(A) J. D. Brown
(C) 1923
(B) W. C. Sayers
(D) 1933
(C) Benjamin A.Custer

(D) Frist Donker Duyvis

216) When was MARC project completed?

(A) 1987
220) How many Auxiliary tables are there in
(B) 1967 DDC 23rd Edition

(C) 1947 (A) 16

(D) 1968 (B) 6

(C) 7

217) Who defined notation as shorthand sign (D) 8

(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(B) Benjamin A. Custer 221) Colon classification was first published

in
(C) Immanuel Kant
(A) 1905
(D) E. C. Richardson/ (Margret mann)
(B) 1931

(C) 1933
218) Who enunciated the five fundamental
categories (D) 1944

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) Paul Otlet 222) Phoenix schedules are part of which

classification
(C) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan
(A) CC
(D) W. C. Sayers
(B) DDC 226) The first edition of DDC published in

(C) UDC (A) 1875

(D) LCC (B) 1876

(C) 1874

223) Sear’s List of Subject Headings (D) 1896

(SLSH) is mainly useful for

(A) Small and medium libraries

227) The first edition of UDC published in
(B) Special libraries
(A) 1904
(C) Academic libraries
(B) 1901
(D) College libraries
(C) 1905

(D) 1894
224) In which year DDC 23rd edition was
published

(A) 2000 228) Who is the publishers of Sear’s list of

subject headings
(B) 2011
(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan
(C) 2003
(B) Brown
(D) 2010
(C) H. W. Wilson

(D) C. A. Cutter
225) The word classification comes from the
Latin word

(A) Classis 229) MESH is a

(B) Classes (A) Thesaurus

(C) Clauses (B) Dictionary

(D) Fiction (C) Journal

(D) Library
 (B) 1960

230) The First edition of DDC Consisted of (C) 1970

(A) 144 pages (D) 1975

(B) Four volume

(C) 44 pages 234) In which edition “Auxiliary table for

area” was first introduced?
(D) 124 pages
(A) DDC 14

(B) DDC 15
231) What are the four entity of FRBR
model? (C) DDC 16

(A) Personality, Matter, Energy, Space (D) DDC 17

(B) Work, Expression, Manifestation,

Item
235) What does LED stands for in CC?
(C) Book, Form, Availability, Type
(A) Latest Energy Developments
(D) Discipline, Entity, Action, Personality
(B) Latest Effective Decade

(C) Large Energy Distribution

232) Who is the Editor in Chief of 23rd
Edition of DDC (D) Lowest Effective Decade

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi 236) The term prenatal cataloguing first

used by
(C) Winton E. Matthews
(A) Michael Gorman
(D) John S. Mitchell
(B) Dr. S.R.Ranganathan

(C) E.B.Ross
233) When was the different typological
study towards mode of formation of subjects (D) Melvin Dewey
done?

(A) 1950
237) The Dewey Decimal Classification (C) Book Number
divides human knowledge into
(D) Class number
(A) 10 basic categories.

(B) 100 basic categories.

241) Who is the Editor in Chief of 19th
(C) 1000 basic categories. Edition of DDC

(D) 10000 basic categories. (A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

238) Who devised Dewey Decimal (C) Winton E. Matthews

Classification (DDC) System?
(D) John S. Mitchell
(A) Melville Dewey

(B) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

242) Who is the Editor in Chief of 20th
(C) Tim Berners-Lee Edition of DDC

(D) Vint Cerf (A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

239) Call Number of a Book Means (C) Winton E. Matthews

(A) Book Number (D) John S. Mitchell

(B) Class Number

(C) Both (A) and (B) are true + collection 243) Who is the Editor in Chief of 21st
number Edition of DDC

(D) None of the above (A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

240) Accession Number means (C) Winton E. Matthews

(A) Call Number of a book (D) John S. Mitchell

(B) Unique Number for a book inside a

particular library.
244) Who is the Editor in Chief of 22nd (D) Sayers
Edition of DDC

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

248) "To provide the best books to the
(B) John P. Comaromi maximum readers at the least cost" said by

(C) Winton E. Matthews (A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(D) John S. Mitchell (B) P. N. Kaula

(C) E.Mayo

245) “POSDCORB” coined by (D) Melvil Dewey

(A) Peter F. Drucker

(B) Harold Koontz 249) Theory X and Theory Y is developed

by
(C) F.W. Taylor
(A) Louis Brandeis
(D) Luther Gulick
(B) Douglas Mc Gregor

(C) Abraham Maslo

246) When Peter F. Drucker defined M.B.O.
(Management by Objectives) ? (D) Mayo

(A) 1950

(B) 1960 250) ISBN now consists of how many digits

(C) 1954 (A) 10

(D) 1964 (B) 9

(C) 15

247) Who said the demand and supply (D) 13

theory of books?

(A) Melvil Dewey

251) Herzberg’s theory deals with
(B) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan
(A) Staffing
(C) Mc Colvin
(B) Directing 255) Main use of Shelf list is

(C) Motivation (A) Cataloging

(D) Planning (B) Circulation

(C) Stock Verification

252) Who is the father of Scientific (D) Book Selection

Management

(A) F.W. Taylor

256) Theory X and Theory Y related to
(B) Harold Koontz
(A) Planning
(C) Peter F. Drucker
(B) Motivation
(D) Luther Gulick
(C) Directing

(D) Staffing
253) CPM (Critical Path Method) is
developed by

(A) Dupoint Company 257) Which national agency in India is

responsible for assigning the ISBN
(B) Aircraft Corporation
(A) RRRLF
(C) IIM
(B) BARC
(D) IBM
(C) NCL

(D) National Library of India

254) How many digits have in the ISSN

(A) 10
258) Zero Base Budgeting system was
(B) 8 propounded by

(C) 13 (A) Peter F. Drucker

(D) 15 (B) P.N. Kaula

(C) E.Mayo
(D) Pter Phyrr 262) Financial support given to libraries are
of two types - Recurring and

(A) Ad-hoc
259) When Zero Base Budgeting system
was first prepared (B) Endowments

(A)1950 (C) Annual

(B) 1960 (D) Non-recurring

(C)1970

(D) 1980 263) Principle of maximum aggregate

benefit is concerned with__

(A) Growth of library

260) Posting the right person at the right
place is called ________ (B) Library use

(A) Recruitment (C) Library service

(B) Coaching (D) Library fee

(C) Deployment

(D) Induction 264) …….. takes items of expenditure for

libraries as the working data for allocation
of funds.

261) TQM is a system of continuous (A) Method of details

improvement employing participative
management and centered on needs of the (B) Per capita method
________
(C) Principle of economy
(A) Customers
(D) Library budget
(B) Staff

(C) Organization
265) A budget which mainly covers items of
(D) Government current revenue and expenditure is called __.

(A) Programme budget

(B) Welfare economics

(C) Current budgeting 269) What are the two parts of the annual
report of the library
(D) Capital budgeting
(A) Primary and Secondary

(B) Analytical and Systematic

266) The library budget of a university is
passed by the ? (C) Upper and Lower

(A) Senate (D) Descriptive and Statistical

(B) Executive Council

(C) Academic Council 270) Who is the pioneer of open access

system in British libraries
(D) Research Council
(A) Nine e.Brown

(B) James Duff Brown

267) In fund accounting, _______ fund can
not be used for other purposes. (C) John cotton dana

(A) Recurring (D) S. R. Ranganathan

(B) Non-recurring

(C) Restricted 271) When was Browne charging system

started?
(D) Encumbering
(A) 1895

(B) 1896
268) Scrutiny of financial transactions is
called (C) 1899

(A) Budgeting (D) 1875

(B) Programming

(C) Accounting 272) Who started New York Charging

system?
(D) Auditing
(A) Peter Drucker

(B) Elton Mayo

(C) John Cotton Dana/ Newyork public (A) Eltomn Mayo
library
(B) Frederic Winslow Taylor
(D) Francis Bacon
(C) Peter Drucker

(D) Kermeth Blanchard

273) When did electrically operated book
charging system introduced first?

(A) 1926 277) PPBS relates to

(B) 1905 (A) Book selection

(C) 1933 (B) Journal selection

(D) 1932 (C) Budgeting

(D) Library records

274) How many columns are there in the

accession register?
278) The standard “X” and theory “Y” was
(A) 10 conceived by

(B) 12 (A) Peter F.Drucker

(C) 14 (B) Doughlas Mc Gregor

(D) 16 (C) Gulik and URwick

(D) Taylor

275) When was PERT developed?

(A) 1958 279) Zero based budget is concerned with

(B) 1968 (A) Present

(C) 1955 (B) Past

(D) 1948 (C) Future

(D) Remote future

276) Who had invented the MBO?

280) Who is the father of Classical School

(A) Lyndall Urwick 284) Who introduced Three card system

(B) Gulick (A) Krishan Kumar

(C) Cutter (B) C. K. Sharma

(D) Henri Fayol (C) Cutter

(D) S. R. Ranganathan

281) Who coined the word POSDCORB

(A) Henri Foyal 285) What are the standard size of the
Accession Register is
(B) Luther Gulick
(A) 16” * 12”
(C) Herbert
(B) 16” * 13”
(D) Elizabeth stone
(C) 16” * 11”

(D) 16” * 18”

282) Another term of PERT is

(A) CPM
286) A good library building is an outcome
(B) POSDCORB of librarian and.

(C) MBO (A) Registrar

(D) HRM (B) Building Corporation

(C) Finance Officer

283) POSDCORB is related to (D) Architect

(A) Library cataloguing

(B) Library reference service
(C) Library administration
(D) Library automation
287) ________ are the storage areas for the
various types of documents kept in a library.
(A) Tasks .
(B). Racks
(C) Stacks 291)…………… categorises documents into
three types such as primary, secondary and
(D) Desks tertiary.

(A) Grogan

288) Study carrels are exclusive areas meant (B) Skeltor

for
(C)Dr. S. R. Ranganathan
(A) Students
(D) Hanson
(B) Public

(C) Women
292) ________ is a legal document and can
(D) Researchers be used as a source of industrial information.

(A) Report

289) Library catalogue cards are filed in (B) Law Review

specially designed drawers called
(C) Patent
(A) Charging tray
(D) Specification
(B) Catalogue cabinet

(C) Display rack .

293) In Encyclopaedia Britianica,
(D) Filling equipment ___________ acts as an index to
macropaedia.

(A) Bibliography
290) Information Gatekeepers come under
________ sources. (B) Introduction Part

(A) Documentary (C) Propaedia

(B) Human (D) Micropaedia

(C) Institutional

(D) Neo-conventional 294) One of the book selection principles

states that “the best reading for the largest
number at the ……………Cost.”

(A) Maximum
(B) Medium

(C) Least 298) The three card system introduced by

Ranganathan are - (i) Register Card, (ii)
(D) Zero Check Card, and (iii)?

(A) KARDEX

295) Payments for the books purchased can (B) LINDEX

be made only after
(C) Ledger Card
(A) Accessioning
(D) Classified Index Card
(B) Classification

(C)Cataloguing
299) Technical section performs mainly two
(D) Arrangement in the shelve functions namely classification and

(A) Accessioning

296) The standard size of an accession (B) Bills payment

register is ?
(C) Cataloguing
(A) 15” x 13”
(D) Shelving
(B) 16 x 13”

(C)12” x 5”
300) PRECIS was developed by Derek
(D) 5” x 3” Austin for use in the

(A) BNB

297) ISBN stands for ________ (B) INB

(A) Integrated Services Bibliographic (C) ISBD

Network
(D) ISBN
(B) Indian Standard Book Number

(C) International Standard Book Number

(D) International Standard for Book and

Non- book
301) Getting books back from the users and (B) Weeding
releasing the borrower’s ticket is known as
(C) Circulating
(A) Charging
(D) Guiding
(B) Holding

(C) Reserving
305) The objective of library binding is
(D) Discharging ________of the library materials.

(A) Proper organisation

302) While entering the library, the personal (B) Accessibility.

belongings of a reader is kept in ________
(C) Durability
(A) Cloak Room
(D) Humidity control
(B) Property Counter

(C) Gate counter

306) All part and pages of a volume are
(D) Store room correctly sequenced in the first stage of
binding

process known as?

303) Books misplaced on the shelves by
readers are restored. This work is referred to (A) Sewing
as.
(B) Guard
(A) Shelving
(C) Pulling
(B) Stock verification
(D) Collation
(C) Shelf rectification

(D) Shifting
307) Sheets before and after the text of a
book are called _________. .

304) Outdated and seldom used books are (A) End papers
withdrawn from the library is known as
___________. (B) Attach cover

(A) Shelving (C) Head bands

(D) Gilding

311) Who is regarded as father of

bibliography ?
308) Leather being used as one of the
binding materials i.e., _________ is the (A) Paul Otlet
strongest
(B) Conrad Gesner
leather.
(C) J. C. Brunet
(A) Roan
(D) A. C. Fosket.
(B) Imitation

(C) Pig skin

312) Linear model of communication in
(D) Sheep skin knowledge based on Aristotles’ model of
communication was proposed by

(A) Juger Heberman

309) ________ has prescribed certain
standards for library binding. (B) A.J. Wells

(A) ILA (C) C.E. Shannon & W. Weaver

(B) ALA (D) G. Gerbner

(C) BLA

(D) NBT 313) ISBN changed from 10 digits to 13

from

(A) January, 2007

310) A skillful method of providing means
mechanism and structural elements to. (B) January, 2008

streamline organizational work is known as (C) January, 2006

_______
(D) January, 2005
(A) Strategic planning

(B) Role analysis

314) Library Legislation refers to the
(C) Work culture development of

(D) Autonomous planning (A) Academic Libraries

(B) Special Libraries 318) The library budget of a university is
passed by the?
(C) Public Libraries
(A) Senate
(D) None of the above
(B) Executive Council

(C) Academic Council

315) IASLIC was founded in the year
(D) Research Council
(A) 1955

(B) 1965
319) In fund accounting, _______ fund
(C) 1975 cannot be used for other purposes.

(D) 1985 (A) Recurring

(B) Non-recurring

316) Calcutta Public Library was established (C) Restricted

during
(D) Encumbering
(A) 15th Century

(B) 16th Century

320) Scrutiny of financial transactions is
(C) 19th Century called

(D) 20th Century. (A) Budgeting

(B) Programming

317)_______ budgeting does not take into (C) Accounting

account what happened in the past but
emphasizes on current activities. (D) Auditing

(A) Formula

(B) Performance 321) ________ is one of the records of

circulation section.
(C) Programme
(A) Accession Register
(D) Zero-base
(B) Day book
(C) Catalogue Card (B) Conservation

(D) AACR-2 (R) (C) Shelf-arrangement

(D) Organization

322) The marketing concepts in Library

Service include
325) ________ is an important record of
(A) analysis, planning, implementation and books, which shows the position of any
control book on the shelves.

(B) advertising, planning, analysis and (A) Bay Guide

control
(B) Authority File
(C) distribution, control, analysis,
implementation (C) Accession List.

(D) indexing, planning, control and (D) Shelf. .List

implementation.

326) Three great achievements in U.S.A.

323 There are a few basic factors which may
be applied in winning the hearts of the
readers. They are
(A) Psychological factor, environmental
factor, social factor
(B) Self factor, psychological factor, service
factor
were noticed i.e. enunciation of DDC
classification scheme, formation of
American Library Association and the
publication of 1st Journal of the librarianship
in the year
(A) 1857
(B) 1859

(C) Service factor, philosophical factor, self (C) 1876

factor
(D) 1901.
(Dl Technological factor, service factor,
self factor.

327) Books lost from the library are known

through ________
324) Physical condition of the books should
be property maintaine(D) This is known as (A) Stock verification

(A) Collation. (B) Charging and discharging

(C) Shelf list (A) End papers

(D) Accession Register (B) Attach cover

(C) Head bands

328) LA is the Library Association of (D) Gilding

(A) Manipur

(B) Andhra Pradesh 332) Leather being used as one of the

binding materials i.e., _________ is the
(C) Great Britain strongest leather.

(Dl Canada. (A) Roan

(B) Imitation

329) Of the following libraries in India, (C) Pig skin

which one is the oldest library ?
(D) Sheep skin
(A) Asiatic Society Library, Bombay

(B) Connemara Public Library, Madras

333) ________ has prescribed certain
(C) Delhi Public Library, Delhi standards for library binding.

(D) National Library of India, Calcutta. (A) ILA

(B) ALA .

330) The first centre to use computer in the (C) BLA

library and information activities in India is
(D) NBT
(A) DESIDOC

(B) INSDOC
334) ________ is a process of helping
(C) DRTC employees in an organization to acquire new
skills and competence on a continuing basis
(D) UGC.
(A) Total Quality Management

(B) Management Information System

331) Sheets before and after the text of a
book are called _________. (C) Financial Resources Development
(D) Human Resources Development. (A) First

(B) Second

335) A skillful method of providing means, (C) Third

mechanism and structural elements to
streamline organizational work is known as (D) Fourth
_______

(A) Strategic planning

339) The concept of Artificial Intelligence
(B) Role analysis (AI) belongs to ____________________

(C) Work culture (A) Second Generation Computers

(D) Autonomous planning (B) Third Generation Computers

(C) Fourth Generation Computers

336) On which of the following technologies (D) Fifth Generation Computers

semantic web is not based?

(A) RDF
340) Computer memory is measured in
(B) Ontologies ____________________

(C) Cloud seeding (A) Bytes

(D) URI (B) Kilobytes

(C) Megabytes

337) World Wide Web (WWW) was first (D) All of the above
designed by whom?

(A) Charles Babbage (B) F. W. Lancaster

341) The term "Cyberspace" was first used
(C) Ted Nelson by _________________

(D) Tim Berner's Lee (A) Andrew Pollock

(B) William Gibson

338) Which generation computers uses (C) John Postal

integrated circuits(ICs)?
(D) Joe Flower
 (B) Three

342) The term hypertext was coined by (C) Five

whom?
(D) Seven
(A) Ted Nelson

(B) Vannevan Bush

346) Which type of switching system is
(C) John Brown telephone network?

(D) J. C. Kith (A) Circuit switching

(B) Packet switching

343) What are three types of basic languages (C) Message switching
used in computer programming?
(D) None of the above
(A) Zero, low and high levels

(B) COBOL, BASIC and PROLOG

347) Which of the following software is
(C) FOTRAN, PL/I and SNOWBOL useful for word processing?

(D) Machine, Assembly and high level (A) DBASE

lannguages
(B) LIBSYS

(C) WordStar
344) When CD-ROM was prepared and
made? (D) CDS/ISIS

(A) 1985

(B) 1982 348) NICNET and INDONET are the

networks of which category?
(C) 1980
(A) LAN
(D) 1977
(B) MAN

(C) WAN
345) In how many ways switching system
can be established? (D) IN

(A) Two
349) Who designed analytical engine?

(A) Charles Babbage 353) ENIAC stands for?

(B) Pascal (A) Electronic Numerical Integrator and

Calculator
(C) James watt
(B) Electrified Numerical Integration and
(D) Boyl Calculator

(C) Electronic Number Integrator and

Calculator
350) Calculating machine is developed by
(D) Electrical Numerical Integrator and
(A) Charles Babbage Calculator

(B) Pascal

(C) Shakuntala Devi 354) ISO-9960 is related with?

(D) Boyl (A) Standard for encoding data on CD-

ROM

(B) Standard for Computer Hardware

351) What is a bug?
(C) Standard for Information Processing
(A) Computer Virus
(D) Standard for Networking
(B) Error in Computer Configuration

(C) Error in a Programme

355) ASCII has how many codes?
(D) None of these
(A) 256

(B) 526
352) Which is not a programming language?
(C) 265
(A) FORTRAN
(D) 254
(B) BASIC

(C) COBOL
356) Raw, unevaluated, unprocessed and
(D) ASCII unorganized facts is known as:
(A) Data

(B) Information 360) In which of the following the term

“Truncation” is used
(C) Knowledge
(A) Budgeting
(D) Wisdom
(B) Search Formulation

(C) Coordination
357) INTERNET was initially developed by
US Department of (D) Classified bibliography

(A) Commerce

(B) Defense 361) The term “Hypertext” was coined by

(C) Interior (A) Garfield

(D) State (B) Bill Gates

(C) Ted Nelson

358) Information retrieval is fastest from (D) Raj Reddy

(A) Floppy Disk

(B) Magnetic Tape 362) UNIX is a

(C) Hard Disk (A) Single user operating system

(D) None of the above (B) Double user operating system

(C) Triple user operating system

359) An University providing Open Access (D) Multi user operating system
to Sanskrit dissertations through Internet

(A) Jawaharlal Nehru University

363) The CD alphabets in CDS/ISIS stands
(B) Delhi University for

(C) Mahatma Gandhi University (A) Computerized Documentation

(D) University of Madras (B) Condensed Disk

(C) Confirmed Disc (A) HTTP

(D) Compact Disc (B) SMTP

(C) TCP/IP

364) LYCOS is a (D) Z39.50

(A) Search engine

(B) Programming language 368) LOCKOSS (Software) is an

international community initiative by:
(C) Database
(A) MIT Libraries
(D) Database vendor
(B) Stanford University

(C) University of Waikato

365) Electronic telecommunications system
joining millions of computers together. (D) University of Southampton

(A) E-mail

(B) Internet 369) Identify the odd one from the

following:
(C) US Mail
(A) Koha
(D) UPS
(B) VTLS

(C) SLIM++
366) Following is not a social bookmarking
site: (D) SOUL

(A) Digg

(B) Delicious 370) Following is not a Web 2.0 tool:

(C) Sqidoo (A) Blog

(D) Facebook (B) Facebook

(C) UGC-INFONET 2.0

367) Following is not a network protocol: (D) RSS feeds

 (D) Twitter

371) PDA stands for:

(A) Personal Digital Assistance 375) Who invented OSI Model in 1982

(B) Personal Document Archive (A) BSO

(c) Personal Digital Archive (B) ISI

(D) Program Download Accessories (C) Indian standerd orgganisation

(D) International standard organisation

372) PLONE is a:

(A) Content Mnagement System 376) Where ISDN was first started in 1990

(B) Digital Library Software (A) USA

(C) ILMS (B) UK

(D) Federated Search Engine (C) India

(D) Singapore

373) Pi is the e-book reading device by:

(A) Amazon 377) Now-a-days how many tipes of

Protocol are used ?
(B) Sony
(A) 5
(C) Infibeam
(B) 4
(D) Nokia
(C) 3

(D) 2
374) Following is an example of
microblogging:

(A) Wordpress 378) Which type of protocol is used by

interface for public data network(PDN) ?
(B) Blogspot
(A) X.25
(C) Livejournal
(B) X.12 (A) Library cooperation

(C) X.13 (B) Library administration

(D) X.20 (C) Library management

(D) Library cataloguing

379) CCF stands for

(A) Common Communication Format 383) What is the full form of ERNET?

(B) Centre for Communication Format (A) Engineering Network

(C) Committee for Communication Format (B) Eastern Regional Network

(D) Common Curriculum Format (C) Electronic Research Network

(D) Education and Research Network

380) In Which five year plan the

INFLIBNET was established
384) Which network in India provided the
(A) Fourth five year plan first e-mail service in the country?

(B) Fifth five year plan (A) NICNET

(C) Sixth five year plan (B) DELNET

(D) Seventh five year plan (C) ERNET

(D) INFLIBNET

381) INFLIBNET headquarters is located at

(A) Ahmedabad 385) Who publishes Annals of Library

Science and documentation?
(B) New Delhi
(A) ILA
(C) Bangalore
(B) INSDOC
(D) Chennai
(C) DRTC

(D) IASLIC
382) Resource sharing is a part of …
 (C) Interlending and Document supply

386) What one is full text e-Resource ? (D) All of above

(A) JCCC

(B) ISID 390) The Electronic Library is......................

(C) Science finder scholar (A) A Magazine

(D) ACS (B) A Journal Name

(C) A LIbrary

387) Which one is E-Bibliographic (D) An Encyclopeadia

database?

(A) Nature
391) What is e-prints ?
(B) Blackwell
(A) A catalogue
(C) ISID
(B) A journal
(D) Springer
(C) A repository Software

(D) An encyclopeadia
388) Virtua accomadates Different version
of the MARC Standard?

(A) USMARC 392) What two is a Library Management

Software for small libraries?
(B) UKMARC
(A) Library Solution and Follet
(C) CANMARC
(B) Follet and MSN
(D) SWEMARC/All of above
(C) MSN and Tar

(D) LYCOS and Live Search

389) Which is the journal of Library and
Information Science?

(A) Abacus 393) What is APS ?

(B) Acta numerica (A) A Search Engine?

(B) A Full-text e-resourse (D) All the above

(C) Bibliographic database

(D) Library Management Software 397) Mean, Median and Mode are :

(A) Measures of deviation

394) Which one is Library and Information (B) Ways of sampling

Science Journal name?
(C) Measures of central tendency
(A) Reference Reviews incorporating
ASLIB Book Guide (D) None of the above

(B) Reference Reviews incorporating

ASLIB Book journals
398) ‘Cranfield Studies’ are an example of :
(C) Reference Reviews incorporating
ASLIB Book Review (A) Survey Research

(D) Reference Reviews incorporating (B) Experimental Research

ASLIB E-Book
(C) Historical Research

(D) Case Study

395) "Shodhganga" is a national level
repository of:

(A) E-Books 399) Research is

(B) E-Journals (A) Searching again and again

(C) E-Theses (B) Finding solution to any problem

(D) Journal Articles (C) Working in a scientific way to search

for truth of any problem

(D) None of the above

396) Questionnaire is a :

(A) Research method

400) Which of the following is the first step
(B) Measurement Technique in starting the research process?

(C) Tool for data collection (A) Searching sources of information to

locate problem.
(B) Survey of related literature (D) Transcendental Reasoning

(C) Identification of problem

(D) Searching for solutions to the problem 404) Which of the following variables
cannot be expressed in quantitative terms?

(A) Socio-economic Status

(B) Marital Status

401) A common test in research demands
much priority on (C) Numerical Aptitude

(A) Reliability (D) Professional Attitude

(B) Useability

(C) Objectivity 405) The essential qualities of a researcher

are
(D) All of the above
(A) Spirit of free enquiry

(B) Reliance on observation and evidence

402) Action research means
(C) Systematization or theorizing of
(A) A longitudinal research knowledge

(B) An applied research (D) All the above

(C) A research initiated to solve an

immediate problem
406) In the process of conducting research
(D) A research with socioeconomic ‘Formulation of Hypothesis” is followed by
objective
(A) Statement of Objectives

(B) Analysis of Data

403) A reasoning where we start with
certain particular statements and conclude (C) Selection of Research Tools
with a universal statement is called
(D) Collection of Data
(A) Deductive Reasoning

(B) Inductive Reasoning

407) A research paper is a brief report of
(C) Abnormal Reasoning research work based on
(A) Primary Data only 411) Who provides the ISBN?

(B) Secondary Data only (A) Niscair

(C) Both Primary and Secondary Data (B) Nissat

(D) None of the above (C) Insdoc

(D) RRRLF

408) One of the following is not an open

source software :
412) RRRLF provides the?
(A) D’space
(A) ISSN
(B) Windows
(B) ISBN
(C) Green-stone
(C) CCF
(D) Linux
(D) MARC

409) When RRRLF was established?

413) ”It is a library with little or no physical
(A) 1970 presence of books, periodicals, reading
space or support staff, but are that
(B) 1971 disseminate disseminate selective
information directly to distribute library
(C) 1972 customers, usually electronically”. Said by
whom?
(D) 1974
(A) Kay Gapen

(B) Powell
410) Where is the headquarter of RRRLF?
(C) Sherwell
(A) Banglore
(D) H. G. Wells
(B) Delhi

(C) Calcutta
414) ”A library is a public institution or
(D) Lucknow establishment charged with the care of
collection of books, the duty of making them
accessible to those who require the use of
them and the task of converting every 417) Reading centre’s, story hours,
person in its neighborhood into a habitual exhibitions and reading to literature are
library goers and reader of books.”Quoted forms of …
by whom?
(A) Extension service
(A) Dr S R Ranganathan
(B) Service of a public library
(B) K.N.Raj
(C) Both
(C) C.A.Cutter
(D) None
(D) W.C.Sayers

418) Which library first introduced the

415) Classification of all types of libraries printed catalog
has been made by-
(A) British Museum
(A) IFLA
(B) Library of Congress
(B) UNISIST
(C) Lelin State
(C) UNESCO
(D) Imperial Library
(D) INSDOC

419) Informal self education is possible in

416) ”Special libraries serve a specialist what kind of library?
clientele, located within a single
establishment or group and all engaged in (A) National Library
working towards one common purpose.”
Who said this (B) Public Library

(A) R.Astall (C) Specific Library

(B) UNESCO (D) College Library

(C) J.D.Brown

(D) E.C.Richardson 420) which is correct logical sequence of the

following.

(A) Information, Knowledge, Data,

Wisdom
(B) Knowledge, Wisdom, Information,
Data
424) Which of the following is a public
(C) Wisdom, Information, Data, domain database-
Knowledge
(A) INIS
(D) Data, Infomation, Knowledge,
Wisdom (B) AGRIS

(C) Chemical Abstract

421) The Term ‘Cyberspace’ was first used (D) MEDLINE

by-

(A) Andrew Pollack

425) One of the following is not an open
(B) William Gibsom source software-

(C) Johan Postal (A) D’space

(D) Joe Flower (B) Window

(C) Green Stone

422) RFID technology is used in- (D) Linux

(A) Acquisition

(B) Serial Control 426) ……………………. Is a process of

information
(C) Circulation Control
(A) Books
(D) OPAC
(B) CD-ROM

(C) Computers
423) The process of configuring the disk
into tracks and sector is called- (D) None of the above

(A) Booting

(B) Labelling 427) Feedback mechanism is a part of which

service?
(C) Formatting
(A) Reprography
(D) All the above
(B) CAS 431) Microchip was invented by…..

(C) Translation service (A) Microsoft

(D) SDI (B) IBM

(C) DELL

428) What is the collection of terms or (D) Intel

records in MARC called ?

(A) System
432) Information is…..
(B) Network
(A) Raw Data
(C) Website
(B) Processed Data
(D) Database
(C) Input data

(D) Organized data

429) Which network in India provided the
first e-mail service in the country ?

(A) NICNET 433) Identify the association that has

changed its original name :
(B) ERNET
(A) ILA
(C) INFLIBNET
(B) SLA
(D) DELNET
(C) LA

(D) ALA
430) What is Bibliometry ?

(A) Function of Library Network

434) Conference proceedings are considered
(B) Information Management Service as..................documents.

(C) Information Management Tool (A) Conventional

(D) Library Service (B) Primary

(C) Secondary
(D) Tertiary (B) List of words in a language

(C) List of thematically arranged words

435) Rules for dictionary catalogue were (D) Alphabetical index to passages of work
devised by :

(A) A. Pannizzi
439) One of the following search engine is
(B) C. C. Jewet exclusively meant for scientific information
:
(C) S. Lubetzky
(A) Google
(D) C. A. Cutter
(B) Yahoo

(C) SCIRUS
436) RSS feed is a tool of :
(D) Altavista
(A) Graphic design

(B) Web 1.0

440) Technological Gatekeeper is :
(C) Web 2.0
(A) A formal method of giving current
(D) Architecture awareness service

(B) A method of technology assessment and

evaluation
437) An appropriate source to find out
descriptive information is................ . (C) A process of transfer of technology

(A) Bibliography (D) An informal mechanism of keeping

user informed of relevant development
(B) Directory

(C) Encyclopedia
441) Who among the following honoured
(D) Dictionary with ‘Nobel Prize’ for his substantial
contribution in Documentation ?

(A) S. C. Bradford
438) Glossary is a :
(B) Loosjes
(A) List of technical words with
definitions (C) Eric De Grolier
(D) Henri La Fontaine (B) Graphic User Interaction

(C) Graphic Utility Interface

442) The Farmington plan is associated with (D) Great Union of India
:

(A) Library Legislation

446) Shelf list facilitates................ .
(B) Library Cataloguing
(A) Classification
(C) Library Cooperation
(B) Weeding out
(D) Library Indexing Service
(C) Stock verification

(D) Documentation
443) UNESCO assisted Model Public
Library in India is located at :

(A) Kolkata 447) The office of patent information system

in India is at............ .
(B) Delhi
(A) Mumbai
(C) Mumbai
(B) New Delhi
(D) Chennai
(C) Kolkata

(D) Nagpur
444) Mark the ‘odd one out’ :

(A) Cow-Calf principle

448) Questionnaire is a :
(B) Principle of osmosis
(A) Research method
(C) Wall picture principle
(B) Measurement technique
(D) Whole organ principle
(C) Tool for data collection

(D) Data analysis technique

445) GUI stands for :

(A) Graphic User Interface

449) A periodical evaluation of an employee (D) Redundant information
is done through........... .

(A) Job rotation

453) The concept “Invisible College” first
(B) Performance appraisal used by :

(C) Refresher course (A) Eugene Garfield

(D) Work guide (B) Derek Solla Price

(C) Allent Kent

450) CCF stands for................ . (D) Carl Savage

(A) Current Classification Format

(B) Current Communication Format 454) Who enunciated the term ‘hypertext’ ?

(C) Common Communication Format (A) E. Garfield

(D) Common Classification Format (B) Bill Gates

(C) Ted Nelson

451) “Controlled Group” is a term used (D) Raj Reddy

in.............. .

(A) Survey research

455) ‘Cranfield Project’ is an example
(B) Historical research of.................... .

(C) Experimental research (A) Experimental Research

(D) Descriptive research (B) Survey Research

(C) Case Study

452) ‘Noise’ in Information Retrieval is due (D) Historical Research

to............. .

(A) Precision
456) IFLA took up the “Universal
(B) Recall Availability of Publication” program in the
year............... .
(C) Relevant information
(A) 1973 (C) Current online patent in science and
technology
(B) 1976
(D) Contents of periodicals in science and
(C) 1972 technology

(D) 1970

460) The journal “Knowledge Organization”

is published by :
457) International Information System on
Research in Documentation (ISORID) was (A) IFLA
established by :
(B) ISKO
(A) IFLA
(C) LA
(B) UNESCO
(D) LC
(C) SLA

(D) ALA
461) Tagging in web 2.0 application is
called :

458) What is the relationship between ISBD (A) Taxonomy

and cataloguing codes ?
(B) Folksonomy
(A) They are not related at all
(C) Syndication
(B) Cataloguing codes will include
bibliographic description (D) Directory

(C) ISBD includes cataloguing rules

(D) ISBD can replace cataloguing rules 462) Inductive logic proceeds from :

(A) General to General

459) COPSAT stands for............... . (B) Particular to General

(A) Cooperative periodicals in science and (C) General to Particular

technology
(D) Particular to Particular
(B) Current online periodicals in science
and technology
463) CRG stands for : (D) IASLIC

(A) Committee for Rural Grant

(B) Classification Research Group
(C) Committee for Ranganathan Guild
(D) Classic Research Grant
467) Which of the following is not covered
under Intellectual Property Rights ?
(A) Copyrights
(B) Patents

(C) Trade Marks

464) Which of the following is not a
“Graphic representation” ? (D) Thesaurus

(A) Pie Chart

(B) Bar Chart 468) Ontology is................. .

(C) Table (A) An Indexing Method

(D) Histogram (B) Classification of Internet based

documents

(C) Cataloguing of Internet based

465) “Fair use” is a term most relevant to : documents

(A) Intellectual Property Right (D) Documentation service

(B) Books borrowed for home reading

(C) Copyright 469) Mozilla is................ .

(D) Use of reference books (A) An operating system

(B) Library software

466) The oldest and the largest Library (C) A web browser
Association in the world is............. .
(D) A search engine
(A) ALA

(B) LA
470) The concept of concretes and processes
(C) IFLA was given by.............. .
(A) Kaiser

(B) H. P. Luhn 474) Currently “Science Citation Index” is

published by................... .
(C) Derek Austin
(A) Emerald
(D) S. R. Ranganathan
(B) Springer

(C) Thomson
471) Chairman of National Knowledge
Commission is............... . (D) Elsevier

(A) Pranab Mukherjee

(B) Nandan Nilekani 475) Protocol means............... .

(C) P. Chidambaram (A) Interchange of data between two devices

(D) Sam Pitroda (B) Interchange of data between two

computers

(C) Linkage between two computers

472) High Level Language is.................. .
(D) Linkage between two devices
(A) Disk space dependent

(B) O. S. dependent
476. Which of the following is an
(C) Machine independent ‘Acronym’ ?

(D) Machine dependent (A) UNESCO

(B) UNO

473) The transmission of receiver’s reaction (C) UNDP

back to the sender is known as................. .
(D) UGC
(A) Noise

(B) Feedback
477) A set of rules that govern overall data
(C) Medium communications system is popularly known
as............... .
(D) Source
(A) Protocol
(B) Agreement (C) Agency of the names of translation
experts
(C) Pact
(D) None of these.
(D) Memorandum

481) How is stochastic equation of

478) Staffing is concerned with providing information solved ?
and maintaining................resources.
(A) By statistical rules
(A) Physical
(B) By dynamic rules
(B) Technical
(C) By statistical and dynamic rules
(C) Human
(D) None of these.
(D) Financial

482) Whether Library is a system ?

479) Which of the following is not true
about e journals ?
(A) They are distributed through digital
methods
(B) They also have editors or editorial
boards
(A) Yes, it has various sections as sub-
systems coordinating each other forming
a system
(B) No, it cannot be a system
(C) It is quite impossible

(C) They are publications of serial nature (D) Library is separate from a system.

(D) They are always free of cost

483) The 'Five Laws of Library Science'

propounded by Dr. S. R. Ranganathan, is
480) What is the meaning of 'Translation which type of research ?
Pools' ?
(A) Applied research
(A) Details about the names of translation
experts (B) Pure research

(B) Details about the addresses of the (C) Basic research

translators
(D) Survey research.
 (B) Peter Drucker

484) Information Science is a discipline that (C) Abraham Maslow

investigates
(D) F. W. Taylor.
(A) The properties and behaviour of
information

(B) The forces governing the flow of 488) MeSH is the name of a
information
(A) Medical Library
(C) The means for processing of information
for optimal uses (B) C.S.I.R. Unit

(D) All of these. (C) Controlled Vocabulary

(D) none of these.

485) 'Kinesis' is related to

(A) Communication 489) Which record is the hub of the stack in

a library ?
(B) Generation
(A) Accession register
(C) Storage
(B) Shelf list register
(D) None of these.
(C) Book catalogue

(D) Staff manual.

486) The term 'Bibliophile' refers to

(A) A Bibliographer
490) In which year did A. W. Borden start a
(B) A Book Lover refresher course for librarians in India ?

(C) A Publisher (A) 1905

(D) A Book Binder. (B) 1910

(C) 1912

487) Theory X and Theory Y were (D) 1913.

formulated by

(A) Douglas Murray McGregor

491) A. B. Maslow is related to

(A) Theory X and Theory Y 495) Who contributed on the systematic use
of user's education ?
(B) Hierarchy of human needs
(A) S.S.Green
(C) 14 principles
(B) Melvil Dewey
(D) Hygienic factors.
(C) E. J. Coates

(D) Patricia B. Knapp.

492) Information may be categorised into

(A) Logical, analytical and statistical

496) Who said 'some books are to be tasted,
(B) Statistical, descriptive and analytical others to be swallowed and some few to be
chewed and digested' ?
(C) Analytical, statistical and systematic
(A) John Milton
(D) Systematic, analytical and descriptive.
(B) William Jones

(C) Francis Bacon

493) What is not open source software for
library management ? (D) Benjamin Franklin.

(A) KOHA

(B) AVANT1 497) In which year was the International

Book Year celebrated by UNESCO ?
(C) php my Library
(A) 1931
(D) 2.39-50.
(B) 1947

(C) 1952
494) What is Delphi method ?
(D) 1972.
(A) It is a programming language

(B) It is a method of research

498) What is the full form of IATLIS ?
(C) It is a software
(A) International Association of Trade
(D) It is used for cost-benefit analysis. Unions of Library Science
(B) Indian Association of Teachers in
Library & Information Science

(C) Indian Airlines Technical Lower

Intelligence Services

(D) Indian Air Traffic Light, Information

and Signal.

499) ISBN consists of

(A) Ten digits

(B) Thirteen digits

(C) 8-bytes

(D) There are no digits.

500) DDC 22nd edition is published by

(A) Forest Press

(B) OCLC

(C) IFLA

(D) UNESCO.
Multiple Choices Questions and Answers 1-500

These questions and answers are compiled by Dr. Dr. Badan Barman

Mistake in answer, duplication in questions and other errors should be reported to Dr. Badan
Barman at badanbarman at gmail dot com.

1) Hybrid library deals with

(A) Print Collection
(B) Digital Collection
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above

2) Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) is now looked after by?

(A) UNESCO
(B) CILIP
(C) ALA
(D) OCLC

3) Which type of books should be weeded in a library?

(A) Superseded editions
(B) Theasurus
(C) Dictionary
(D) Encyclopaedia

4) The standard size of a catalogue card is

(A) 12.5 cm X 7.5 cm
(B) 12 cm X 7 cm
(C) 11 cm X 5 cm
(D) 10 cm X 4 cm

5) The Library of Congress Classification system divides human knowledge into

(A) 20 major classes.
(B) 21 major classes.
(C) 25 major classes.
(D) 30 major classes.

6) The Delivery of Books (Public Libraries) Act, 1954 was not implemented in
(A) Assam
(B) Jammu and Kashmir
(C) Haryana
(D) Delhi

7) Who invented World Wide Web (WWW)

(A) Vint Cerf
(B) Charles Babbage
(C) Tim Berners-Lee
(D) Steve Jobs

8) According to General Financial Rules, 2005, loss of how many volumes per thousand volumes
issued / consulted in a year is to be taken as reasonable.
(A) Three
(B) Four
(C) Five
(D) Six

9) According to Ranganathan, many collections lose its relevance in how many years?
(A) 20 years.
(B) 30 years
(C) 40 Years
(D) 50 years.

10) Annual withdrawals from the collection should average at least how many percent of the total
collection.
(A) 5%
(B) 10%
(C) 15%
(D) 20%

11) The standard size of a catalogue card is

(A) 5 inch X 3 inch
(B) 4 inch X 3 inch
(C) 4 inch X 4 inch
(D) 3 inch X 3 inch

12) IFLA Head office located at

(A) Paris, France
(B) Netherlands, in The Hague
(C) Canada
(D) London

13) The head office of Indian Library Association (ILA) is

(A) Delhi
(B) Kolkata
(C) Bengalore
(D) Mumbai

14) The word “Archives” is most relevant to

(A) Historical material
(B) National bibliography
(C) Free of charge
(D) Family members

15) The word “Referral service” is most relevant to

(A) Database search service
(B) Inter Library Loan
(C) Information scouting
(D) Retrospective searching

16) Which of the following is a Library Management Software?

(A) LibSys 7
(B) EPrints
(C) Joomla
(D) Drupal

17) Which of the following is an Open Source Software?

(A) E-Granthalaya
(B) SOUL 2.0
(C) Koha
(D) LibSys 7

18) Which of the following is a Secondary source of information?

(A) Journal
(B) Text book
(C) Bibliography of Bibliography
(D) Bibliography

19) First generation computer uses

(A) Microprocessor
(B) Transistors
(C) Integrated circuits
(D) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or electronic valves

20) Shannon and Weaver related to

(A) Psycho-biology of language: An introduction to dynamic philosophy
(B) Information is data of value to decision making
(C) Mathematical Theory of Information
(D) Bradfords Law of Information

21) Delivery of Books (Public Libraries Act) enacted in

(A) 1977
(B) 1944
(C) 1967
(D) 1954

22) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan related to

(A) The disciple of Melvil Dewey who worked in India
(B) The first professionally qualified university librarian in India
(C) He for the first time in India, DDC and AACR rule introduced.
(D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library (now National Library, Kolkata)

23) First university to introduce MPhil and PhD in LIS in India

(A) Aligarh Muslim University
(B) University of Calcutta
(C) University of Delhi
(D) University of Madras

24) UGC Curriculum Development Committee formed in

(A) 1993
(B) 1991
(C) 1968
(D) 1989

25) Second generation computer uses

(A) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or electronic valves
(B) Microprocessor
(C) Integrated circuits
(D) Transistors

26) Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine related to

(A) Sears List of Subject Heading
(B) Library of Congress Classification System
(C) UDC
(D) Dictionary Catalogue

27) CCF was developed by

(A) UNESCO
(B) IFLA
(C) FID
(D) Library of Congress

28) Berne Convention and Universal Copyright Convention was revised in Paris in
(A) 1949
(B) 1952
(C) 1971
(D) 1931

29) The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto was last revised in

(A) 1956
(B) 1931
(C) 1972
(D) 1994
30) Which of the following is a social network?
(A) BUBL Link
(B) LIS Links
(C) Intute
(D) DMOZ

31) Peter A. Phyor related to

(A) Ranganathan formulated his first law of library from his casual hint.
(B) Library legislation
(C) Living with book
(D) Zero Based Budget

32) Koha was developed at

(A) Katipo Communications Ltd, New Zealand
(B) University of Waikato, New Zealand.
(C) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs
(D) Wikimedia Foundation

33) C. W. Hanson
(A) Categorized information need into current approach, everyday approach, and exhaustive
approach.
(B) Divides documentary sources of information into primary and secondary.
(C) Divides documentary sources of information into primary, secondary and tertiary.
(D) Classified documentary sources of information into Conventional, Neo Conventional, Non
Conventional and meta document.

34) The First and Oldest University Library was established in British India at
(A) University of Delhi
(B) Calcutta University
(C) Aligarh Muslim University
(D) University of Madras

35) Deleted email can be found in the

(A) Trash folder
(B) Inbox folder
(C) Starred folder
(D) Spam folder

36) RDA related to

(A) Classification
(B) Cataloguing
(C) Searching
(D) Browsing

37) George Kingsely Zipf related to

(A) Psycho-biology of language: An introduction to dynamic philosophy
(B) Mathematical Theory of Information
(C) Information is data of value to decision making
(D) Bradfords Law of Information

38) WIPO was established by the WIPO Convention in

(A) 1977
(B) 1944
(C) 1954
(D) 1967

39) Alireza Noruzi related to

(A) Application of Ranganathan's Laws to the Web
(B) The disciple of Melvil Dewey who worked in India
(C) Our Singular Strengths
(D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library (now National Library, Kolkata)

40) E. B. Ross related to

(A) Ranganathan formulated his first law of library from his casual hint.
(B) Library legislation
(C) Living with book
(D) Zero Based Budget

41) Denis Grogan

(A) Categorized information need into current approach, everyday approach, and exhaustive
approach.
(B) Divides documentary sources of information into primary and secondary.
(C) Divides documentary sources of information into primary, secondary and tertiary.
(D) Classified documentary sources of information into Conventional, Neo Conventional, Non
Conventional and meta document.

42) The Head Office of IASLIC located at

(A) Kolkata
(B) Delhi
(C) Mumbai
(D) Chennai

43) Reference and information service is most relevant to

(A) Referral Service
(B) SDI
(C) CAS
(D) Retrospective searching

44) Which of the following is an Institutional Repository Software Package?

(A) Joomla
(B) EPrints
(C) Koha
(D) Drupal

45) Which of the following is a Tertiary Sources of Information?

(A) Journal
(B) Bibliography
(C) Encyclopaedia
(D) Bibliography of Bibliographies

46) First library act was enacted in Great Britain in

(A) 1847
(B) 1850
(C) 1867
(D) 1840

47) Michael Gorman related to

(A) Application of Ranganathan's Laws to the Web
(B) The disciple of Melvil Dewey who worked in India
(C) Our Singular Strengths
(D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library (now National Library, Kolkata)

48) Dr. Nihar Ranjan Roy related to

(A) Application of Ranganathan's Laws to the Web
(B) The first professionally qualified university librarian in India
(C) He for the first time in India, DDC and AACR rule introduced.
(D) The first librarian of the Imperial Library (now National Library, Kolkata)

49) The Head Office of UNESCO located at

(A) Paris, France
(B) Netherlands, in The Hague
(C) London
(D) England

50) M. C. Yovits related to

(A) Psycho-biology of language: An introduction to dynamic philosophy
(B) Information is data of value to decision making
(C) Mathematical Theory of Information
(D) Bradfords Law of Information

51) The Press and Registration of books Act was enacted in

(A) 1847
(B) 1850
(C) 1867
(D) 1840

52) First B.Lib. Science Course was introduced in

(A) Aligarh Muslim University
(B) University of Calcutta
(C) University of Delhi
(D) University of Madras

53) J. C. M. Hanson related to

(A) Sears List of Subject Heading
(B) Library of Congress Classification System
(C) UDC
(D) Dictionary Catalogue

54) Third generation computer uses

(A) Microprocessor
(B) Transistors
(C) Integrated circuits
(D) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or electronic valves

55) Fourth generation computer uses

(A) Microprocessor
(B) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or electronic valves
(C) Transistors
(D) Integrated circuits

56) UNIMARC was developed by

(A) UNESCO
(B) IFLA
(C) FID
(D) Library of Congress

57) Universal Copyright conventions was in

(A) 1949
(B) 1952
(C) 1971
(D) 1931

58) The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto first issued in

(A) 1949
(B) 1952
(C) 1971
(D) 1931

59) Which of the following is not a web browser?

(A) Firefox
(B) Internet Explorer
(C) Google Chrome
(D) DMOZ
60) Haines related to
(A) Ranganathan formulated his first law of library from his casual hint.
(B) Library legislation
(C) Living with book
(D) Zero Based Budget

61) Which of the following is not a Learning Management System (LMS)

(A) Moodle
(B) Claroline
(C) Drupal
(D) ATutor

62) DSpace was developed at

(A) Katipo Communications Ltd, New Zealand
(B) University of Waikato, New Zealand.
(C) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs
(D) Wikimedia Foundation

63) Melvin J. Voigt

(A) Categorized information need into current approach, everyday approach, and
exhaustive approach.
(B) Divides documentary sources of information into primary and secondary.
(C) Divides documentary sources of information into primary, secondary and tertiary.
(D) Classified documentary sources of information into Conventional, Neo Conventional, Non
Conventional and meta document.

64) GSDL was developed at

(A) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs
(B) Katipo Communications Ltd, New Zealand
(C) University of Waikato, New Zealand.
(D) Wikimedia Foundation

65) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(A) Categorized information need into current approach, everyday approach, and exhaustive
approach.
(B) Divides documentary sources of information into primary and secondary.
(C) Divides documentary sources of information into primary, secondary and tertiary.
(D) Classified documentary sources of information into Conventional, Neo Conventional,
Non Conventional and meta document.

66) The head office of Good Offices Committee is at

(A) Kolkata
(B) New Delhi
(C) Bangalore
(D) Chennai
67) The first university to establish a full-fledged Department of Library Science
(A) University of Delhi
(B) Calcutta University
(C) Aligarh Muslim University
(D) University of Madras

68) An Invisible college is a typical example of:

(A) Informal channels of communication
(B) Formal channels of communication
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above

69) Berne convention was adopted in the year :

(A) 1911
(B) 1886
(C) 1900
(D) 1947

70) FID was dissolved in the year :

A) 2002
(B) 2005
(C) 2000
(D) 2003

71) Who had given the Minimal, Middling and Maximum theories of reference service?
(A) C. M. Winchell
(B) S. R. Ranganathan
(C) James I Wyer
(D) Samuel Rothstein

72) PERT was developed by :

(A) The Navy special project office
(B) Booz Allen Hamelton
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above

73) The term hyper text was coined by :

(A) Ted Nelson
(B) Charles Babbage
(C) Tim Berner Lee
(D) Tay Vaughan

74) The 12 rules for relational database were given by:

(A) Larvy Page
(B) Linus Tolward
(C) J. Bill Gates
(D) Edgar. F. Codd

75) Bibliographic coupling was first advocated by :

(A) B. K. Sen
(B) M. M. Kessler
(C) S. C. Bradford
(D) S. R. Ranganathan

76) Granthana is an official publication of :

(A) ILA
(B) IASLIC
(C) RRRLF
(D) APLA

77) Million Book Project was initiated by:

(A) Pittsburg University
(B) Carnegie Mellon University
(C) MIT, USA
(D) Michigan University

78) The quotation “Where is the Wisdom, We Lost in Knowledge...” is by

(A) John Keats
(B) M. P. Carter
(C) T. S. Eliot
(D) Marshall McLuhan

79) CONPOLIS (India) was set up in the year

(A) 1985
(B) 1986
(C) 1987
(D) 1988
Committee on National Policy on Library and Information System (CONPOLIS) on 7 October 1985 under
the chairmanship of Professor D.P. Chattopadhyaya, rrlf "National Policy on Library and Information
System" (NAPLIS) prepared by RRRLF

80) First time efforts for the development of libraries in India were made
(A) S. R. Ranganathan
(B) S. Radhakrishnan
(C) Sayaji Rao Gaekwad I
(D) Sayaji Rao Gaekwad III

81) Emerald full text Database is published from

(A) USA
(B) Germany
(C) France
(D) U.K.
formed in 1967 as Management Consultants Bradford (MCB)

82) Who propounded “Conservative, moderate and liberal theories of reference service” ?
(A) William A Katz
(B) S. R. Ranganathan
(C) James I. Wyer
(D) R. Emery

83) Which national agency in India is assigning the ISBN?

(A) Raja Ram Mohan Roy National Education Resource Centre (New Delhi, India)
(B) Delhi Public Library
(C) Federation of Publishers in India
(D) National Library of India

84) The term ‘Cyberspace’ was first used by

(A) Andrew Pollock
(B) William Gibson
(C) John Postal
(D) Joe Flower

85) The simple Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) consists of
(A) 10 elements
(B) 15 elements
(C) 14 elements
(D) 18 elements

86) “Libraries as Gateways to Knowledge” is the title of the document of

(A) National Information Policy, 1986
(B) Information Technology Act, 2000
(C) National Knowledge Commission on Libraries, 2007 (NKC constituted On 13 June 2005)
(D) None of the above
The NKC website was launched in February 2006. Chairman: Sam Pitroda.

87) The Library Association (UK) is now the component of

(A) ASLIB
(B) CILIP (LONDON:2002)
(C) ALA
(D) None of the above
CILIP( Library Association 1877+ Institute of Information Scientists, founded in 1958.)LISA

88) Real Time Access refers to

(A) Access in advance
(B) Access after some time
(C) Access when searched for
(D) None of the above

89) Theory X and Theory Y relate to

(A) Planning
(B) Motivation
(C) Innovation
(D) None of the above

Motivation theories

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory(Deficit principle+ Progression principle)

Frederi k Herz erg s two-factor theory: Hygiene factors+ Satisfiers or motivators
Clayton Alderfer's ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) theory

90) INSDOC has been merged with NISCOM and is now known as
(A) DELNET
(B) NISCAIR
(C) DESIDOC
(D) NASSDOC
National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR) came into existence
on 30 September 2002 with the merger of National Institute of Science Communication (NISCOM:1996)
and Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC:1952). Both NISCOM and INSDOC, the two
premier institutes of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), were devoted to
dissemination and documentation of S&T information.

91) ISBN consists of

(A) 6 digits
(B) 8 digits
(C) 13 digits
(D) 15 digits

92) Bibliographical coupling is related to

(A) Bibliometric studies
(B) Bibliography compilation
(C) Modes of subject formation
(D) Vocabulary control

93) ISBN changed from 10 digits to 13 from

(A) January, 2007
(B) January, 2008
(C) January, 2006
(D) January, 2005

94) IASLIC was founded in the year

(A) 1955
(B) 1965
(C) 1975
(D) 1985
IASLIC :1955: Kolkata: Indian Library Science Abstract (ILSA)

95) WorldCat is maintained by

(A) Library of Congress
(B) Online Computer Library Center
(C) American Library Association
(D) None of the above

96) Number of States in India which have enacted Public Library Legislation till date is
(A) Eighteen /Nineteen
(B) Fourteen
(C) Thirteen
(D) Sixteen

97) Which publication was not authored by S.R. Ranaganathan?

(A) Prolegomena to library classification
(B) Reference Service
(C) Ramanujan : The man and the Mathematician
(D) Living with Books

98) JSTOR(1995) is an online system for archiving and accessing academic journals. It is located
in
(A) Germany
(B) UK
(C) USA
(D) Budapest

JSTOR was conceived by The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to help university and college
libraries struggling to provide adequate space for an ever-growing amount of published
scholarship. In 1995, JSTOR was founded as a shared digital library to help academic institutions
save costs associated with the storage of library materials and to vastly improve access to
scholarship. JSTOR merged with and became of service of ITHAKA (ithaka.org) in 2009, a
not-for-profit organization that also includes Portico (portico.org) and Ithaka S+R
(ithaka.org/ithaka-s-r).

99) ‘Five Laws of Library Science’ was first published in

(A) 1925
(B) 1930
(C) 1928/1931
(D) 1933

100) What is Dublin Core?

(A) Content management tool
(B) E- Library software
(C) Metadata standard
(D) Internet Protocol

Multiple Choices Questions and Answers 101- 200

These questions and answers are compiled by Dr. Dr. Badan Barman, Mayank Yuvaraj, Md.
Iliyas Kakandikar, Miss. Kankana Baishya, Mrs. Anupama Chetia, Ms. Krishna Roshan, N.
Muthukumaran, S. Chellapandian and Vaibhavi Thacker.

Mistake in answer, duplication in questions and other errors should be reported to Dr. Badan
Barman at badanbarman at gmail dot com.

101) Information is …

(A) Raw data

(B) Raw knowledge

(C) Input data

(D) Organized data

102) ‘Fair use’ is a term most relevant to:

(A) Intellectual Property Rights

(B) Books borrowed for home reading

(C) Copy right

(D) Use of reference books

103) WIPO stands for:

(A) World Information and Patents Organisation

(B) World Intellectual Property Organisation

(C) World International Property Organisation

(D) World Information Protection Organisation

WIPO

 History: established in 1967

 Membership: 185 member states
 Director General: Francis Gurry
 Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

WIPO Lex is a one-stop search facility for national laws and treaties on intellectual property (IP) of
WIPO, WTO and UN Members

World Intellectual Property Day – April 26(came into force

in 1970)

104) Handling of Information in the sense of production is called:

(A) Information Marketing

(B) Information Industry

(C) Information Production

(D) Information Revolution

105) BERN CONVENTION (1886) is concerned with:

(A) Translations

(B) Copyright

(C) Patent

(D) Standards

The Indian Copyright Act, 1957 governs the system of copyrights in India. Copyright Law in
the country was governed by the Copyright Act of 1914, was essentially the extension of the
British Copyright Act, 1911 to India,and borrowed extensively from the new Copyright Act of
the United Kingdom of 1956. Now Indian Copyright is governed by the Indian Copyright Act,
1957.[1]

The Indian Copyright Act today is compliant with most international conventions and treaties in
the field of copyrights. India is a member of the Berne Convention of 1886 (as modified at Paris
in 1971), the Universal Copyright Convention of 1951 and the Agreement on Trade Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of 1995.

Though India is not a member of the Rome Convention of 1961, WIPO Copyrights Treaty
(WCT) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT),the Copyright Act is
compliant with it.[2]

106) Informal communication among knowledgeable person is known as:

(A) Invisible College

(B) Information Gatekeeper

(C) Communication Gatekeeper

(D) Knowledge Management

107) Which one of the following is not associated with the communication system?

(A) Receiver

(B) Channel

(C) Sender

(D) Entropy

108) The invisible web refers to-

(A) The internet, since we cannot see it

(B) That part of the internet, which is hidden from the search engines

(C) The telecommunication signals which are not seen

(D) The failure in accessing the web pages

Jill Ellsworth used the term invisible Web in 1994

Mike Bergman, founder of BrightPlanet,[1] credited with coining the phrase DEEP WEB.

109) Who was the chairman of National Library Committee of India?

(A) B. S. Jha

(B) K. P. Sinha

(C) S. Mudaliar

(D) C. D. Deshmukh

110) Which organisation applied Library and Information Policy in India at national level.

(A) NISSAT

(B) INSDOC

(C) UNESCO

(D) RRRLF

111) Where is the head quarter of Patent Information System in India(1980)?

(A) Pune

(B) Mumbai

(C) Nagpur

(D) Delhi
112) The act enacted in India in 1856 on Intellectual Property Right was based on.

(A) American Patent Law 1810

(B) British Patent Law 1852

(C) The Patent Bill

(D) The Design Act of 1911

113) Whether intellectual property can be sold.

(A) No

(B) Sale is possible

(C) Yes

(D) None of these

114) The term communication came from which language?

(A) Greek

(B) Latin: Communicare" which means "to impart" or "participate"

(C) German

(D) French

115) Who is the propounder of the term information transfer?

(A) Ranganathan

(B) J. Martin

(C) Beesman
(D) Calvin Moores

116) To which country the credit is given to coin the term information society?

(A) USA

(B) France

(C) Japan

(D) India

117) Today information is regarded as which of the following?

(A) Wealth

(B) Commodity

(C) Products

(D) All the above

118) What is the unit of information?

(A) Bit

(B) Byte

(C) Gram

(D) Hertz

119) Delivery of Book Act passed in the year

(A) 1963

(B) 1972
(C) 1960

(D) 1954

120) Now a day’s what is a most important vital resource for societal development of a country ?

(A) Books

(B) Kowledge

(C) Information

(D) Data

121) Who is the Father of a computer

(A) Steve Jobs

(B) Vint Cerf

(C) Tim Berners-Lee

(D) Charles Babbage

122) When was Dr. S. R. Ranganathan was appointed as a National research professor of Library
science

(A) 1942

(B) 1962

(C) 1972

(D) 1952

123) Which Indian University first started M.Lib.Sc. & M.Phil courses
(A) University of Delhi

(B) University of Madras

(C) S.N.D.T. Women University, Bombay

(D) Aligar Muslim University

124) Which Commission recommended 10% of the total college budget for development of
Libraries?

(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan Committee

(B) Mehrotra Committee

(C) Kothari Commission:1966 Dr. s KOTHARI

(D) Curriculum Development Committee in LIS

125) UNISIST is a

(A) Software

(B) A Programme

(C) Welfare association

(D) A committee

126) Where did Dr. S. R. Ranganathan put forth his five laws of library science?

(A) Meenakshi College, Annamalainagar

(B) Hindu College, New Delhi

(C) City College, Bangalore

(D) Christ College, Bangalore

127) When did ILA became the member of IFLA?

(A) 1952

(B) 1955

(C) 1957

(D) 1965

128) In which year ASLIB was acquired by MCB group, the holding company for emerald group
publishing?

(A) 2003

(B) 2005

(C) 2009

(D) 2010

129) Which association`s tagline is “managing information”?

(A) IFLA

(B) ASLIB: The Association for Information Management: founded in 1924 as the
Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux: Rebecca was
appointed to the position of Director for ASLIB in January 2011

(C) ALA

(D) LC

130) Which association`s tagline is “connecting people and information”?

(A) SLA
(B) IFLA

(C) ALA

(D) COMLA

131) When was the International institute of Documentation established?

(A) 1931

(B) 1934

(C) 1940

(D) 1945

132) Which organization has introduced the concept of “Sister libraries” for children`s and
young adults reading?

(A) UNESCO

(B) IFLA

(C) LC

(D) LA

133) In which year the ISBN allocation office in India shifted from Kolkatta to Delhi?

(A) 2009

(B) 2010

(C) 2011

(D) 2012
134) Which two organizations jointly publish survey on digitization and preservation?

(A) IFLA + UNESCO

(B) ALA + UNESCO

(C) IFLA + ALA

(D) IFLA + LC

135) Who said that “Librarianship is not a profession”?

(A) Madden, Moon, Moore, Mc Pheron

(B) Goode, Rossi, Shaffer, Gullis

(C) Dewey, Rundey, Reeves, Aishen

(D) Ranganathan, Dewey, Cutter

136) Which organization was joined with Library Association to form CILIP in 2002?

(A) Institute of Bibliography

(B) Institute of Information Scientists

(C) Institute of Documentation

(D) Institute of Librarianship

137) In which year International institute of Documentation changed to International federation

of Documentation?

(A) 1931

(B) 1937
(C) 1945

(D) 1948

138) In which year headquarter of FID was shifted from Brussels to The Hague?

(A) 1925

(B) 1928

(C) 1930

(D) 1934

139) Who gave the sixth law of library science “Every reader his/her freedom”?

(A) Walt Crawford

(B) Michael Gorman

(C) James R. Rettig

(D) Lenart Bjorneborn

140) Where was the first library noticed in India?

(A) Taxila

(B) Nalanda

(C) Vallabhi

(D) Sravasti

141) When was the curriculam development committee on LIS instituted?

(A) 1988-89
(B) 1990-93

(C) 1994-97

(D) 1999-02

Ranganathan Committee on Development of University and College Libraries (1959)

Ranganathan Committee on Library Science in Indian Universities (1965)

Kaula Committee on Curriculum Development in Library and Information Science(1993)

Karisiddappa Committee on Curriculum Development in Library and Information

Science (2001)

142) Who published the journal International classification?

(A) IFLA

(B) UNESCO

(C) ISKO: International Society for Knowledge Organization : 1989:

(D) ALA

Infoterm (the International Information Centre for Terminology).

143) Which association in India awards teachers in LIS?

(A) IATLIS

(B) ILA

(C) IASLIC

(D) SIS
144) Where is the headquarter of SLA?

(A) New York

(B) Lagos

(C) Shimla

(D) New Delhi

145)) Which law of library Science relates to the growth of libraries

(A) Forth law

(B) First law

(C) Second law

(D) Fifth law

146) UAP stands for what of the following

(A) United Academy of publication

(B) Universal Association of Publishers

(C) Universal Availability of Publications.

(D) Universal Association of Publishers

IFLA:Strategic Activities

ALP:Action for Development through Libraries Programme

CLM:Committee on Copyright and other Legal Matters

FAIFE:Committee on Freedom of Access to Information and Freedom of Expression

IFLA Standards:Committee on Standards

PAC:Core Activity on Preservation and Conservation

 UCA:UNIMARC Core Activity

147) Resource sharing is a part of

(A) Library cooperation

(B)Library Administration

(C)Library Management

(D)Library Cataloging

148) The five laws of Library Science published in the book form in the year

(A) 1924

(B) 1931

(C) 1928

(D) 1930

149) Library Technology Report is a publication of

(A) ALA

(B) IASLIC

(C) LA

(D) ILA

150) ABGILA is a quarterly publication of

(A) Assam Library Association

(B) Andhra Desa Library Association

(C) Indian Library Association

(D) Raja Ram Mohun Roy Foundation

151) When was the American Library Association established

(A) 1876

(B) 1872

(C) 1875

(D) 1880

152) Which term was coined by Dr. S. R. Ranganathan for mobile libraries?

(A) Moving Library

(B) Library on Wheels / librachine

(C) Library Machine

(D) All of above

153) The Librarian Day celebrated on

(A) 15th Sep

(B) 24th Nov

(C) 11th Dec

(D) 12th Aug

154) Forms of Extension service

(A) Library Websites

(B) Library Orientation

(C) Book fair and Exhibition

(D) All

155) The first library school was started by

(A) Melvin Dewey

(B) Charles Williamson

(C) John Macfarlane

(D) William Allenson Borden

156) Encyclopedia of library and Information Science is published by:

(A) H. W. Wilson

(B) R. R. Bowker

(C) Marcel Dekker

(D) Andrew Deutsch

157) The secondary source of information comprised of:

(A) Text books and research monographs.

(B) Subject periodicals and encyclopedias

(C) Indexing and Abstracting periodicals

(D) Bibliography and patents

158) Who categorized information source into conventional, non conventional, neo conventional
and micro documents:

(A) Ranganathan

(B) Bradford

(C) Grogan

(D) Henson

159) Article published in research journal are…

(A) Reference sources

(B) Secondary sources

(C) Primary sources

(D) Tertiary sources

160) What is the Thesaurus?

(A) A collection of selected terminology

(B) Synonymous terms

(C) List of words

(D) All of the above

161) What is a Patent?

(A) An agreement to the Government

(B) Document of the library

(C) An agreement between the inventor and the Government

(D) An agreement between library and Publisher

162) World of learning is a what source of information

(A) Primary source

(B) Documentary source

(C) Secondary source

(D) Tertiary source/ Directory

163) Indian books in Print are published from

(A) Tamil nadu

(B) Chennai

(C) Bombay

(D) New Delhi

164) Cumulative book index is published from

(A) India

(B) USA

(C) Canada

(D) Thailand

165) Statesman year book is published from

(A) London

(B) New york

(C) Calcutta
(D) Chicago

166) Word of learning is Published by

(A) Asian events

(B) Keesing’s

(C) Europa publication

(D) Harper & Row

167) Who is the editor of “Library Herald”

(A) Krishan Kumar

(B) C. K. Sharma

(C) S. R. Ranganathan

(D) F. Monbray Volte

168) Who was Published the monthly Journal “The Library World’

(A) Krishan kumar

(B) J. D. Brown

(C) H. W. Wilson

(D) K. Navlavi

169) Facts of File is weekly digest of

(A) Indian events

(B) American events

(C) World events

(D) England events

170) Who is the first editor of “Modern Librarian”?

(A) F. Monbrary Volte

(B) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(C) J. D. Brown

(D) Krishan Kumar

171) Indian national Bibliographical first appeared in

(A) 1947

(B) 1957

(C) 1967

(D) 1937

172) Who is the author of “Dictionary of anonymous and pseudonymous literature”

(A) S. Halkett & J. Laing

(B) Robert Proctor

(C) Ralph De sols

(D) Hanuman Sastri

173) Compton year book contains

(A) Political events

(B) Cultural events

(C) Outstanding events

(D) Economic events

174) Online Europa year book has coverage since

(A) 1965

(B) 1975

(C) 1984

(D) 1985

175) Which of the following is a multi-subject gateway?

(A) Renardus

(B) Humbul

(C) Sapling

(D) EdWEb

176) Which of the following is a specialized information organization online tool?

(A) Mamma

(B) Dogpile

(C) Vivisimo

(D) Entireweb

177) Research periodicals are which category of sources?

(A) Primary

(B) Secondary

(C) Tertiary

(D) Non documentary.

178) Reference sources are those

(A) Which are large in size?

(B) Which are read at home easily?

(C) Which used to obtain particular information?

(D) Which are costly?

179) Who is the publisher of Encyclopedia of Library and information science?

(A) Boweker

(B) H. W. Wilson company

(C) M. Dekker

(D) H. W. Wilson

180) Retrospective search service is a type of

(A) Referral service

(B) Reference service

(C) CAS

(D) SDI
181) Which part of new encyclopedia Britannica is useful for ready references?

(A) Macropaedia

(B) Propaedia

(C) Micropaedia

(D) Premedia

182) Year book are also known as

(A) Hand book

(B) Annual

(C) Directory

(D) Dictionary

183) What is India: A reference annual?

(A) Year Book

(B) Almanac

(C) Gide book

(D) Hand book

184) What is Trade bibliography?

(A) List of Author Bibliography

(B) List of Special Bibliography

(C) List of books in print or for sale compiled by a publisher

(D) List of books of trade Library

185) Who publishes INIS Atom Index?

(A) INIS (Viena)

(B) LC

(C ) ICSU

(D) AGRIS

186) What is the meaning of E-Documents?

(A) All Documents other than printed

(B) Non-Paper documents

(C) In electronic form such as Cassettes, CD-ROMs, etc.

(D) Audio visual tools

187) Which of the following is not the documents?

(A) Manuscript

(B) Book

(C) Inscription

(D) Periodical

188) Generally the information sources are divided mainly in to following categories?

(A) Primary and secondary.

(B) Reference and information sources.

(C) Documentary and non-documentary

(D) Books and periodicals

189) What are non- documentary sources?

(A) Which are in printed form?

(B) Which are in not printed form?

(C) Which are nor documents

(D) None of these

190) Today which type of information sources is most useful?

(A) Reference sources

(B) Documentary source

(C) Non- Documentary source

(D) Both the Documentary and Non-Documentary sources

191) Cover to cover translation is treated as

(A) Selective dissemination service

(B) Current awareness services

(C) On demand services

(D) Anticipatory services

192) What is the suitable reference sources to know about the information of a particular place?

(A) Directory

(B) Gazetteer
(C) Encyclopedia

(D) Year book

193) What is the suitable reference sources to find out the list of historical monuments of Delhi?

(A) Atlas

(B) Gazetteer

(C) Guide book

(D) Globe

194) What is world of learning?

(A) Directory

(B) Encyclopedia

(C) Dictionary

(D) Year book

195) What do you call a collection of maps, tables, charts, etc.?

(A) Globe

(B) Gazetteer

(C) Atlas

(D) Map

196) How many volumes Micropaedia of new Encyclopedia Britannica is published?

(A) 2
(B) 10

(C) 11

(D) 12

197) Encyclopedia Americana consists of

(A) 20 Volumes

(B) 25 Volumes

(C) 28 Volumes

(D) 30 Volumes

198) Which of the following are not the secondary sources?

(A) Encyclopedia

(B) Digest

(C) Thesis

(D) Text book

199) What is the publication frequency of books in print?

(A) Monthly

(B) Weekly

(C) Annually

(D) Quarterly

200) What is National bibliography?

(A) List of books of National Library

(B) List of books published in a particular Nation

(C) List of books written by National government

(D) List of books on a nation

These questions and answers are compiled by Dr. Badan Barman, Ghante Pradipkumar. B.,
Mayank Yuvaraj, Ms. Krishna Roshan, N. Muthukumaran, Rajashekar M Patil, S.
Chellapandian, Vaibhavi Thacker.

Mistake in answer, duplication in questions and other errors should be reported to Dr. Badan
Barman at badanbarman at gmail dot com.

201) What is the frequency of I.N.B.?

(A) Quarterly

(B) Monthly

(C) Weekly

(D) Annual

202) ‘ Facts on File’ is a

(A) Weekly list

(B) Fortnightly

(C) Monthly

(D) Quarterly

203) The term “Information Service” is an improvised name …

(A) Administration
(B) Documentation

(C) Bibliography

(D) Reference service

204) Which terms was coined by S.R. Ranganathan for mobile libraries

(A) Moving library

(B) Library on wheels

(C) Library machine

(D) All of the above

205) Abstracting service provides…

(A) Abstract of articles

(B) Whole bibliographic description of articles

(C) Whole bibliographic description along with abstracts of article

(D) Whole bibliographic sources

206) Which service demands the creation of a ‘user’ profile?

(A) CAS

(B) Information retrieval

(C) SDI

(D) Reference service

207) “Reference service is the contact between the right reader and the right book in the right
personal way” was stated by…

(A) D J Fockett

(B) S R Ranganathan

(C) James I Wyer

(D) A. L. A Glossary of library terms

208) CAS is defined as

(A) A process of dissemination of information

(B) A process of information

(C) A process of dissemination of current information

(D) A simple information service

209) Feedback mechanism is a part of which service?

(A) Reprography service

(B) CAS

(C) Translation service

(D) SDI

210) Mobile library is a kind of which service?

(A) Reference service

(B) Extension service

(C) Ready reference service

(D) Long range reference service

211) The person who provides reference service is called

(A) Chief librarian

(B) Grade One Librarian

(C) Deputy Librarian

(D) Reference Librarian

212) Reading centre, story hours, exhibition and reading to literature are form of

(A) Extension service

(B) Service of Public library

(C) Both

(D) None

213) Who Invented the Dictionary Catalogue?

(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(B) C. A. Cutter

(C) D. B. Krishna Rao

(D) K. N. Raj

214) What is the another name of Added entries?

(A) Main entry

(B) Cross reference entry

(C) Secondary entries

(D) Subject entry

215) When was SLSH published?

(A) 1903

(B) 1897

(C) 1923

(D) 1933

216) When was MARC project completed?

(A) 1987

(B) 1967

(C) 1947

(D) 1968

MARC 21:1999(US,CAN&UNIMARC):LC

217) Who defined notation as shorthand sign

(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(B) Benjamin A. Custer

(C) Immanuel Kant

(D) E. C. Richardson/ (Margret mann)

218) Who enunciated the five fundamental categories PMEST

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) Paul Otlet

(C) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(D) W. C. Sayers

219) Who enunciated the subject Classification

(A) J. D. Brown

(B) W. C. Sayers

(C) Benjamin A.Custer

(D) Frist Donker Duyvis

220) How many Auxiliary tables are there in DDC 23rd Edition

(A) 16

(B) 6

(C) 7

(D) 8

221) Colon classification was first published in

(A) 1905

(B) 1931

(C) 1933

(D) 1944

222) Phoenix schedules are part of which classification

(A) CC
(B) DDC

(C) UDC

(D) LCC

223) Sear’s List of Subject Headings (SLSH) is mainly useful for

(A) Small and medium libraries

(B) Special libraries

(C) Academic libraries

(D) College libraries

224) In which year DDC 23rd edition was published

(A) 2000

(B) 2011

(C) 2003

(D) 2010

225) The word classification comes from the Latin word

(A) Classis

(B) Classes

(C) Clauses

(D) Fiction

226) The first edition of DDC published in

(A) 1875

(B) 1876

(C) 1874

(D) 1896

227) The first edition of UDC published in

(A) 1904

(B) 1901

(C) 1905

(D) 1894

228) Who is the publishers of Sear’s list of subject headings

(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(B) Brown

(C) H. W. Wilson

(D) C. A. Cutter

229) MESH is a

(A) Thesaurus

(B) Dictionary

(C) Journal

(D) Library
230) The First edition of DDC Consisted of

(A) 144 pages

(B) Four volume

(C) 44 pages

(D) 124 pages

231) What are the four entity of FRBR model?FRBR:IFLA:4entities

(A) Personality, Matter, Energy, Space

(B) Work, Expression, Manifestation, Item

(C) Book, Form, Availability, Type

(D) Discipline, Entity, Action, Personality

232) Who is the Editor in Chief of 23rd Edition of DDC

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

(C) Winton E. Matthews

(D) John S. Mitchell

233) When was the different typological study towards mode of formation of subjects done?

(A) 1950

(B) 1960

(C) 1970

(D) 1975
234) In which edition “Auxiliary table for area” was first introduced?

(A) DDC 14

(B) DDC 15

(C) DDC 16

(D) DDC 17

235) What does LED stands for in CC?

(A) Latest Energy Developments

(B) Latest Effective Decade

(C) Large Energy Distribution

(D) Lowest Effective Decade

236) The term prenatal cataloguing first used by

(A) Michael Gorman

(B) Dr. S.R.Ranganathan

(C) E.B.Ross

(D) Melvin Dewey

237) The Dewey Decimal Classification divides human knowledge into

(A) 10 basic categories.

(B) 100 basic categories.

(C) 1000 basic categories.

(D) 10000 basic categories.

238) Who devised Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) System?

(A) Melville Dewey

(B) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(C) Tim Berners-Lee

(D) Vint Cerf

239) Call Number of a Book Means

(A) Book Number

(B) Class Number

(C) Both (A) and (B) are true + collection number

(D) None of the above

240) Accession Number means

(A) Call Number of a book

(B) Unique Number for a book inside a particular library.

(C) Book Number

(D) Class number

241) Who is the Editor in Chief of 19th Edition of DDC

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

(C) Winton E. Matthews

(D) John S. Mitchell

242) Who is the Editor in Chief of 20th Edition of DDC

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

(C) Winton E. Matthews

(D) John S. Mitchell

243) Who is the Editor in Chief of 21st Edition of DDC

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

(C) Winton E. Matthews

(D) John S. Mitchell

244) Who is the Editor in Chief of 22nd Edition of DDC

(A) Benjamin A. Custer

(B) John P. Comaromi

(C) Winton E. Matthews

(D) John S. Mitchell

245) POSDCORB(1937)” coined by

(A) Peter F. Drucker

(B) Harold Koontz

(C) F.W. Taylor

(D) Luther Gulick

246) When Peter F. Drucker defined M.B.O. (Management by Objectives) ?

(A) 1950

(B) 1960

(C) 1954

(D) 1964

247) Who said the demand and supply theory of books?

(A) Melvil Dewey

(B) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(C) Mc Colvin

(D) Sayers

248) "To provide the best books to the maximum readers at the least cost" said by

(A) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(B) P. N. Kaula

(C) E.Mayo

(D) Melvil Dewey

249) Theory X and Theory Y is developed by

(A) Louis Brandeis

(B) Douglas Mc Gregor

(C) Abraham Maslo

(D) Mayo

250) ISBN now consists of how many digits

(A) 10

(B) 9

(C) 15

(D) 13

251) Herzberg’s theory deals with

(A) Staffing

(B) Directing

(C) Motivation

(D) Planning

252) Who is the father of Scientific Management

(A) F.W. Taylor

(B) Harold Koontz

(C) Peter F. Drucker

(D) Luther Gulick

253) CPM (Critical Path Method) is developed by

(A) Dupoint Company

(B) Aircraft Corporation

(C) IIM

(D) IBM

254) How many digits have in the ISSN

(A) 10

(B) 8

(C) 13

(D) 15

255) Main use of Shelf list is

(A) Cataloging

(B) Circulation

(C) Stock Verification

(D) Book Selection

256) Theory X and Theory Y related to

(A) Planning

(B) Motivation

(C) Directing

(D) Staffing
257) Which national agency in India is responsible for assigning the ISBN

(A) RRRLF

(B) BARC

(C) NCL

(D) National Library of India

258) Zero Base Budgeting system was propounded by

(A) Peter F. Drucker

(B) P.N. Kaula

(C) E.Mayo

(D) Pter Phyrr

259) When Zero Base Budgeting system was first prepared

(A)1950

(B) 1960

(C)1970

(D) 1980

260) Posting the right person at the right place is called ________

(A) Recruitment

(B) Coaching

(C) Deployment
(D) Induction

261) TQM is a system of continuous improvement employing participative management and

centered on needs of the ________

(A) Customers

(B) Staff

(C) Organization

(D) Government

262) Financial support given to libraries are of two types - Recurring and

(A) Ad-hoc

(B) Endowments

(C) Annual

(D) Non-recurring

263) Principle of maximum aggregate benefit is concerned with__

(A) Growth of library

(B) Library use

(C) Library service

(D) Library fee

264) …….. takes items of expenditure for libraries as the working data for allocation of funds.

(A) Method of details

(B) Per capita method

(C) Principle of economy

(D) Library budget

265) A budget which mainly covers items of current revenue and expenditure is called __.

(A) Programme budget

(B) Welfare economics

(C) Current budgeting

(D) Capital budgeting

266) The library budget of a university is passed by the ?

(A) Senate

(B) Executive Council

(C) Academic Council

(D) Research Council

267) In fund accounting, _______ fund can not be used for other purposes.

(A) Recurring

(B) Non-recurring

(C) Restricted

(D) Encumbering

268) Scrutiny of financial transactions is called

(A) Budgeting
(B) Programming

(C) Accounting

(D) Auditing

269) What are the two parts of the annual report of the library

(A) Primary and Secondary

(B) Analytical and Systematic

(C) Upper and Lower

(D) Descriptive and Statistical

270) Who is the pioneer of open access system in British libraries

(A) Nine e.Brown

(B) James Duff Brown

(C) John cotton dana

(D) S. R. Ranganathan

271) When was Browne charging system started?

(A) 1895

(B) 1896

(C) 1899

(D) 1875

272) Who started New York Charging system?

(A) Peter Drucker

(B) Elton Mayo

(C) John Cotton Dana/ Newyork public library

(D) Francis Bacon

273) When did electrically operated book charging system introduced first?

(A) 1926

(B) 1905

(C) 1933

(D) 1932

274) How many columns are there in the accession register?

(A) 10

(B) 12

(C) 14

(D) 16

275) When was PERT developed?

(A) 1958

(B) 1968

(C) 1955

(D) 1948
276) Who had invented the MBO?

(A) Eltomn Mayo

(B) Frederic Winslow Taylor

(C) Peter Drucker

(D) Kermeth Blanchard

277) PPBS relates to

(A) Book selection

(B) Journal selection

(C) Budgeting

(D) Library records

278) The standard “X” and theory “Y” was conceived by

(A) Peter F.Drucker

(B) Doughlas Mc Gregor

(C) Gulik and URwick

(D) Taylor

279) Zero based budget is concerned with

(A) Present

(B) Past

(C) Future

(D) Remote future

280) Who is the father of Classical School

(A) Lyndall Urwick

(B) Gulick

(C) Cutter

(D) Henri Fayol

281) Who coined the word POSDCORB

(A) Henri Foyal

(B) Luther Gulick

(C) Herbert

(D) Elizabeth stone

282) Another term of PERT is

(A) CPM

(B) POSDCORB

(C) MBO

(D) HRM

283) POSDCORB is related to

(A) Library cataloguing

(B) Library reference service

(C) Library administration

(D) Library automation

284) Who introduced Three card system

(A) Krishan Kumar

(B) C. K. Sharma

(C) Cutter

(D) S. R. Ranganathan

285) What are the standard size of the Accession Register is

(A) 16” * 12”

(B) 16” * 13”

(C) 16” * 11”

(D) 16” * 18”

286) A good library building is an outcome of librarian and.

(A) Registrar

(B) Building Corporation

(C) Finance Officer

(D) Architect

287) ________ are the storage areas for the various types of documents kept in a library.

(A) Tasks .

(B). Racks
(C) Stacks

(D) Desks

288) Study carrels are exclusive areas meant for

(A) Students

(B) Public

(C) Women

(D) Researchers

289) Library catalogue cards are filed in specially designed drawers called

(A) Charging tray

(B) Catalogue cabinet

(C) Display rack .

(D) Filling equipment

290) Information Gatekeepers come under ________ sources.

(A) Documentary

(B) Human

(C) Institutional

(D) Neo-conventional

291)…………… categorises documents into three types such as primary, secondary and tertiary.

(A) Grogan
(B) Skeltor

(C)Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(D) Hanson

292) ________ is a legal document and can be used as a source of industrial information.

(A) Report

(B) Law Review

(C) Patent

(D) Specification

293) In Encyclopaedia Britianica, ___________ acts as an index to macropaedia.

(A) Bibliography

(B) Introduction Part

(C) Propaedia

(D) Micropaedia

294) One of the book selection principles states that “the best reading for the largest number at
the ……………Cost.”

(A) Maximum

(B) Medium

(C) Least

(D) Zero

295) Payments for the books purchased can be made only after
(A) Accessioning

(B) Classification

(C)Cataloguing

(D) Arrangement in the shelve

296) The standard size of an accession register is ?

(A) 15” x 13”

(B) 16 x 13”

(C)12” x 5”

(D) 5” x 3”

297) ISBN stands for ________

(A) Integrated Services Bibliographic Network

(B) Indian Standard Book Number

(C) International Standard Book Number

(D) International Standard for Book and Non- book

298) The three card system introduced by Ranganathan are - (i) Register Card, (ii) Check Card,
and (iii)?

(A) KARDEX

(B) LINDEX

(C) Ledger Card

(D) Classified Index Card

299) Technical section performs mainly two functions namely classification and

(A) Accessioning

(B) Bills payment

(C) Cataloguing

(D) Shelving

300) PRECIS was developed by Derek Austin for use in the

(A) BNB

(B) INB

(C) ISBD

(D) ISBN

These questions and answers are compiled by Amit Kumar Singh, B. Asadullah, Dr. Badan
Barman, Kankana Baishya, Kusum Saini, Mayank Yuvaraj, N. Muthukumaran, Naheem K. T.,
Neena M G, O. P. Saini, R. Raman Nair, Rajashekhar M Patil, S. Chellapandian, Sambhunath
Sahoo, Sampada D., and Vaibhavi Thacker.

Mistake in answer, duplication in questions and other errors should be reported to Dr. Badan
Barman at badanbarman at gmail dot com.

301) Getting books back from the users and releasing the borrower’s ticket is known as

(A) Charging

(B) Holding

(C) Reserving

(D) Discharging
302) While entering the library, the personal belongings of a reader is kept in ________

(A) Cloak Room

(B) Property Counter

(C) Gate counter

(D) Store room

303) Books misplaced on the shelves by readers are restored. This work is referred to as.

(A) Shelving

(B) Stock verification

(C) Shelf rectification

(D) Shifting

304) Outdated and seldom used books are withdrawn from the library is known as ___________.

(A) Shelving

(B) Weeding

(C) Circulating

(D) Guiding

305) The objective of library binding is ________of the library materials.

(A) Proper organisation

(B) Accessibility.

(C) Durability
(D) Humidity control

306) All part and pages of a volume are correctly sequenced in the first stage of binding

process known as?

(A) Sewing

(B) Guard

(C) Pulling

(D) Collation

307) Sheets before and after the text of a book are called _________. .

(A) End papers

(B) Attach cover

(C) Head bands

(D) Gilding

308) Leather being used as one of the binding materials i.e., _________ is the strongest

leather.

(A) Roan

(B) Imitation

(C) Pig skin

(D) Sheep skin

309) ________ has prescribed certain standards for library binding.

(A) ILA

(B) ALA

(C) BLA

(D) NBT

310) A skillful method of providing means mechanism and structural elements to.

streamline organizational work is known as _______

(A) Strategic planning

(B) Role analysis

(C) Work culture

(D) Autonomous planning

311) Who is regarded as father of bibliography ?

(A) Paul Otlet

(B) Conrad Gesner

(C) J. C. Brunet

(D) A. C. Fosket.

312) Linear model of communication in knowledge based on Aristotles’ model of

communication was proposed by

(A) Juger Heberman

(B) A.J. Wells

(C) C.E. Shannon & W. Weaver

(D) G. Gerbner
313) ISBN changed from 10 digits to 13 from

(A) January, 2007

(B) January, 2008

(C) January, 2006

(D) January, 2005

SBN:1966, ISBN (10):1970 by ISO (ISO:2018), Currently, the ISO's TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for
the ISBN. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.[5] Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained
13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland EAN-13s.

1. An International Standard Book Number consists of 4 or 5 parts: for a 13-digit ISBN, a GS1
prefix: 978 or 979 (indicating the industry; in this case, 978 denotes book publishing)[9]
2. the group identifier, (language-sharing country group)[10]
3. the publisher code,[11]
4. the item number (title of the book),[11] and
5. a checksum character or check digit.[11]

314) Library Legislation refers to the development of

(A) Academic Libraries

(B) Special Libraries

(C) Public Libraries

(D) None of the above

315) IASLIC was founded in the year

(A) 3 September 1955 :Kolkata

(B) 1965

(C) 1975
(D) 1985

316) Calcutta Public Library was established during

(A) 15th Century

(B) 16th Century

(C) 19th Century

(D) 20th Century.

317)_______ budgeting does not take into account what happened in the past but emphasizes on
current activities.

(A) Formula

(B) Performance

(C) Programme

(D) Zero-base

318) The library budget of a university is passed by the?

(A) Senate

(B) Executive Council

(C) Academic Council

(D) Research Council

319) In fund accounting, _______ fund cannot be used for other purposes.

(A) Recurring

(B) Non-recurring
(C) Restricted

(D) Encumbering

320) Scrutiny of financial transactions is called

(A) Budgeting

(B) Programming

(C) Accounting

(D) Auditing

321) ________ is one of the records of circulation section.

(A) Accession Register

(B) Day book

(C) Catalogue Card

(D) AACR-2 (R)

322) The marketing concepts in Library Service include

(A) analysis, planning, implementation and control

(B) advertising, planning, analysis and control

(C) distribution, control, analysis, implementation

(D) indexing, planning, control and implementation.

323 There are a few basic factors which may be applied in winning the hearts of the readers.
They are

(A) Psychological factor, environmental factor, social factor

(B) Self factor, psychological factor, service factor

(C) Service factor, philosophical factor, self factor

(Dl Technological factor, service factor, self factor.

324) Physical condition of the books should be property maintaine(D) This is known as

(A) Collation.

(B) Conservation

(C) Shelf-arrangement

(D) Organization

325) ________ is an important record of books, which shows the position of any book on the
shelves.

(A) Bay Guide

(B) Authority File

(C) Accession List.

(D) Shelf. .List

326) Three great achievements in U.S.A. were noticed i.e. enunciation of DDC classification
scheme, formation of American Library Association and the publication of 1st Journal of the
librarianship in the year

(A) 1857

(B) 1859

(C) 1876

(D) 1901.
327) Books lost from the library are known through ________

(A) Stock verification

(B) Charging and discharging

(C) Shelf list

(D) Accession Register

328) LA is the Library Association of

(A) Manipur

(B) Andhra Pradesh

(C) Great Britain

(Dl Canada.

329) Of the following libraries in India, which one is the oldest library ?

(A) Asiatic Society Library, Bombay

(B) Connemara Public Library, Madras

(C) Delhi Public Library, Delhi

(D) National Library of India, Calcutta.

330) The first centre to use computer in the library and information activities in India is

(A) DESIDOC

(B) INSDOC

(C) DRTC

(D) UGC.
331) Sheets before and after the text of a book are called _________.

(A) End papers

(B) Attach cover

(C) Head bands

(D) Gilding

332) Leather being used as one of the binding materials i.e., _________ is the strongest leather.

(A) Roan

(B) Imitation

(C) Pig skin

(D) Sheep skin

333) ________ has prescribed certain standards for library binding.

(A) ILA

(B) ALA .

(C) BLA

(D) NBT

334) ________ is a process of helping employees in an organization to acquire new skills and
competence on a continuing basis

(A) Total Quality Management

(B) Management Information System

(C) Financial Resources Development

(D) Human Resources Development.

335) A skillful method of providing means, mechanism and structural elements to streamline
organizational work is known as _______

(A) Strategic planning

(B) Role analysis

(C) Work culture

(D) Autonomous planning

336) On which of the following technologies semantic web is not based?

(A) RDF

(B) Ontologies

(C) Cloud seeding

(D) URI

337) World Wide Web (WWW) was first designed by whom?

(A) Charles Babbage (B) F. W. Lancaster

(C) Ted Nelson

(D) Tim Berner's Lee

338) Which generation computers uses integrated circuits(ICs)?

(A) First

(B) Second

(C) Third
(D) Fourth

339) The concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) belongs to ____________________

(A) Second Generation Computers

(B) Third Generation Computers

(C) Fourth Generation Computers

(D) Fifth Generation Computers

340) Computer memory is measured in ____________________

(A) Bytes

(B) Kilobytes

(C) Megabytes

(D) All of the above

341) The term "Cyberspace" was first used by _________________

(A) Andrew Pollock

(B) William Gibson

(C) John Postal

(D) Joe Flower

342) The term hypertext was coined by whom?

(A) Ted Nelson

(B) Vannevan Bush

(C) John Brown

(D) J. C. Kith

343) What are three types of basic languages used in computer programming?

(A) Zero, low and high levels

(B) COBOL, BASIC and PROLOG

(C) FOTRAN, PL/I and SNOWBOL

(D) Machine, Assembly and high level lannguages

344) When CD-ROM was prepared and made?

(A) 1985

(B) 1982

(C) 1980

(D) 1977

345) In how many ways switching system can be established?

(A) Two

(B) Three

(C) Five

(D) Seven

346) Which type of switching system is telephone network?

(A) Circuit switching

(B) Packet switching

(C) Message switching

(D) None of the above

347) Which of the following software is useful for word processing?

(A) DBASE

(B) LIBSYS

(C) WordStar

(D) CDS/ISIS

348) NICNET and INDONET are the networks of which category?

(A) LAN

(B) MAN

(C) WAN

(D) IN

349) Who designed analytical engine?

(A) Charles Babbage

(B) Pascal

(C) James watt

(D) Boyl

350) Calculating machine is developed by

(A) Charles Babbage

(B) Pascal

(C) Shakuntala Devi

(D) Boyl

351) What is a bug?

(A) Computer Virus

(B) Error in Computer Configuration

(C) Error in a Programme

(D) None of these

352) Which is not a programming language?

(A) FORTRAN

(B) BASIC

(C) COBOL

(D) ASCII

353) ENIAC stands for?

(A) Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator

(B) Electrified Numerical Integration and Calculator

(C) Electronic Number Integrator and Calculator

(D) Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator

354) ISO-9960 is related with?

(A) Standard for encoding data on CD-ROM

(B) Standard for Computer Hardware

(C) Standard for Information Processing

(D) Standard for Networking

355) ASCII has how many codes?

(A) 256

(B) 526

(C) 265

(D) 254

356) Raw, unevaluated, unprocessed and unorganized facts is known as:

(A) Data

(B) Information

(C) Knowledge

(D) Wisdom

357) INTERNET was initially developed by US Department of

(A) Commerce

(B) Defense

(C) Interior

(D) State
358) Information retrieval is fastest from

(A) Floppy Disk

(B) Magnetic Tape

(C) Hard Disk

(D) None of the above

359) An University providing Open Access to Sanskrit dissertations through Internet

(A) Jawaharlal Nehru University

(B) Delhi University

(C) Mahatma Gandhi University

(D) University of Madras

360) In which of the following the term “Truncation” is used

(A) Budgeting

(B) Search Formulation

(C) Coordination

(D) Classified bibliography

361) The term “Hypertext” was coined by

(A) Garfield

(B) Bill Gates

(C) Ted Nelson

(D) Raj Reddy

362) UNIX is a

(A) Single user operating system

(B) Double user operating system

(C) Triple user operating system

(D) Multi user operating system

363) The CD alphabets in CDS/ISIS stands for

(A) Computerized Documentation

(B) Condensed Disk

(C) Confirmed Disc

(D) Compact Disc

364) LYCOS is a

(A) Search engine

(B) Programming language

(C) Database

(D) Database vendor

365) Electronic telecommunications system joining millions of computers together.

(A) E-mail

(B) Internet
(C) US Mail

(D) UPS

366) Following is not a social bookmarking site:

(A) Digg

(B) Delicious

(C) Sqidoo

(D) Facebook

367) Following is not a network protocol:

(A) HTTP

(B) SMTP

(C) TCP/IP

(D) Z39.50

368) LOCKOSS (Lots Of Copies Keep Stuff Safe) (Software) is an international

community initiative by:

(A) MIT Libraries

(B) Stanford University

(C) University of Waikato

(D) University of Southampton

369) Identify the odd one from the following:

(A) Koha
(B) VTLS

(C) SLIM++

(D) SOUL

370) Following is not a Web 2.0 tool:

(A) Blog

(B) Facebook

(C) UGC-INFONET 2.0

(D) RSS feeds

371) PDA stands for:

(A) Personal Digital Assistance

(B) Personal Document Archive

(c) Personal Digital Archive

(D) Program Download Accessories

372) PLONE is a:

(A) Content Mnagement System

(B) Digital Library Software

(C) ILMS

(D) Federated Search Engine

373) Pi is the e-book reading device by:

(A) Amazon

(B) Sony

(C) Infibeam

(D) Nokia

374) Following is an example of microblogging:

(A) Wordpress

(B) Blogspot

(C) Livejournal

(D) Twitter

375) Who invented OSI Model in 1982

(A) BSO

(B) ISI

(C) Indian standerd orgganisation

(D) International standard organisation

376) Where ISDN was first started in 1990

(A) USA

(B) UK

(C) India

(D) Singapore
377) Now-a-days how many tipes of Protocol are used ?

(A) 5

(B) 4

(C) 3

(D) 2

378) Which type of protocol is used by interface for public data network(PDN) ?

(A) X.25

(B) X.12

(C) X.13

(D) X.20

379) CCF stands for

(A) Common Communication Format

(B) Centre for Communication Format

(C) Committee for Communication Format

(D) Common Curriculum Format

380) In Which five year plan the INFLIBNET was established

(A) Fourth five year plan

(B) Fifth five year plan

(C) Sixth five year plan

(D) Seventh five year plan

381) INFLIBNET headquarters is located at

(A) Ahmedabad

(B) New Delhi

(C) Bangalore

(D) Chennai

382) Resource sharing is a part of …

(A) Library cooperation

(B) Library administration

(C) Library management

(D) Library cataloguing

383) What is the full form of ERNET?

(A) Engineering Network

(B) Eastern Regional Network

(C) Electronic Research Network

(D) Education and Research Network

384) Which network in India provided the first e-mail service in the country?

(A) NICNET

(B) DELNET

(C) ERNET
(D) INFLIBNET

385) Who publishes Annals of Library Science and documentation?

(A) ILA

(B) INSDOC

(C) DRTC

(D) IASLIC

386) What one is full text e-Resource ?

(A) JCCC

(B) ISID

(C) Science finder scholar

(D) ACS

387) Which one is E-Bibliographic database?

(A) Nature

(B) Blackwell

(C) ISID

(D) Springer

388) Virtua accomadates Different version of the MARC Standard?

(A) USMARC

(B) UKMARC
(C) CANMARC

(D) SWEMARC/All of above

389) Which is the journal of Library and Information Science?

(A) Abacus

(B) Acta numerica

(C) Interlending and Document supply

(D) All of above

390) The Electronic Library is......................

(A) A Magazine

(B) A Journal Name

(C) A LIbrary

(D) An Encyclopeadia

391) What is e-prints ?

(A) A catalogue

(B) A journal

(C) A repository Software

(D) An encyclopeadia

392) What two is a Library Management Software for small libraries?

(A) Library Solution and Follet

(B) Follet and MSN

(C) MSN and Tar

(D) LYCOS and Live Search

393) What is APS ?

(A) A Search Engine?

(B) A Full-text e-resourse

(C) Bibliographic database

(D) Library Management Software

394) Which one is Library and Information Science Journal name?

(A) Reference Reviews incorporating ASLIB Book Guide

(B) Reference Reviews incorporating ASLIB Book journals

(C) Reference Reviews incorporating ASLIB Book Review

(D) Reference Reviews incorporating ASLIB E-Book

395) "Shodhganga" is a national level repository of:

(A) E-Books

(B) E-Journals

(C) E-Theses

(D) Journal Articles

396) Questionnaire is a :
(A) Research method

(B) Measurement Technique

(C) Tool for data collection

(D) All the above

397) Mean, Median and Mode are :

(A) Measures of deviation

(B) Ways of sampling

(C) Measures of central tendency

(D) None of the above

398) ‘Cranfield Studies’ are an example of :

(A) Survey Research

(B) Experimental Research

(C) Historical Research

(D) Case Study

399) Research is

(A) Searching again and again

(B) Finding solution to any problem

(C) Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem

(D) None of the above

400) Which of the following is the first step in starting the research process?

(A) Searching sources of information to locate problem.

(B) Survey of related literature

(C) Identification of problem

(D) Searching for solutions to the problem

These questions and answers are compiled by Dr. Badan Barman, O. P. Saini, Kankana Baishya,
Shradha Shukla, Vaibhavi Thacker, Md.Iliyas Kakandikar,and Pusparaj Naik.

Mistake in answer, duplication in questions and other errors should be reported to Dr. Badan
Barman at badanbarman at gmail dot com.

401) A common test in research demands much priority on

(A) Reliability

(B) Useability

(C) Objectivity

(D) All of the above

402) Action research means

(A) A longitudinal research

(B) An applied research

(C) A research initiated to solve an immediate problem

(D) A research with socioeconomic objective

403) A reasoning where we start with certain particular statements and conclude with a universal
statement is called

(A) Deductive Reasoning

(B) Inductive Reasoning

(C) Abnormal Reasoning

(D) Transcendental Reasoning

404) Which of the following variables cannot be expressed in quantitative terms?

(A) Socio-economic Status

(B) Marital Status

(C) Numerical Aptitude

(D) Professional Attitude

405) The essential qualities of a researcher are

(A) Spirit of free enquiry

(B) Reliance on observation and evidence

(C) Systematization or theorizing of knowledge

(D) All the above

406) In the process of conducting research ‘Formulation of Hypothesis” is followed by

(A) Statement of Objectives

(B) Analysis of Data

(C) Selection of Research Tools

(D) Collection of Data

407) A research paper is a brief report of research work based on

(A) Primary Data only

(B) Secondary Data only

(C) Both Primary and Secondary Data

(D) None of the above

408) One of the following is not an open source software :

(A) D’space

(B) Windows

(C) Green-stone

(D) Linux

409) When RRRLF was established?

(A) 1970

(B) 1971

(C) 1972

(D) 1974

410) Where is the headquarter of RRRLF?

(A) Banglore

(B) Delhi

(C) Calcutta
(D) Lucknow

411) Who provides the ISBN?

(A) Niscair

(B) Nissat

(C) Insdoc

(D) RRRLF

412) RRRLF provides the?

(A) ISSN

(B) ISBN

(C) CCF

(D) MARC

413) ”It is a library with little or no physical presence of books, periodicals, reading space or
support staff, but are that disseminate disseminate selective information directly to distribute
library customers, usually electronically”. Said by whom?

(A) Kay Gapen

(B) Powell

(C) Sherwell

(D) H. G. Wells

414) ”A library is a public institution or establishment charged with the care of collection of
books, the duty of making them accessible to those who require the use of them and the task of
converting every person in its neighborhood into a habitual library goers and reader of
books.”Quoted by whom?
(A) Dr S R Ranganathan

(B) K.N.Raj

(C) C.A.Cutter

(D) W.C.Sayers

415) Classification of all types of libraries has been made by-

(A) IFLA

(B) UNISIST

(C) UNESCO

(D) INSDOC

416) ”Special libraries serve a specialist clientele, located within a single establishment or group
and all engaged in working towards one common purpose.” Who said this

(A) R.Astall

(B) UNESCO

(C) J.D.Brown

(D) E.C.Richardson

417) Reading centre’s, story hours, exhibitions and reading to literature are forms of …

(A) Extension service

(B) Service of a public library

(C) Both

(D) None
418) Which library first introduced the printed catalog

(A) British Museum

(B) Library of Congress

(C) Lelin State

(D) Imperial Library

419) Informal self education is possible in what kind of library?

(A) National Library

(B) Public Library

(C) Specific Library

(D) College Library

420) which is correct logical sequence of the following.

(A) Information, Knowledge, Data, Wisdom

(B) Knowledge, Wisdom, Information, Data

(C) Wisdom, Information, Data, Knowledge

(D) Data, Infomation, Knowledge, Wisdom

421) The Term ‘Cyberspace’ was first used by-

(A) Andrew Pollack

(B) William Gibsom

(C) Johan Postal

(D) Joe Flower

422) RFID technology is used in-

(A) Acquisition

(B) Serial Control

(C) Circulation Control

(D) OPAC

423) The process of configuring the disk into tracks and sector is called-

(A) Booting

(B) Labelling

(C) Formatting

(D) All the above

424) Which of the following is a public domain database-

(A) INIS

(B) AGRIS

(C) Chemical Abstract

(D) MEDLINE

425) One of the following is not an open source software-

(A) D’space

(B) Window

(C) Green Stone

(D) Linux

426) ……………………. Is a process of information

(A) Books

(B) CD-ROM

(C) Computers

(D) None of the above

427) Feedback mechanism is a part of which service?

(A) Reprography

(B) CAS

(C) Translation service

(D) SDI

428) What is the collection of terms or records in MARC called ?

(A) System

(B) Network

(C) Website

(D) Database

429) Which network in India provided the first e-mail service in the country ?

(A) NICNET

(B) ERNET
(C) INFLIBNET

(D) DELNET

430) What is Bibliometry ?

(A) Function of Library Network

(B) Information Management Service

(C) Information Management Tool

(D) Library Service

431) Microchip was invented by…..

(A) Microsoft

(B) IBM

(C) DELL

(D) Intel

432) Information is…..

(A) Raw Data

(B) Processed Data

(C) Input data

(D) Organized data

433) Identify the association that has changed its original name :

(A) ILA
(B) SLA

(C) LA

(D) ALA

434) Conference proceedings are considered as..................documents.

(A) Conventional

(B) Primary

(C) Secondary

(D) Tertiary

435) Rules for dictionary catalogue were devised by :

(A) A. Pannizzi

(B) C. C. Jewet

(C) S. Lubetzky

(D) C. A. Cutter

436) RSS feed is a tool of :

(A) Graphic design

(B) Web 1.0

(C) Web 2.0

(D) Architecture

437) An appropriate source to find out descriptive information is................ .

(A) Bibliography

(B) Directory

(C) Encyclopedia

(D) Dictionary

438) Glossary is a :

(A) List of technical words with definitions

(B) List of words in a language

(C) List of thematically arranged words

(D) Alphabetical index to passages of work

439) One of the following search engine is exclusively meant for scientific information :

(A) Google

(B) Yahoo

(C) SCIRUS

(D) Altavista

440) Technological Gatekeeper is :

(A) A formal method of giving current awareness service

(B) A method of technology assessment and evaluation

(C) A process of transfer of technology

(D) An informal mechanism of keeping user informed of relevant development

441) Who among the following honoured with ‘Nobel Prize’ for his substantial contribution in
Documentation ?

(A) S. C. Bradford

(B) Loosjes

(C) Eric De Grolier

(D) Henri La Fontaine

442) The Farmington plan is associated with :

(A) Library Legislation

(B) Library Cataloguing

(C) Library Cooperation

(D) Library Indexing Service

443) UNESCO assisted Model Public Library in India is located at :

(A) Kolkata

(B) Delhi

(C) Mumbai

(D) Chennai

444) Mark the ‘odd one out’ :

(A) Cow-Calf principle

(B) Principle of osmosis

(C) Wall picture principle

(D) Whole organ principle

445) GUI stands for :

(A) Graphic User Interface

(B) Graphic User Interaction

(C) Graphic Utility Interface

(D) Great Union of India

446) Shelf list facilitates................ .

(A) Classification

(B) Weeding out

(C) Stock verification

(D) Documentation

447) The office of patent information system in India is at............ .

(A) Mumbai

(B) New Delhi

(C) Kolkata

(D) Nagpur

448) Questionnaire is a :

(A) Research method

(B) Measurement technique

(C) Tool for data collection

(D) Data analysis technique

449) A periodical evaluation of an employee is done through........... .

(A) Job rotation

(B) Performance appraisal

(C) Refresher course

(D) Work guide

450) CCF stands for................ .

(A) Current Classification Format

(B) Current Communication Format

(C) Common Communication Format

(D) Common Classification Format

451) “Controlled Group” is a term used in.............. .

(A) Survey research

(B) Historical research

(C) Experimental research

(D) Descriptive research

452) ‘Noise’ in Information Retrieval is due to............. .

(A) Precision

(B) Recall
(C) Relevant information

(D) Redundant information

453) The concept “Invisible College” first used by :

(A) Eugene Garfield

(B) Derek Solla Price

(C) Allent Kent

(D) Carl Savage

454) Who enunciated the term ‘hypertext’ ?

(A) E. Garfield

(B) Bill Gates

(C) Ted Nelson

(D) Raj Reddy

455) ‘Cranfield Project’ is an example of.................... .

(A) Experimental Research

(B) Survey Research

(C) Case Study

(D) Historical Research

456) IFLA took up the “Universal Availability of Publication” program in the year............... .

(A) 1973
(B) 1976

(C) 1972

(D) 1970

457) International Information System on Research in Documentation (ISORID) was established

by :

(A) IFLA

(B) UNESCO

(C) SLA

(D) ALA

458) What is the relationship between ISBD and cataloguing codes ?

(A) They are not related at all

(B) Cataloguing codes will include bibliographic description

(C) ISBD includes cataloguing rules

(D) ISBD can replace cataloguing rules

459) COPSAT stands for............... .

(A) Cooperative periodicals in science and technology

(B) Current online periodicals in science and technology

(C) Current online patent in science and technology

(D) Contents of periodicals in science and technology

460) The journal “Knowledge Organization” is published by :

(A) IFLA

(B) ISKO

(C) LA

(D) LC

461) Tagging in web 2.0 application is called :

(A) Taxonomy

(B) Folksonomy

(C) Syndication

(D) Directory

462) Inductive logic proceeds from :

(A) General to General

(B) Particular to General

(C) General to Particular

(D) Particular to Particular

463) CRG stands for :

(A) Committee for Rural Grant

(B) Classification Research Group

(C) Committee for Ranganathan Guild

(D) Classic Research Grant

464) Which of the following is not a “Graphic representation” ?

(A) Pie Chart

(B) Bar Chart

(C) Table

(D) Histogram

465) “Fair use” is a term most relevant to :

(A) Intellectual Property Right

(B) Books borrowed for home reading

(C) Copyright

(D) Use of reference books

466) The oldest and the largest Library Association in the world is............. .

(A) ALA

(B) LA

(C) IFLA

(D) IASLIC

467) Which of the following is not covered under Intellectual Property Rights ?

(A) Copyrights

(B) Patents

(C) Trade Marks

(D) Thesaurus
468) Ontology is................. .

(A) An Indexing Method

(B) Classification of Internet based documents

(C) Cataloguing of Internet based documents

(D) Documentation service

469) Mozilla is................ .

(A) An operating system

(B) Library software

(C) A web browser

(D) A search engine

470) The concept of concretes and processes was given by.............. .

(A) Kaiser

(B) H. P. Luhn

(C) Derek Austin

(D) S. R. Ranganathan

471) Chairman of National Knowledge Commission is............... .

(A) Pranab Mukherjee

(B) Nandan Nilekani

(C) P. Chidambaram
(D) Sam Pitroda

472) High Level Language is.................. .

(A) Disk space dependent

(B) O. S. dependent

(C) Machine independent

(D) Machine dependent

473) The transmission of receiver’s reaction back to the sender is known as................. .

(A) Noise

(B) Feedback

(C) Medium

(D) Source

474) Currently “Science Citation Index” is published by................... .

(A) Emerald

(B) Springer

(C) Thomson

(D) Elsevier

475) Protocol means............... .

(A) Interchange of data between two devices

(B) Interchange of data between two computers

(C) Linkage between two computers

(D) Linkage between two devices

476. Which of the following is an ‘Acronym’ ?

(A) UNESCO

(B) UNO

(C) UNDP

(D) UGC

477) A set of rules that govern overall data communications system is popularly known
as............... .

(A) Protocol

(B) Agreement

(C) Pact

(D) Memorandum

478) Staffing is concerned with providing and maintaining................resources.

(A) Physical

(B) Technical

(C) Human

(D) Financial

479) Which of the following is not true about e journals ?

(A) They are distributed through digital methods

(B) They also have editors or editorial boards

(C) They are publications of serial nature

(D) They are always free of cost

480) What is the meaning of 'Translation Pools' ?

(A) Details about the names of translation experts

(B) Details about the addresses of the translators

(C) Agency of the names of translation experts

(D) None of these.

481) How is stochastic equation of information solved ?

(A) By statistical rules

(B) By dynamic rules

(C) By statistical and dynamic rules

(D) None of these.

482) Whether Library is a system ?

(A) Yes, it has various sections as sub-systems coordinating each other forming a system

(B) No, it cannot be a system

(C) It is quite impossible

(D) Library is separate from a system.

483) The 'Five Laws of Library Science' propounded by Dr. S. R. Ranganathan, is which type of
research ?
(A) Applied research

(B) Pure research

(C) Basic research

(D) Survey research.

484) Information Science is a discipline that investigates

(A) The properties and behaviour of information

(B) The forces governing the flow of information

(C) The means for processing of information for optimal uses

(D) All of these.

485) 'Kinesis' is related to

(A) Communication

(B) Generation

(C) Storage

(D) None of these.

486) The term 'Bibliophile' refers to

(A) A Bibliographer

(B) A Book Lover

(C) A Publisher

(D) A Book Binder.

487) Theory X and Theory Y were formulated by

(A) Douglas Murray McGregor

(B) Peter Drucker

(C) Abraham Maslow

(D) F. W. Taylor.

488) MeSH is the name of a

(A) Medical Library

(B) C.S.I.R. Unit

(C) Controlled Vocabulary

(D) none of these.

489) Which record is the hub of the stack in a library ?

(A) Accession register

(B) Shelf list register

(C) Book catalogue

(D) Staff manual.

490) In which year did A. W. Borden start a refresher course for librarians in India ?

(A) 1905

(B) 1910

(C) 1912

(D) 1913.
491) A. B. Maslow is related to

(A) Theory X and Theory Y

(B) Hierarchy of human needs

(C) 14 principles

(D) Hygienic factors.

492) Information may be categorised into

(A) Logical, analytical and statistical

(B) Statistical, descriptive and analytical

(C) Analytical, statistical and systematic

(D) Systematic, analytical and descriptive.

493) What is not open source software for library management ?

(A) KOHA

(B) AVANT1

(C) php my Library

(D) Z.39.50

494) What is Delphi method ?

(A) It is a programming language

(B) It is a method of research

(C) It is a software
(D) It is used for cost-benefit analysis.

495) Who contributed on the systematic use of user's education ?

(A) S.S.Green

(B) Melvil Dewey

(C) E. J. Coates

(D) Patricia B. Knapp.

496) Who said 'some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed
and digested' ?

(A) John Milton

(B) William Jones

(C) Francis Bacon

(D) Benjamin Franklin.

497) In which year was the International Book Year celebrated by UNESCO ?

(A) 1931

(B) 1947

(C) 1952

(D) 1972.

498) What is the full form of IATLIS ?

(A) International Association of Trade Unions of Library Science

(B) Indian Association of Teachers in Library & Information Science:1969

(C) Indian Airlines Technical Lower Intelligence Services

(D) Indian Air Traffic Light, Information and Signal.

499) ISBN consists of

(A) Ten digits

(B) Thirteen digits

(C) 8-bytes

(D) There are no digits.

500) DDC 22nd edition is published by

(A) Forest Press

(B) OCLC

(C) IFLA

(D) UNESCO.

Library Trends: Johns Hopkins University:marry land :Canada

Library Herald;Delhi Library Association

Herald of lis:

UDC IN 40 LANGUAGES

Universal decimal classification. Abridged edition :2003:by BSI: PD 1000:2003

Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). Complete edition. Volumes 1 & 2

Published : August 2006 : BIP 0017:2006

 UDC: Universal Decimal Classification. Standard edition. 2 volumes. London : BSI, 2005.

1. S.R. Ranganathan : Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan Ayyar

2. Melvil Dewey : Melville Louis Kossuth Dewey
3. Berwick Sayers : William Charles Berwick Sayers
4. L.S. Jast : Louis Stanley Jastrzebski
5. S.C. Bradford : Samuel Clement Bradford
6. E.A. Savage : Ernest Albert Savage
7. E. C. Richardson : Ernest Cushing Richardson
8. Paul Otlet : Paul- Marie- Ghislain Otlet
9. B. S. Kesavan : Bellary Shamanna Kesavan
10. B. I. Palmer : Bernard Ira Palmer
1.Web Resources and Film Preservation
1. Web Resources Preservation: According to a report by the US Library of Congress, 44% of
the site available on the internet in 1998 had vanished one year later. Web archiving is the
process of collecting portions of the World Wide Web and ensuring that the collection is
preserved in an archive, such as an archive site, for future researchers, historians, and the public.
The Internet Archive is a non-profit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to
all knowledge. It offers permanent storage and access to collections of digitized materials,
including websites, music, moving images, and books. The Internet Archive was founded by
Brewster Kahle in 1996.

2. Film Preservation: The film preservation, or film restoration, movement is an ongoing

project among film historians, archivists, museums, cinematheques, and non-profit organizations
to rescue decaying film stock and preserve the images contained therein. In the widest sense, its
aim is to assure that a movie will continue to exist, as close to its original form as possible. Films
are highly inflammable. So, necessary action should be taken so that in no case it comes in
contact with high temperature.
Like print, digital media, and film, the paintings, photographs, phonograph also demand some
special preservation techniques.

3. Let Us Sum Up: Prevention of deterioration measures significantly extends the usual life of
all types of documents and must need to be implemented. In doing so, the person concerned
should work with curators, recommending officers, and other preservation staff to make
decisions about binding, housing, and related matters.
Remedies against environmental damage of reading material include shielding from sunlight, air
conditioning and such others in all walk of the material such as in store, on display, or in transit.
The storage areas should be clean and clutter, dust, dirt etc should not be allowed to accumulate
within the storage areas. When the books are in the shelf, safe storage or use of proper storage
cabinet by way of keeping the valuable reading material in box and keeping documents in
between metal supporters provide protection against mechanical damage. It also helps the
document in being free from dust, dirt and direct exposure of light.
Insects, mold, rodents are dangerous for a document. Generally pests are attached by clutter and
the food remnants. So, eating, drinking etc should be prohibited in a place where collections are
kept. During cleanliness all necessary measures should be taken so that cleanliness itself does not
damage the fragile materials. In the library, disaster recovery plan should be put in place.
Repairing of document includes use of adhesive, repairing tears, etc. Tears in leaves can be
carefully aligned and repaired with the strips of Japanese paper and a starch paste or other
suitable adhesive that bears the quality of good conservative. This process should be followed by
binding. Generally library binding is considered good for many kinds of documents. The special
collection should be treated specially.
Because of the big volume of library material having chances of deteriorating widely,
diverse material and methods for preserving them involves considerable cost.

Web Directories
Web Directories: A web directory or link directory is a directory of Web sites by subject on the
World Wide Web which are most often created by humans. It specializes in linking to other web
sites and classifying and categorizing those links often with a description. Many large directories
include a keyword search option which usually eliminates the need to work through numerous
levels of topics and subtopics.
The earliest Subject Directory search engine which covered WWW sites worldwide was The
World Wide Web Virtual Library. It presented an alphabetical index of subjects and is based on
Library of Congress Classification System. The most successful subject directory as well as
subject directory search engine is probably Yahoo that was originated as a student run service,
but now a profitable commercial site. It uses its own classification system.
a) Types: A web directory can be a real web directory that deals with all resources in all types of
subject areas or it may only deal with the resources of a particular subject areas. In the latter case
it is more commonly known as subject directory.
i) Subject Directories: A subject directory is a catalogue of sites collected and organized by
humans in a specific subject only. Subject directories are often called subject "trees" because
they start with a few main categories and then branch out into subcategories, topics, and
subtopics.
ii) Subject Gateways: According to Place (2000), “Subject gateways are Internet- based services
designed to help the users locate high quality information that is available on the Internet. They
are, typically, data bases of detailed metadata (or catalogue) records which describes Internet
resources and offer a hyperlink to the resources.” Users can choose to either search the database
by keyword, or to browse the resources under subject headings”. Generally subject directory is
treated as a broader term than that of Subject Gateways.
b) Importance: Because humans organize the websites in subject directories and it covers only a
small fraction of the pages available on the web, one can often find a good starting point if the
topic is included. Directories are also useful for finding information on a topic when you don't
have a precise idea of what you need. They are also most effective for finding general
information on popular or scholarly subjects.
Subject directory search engines are trying to compete with search engines. Web directories such
as Yahoo and The Open Directory are, in a sense, the Internet equivalent of a public library and
differ from the search engine in its provision of browsing the resources by some categories.
c) Examples: The following are some of the popular web directories-
i) Yahoo! (http://in.dir.yahoo.com/): Yahoo! aims to be the biggest Internet directories, with a
high level of coverage and popular appeal as high priorities. It is an excellent site for finding
topics that appeal to the general public. Currently, a search in Yahoo is being passed to AltaVista.
However, people can still use its directory.
ii) Open Directory Project (http://dmoz.org/): Open Directory lists scholarly and popular
websites. The Open Directory Project, also known as Directory Mozilla (DMOZ), relies on a
volunteer work force of editors who, by selecting, classifying and cataloguing resources, are
trying to build the largest library on the Internet. Mozilla was an early name for the Netscape
Navigator Web browser. DMOZ is owned by Netscape Communications, but the information and
database are freely available to other companies. The raw open-source directory is used by
Google, Netscape Search, AOL Search, Lycos, HotBot, and DirectHit.
iii) BUBL Link (http://bubl.ac.uk/): BUBL Link uses the Dewey Decimal Classification
system as the primary organization structure for its catalogue of Internet resources. It carefully
selected and accurately catalogued many LIS resources. It was developed by Centre for Digital
Library Research, Department of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Strathclyde,
Livingstone Tower, 26 Richmond Street, Glasgow G1 1XH, Scotland.
iv) About.com: At About.com (http://www.about.com/) you’ll find a directory with a twist. Each
topic area has an assigned "Guide" responsible for writing articles and organizing links on the
topic.
The other web directories include Internet Public Library (http://www.ipl.org/), Librarians' Index
to the Internet (http://www.lii.org/), WWW Virtual Library (http://vlib.org/), Google directory
(http://directory.google.com/), Looksmart, etc..
The Internet Library for Librarians (http://www.itcompany.com/inforetriever/) is a subject
directory. UNESCO, IFLA, etc also have subject directories. Besides, many individual especially
LIS professional also develop their subject directories, but because of space, we cannot do justice
to all such sites.

Web 2.0
Web 2.0: Web 2.0 is a set of technologies and service that allows people to contribute as much as
they consume. The term “Web 2.0” was officially coined in 2004 by Dale Dougherty, a vice-
president of O’Reilly Media Inc., during a team discussion on a potential future conference about
the Web.
The web 2.0 technologies rely on user generated content and support the provision of interaction
among them. Some of the web 2.0 technologies are
Blog: It is a web-based publication consisting primarily of periodic articles normally in reverse
chronological order with reflections, comments, and often hyperlinks provided by the writer.
Bookmarking: It allows users to create lists of “bookmarks” or “favourites”, to store these
centrally on a remote service (rather than within the client browser) and to share them with
other users of the system. Examples include digg, del.icio.us, Netvouz, furl, Connectedy and
CiteULike.
Crowdsourcing: The term crowdsourcing was coined by Wired journalist Jeff Howe to
conceptualise a process of Web-based out-sourcing for the procurement of media content, small
tasks, even solutions to scientific problems from the crowd gathered on the Internet.
Folksonomy: The term folksonomy is generally acknowledged to have been coined by Thomas
Vander Wal. It is a collection of tags created by an individual for their own personal use.
Folksonomy is the result of personal free tagging of information and objects (anything with a
URL) for one’s own retrieval. Examples include discogs.com for music and LibraryThing.
Mashup: A mashup is an element that combines information from multiple systems using Web
Services to provide an aggregate service. Personal home pages are an example of a mashup that
combines information from disparate sources to a single, personalized web page. Eg. iGoogle
Page.
Podcasts: Podcasts are audio recordings, usually in MP3 format, of talks, interviews and
lectures, which can be played either on a desktop computer or on a wide range of handheld
MP3 devices.
RSS Feed Aggregation Tool: RSS feed aggregation tools gather information from diverse
sources across the Web and publish in one place.
RSS: RSS is a family of formats which allow users to find out about updates to the content of
RSS-enabled websites, blogs or podcasts without actually having to go and visit the site.
Social Network: A social network or online community is a web based service focuses on
building online communities of people who share interests and / or activities by a variety of
ways. Example. YouTube (video) Flickr (photographs) and Odeo (podcasts), Myspace, and
Facebook.
Tagging: A tag is a keyword that is added to a digital object (e.g. a website, picture or video
clip) to describe it, but not as part of a formal classification system.
Wiki: A wiki is a type of editable website that allows users to add, remove, or otherwise edit
and change most content very quickly and easily, sometimes without the need for registration
by using relatively easy to use wiki syntax
virtual Library: Virtual Reality (VR) is an illusive environment for the eyes, ears and other
sense organs where user can experience the real world in an artificially created
environment by the computer system. It is a state of real sensational feeling in an imaginary
environment. The environment is so perfectly created and highly stimulated that one can
experience just like a real situation but with a full control over the environment.
a) Definition: Virtual Library refers to the scientifically managed collection of information
resources and services on site as well as off site that are available in a virtual reality
environment and accessible electronically through the internet at any time from any
geographical location.Such type of library only exists in the networked environment, without
the physical existence of books or journals on the shelves.
Kay Gapen’s 1994 defines the Virtual Library as The concept of remote access to
the content and services of libraries and other information resources combining an onsite
collection of current and heavily used material in both print and electronic form, with an
electronic network that provide access to and delivery from external World Wide library and
commercial information and knowledge sources.
Powell 1994 defines Virtual Library as It is a library with little or no physical
presence of books, periodicals, reading space or support staff, but are that disseminate
selective information directly to distribute library customers, usually electronically.
An electronic library may or may not be virtual. Eg. If the holding of a library is
available in CD ROM, DVD ROM, etc. and these resources only can be accessed through a
stand alone computer but not through the internet or WAN, then it is termed as electronic
library and not as virtual library. Further the VL set up should give an illusive environment
of the real library world.
b) Characteristic of Virtual Library: The main characteristics of Virtual Library are as
follows-
i) Information sources should be stored in 3 D format, electronically.
ii) Library staff should be able to work in the library from any geographical location.
iii) Library Services such as union catalogue, OPAC, CAS, SDI, etc should be available at the
user desktop, itself.
iv) All resources should be accessible over Internet with effective Searching, Browsing and
Navigation options.
v) The library should be integrated with Bulletin Board, Blog, Email, Voice Mail, E-List, Audio
Conferencing, Video Conferencing, etc services.
vi) Constant training and retraining must be imparted both to the library staff as well as library
user to talk with the newly emerging technologies.
vii) It may or may not have a physical existence.
Sherwell (1997) describes the characteristic of Virtual Library as-
i) There is no corresponding physical collection.
ii) Documents will be available in electronic format.
iii) Documents are not stored in any one location.
iv) Documents can be accessed from any workstation.
v) Documents are retrieved and delivered as and when required and
vi) Effective search and Browse facility are available.
c) Technology behind Virtual Library: Creation of Virtual Library involves use of highly
sophisticated technology that includes:
i) Use of multimedia material for information storage.
ii) Use of 3D sound, 3D Graphics, 3D Photo, etc.
iii) Use of Voice Message, Audio Conferencing, Video Conferencing, etc by the library staff as
well as library user.
iv) Origin and Development of PC with VR technologies attached.
d) Facilities in a Virtual Library Setup: The virtual library to be functional, following
facilities need to be extended to the Library Staff
i) Computer Resources: In case any library staff is not in a position to procure the computer
resources to work from their home, it will be the responsibility of the library to provide the same
to him/her.
ii) Office Stationary: The library should provide the office stationary i.e Calculators, staplers,
Directory of Phone numbers of Library staff, Job Manual, etc. to the library staff at their homes.
iii) Arrangement of Online Meeting: Arrangement of online meeting at fixed hour of the day by
using Voice Mail, Audio Conferencing, Video Conferencing, etc that helps in live, two way
communications. In the virtual library setup, the following facilities need to be extended to the
Library Users-
i) Access to Information: Access to all information resources from any geographical location.
ii) PC equipped with VR Technologies: If the VL is a part of any physical library then attempt
should be made to provide in the library itself the user with PC that are equipped with VR
technologies such as Head-tracked HMDs (Head Mounted Display), Data Gloves, Gesture,
Trackers, etc. The monitor, keyboard, speaker, joystick, etc should also be compatible to VR set
up.
e) Advantages of Virtual Library: VL set up will help the administrative staff of the library to
appoint handicapped person, elderly and parents with young children, etc.
A virtual library setup will provide following advantages to the administrator-
i) Low Office Space: In VL setup the library staff hopes to work from their homes itself that will
eliminate the necessity of large office capacity, thereby reducing the cost involved in office rent
or library building or cost related to its future expansion.
ii) Reduce Work Stoppage: Holiday, different kind of bandh, storm, flood, hurricanes and like
other makes it impossible for the employees to travel to the workplace of the library resulting in
halt of every kind of library activities. The VL will eliminate such type of work stoppage. Even
in holiday, employees can spend their leisure time by working certain hours for the library.
The virtual library will have the following advantages for library staff-
i) No Physical Constraints of Workplace: The Library staff should be able to work from their
home or any other place convenient to them.
ii) Own Boss: Every one wants to be his/her own boss. VL will give the employees the freedom
to do their job according to their own method.
iii) Everything is Formal: VL will demand the instruction to be given by the boss or the librarian
in a formal way to his/her subordinate that hopes to achieve better management.
iv) Direct Communications: The direct communication through voice mail, video conferencing
helps to foster a sense of group belongingness among the library staff.
The library user will have the following advantages-
i) Distance Education: Individual member of the library can enter into the virtual mode and can
feel the real library environment i.e can see the reference librarian, can browse the card
catalogue, etc.
f) Disadvantages of Virtual Library: Some of the disadvantages of a virtual library are-
i) Sense of not Belongingness: In VL set up the employees will not come in direct contact with
their colleague, so they hope to lose the feeling of being an important part of the library.
ii) Fear of Job Loss: In VL set up; employees can easily sink in the idea that they are expandable
by thinking in mind that any body with a computer and modem can do their work. So, they will
hope to be the victim of fear of job loss.
iii) Low Moral: VL will not support the positive feed back that comes with face to face
interaction with superiors and peers.
iv) Demand more dedication from Library Staff: The employees of VL should be more sincere,
disciplined and dedicated than the employees of physical library set up as he/she must work
without any external supervision and motivation in most cases.
v) Family Tension: If family tension will find its entry into the life of telecommuters they will
not be able to escape from it at least for a few hours when they will be in the same environment,
resulting interruption will occur in the work. If the tension will be from spouse, then he/she may
also view the job as a working arrangement to avoid family responsibility.
vi) Hazardous Set Up: VL will give the environment where employees hope to be the sufferer of
eyesight loss, Arthritis, Nerve problem, etc.
Another disadvantage of VL is that any user with negative mind will be able to mislead the
library staff.
g) Conclusion: The word “Virtual Library” is displayed in different kinds of library websites,
but in reality a true VL is yet to be set up. But when it will be implemented it will help to extend
the sense so distantly that any one can do, learn or manipulate the things in reality. It will help us
to build a library environment that will be similar to our physical library but will be accessible
from distant location; one can just see the library just like using a microscope or telescope.
Verification of Bibliographic Details
Verification of Bibliographic Details: After entering the essential description in the book
selection card the description of the item should be verified by the library staff for its accuracy. If
the book selection card was filled in by the library staff, then this process is only to examine
where he/she correctly puts the details from the source document to the book selection card or
not. In case the book was recommended by the user the library staff can verify the details by the
following means
i) If any copy of the book is already available in the library, then the original copy can be
consulted for verification
ii) By consulting Bibliographies, Best Books Guides, Publisher’s Catalogues, Book
Reviewing periodicals.
iii) Verification of the details can also be done by consulting online citation analysis tools, online
databases, and other electronic resources like searching over Google search engine and so on.
After verification, the “verified” data should be included in the card.
1. Selection of Documents: Selection means taking into accounts the books that have been
identified and chosen by faculties or other library users. Out of these books the ones are
actually to be added to the collection(s) are selected. In this step, preliminary checking
should be done so that the items available in the library or those on order do not get
selected. The checking should be done with order tray, bills awaiting payment, public
 catalogue (i.e OPAC), etc. If the sufficient number of copies of the book are already in
the available collection then these titles should be rejected. If the present budget cannot
accommodate the cost of the item, then the item may be deferred for acquisition or
otherwise it may be purchased.
In many libraries, there is a book selection committee that consists of the librarian, library
staff, subject experts, board of management, and representative from users, volunteers,
friends, and patrons of the library. The ultimate responsibility for book selection rests
with the librarian. The acquisition staff is there to help him/her.
2. Mode of Collection Development: The following mode of collection development may be
used by a library after the selection of the document-
i) Gift: A library may acquire material by gift. If serious efforts are made a library may succeed
in acquiring rare and special books from the individuals;
ii) Exchange: Certain materials are not available for purchase. Such materials may have to be
acquired by exchange with other institutional publications;
iii) Membership: Sometimes a library or its parent body becomes a member of society or
organization whereby it might be possible to get certain materials free of charge or at a cost
lower than the usual.
iv) Purchase: A document should be purchased if it cannot be acquired by exchange or gift or by
virtue of membership.
Universal Machine Readable Catalogue (UNIMARC)
Universal Machine Readable Catalogue (UNIMARC): There emerged a number of standard
bibliographic record formats such as UKMARC, INTERMARC, USMARC, etc whose paths
diverged owing to different national cataloguing practices and requirements. Since the early
1970s, an extended family of more than 20 MARC formats has grown up. To greater or lesser
degrees almost all formats are compatible but the differences in data content mean that editing is
required before records are exchanged. Recognizing that there is a need for the establishment of
international format for the exchange of bibliographic data, IFLA, the section on cataloguing and
mechanization, took the initiative to develop international MARC format which would accept the
record created in any MARC format. As a result, the first version of Universal Machine Readable
Catalogue (UNIMARC) appeared for monograph and serial in 1977 to facilitate the international
exchange of bibliographic data in machine readable form.
UNIMARC follows the ISO communication format ISO-2709 (1981).
Besides MARC family of formats, there are other formats, notable among them being
AGRIS, International Nuclear Information System (INIS), UNISIST Reference Manual,
UNESCO’s CCF as a universal exchange format for bibliographical record.
Every national organization producing MARC records will produce them in the national
standard for use within the country and will reformat them according to UNIMARC format for
international exchange. So, after the development of UNIMARC each national agency would
need to write only two programmes- one to convert into a UNIMARC and the other to convert
from UNIMARC, instead of one programme for each other MARC format. Eg. INTERMARC
to UKMARC, USMARC to UKMARC, and so on.
a) UNIMARC Format: The UNIMARC format like any other version of MARC involves
three elements of the bibliographic record. These are-
i) Record Structure: The record structure is designed to control the representation of
data by storing it in the form of strings of characters known as fields. By record structure
various elements in a record structure are identified.
 ii) Content Designation: Certain conventions are followed in order to identify the data
element within records. Such elements which include author, title and subject access are
further characterized. This supports the manipulation of the data for a variety of purposes.
iii) Data Content: The content is the data which is stored in the fields within the record.
Data can be coded data or bibliographic data.
b) Functional Block of UNIMARC: The fields which are identified by three character
numeric tags are arranged in functional blocks. These blocks organize the data according
to its function in a traditional catalogue record. The data element and content of the
record have been functionally divided into 10 different types of block. These are shown
below:
Block no Field tag Data Type Example
0 000-099 Identification Contains numbers that identify the
Block record.
Eg. 010 International Standard Book
Number.
1 100-199 Coded Contains fixed length data element
Information Block describing various aspect of the
record or data.
Eg. 101 Language of the work
2 200-299 Heading Block Contains the authority, reference or
general explanatory heading for
which records have been created.
Eg. 205 Edition statement

3 300-399 Information Note Contains note, intended for public

4 400-499
5 500-599
6 600-699
7 700-799
Block display that explain the relationship
between the record heading and other
heading.
See Reference Contains variant heading from which
Tracing Block a reference is to be made to see the
heading of the record.
Eg. 452 Edition in a different medium
See Also Contains related uniform heading
Reference Tracing from which a reference is to be made
Block to see also the heading of the record.
Eg. 516 Spine title
Classification Contains classification number that
Number Block are related to the heading of the
record.
Eg. 676 Dewey Decimal
Classification.
Linking Heading Contains a form of the record heading
Block in another language or script and links
 to another record in which that form
is the heading.
Eg. 700 Personal name
8 800-899 Source Contains the source of the record and
Information Block catalogues notes about the data not
intended for public display.
Eg. 801 Originating Source
9 900-999 National use Contains data local to the originator
Block of the record.
It is anticipated that each national bibliographic agency will be responsible for the
conversion of authority record into UNIMARC / Authorities for transmission to other national
agencies and will receive machine readable record in the UNIMARC / Authorities format from
other national agencies. Despite much efforts of IFLA, UNIMARC failed to receive due
consideration.
Union Catalogues
1. Definition: A union catalogue list in one sequence the holding or part of holdings of two or
more libraries. According to William A. Katz, a union catalogue is an “inventory common to
several libraries and listing some or all of their publications maintained in one or more orders of
arrangements.” Union catalogues generally uses some location symbol for each and every
libraries whose collection are included in the union catalogue for easy location of documents.
2. Types: We may recognize local, regional and national union catalogue. Further division may
be done on the basis of the kinds of material include i.e. book, periodical, film, etc.
3. Functions: The functions of union catalogues are
i) Union catalogue serves as a locating tool for the document.
ii) It helps in identifying a given document for which bibliographic information is provided.
iii) It helps in interlibrary loan.
iv) It helps in selection of documents.
v) It helps to achieve coordination in the acquisition and selection programme of a group of
libraries. It helps to avoid unnecessary duplication of material like periodicals, etc.

vi) It serve as a list of total document resource of libraries in a given geographical region.
4. Example: IndCat: Online Union Catalogue of Indian Universities, INFLIBNET, Available
over: http://indcat.inflibnet.ac.in/indcat/book.js
UGC-Infonet E-journal Consortium
UGC-Infonet E-journal Consortium: UGC-Infonet is an ambitious programme of UGC to
interlink all the Universities in the country with state-of-art technology. The access to e-journal
consortia was started in October 1, 2003 when the users started getting access to these resources
on trial basis for three months. The UGC-Infonet E-journal consortium was formally launched on
the concluding day of UGC’s Golden Jubilee celebrations by his Excellency the President of
India, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam at Vigyan Bhawan on 28th December 2003. Access to various e-
journals formally began on January 1, 2004. The programme was set up by the Chairman, UGC
and it was the result of an understanding and co-operation between UGC, ERNET, the inter
university centre, INFLIBNET, national and international publisher, etc. The programme is
wholly funded by UGC and monitored by INFLIBNET centre, Ahmedabad. The Network is
being switched to BSNL backbone w.e.f 1st April 2010 and renamed as UGC Infonet 2.0. ON the
new scheme 10 Mbps(1:1) Leased line is being established in 180 plus universities preferably by
using Fiber to provide Internet Services.
a) Organization: The whole programme has been implemented in different phases. The UGC is
providing funds for the programme which will be cost free for the universities. INFLIBNET
Centre, an IUC of UGC, will subscribe resources based on the recommendations of National
Negotiating Committee set up by UGC in the 10th plan period. The universities have been funded
for connectivity under UGC-Infonet and will have network connectivity. Individual universities
will then have unique IP address through which access is given by the publisher for which
subscription is made. However, the entire programme will be ministered, monitored and
maintained by the INFLIBNET centre.
c) Membership: The universities covered under UGC are the primary beneficiaries. However,
this scheme will be extended to colleges very soon. The scheme is likely to be open to other
institutions such as ICAR and others after signing MOU with UGC/INFLIBNET.
So far 100 universities out of 171 Indian universities under the purview of UGC have
been provided access to these journals and it is gradually entering to the affiliated colleges as
well.
d) Functions and Activities: The consortium aims at covering all fields of learning of relevance
to various universities such as Arts, Humanities and Social Science to Computer and Pure
Science.
i) Access to Full text E-Resources: Under the consortium, about 4000 full text scholarly
electronic journals from 25 publishers across the globe can be accessed. The consortium provides
current as well as archival access to core and peer-reviewed journals in different disciplines. eg.
J-STOR (457) <http://www.jstor.org/>.
ii) Access to Bibliographic Database: It provides access to Analytical Abstracts, Biological
Abstracts, Catalysts & Catalysed Reactions, Chemical Abstracts Service, MathSciNet Database,
Royal Society of Chemistry, etc.
iii) Access to Portal: The gateway portals provides access to more than 10000 journals in the
area of Pure sciences, Social sciences and Humanities with contents and abstracts for major
collections. These gateway portals also provide customized solutions to access the full text for
the resources subscribed under UGC-Infonet to serve as “one stop shopping”. Examples of the
portal include Ingenta Gateway Portal <http://www.ingenta.com/>, and J-Gate Gateway Portal
<http://www.j-gate.informindia.co.in/>.
iv) Access to Open Access Resources: It provide access to BBS Prints Interactive Archive
<http://www.bbsonline.org/>, BioMed Central <http://www.biomedcentral.com/start.asp>,
Citebase <http://citebase.eprints.org/cgi-bin/search>, Citeseer <http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/cs>,
Cognitive Science <http://cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/>, CogPrints <http://cogprints.org/>,
Directory of Open Access Journals <http://www.doaj.org>, Eprints.org archives
<http://software.eprints.org/>, Free Access Online Archives/ arXiv <http://arxiv.org/>, General
List of Open access eprints <http://dmoz.org/Science/Publications/Archives/>, HighWire Press
Free <http://highwire.stanford.edu/lists/freeart.dtl>, Networked Computer Science Technical
Reference Library <http://www.ncstrl.org>, CERN Document Server (CDS)
<http://weblib.cern.ch/>, Public Library of Science <http://www.plos.org/index.html>, PubMed
Central (PMC) <http://pubmedcentral.nih.gov/>, The Economics network (RePEc)
<http://repec.org/>, etc.
vi) Search and Browsing Facility: The list of journals covered in the scheme is updated
 from time to time and is available on the INFLIBNET Centre’s website
<http://www.inflibnet.ac.in> under UGC-Infonet E-Journals Consortium category.
vii) Document Delivery Service: Though many journals are being considered for
subscription under consortium, copies of articles from many other titles which are not subscribed
under the consortium may be obtained from any participating library through Document Delivery
Service by sending the request.
The e-subscription initiative under UGC-Infonet is expected to trigger remarkable
increase in sharing of both print and electronic resources amongst the university libraries
through one of the gateway portals being identified. The gateway portals provide
customized solution not only to access the resources online but also access the resources
of other libraries participating in the consortium. The consortium headquarter
(INFLIBNET) is assigned to function as a resource centre with an aim to cater to the
needs of its members for resources not accessible to them in electronic media or are
available in print media. With subscribed resources accessible online in electronic format,
the member libraries would have less pressure on space requirement for storing and
managing print-based library resources. Moreover, all problems associated with print
media such as their wear and tear, location, shelving, binding, organizing, etc. would not
be an issue for electronic resources.
ICMR in the form of ICMR e-Consortia has been subscribing to the e-journals in a
consortia mode to all ICMR institutes. The Council also provides partial financial assistance for
organising Seminars/ Symposia/ Workshops.

Types of Research
Types of Research: The research can be categorized into the following types-
a) Basic Vs Applied: Fundamental research is also known as pure research, theoretical
research or basic research. It belongs to the domain of fundamental, intellectual, natural
problem and queries and hence is quite theoretical in nature and approach. According to
Pauline “gathering of knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed pure or basic research”
i.e studies conducted to achieve a fuller understanding of a phenomena without
considering of how their findings will be applied belongs to basic research. Its major
preoccupation lies with designing the tools of analysis and with discovering universal
laws and theories. It may be note that the scope of the sphere of activity of basic research
is extraordinarily wide.
Research concerning some natural phenomena or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly research studies concerning human behavior
carried on with a view to make generalization about human behavior are also examples of
fundamental research. It is also widely used in the case of environment protection,
conflict resolution, crisis prevention, health pandemics, etc. Again basic research findings
can be subsequently used to enrich applied or strategic research.
“Basic research is necessary to develop and question concepts and theories and to bring
new perspectives into the development discourse”. It considers knowledge as an end in
itself, and the purpose is to discover the truth. There is no guarantee of short-term
practical gain from basic research that result in low rate of funding for basic research.
Applied research is pursued for some purpose outside of its own domain, either for an
immediate distinct utility or as an aid to the development of some other subject. Thus the
 central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problems.
Applied research aims to provide knowledge on which the best decisions can be made
regarding the problem associated with serious risks which otherwise can cause disaster.
The objective of applied social research is to use data so that decisions can be made. Its
purpose is to understand the nature and sources of human and social problems. The
marketing research or evolution researches are examples of applied research.
b) Descriptive Vs. Analytical Research: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact
findings enquiries of different kind. It provides description of the conditions / existing
relationship / opinions held / process going on / effects evident / trend developing on the
present cases / event with relation to the past. In other words, descriptive studies are the
one whose purpose is to describe accurately the characteristic of a group. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affair as it exists at present.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables. He can only report what happened or what is happening.
Descriptive Studies is used in the following cases-
i) While gathering empirical data regarding certain phenomena so as to interpret them in
a broader perspective of generalization;
ii) To study psychological phenomena of a group of individuals;
iii) To study relationship between variables under uncontrolled observation.
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available and
analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
b) Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed
in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research on the other hand is concerned with qualitative phenomena i.e. phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind. Research design to find out, how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is a qualitative research. To apply qualitative
research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore one should seek guidance for
experimental psychologists.
c) Conceptual Vs. Empirical Research: Conceptual research is that related to some
abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by philosopher and thinker to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
d) Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due respect
for system and theory. It is data based research coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.
e) Diagnostic Studies: The diagnostic study is concerned with the discovering and
testing certain variables with respect to their association or disassociation. It enquires into the
basic nature and cause of an existing problem. In its broadest sense, the diagnosis corresponds to
the fact finding aspect of the clinical practice.
Diagnostic Studies is applicable to the instances like solution of a specific problem by the
discovery of the relevant variables, discovering or analyzing a specific problem.
f) Explanatory Research: It structures and identifies new problems. Exploratory research
is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method
 and selection of subjects. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often
concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist. The objective of explanatory
research is the development of hypothesis rather than their testing.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available
literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through
in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The
Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds
efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information; major search engine search
results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google Alerts;
comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time by services such as
Google Trends; and Web sites may be created to attract worldwide feedback on any
subject.
g) Historical Research: Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents remains, etc. to study event or ideas of the past including the philosophy of
the person and groups at any remote point of time.
h) Action Research: Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led
by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve
the way they address issues and solve problems. Action research can also be undertaken by larger
organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of
improving their strategies, practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they
practice.
Kurt Lewin, then a professor at MIT, first coined the term “action research” in about 1944, and it
appears in his 1946 paper “Action Research and Minority Problems”. In that paper, he described
action research as “a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of
social action and research leading to social action” that uses “a spiral of steps, each of which is
composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action”.
Types of Reference and Information Service
Types of Reference and Information Service: The emergence of the internet extends the
reference librarian's ability to provide diverse and complex services and potentiality to show
their real professional expertise to meet the demand put on them.
a) James I Wyer Theories: In considering the scope of reference services, James I Wyer
proposed three theories of reference service i.e conservative, moderate and liberal. Samuel
Rothstein called them minimum, middling, and maximum.
i) Conservative: It includes giving occasional personal assistance to the inexperienced and
bewildered reader. It limits the help to pointing the way only and so it is traditional in nature.
ii) Moderate: The moderate reference service goes beyond providing mere instruction to actually
helping the reader in using the book or finding the document and facts, etc.
ii) Liberal: It includes the provision of the full and direct supply of reliable information to the
readers.
b) Edward B. Reeve’s Categories: Edward B. Reeve and others have categorized the activities
of reference staff into the following five categories on the basis of related functions.
i) Instructional Activities: These are characterized by explicit teaching function.
ii) Skill Maintenance Activities: These are related to up-dating the knowledge of reference tools.
iii) Patron Service Activities: This deals with providing information to the users of the reference
service.
iv) Maintenance Activities: These are house keeping activities.
v) Surrogate Activities: These are those activities which the reference staff perform on behalf of
the other departments / sections of the library.
c) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan’s Classification: Dr. S. R. Ranganathan identified two aspects of
reference work - Ready reference service and Long range reference service.
i) Ready Reference Service: Most of the ready reference services are of the nature of fact finding
types that can be finished in a very short time – in a moment if possible. The librarian generally
uses reference book for providing such kind of services. The need of ready reference services
arises from the fact of the complex nature of a reference book, its artificiality, and arrangement
of information. The eminent person, foreign dignitaries or scholars generally approach for such
type of services. Sometimes some regular customers also need the fact finding reference service
because of shortage of time on their part.
ii) Long Range Reference Service: The long range Reference Service is based on consulting
every possible source of information to arrive at the required information; as such, it is not
possible to render this type of service immediately. The time needed may range from half an hour
to weeks. The search in the long range reference service starts at the reference books and then
goes to the ordinary books, pamphlets, reports, articles in periodicals, etc. If the information is
not available in the library then the search can even go to other local libraries and occasionally to
the other libraries in the country. The long range reference service provided today can become
the ready reference service tomorrow, as by this time the reference librarian will be able to locate
the material quickly from his past experience. Slowly, the scope of long range reference service
started expanding. Now bibliographical service, referral service, translation service, etc are
considered long range reference services.
d) American Library Association’s Categorization: In 1942, the American Library Association
undertook a series of library job analysis. This association has stated the following six functions
of Reference Service
i) Supervision Function: This function consists of the proper organization of facilities, reference
section, selection of reference materials, direction of personnel, and study of the library clientele.
ii) Information Function: There should be an Information Desk where enquiries are received
and routed to proper section. The Reference Librarians should be prepared to answer all types of
questions and should be able to produce the sources that would answer the questions.
iii) Guidance Function: The Reference librarian should be able to recommend a good book for
respective fields. He should be able to give guidance to the readers regarding higher education,
career related information or profession or vocation. He can also give guidance to the readers in
the location of the document, in the choice of books and other reading materials.
iv) Instruction Function: The Reference librarian should instruct the readers about the working
of the library, the location of the material, the use of the catalogue card, the reference book, etc.
An initiation or orientation programme should be arranged to familiarize the readers with the
library practices and procedures.
v) Bibliographic Function: There should be a preparation of bibliographies of interest to the
readers so that they are able to know about the books and other reading materials required for
their respective subjects.
vi) Appraisal Function: The libraries should possess the right kind of materials and reference
collections and the staff should be able to get the most out of it.
1. General Categorization of Reference and Information Service: The focal point of
Reference Service is answering questions posed by the library user. Based on the activity that are
performed to meet the user demand, the Reference and Information service can be categorised as
follows:
a) Instructional: Instruction in using the library and library resources (bibliography,
encyclopaedia, OPAC), assisting the end user to locate the appropriate material within and
outside the library, etc. are an important function associated with the Reference and Information
Service of a library. Questions that range from as simple as "Where are the bound volume?" or
"Where is the catalog?" to research questions that may take hours or even days to properly
answer are to be dealt with in this section.
b) Referral Service: It directs enquirers to a source of information which may be an
organization or an individual expert. Generally, when a library or information centre does not
have the material and cannot obtain it from the sources but it knows the exact location of the
document / information, then it can refer the user to the sources of information.
c) Information Scouting: Information scouting service consists of keeping abreast of who has
what information and where. Then it can refer the request to the appropriate person and place in
the organization or outside it or both. Information scouting is an extended form of referral
service.
d) Citation Verification Service: Citation Verification Service is intended to verify the
citations/references and authentication of bibliographical details of books, articles, reports, theses
and other published materials obtained from sources other than the authoritative indexing and
abstracting services offered by reputed publishers and licensed database producers. The library
patrons need this type of service for the preparation of assignments, dissertations, theses, and
project proposals.
e) Literature Search / Bibliographical Survey: Literature search may be defined as a
systematic search for literature in any form on a particular topic. It forms the very first step of a
research pursuit. Otherwise, if a research work is duplicated the valuable time, money and labour
of the researcher will be wasted. The literature search is also needed to present the latest
available facts in writing articles or topic on any theme. Special library and information centres
generally provide literature search facilities to its patrons on demand. Later, the result of the
literature search is circulated to the enquirers. A sub type of this service is also known as
Database Search Service (DBSS), which intends to obtain information critical to the proposed or
ongoing dissertations, theses, post-doctoral research and other project work by consulting
different online and offline data bases.
f) Preparation of Bibliographies, Indexes and Abstracts on Certain Minute Subject: If
demands come from the research scholar or a research team member of the parent organization,
the library prepares the bibliographies, indexes and abstract for him/her to meet the demand. It
offers the bibliographies or reading lists on diverse topics relevant to the proposed or ongoing
dissertation work, doctoral and post-doctoral research. The compilation of bibliographies is the
end product of a literature search. From the bibliographies, the users can find out all the materials
on a given subject at a time. It helps the user in selecting the required information by saving
time.
g) Translation Service: Translation is a process of transforming precisely the information
contents of the text in one language into another language. The former is called the Source
language and the latter is called as the Text language. Translation service helps overcome the
language barrier.
In the field of science and technology, the National Translation Centre, Chicago,
America, International Translation Centre, Delft, Netherlands, British Library Lending Division,
Boston and in India, INSDOC, New Delhi have foreign language translation service for all the
individuals and organizations, who cannot afford the expensive in-house translation facilities. In
case of online, whenever a search result lists a relevant resource in another language, one can
check out AltaVista's translation feature. With this service, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and
Portuguese websites are translated to English (and vice versa). One can also try with Google
Translation to meet this purpose.
h) Interlibrary Loan Request: Interlibrary loan (ILL) is a cooperative activity and a
narrower form of interlibrary loan service. In theory, it is capable of expanding the walls of the
library to encompass all the world's library collections. The ILL concept is expanded by
UNESCO's Universal Availability Publications Program (often called UAP). UAP has the goal of
making any publication available to any person anywhere in the world. ILL has practical limits
that make its scope smaller but still its potential of expanding customers' access to other libraries'
collections is great. The material obtained from ILL may be delivered through different means
and avenue (physically, making photocopy or printing, scanning) based on the need of the user.
Processing interlibrary loan request from other library and delivering the material through
email / fax / speed post is another duty of the library reference staff.
i) Consultancy Service: Consultant can be defined as “an expert who gives professional advice
usually on payment basis” and consultancy can be defined as “an organization that provides
professional or organization expert advice on payment basis”. In the industrial sector the
consultants play a vital role by providing information & advice on production, export, import etc.
“Information Consultant” is a term used for those persons or firms involved in various activities
including library or information centre design, database design, records management, hardware
& software selection & training, etc. The library and information science professionals can
effectively discharge their duties as information consultants for various organizations as well as
individuals but to perform this duty they should have vast practical experience and in-depth
subject knowledge. In this connection the following points are to be noted:
i) Tools: Information consultants have their own unique set of tools, e.g. bibliographies, search
and meta search engines, databases, reference collection, etc. The consultants get their work done
with the help of these sets of tools, a particular combination & configuration of specialized
equipment technique & style in addition to their knowledge base as the organizer of world
information to get their job done.
ii) Benefits from Information Consultant: The importance of information consulting profession
is directly related with the advancement in micro-computer technology and information
explosion in print as well as digital environment. Consulting the information consultant can give
four benefits to the clients. These are-
* It provides objective independent advice in regard to political, religious and other matter;
* To take the help of consultants can be highly cost-effective because money can be saved by not
going through the vast number of documents and by procuring them and getting the required
information;
* The consultant has the necessary knowledge and skill;
* They are easy and convenient but the funding of the organization makes it difficult to employ
them for a long or short term basis in the organization.
iii) Services: Services rendered by consultants and consulting organization mostly fall within the
scope of technical enquiry service, feasibility studies, reviewing some technologies, software,
evaluating technologies, marketing of the products, market survey, designing new databases,
software to be used in information processing, storage or retrieval, system analysis &
management, advice on collection development, doing cataloguing, editorial services like
indexing, abstracting, etc.
j) Information Broker Service: An information broker (IB) is “an individual or organization
who on demand seeks to answer questions using all sources and who is in business for a profit”.
They are those individuals or firms who are so professional and experienced enough in their lines
that they can gather the requested information with a computer and a telephone within a few
minutes or hours. An IB may not simply be a librarian, or simply one who "goes online" and
searches for the answers to questions and problems of the patron; or he isn't someone who "has
all the answers".
The Association of Independent Information Professionals, the first professional
association devoted to information brokers, was formed in Milwaukee in 1987. The profession
has its roots in 1937 when librarians and other information professionals formed an organization
called the American Society for Information Science and Technology in an attempt to establish
their professional identity separate from public libraries.
i) Tools: IBs use a combination of online, offline, and physical search techniques depending
on the clients' needs. Every assignment is different and the IB determines the
appropriate method of obtaining the clients' requested information, while remaining
within the clients' budget. Once all the required information is located and retrieved,
the IB then cleans up the raw information and presents it in the manner most
appropriate for his/her client. This may mean summarizing the information or
verifying the correctness of it.
ii) Importance: If anyone had a major health problem they would not attempt themselves to
solve it. They would seek the services of the appropriate professional (a doctor in this case). So,
just a person would use an attorney for legal work or a doctor for medical work, they use an
Information Broker for access to the needed information. A great impetus for the growth of
information broker has come from the recognition that knowledge is a business and information
is a commodity and the fact that many people simply are not aware of many of the avenues
available to find the needed information. People can locate information in many cases, but it is
the experienced IB that knows and has access to more avenues of information retrieval than the
average individual or firm. After all, this is the IBs' specialty.
iii) Services: Information broker helps in getting the appropriate information by the end
users. It is a cost effective and time saving mechanism. The common uses for the information
brokers include market research, patent searches, and any other type of information research,
preparation of report on any subject, and so on.
2. Let Us Sum Up: Previously, personal assistance was provided on a part-time and
occasional basis. Increased demand for the services resulted in reference work becoming
a specialized function. It eventually gained the status of a separate department in
libraries. Personal contact with the client and explaining the policies and services of the
library can create a great interest of the reader for the library. Personal appearance of the
member of the library staff in front of the groups and individual is also helpful in this
regard.
Currently, reference departments in public, academic, and school libraries attempt to offer
at least moderate levels of reference and information service in all areas of its scope. It
helps the users find information for them, teach and instruct them how to use library
resources and how to do library research and by this way increase the popularity of the
 library and its support by the library users. Departmental, professional school and
research institute libraries now tend to offer reference and information service of such a
quality and depth that it approaches that of a special library.
The Reference librarian is well aware of the vastness of the world of knowledge and the
varieties of intricacies of the information required by the reader at different level. So, he
can do much more for his reader. He can set the information seekers in the right track.

Types of Library Software Packages

Types of Library Software Packages: The computer cannot do anything without some
programme or instruction or software. Unlike the hardware, software cannot be touched but it
instructs the computer what to do in a particular situation. Any type of computer programme
designed to perform some kind of library activities is known as library software. It may be a
simple programme to perform the job of acquisition or cataloguing or integrated library
management software that will perform the job of acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, serial
control and others. It may also be digital library management software which will manage the
digital resources of the library or some other types, say a Learning Management System or
Content Management System, etc.
There are different library software packages, and each of them has different functionability. The
amalgamation of features adds a lot of difficulties in categorizing the library software packages.
However for the purpose of our study, an attempt is made to categorize the library software
packages into the following:
A) Based on Function Performed
a) Database Creation Software (E.g CDS/ISIS)
b) Library House Keeping / Management Software Packages (Libsys, OASIS, Sanjay, SLIM,
SOUL)
c) Institutional Repository Software Packages (CDSWare, Dspace, E-prints, Fedora, Ganesha
digital library, Greenstone)
B) Based on Source Code Availability
a) Proprietary software (SOUL)
b) Open Source Software Packages (Koha)
C) Based on Cost Factor
a) Completely Commercial (LibSys)
b) In-house Developed;
c) Shareware
d) Freeware (Gratis / Libre software)
e) Open Source Software
The following paragraphs will describe each and every aspect of the library software packages.
Due attention is given to list the free software packages (open source and proprietary) that can be
implemented without giving much stress on library finance. Sometimes a few commercial
software packages that are also well proven also listed out to have a comparative study of the
trend of available functionality in both categories.
Types of Computers
Types of Computers: Computers can be classified in many different ways; some of them are
discussed bellow
A) Based On Purpose and Use: Depending upon the purpose for which computers are used, it
can be classified as follows
a) General Purpose Computer: This type of computer is so designed that it can be used to
solve many kinds of problem or which permits the development of different stimulated models as
needed. Eg. Model EA1-2000 (Electronic Association Inc).
b) Special Purpose Computer: It has a fixed programme with a few or no permitted adjustment.
It is generally built into or appended to the physical system it serves. Examples: Special Purpose
Pneumatic Analog Computer, Model Foxboro 516 (Foxboro Co.).
B) Based On Interconnection: Based on interconnection computer can be Distributed and
Parallel computer.
a) Distributed Computer: A configuration in which several workstation / PC are interconnected
by a communication network is called a distributed computer system. A common use of
distributed computer is the so called client server computing.
b) Parallel Computer: A set of computers connected together by a high speed communication
network and programmed in such a way that they corporate to solve a single large problem is
called a parallel computer. It can again be classified into two categories i.e Shared Memory
Parallel Computer and Distributed Memory Parallel Computer.
C) Based on Programme: Based on programme computer can be-
a) Embedded Computer: Embedded computers are small, simple devices that are used to
control other devices. These are embedded within the circuitry of appliances such as fighter
aircraft, industrial robots, digital cameras, children's toys, washing machines, wrist watches, etc.
These computers are typically preprogrammed for a specific task.
b) Programmable Computer: The user can create a new program for his/her specific purpose in
these types of computers. It can be used as notepads, scheduling system and address books. If
equipped with a cellular phone it can also be connected to World Wide computer networks for
exchanging information regardless of location.
D) Based On Technology / Design: Based on technology computer can of the following types-
a) Analog Computer: An analog computer receives inputs that are instantaneous representation
of variable quantities and produce output results dynamically to a graphical display device, a
virtual display device or, in case of a control system, a device which causes mechanical motion.
b) Digital Computer: The digital computer works with numbers, words, and symbols expressed
as digits which it manipulates and counts discretely.
c) Hybrid Computer: The flexibility of the electronic analog computer has allowed it to be
augmented with interface channels to the electronic digital computer, so that during 1960s a third
type of general computer i.e. the hybrid computer came into being. The hybrid computers
combine the features of the other two types and utilize both analog and discrete representation of
data.
A few more computers are being made all over the world, which are in their
developmental stages. They include
d) Optical Computer: Today's computers use the movement of electrons in-and-out of
transistors to do logic. Photonic computing is intended to use photons or light particles, produced
by lasers, in place of electrons. Compared to electrons, photons are much faster – light travels
about 30 cm, or one foot, in a nanosecond – and have a higher bandwidth.
A completely optical computer (or photonic computer) requires that one light beam can turn
another on and off. This was first achieved with the photonic transistor, invented in 1989 at the
Rocky Mountain Research Center. This demonstration eventually created a growing interest in
making photonic logic componentry utilizing light interference.
e) Atomic Computer or Molecular Computer: Molecular computers, also called DNA
computer, are massively parallel computers taking advantage of the computational power of
molecules (specifically biological). Molectronics specifically refers to the sub-field of physics
which addresses the computational potential of atomic arrangements.
f) Biological Computer: DNA computing is a form of computing which uses DNA,
biochemistry and molecular biology, instead of the traditional silicon-based computer
technologies. DNA computing, or, more generally, molecular computing, is a fast developing
interdisciplinary area.
g) Chemical Computer: A chemical computer, also called reaction-diffusion computer, BZ
computer or gooware computer, is an unconventional computer based on a semi-solid chemical
"soup" where the data is represented by varying concentrations of chemicals. The computations
are performed by naturally occurring chemical reactions. So far it is still in a very early
experimental stage, but may have great potential for the computer industry.
h) Quantum Computer: A quantum computer is a device for computation that makes direct use
of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform
operations on data. The basic principle behind quantum computation is that quantum properties
can be used to represent data and perform operations on these data.
E) Based On Memory (Physical Size): Modern computer system varies in physical size from
those that used to fill a room to those with CPUs that can rest on the nail of a person’s little
finger. Generally the larger the systems the greater are its processing speed, storage capacity, cost
and ability to handle large number of powerful input and output devices.
a) Micro Computer: Micro computers are popularly known as Desktop computer.
Microcomputers are the smallest unit. They may be tiny, special purpose devices dedicated to
carrying out a single task or they may be the more visible and familiar personal computer
ranging from note book size to desktop size that we can use in countless ways. The performance
of some newer micros surpasses the capabilities of some older minis. Memory capacity upto 4
MB, now upto 64 MB. Eg. Acer’s, Aspire, Compaq, etc.
b) Mini Computer: They are generally more powerful and more expensive than Micros.
Memory Capacity ranges from 4-24MB, but now obsolete. In physical size mini computers vary
from desktop models to unit that has the size of a small cabinet. Eg. IBM-6000 model 580, CDC
4360, etc.
c) Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are the system that offers faster processing
speeds and greater storage capacity than a typical mini. A whole series of mainframe models
ranging from small to very large are usually lumped together under a family designation by
mainframe vendors. Memory capacity 10 MB – 128 MB. Eg. CDC 2000, IBM ES-2, etc.
d) Super Computer: These are the largest, fastest and more expensive system in the world.
Super computer is designed to process complex scientific jobs, to analyze large commercial
databases, produce animated movies and play games such as Chess. Memory capacity is 256 MB
onwards. A super computer is very expensive, prices range from about $ 4 million to over $ 17
million. Eg. Cray -1, Cray-2, Cray-3, ETA-10, X-MP, etc.
The above classifications are arbitrary. The fact is that the size, cost, and performance
capabilities of machines in different classifications are likely to overlap.
E) Based On Nature Of Use: All the above classifications are no longer relevant. Computers
can only be classified as based on its use.
a) Home Computer / Personal Computer: Home computer was a class of personal computer
entering the market in 1977 and becoming common during the 1980s. They were marketed to
consumers as accessible personal computers, more capable than video game consoles. These
computers typically cost much less than business, scientific or engineering-oriented desktop
personal computers of the time, and were generally less powerful in terms of memory and
expandability. Personal computers, in various forms, are icons of the Information Age and are
what most people think of as "a computer"; however, the most common form of computer in use
today is the embedded computer.
A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and
original sales price make it useful for individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly
by an end user, with no intervening computer operator. A personal computer may be a desktop
computer, a laptop computer or a tablet computer.
i) Desktop Computer: A desktop computer is a personal computer (PC) in a form intended for
regular use at a single location, as opposed to a mobile laptop or portable computer. It can
indicate a horizontally-oriented computer case usually intended to have the display screen placed
on top to save space on the desk top. Most modern desktop computers have separate screens and
keyboards.
ii) Laptop Computer: Also known as Notebook Computer or Portable computer. A laptop is a
personal computer designed for mobile use and is small enough to sit on one's lap. A laptop
integrates most of the typical components of a desktop computer, including a display, a
keyboard, a pointing device (a touchpad, also known as a trackpad, and/or a pointing stick),
speakers, and often including a battery, into a single small and light unit.
iii) Handheld Computer: A handheld computer is a pocket-sized computing device, typically
having a display screen with touch input or a miniature keyboard.
iv) Personal Digital Assistance (PDA): A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a handheld
computer, also known as a palmtop computer. Newer PDAs commonly have color screens and
audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones (smartphones), web browsers, or
portable media players.
b) Work Station: The distinction between PC and Work station in the recent day concept is
blurring. The principal reason is that microprocessor used in PCs are nowadays as powerful as
many of those used in work stations.
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total Quality Management (TQM): Quality means conforming to specification and standard.
It means customer satisfaction, competitive cost, timely delivery, etc. The quality means it
functions well. It not only meets our expectation but even exceeds them by providing it,
attractively, employing friendly means in a welcoming atmosphere.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO-8420-1994) defines quality as
“the total feature and characteristic of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated
or implied needs.
The concept of TQM has developed by U. S. Department of Defence. They develop some
principles of TQM, which have been adopted by industries world wide for gaining and
maintaining the qualities of their product.
The International Organization for Standardization defined the TQM as “management approach
of an organization centered on quality based on the participation of all its member and aiming at
long term success through customer satisfaction and benefits to all members of the organization
and to society”.
According to Ross, “TQM is the integration of all function and processes within an
organization in order to achieve continuous improvement of the quality of goods and services”.
The goal is customer satisfaction.
In other words, TQM is basically a philosophy or concept or approach aiming of
satisfying customer / user need on a continuous basis (quality first time, every time, all the time)
by involving each and every (total) in the system and a lower cost (management).
a) TQM in Library and Information Science: Library and Information Science Centres
generally exist in relation to their parent organization. They are viewed as a subsystem of the
main system. Hence TQM will find its way in the subsystem only when there is such an
orientation in the main systems itself. Within the subsystem, the approach has to be accepted by
all the Library and Information Science staff involved rather than leaving it to the domain of any
public relation staff like circulation and reference.
b) Need of TQM: The need of TQM is felt due to the following reasons-
i) User expectation from library is rising constantly which demands for even more sophisticated
high quality information product and services.
ii) Library and Information Science professionals are facing stiff challenges from the increasing
information industry.
iii) Library and Information Science are now asked to become self sufficient if they are to
survive in cost-conscious and competition oriented social environmental setup.
c) Areas of Application of TQM in Library: The Library and Information Centres are basically
service organization. So, they can effectively apply the TQM concept in each and every field.
Some of the possible areas are-
i) Laws of Library Science: Five laws of library science have so many implications similar to
what is advocated in TQM that it is often advocated as a refined and modern version of five laws
of library science. The first law advocated changing the conservative attitude of the LIS
personnel. The second law and third law indicate the marketing approach underlying in TQM. It
advocated for the survey of and feedback from the user and to design and render library services
so that it meets their actual need. Fourth law points out that information should be pin-pointed,
exhaustive and expeditions. Organization and retrieval of information is what the sum and
substance of the TQM approach is.
ii) Library Services: TQM can be effectively used in providing services to user. In rendering
CAS / SDI, interlibrary loan, access to national and international databases through internet or
other network, attending reference queries and reference service over phone, fax or personal
contact, etc.
iii) Library Products: Library and Information Centres produce catalogue card, indexing and
abstracting periodicals, newsletter, database of their collection, subject bibliographies, etc, all of
which can be enrich by TQM.
iv) Marketing of Library Services and Products: TQM can be used in creating information
awareness and consciousness among the user and reaching out to the potential users. It can be
used in identification of the user group, determination of needs, wants and demand of each user
group, fulfillment of the same through designing and delivering appropriate information product
and services.
d) Ways of Achieving the TQM: TQM can be achieved by way of the following-
i) Competence: The employees must possess the required skill and knowledge about the product
and services.
ii) Credibility: The organization and employees must be trustworthy.
 iv) Responsiveness: The employee must respond quickly and creatively to customer request
and problem. The employee should make an effort to understand the customer need
and provide individual attention.
v) Communication: The service or product should be described accurately in customer
language.
v) Courtesy: The employees should be friendly, respectful and considerate.
vi) Tangible: The service and product should correctly project the quality on readers centered.
vii) Reliable: The service and product should be reliable and performance should be consistence.
viii) Security: The service and product should be free from danger, risk, and doubt.
ix) Access: The service or product and the library staff should be accessible in convenient
location, at convenient times with little or no waiting period.
x) Feedback: There should be a continuous policy to collect the feedback from the users.
xi) Evaluation: The service and product should be continuously evaluated to meet the changing
needs.
Tools and Techniques of Data or Information Collection
Data Collection: Collection of data constitutes the first step in a statistical investigation. Utmost
care must be exercised in collecting data as because they form the foundation of statistical
method. If data are faulty, the conclusion drawn can never be reliable.
1. Types of Data: Generally data are of two types-
a) Primary Data: The data which are originally collected by an agency for the first time for any
statistical investigation are said to be primary data.
b) Secondary Data: The data which have already been collected by some agency and taken over
from there and used by any other agency for their statistical work are termed as secondary data.
So in simple if a primary data collected for a statistical investigation are used in other statistical
investigation then those data are called as secondary data.
2. Tools and Techniques of Data or Information Collection: The primary data or information
can be collected by the following means-
a) Observing Behaviors of Participants: This method specifies the conditions and methods at
making observation. In this method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own
direct observation without asking from the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that
subjective bias is eliminated, if observations are done accurately. It is the most commonly used
method especially in studies relating to behavioral science.
b) Questionnaire Method: Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey
(known as questionnaire) is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. The
questionnaire contains questions and provides space for answer. A request is made to the
informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and sent it back within a
specified time. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The questionnaire
can be delivered directly hand by hand, through surface post or as an electronic questionnaire.
In preparing a research questionnaire general question, question wording to collect personal
information, use of unfamiliar terms and jargon, etc. should be avoided. Further, before
distribution of a research questionnaire at least two pre-tests should be conducted and it is very
much needed.
c) Interview Method: This involves listening to or integrating informants. The interview method
of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal
responses. So, under this method of collecting data, there is a face to face contact with the
persons from whom the information is to be collected. The interviewer asks them question
pertaining to the survey and collects the desired information. This method can be used through
personal interview, telephone interview, Chat, Audio Conferencing, Video Conferencing, etc. The
interview can be structured, semi structured or open interview.
d) Schedules Method: In this method of data collection, the ennumerator or interviewers who
are specially appointed for the purpose along with schedules, go to the respondents, put to them
the questions from the Performa in the order the questionnaire are listed and record the replies in
the space meant for the same in the Performa. In certain situation, schedules may be handed over
to respondents and ennumerators may help them in recording their answer to various questions in
the said schedules. Ennumerator explains the aims and objectives of the investigation and also
removes the difficulties which respondents may feel in relation to understanding the implication
of a particular question or a definition or concept of difficult term. This method has the
advantage over the questionnaire method in the sense that the respondents have no scope to
misunderstand any question and thereby putting irrelevant answer.
e) Information from Correspondents: Under this method, the investigator appoints local agent
or correspondents in different places to collect information. These correspondents collect and
transmit information to the central office where the data are processed. The special advantage of
this method is that it is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigation. However, it may not
always ensure accurate results because of the personal prejudice and bias of the correspondents.
Newspaper agencies generally adopt this method.
Besides the above methods, nowadays many big companies also follow some other
method for primary data collection like warranty card, Distributor or Store Audit, Consumer
Panels, Projective Techniques, Depth Interview, Content analysis, etc.
In most of the studies the investigator finds it impracticable to collect first hand
information on all related issues and as such he/she makes use of the data collected by others.
The secondary data can be collected by way of examining historical and other records, literature
and proverbs. If data available in secondary sources are reliable, suitable and adequate then only
the secondary data should be collected.
Thesaurus
Thesaurus: The word thesaurus more commonly means a listing of words with similar, related,
or opposite meanings. It is designed for drawing distinctions between similar words and assisting
in choosing exactly the right word. A formal definition of a thesaurus designed for indexing is: a
list of every important term (single-word or multi-word) in a given domain of knowledge
arranged in a systematic order and manifesting various types of relationship existing between the
terms; and a set of related terms for each term in the list. Some examples of thesaurus are
Thesaurus of English Words & Phrases (ed. P. Roget); The Synonym Finder (ed. J. I. Rodale);
Webster's New World Thesaurus (ed. C. Laird); etc.
The thesaurus consists of descriptors and non-descriptors. Descriptors are indexing terms
consisting of one or more words, and representing always one and the same concept. Non-
descriptors are terms which help the user to find the appropriate descriptor(s). They appear
followed by a reference (USE operator) to the descriptor, which is the preferred term, and the
only one which may be used for indexing. When a term is ambiguous, a “scope note” can be
added to ensure consistency, and give direction on how to interpret the term. Naturally, not every
term needs a scope note, but their presence is of considerable help in using a thesaurus correctly
and reaching a correct understanding of the given field of knowledge.
Term relationships are links between terms that often describe synonyms, near-synonyms, or
hierarchical relations. Hierarchical relationships are used to indicate terms which are narrower
and broader in scope.
i) Related Term (RT): Synonyms and near-synonyms are indicated by a Related Term (RT).
The way the term "Cybernetics" is related to the term "Computers" is an example of
such a relationship.
ii) Broader Term (BT): A Broader Term (BT) is a more general term, e.g. “Apparatus” is a
generalization of “Computers”.
iii) Narrower Term (NT): A Narrower Term (NT) is a more specific term, e.g.
“Digital Computer” is a specialization of “Computer”.
iv) BT and NT are reciprocals; a broader term necessarily implies at least one other
term which is narrower. Thesaurus designers are generally careful to ensure that BT and NT
indicate class relationships, as distinguished from part-whole relationships. Some thesauri also
include Use (USE) and Used For (UF) indicators when an authorized term is to be used for
another, unauthorized, term; for example the entry for the authorized term "Bird" could have the
indicator "UF Aves". Reciprocally, the entry for the unauthorized term "Aves" would have the
indicator "USE Bird".
Symbol Meaning Type
BT Broader Term Descriptor
NT Narrower Term Descriptor
RT Related Term Descriptor
USE Use Non-descriptor
UF Used For Descriptor
Table 1: Symbols used in the word blocks of descriptors and non-descriptors
Theories of Information
Theories of Information: At different times, different people in different context propose
various theories of information. Some of them are listed below:
a) Communication: The communication process requires at least three elements - source,
message and destination.
i) Mathematical Theory: According to Shannon and Weaver the amount of information in a
message is related to the size of the vocabulary. If one is restricted to “yes” or “no” then the
recipient has the fifty percent chance of guessing correctly. If the vocabulary has ten signals then
the recipient has less chance of guessing and so amount of information in a message is increased.
ii) Semantic Theory: Fairthorne proposed the “phlogiston theory of information”. According to
this theory, information is something that can be squeezed out like water from a sponge.
Information will obviously be affected by the prior state of knowledge of the recipient.
As an alternative to the above theory Y. Barttiller and R. Carnap came out with semantic
information theory. They suggested that a prior knowledge may increase information from a
message (how precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning).
iii) Information for Decision Making: M. C. Yovits proposed that “information is data of value
to decision making”. Information involves reduction of uncertainty that is what the decision
makers accept from the information system.
b) Commodity: Information is a commodity that is needed to do a job and so acquiring, storing
and retrieving objects identified as information are important for our jobs and daily life.
i) Zipf’s Law: George Kingsely Zipf proposes a relationship that exists between the frequency
in the use of words and their distribution in books, reports, documents and other printed matter.
The Zipf’s law was published in the book Psycho-biology of Language: An Introduction to
Dynamic Philosophy, Cambridge, Mass MIT press, 1935. According to this law if the number of
different words occurring once in a given sample is taken as X, the number of different words
occurring twice, three times, four times, n times in the sample is respectively 1/2., 1/3, 1/4, 1/n of
n upto, though not including, few most frequently used words.
ii) Bradfords Law: Samuel Clement Bradford in 1948 proposed another law. According to him
if scientific journals are arranged in order of decreasing productivity of articles on a given
subject they may be divided into a nucleus of periodicals, more particularly devoted to the
subject and several groups of zones containing the same number of articles as the nucleus. When
the number of periodicals in the nucleus and successive zones will be as 1:n:n2 where n=5, that
is, the second zones has five times the number of journals of the first zone and the third zones
has 52 or twenty five times the number of journals in the first or nucleus zone. This law was
extended by many, notably B. C. Vikery, F. Leimkuhler and B. C. Brookes.
iii) Lotka’s Law: Alfred J. Lotka produced his law in 1926. Lotka’s law states that there is an
exponential relationship between the number of items contributed to the literature and the total
contribution by those who contributed two, three or more papers. Lotka developed a general
formula for the relationship between the frequency of y persons making n contribution as
xny=constant. Finding the value of constant when n=2, he observed that “the number of persons
making 2 contribution is about one fourth of those making one (1/22), the number making 3
contribution is about (1/32) of those making one. The number making n contribution is bout 1/42
of those making one, etc.
iv) Law of Economics: According to the followers of this theory, information is analogous to
energy (Meta energy). So it is also a resource that can be handled as a utility. It can be packaged,
stored and distributed in various forms. In this sense information has value and the laws of
economics can be applied to it.
c) State of Process: Information represents the state of an organism following the reception of
energy from the environment in the form of a symbol or datum. Information reaches the highest
known competence in the human being through the activities of the central nervous system and
electronics devices such as computer extends these capabilities.
d) Cognitive Process: Much of the human behaviour can be seen as information processing.
Thinking, memory, learning and perception are in fact the function of processing information. A.
Turing proposed automata theory. Scholars have applied this theory to the study of behavior.
According to these studies, information can be considered as a process intrinsic to all organism
activities and can be replicated by machines.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO)
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): The
representatives of 37 countries mt in London to sign UNESCO’s Constitution which came into
force on November 4, 1946 after ratification by 20 signatories. It is an inter-governmental
specialized agency of the United Nations. The UNESCO’s permanent Headquarters is in Paris,
France. UNESCO’s website can be found over <http://portal.unesco.org>
a) Objectives: UNESCO deploys its action in the fields of Education, Natural Sciences,
Social and Human Sciences, Culture, Communication and Information. UNESCO works
 on a number of priorities that require a trans-disciplinary approach alongside the
traditional focus of its five programme sectors. Here in this discussion we will only deal
with Communication and Information.
b) The main objective for UNESCO is to build a knowledge society based on the sharing of
knowledge and incorporating all the socio-cultural and ethical dimensions of sustainable
development. UNESCO’s priorities in the field of Communication and Information include:
i) Empowering people through access to information and knowledge with special emphasis on
freedom of expression;
ii) Promoting communication development;
iii) Advancing the use of ICTs for education, science and culture.
b) Organization: The General Conference consists of the representatives of the Member states
of the Organization. It meets every two years, and is attended by Member States and Associate
Members, together with observers for non-Member-States, intergovernmental organizations and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Each country has one vote, irrespective of its size or
the extent of its contribution to the budget.
The Executive Board, in a sense, assures the overall management of UNESCO. It
prepares the work of the General Conference and sees that its decisions are properly carried out.
The Secretariat consists of the Director-General and the Staff appointed by him. As of January
2007, the Secretariat employed around 2,100 civil servants from some 170 countries. The staff is
divided into Professional and General Service categories. Under a recent decentralization policy,
more than 700 staff members work in UNESCO's 58 field offices around the world.
c) Membership: In short, UNESCO promotes international co-operation among its 193
(As of October 2009) Member States and six Associate Members in the fields of education,
science, culture, and communication.
d) Functions and Activities: The aim of UNESCO in the field of Communication and
Information is to Empower people through the free flow of ideas by word and image, and by
access to information and knowledge. The Communication and Information Sector (CI) was
established in its present form in 1990.
i) UNISIST: It is an international project sponsored by UNESCO to foster and coordinate
international bibliographical services being provided by various organizations. It is an inter-
governmental programme to encourage and guide voluntary cooperation in the exchange of
information at national, regional and international levels.
ii) National Information System (NATIS): NATIS is a brain-child of UNESCO. It implies that
governments at different levels (national, state and local) should maximize the availability of all
relevant information.
iii) General Information Programme (PGI): PGI is the initials of its French name Program
General d’ Information. It was established in 1976 combining both the NATIS and UNISIST
programmes. The primary role of PGI is to promote computer application and communication
technologies in library and information services, information network and provision of on line
facilities for sharing and exchanging information between different countries all over the world.
iv) Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC): For compilation of bibliographies UNESCO has
launched an ambitious project in cooperation with IFLA known as UBC.
v) ASTINFO and APINESS: In 1984 UNESCO established Regional Network for Exchange of
Information and Experience in Science and Technology in Asia and Pacific (ASTINFO) to
promote regional cooperation, better understanding and socio-economic development in Asia and
Pacific region. Later in 1986 another network called Asia Pacific Information Network in Social
Sciences (APINESS) was established.
vi) Others: New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO), Intergovernmental
Programmes for the Development of Communication (IDDC), International System in Research
in Documentation (ISORID), Science and Technology Policies Information Exchange System
(SPINES), Data Retrieval System for Documentation in the Social and Human Sciences
(DARE), International Bureau of Education Documentation and Information System (IBEDOC)
are some other programmes of the UNESCO. The ISORID was established for collection and
dissemination of information on research activities in documentation, libraries and archives.
vii) Publication: In 1980 the first two volumes of UNESCO’s General History of Africa was
published. UNESCO also brought out a publication namely “Public Library Manifesto” 1949,
revised in 1972, which gives a new image and a wider scope to the principles upon which the
documentation and library services are based. Other publications include UNESCO Courier
(monthly), Copyright Bulleting (Quarterly), Impact of Science in Society, Index Treanslationum,
World guide to Library Schools and Training courses in Documentation, 1981. Public Libraries
and their mission (1961) by Andre Maurios etc.
viii) Seminars, Conference and Workshop: UNESCO has supported library conferences,
seminars and meetings. In 1952 an intergovernmental conference convened by UNESCO
adopted the Universal Copyright Convention. In the decades following World War II, the
Convention served to extend copyright protection to numerous states.
ix) Fellowships, Funds and Grants: The UNESCO Fellowships Programme, through the award
and administration of fellowships, study and travel grants provide various opportunities for
librarians. UNESCO is also responsible for sending a large number of experts as consultants and
advisors to developing countries for the purpose of initiating and expanding library services.
UNESCO also helps its member states to rebuild their libraries during the Second World War. It
also gives a huge grant to IFLA and FID (it was dissolved in 2002). UNESCO initiated the pilot
public libraries at New Delhi (India), Enugu (Nigeria) and Medellin (Colombia) which
demonstrates UNESCO’s Faith in public libraries. UNESCO also sponsored research on
librarianship especially for the developing countries.
x) Cooperation: UNESCO maintains healthy cooperation with IFLA, International Council on
Archives (ICA), Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CoDATA) established by
International Council of Scientific Union (ICSU), etc.
xi) Standardization: The Common Communication Format (CCF) was published by UNESCO
in 1984 and a second edition was published in 1988. CCF is a structure format for creating
bibliographical record and exchange of records between groups of information agency and
libraries.
xii) Mailing Lists and Forum: The WebWorld Portals Discussion forum is the place to discuss
various topics related to Libraries, Archives, Information Society, Free and Open Source
Software. It also provides feedback on and discusses all aspects of WebWorld Portals.
WebWorld, the website of UNESCO's Communication and Information Sector, offers a daily
news service to its users. The news articles mainly cover UNESCO's activities in the area of
communication and information, both at UNESCO's Headquarters and its field offices.
The UNESCO Libraries Portal gives access to websites of library institutions around the
world. It serves as an international gateway to information for librarians and library users and
international co-operation in this area. The UNESCO Archives Portal gives access to websites of
archival institutions around the world. It is also a gateway to resources related to records and
archives management and international co-operation in the area. The Observatory on the
Information Society monitors the impact of globalization on knowledge societies through the
collection of pertinent information and by observing the trends. The UNESCO Free Software
Portal gives access to documents and websites which are references for the Free Software/Open
Source Technology movement. It is also a gateway to resources related to Free Software.
India became a member of UNESCO on 4 November 1946. UNESCO for the first time
started the first pilot project in library in India by establishing the Delhi Public Library in
October 1951. This later on developed into Delhi Public Library. The main aim of this project
was to provide information on the problem of public library service for the parts of India in
particular and for Asia in general.
The Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) was set up in 1952 by
the government of India with technical assistance from UNESCO. In 1964 UNESCO assisted
INSDOC, again, in setting up its regional centre in Bangalore. Now Indian National Scientific
Documentation Centre (INSDOC) has merged with National Institute of Science Communication
(NISCOM) to form National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources
(NISCAIR) on 30 September 2002.
The Indian national commission is the official agency of UNESCO and National
Information System for Science and Technology (NISSAT) in the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research (DSIR) is the focal point for UNISIST (PGI) and is also the coordinating
centre for ASTINFO programme. NASSDOC of ICSSR is the focal point for UNESCO
supporting APINESS programme.
Besides the above, the UNESCO honoured the Indian librarians by inviting them to
advise upon various library projects meant for the member country. The prominent among them
were Dr. S. R. Ranganathan, B. S. Kesavan, S. S. Saith and a few others.
India also organized a few conferences and regional seminars of UNESCO. Notable
among them are Seminar of the development of public libraries in Asia held at Delhi from
October 6-26, 1955; Ninth General conference at Delhi in 1956; Regional seminar on library
development in South Asia, University of Delhi library, 3-14 October, 1960; Seminar on
Handling and Retrieval of Chemical Information, Delhi, 1986.
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA): IFLA is an
independent association that represents libraries and library associations around the world. At an
international conference of librarians and booklovers in Prague in 1926 a proposal to set up an
international committee with representatives of national library associations was accepted. This
was acted upon during the British Library Association conference in Edinburgh, Scotland in
1927, when an international library and bibliographic committee was created by the
representative associations from fifteen countries. IFLA was registered in the Netherlands in
1971. The name was changed to International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
in 1976. Its headquarter is located at The Royal Library, the national library of the Netherlands,
in The Hague. IFLA’s website, formerly known as IFLANET is available over web at
<http://www.ifla.org/>.
a) Objectives: The federation is an independent non-governmental and non profit making
professional organization. In 2004, the Governing Board decided to endorse a new model for
IFLA's operations, the three pillars that are supported by the infrastructure offered by the
Federation's governance structures, its website and its Headquarters (HQ) in The Hague. These
three pillars are- Society Pillar, Professional Pillar, and the Members’ Pillar.
i) The Society Pillar: It focuses on the role and impact of libraries and information services in
society and the contextual issues that condition and constrain the environment in which they
operate across the world. Those issues are addressed currently through FAIFE, CLM, Blue
Shield, and the advocacy in the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) and other
arenas.
ii) The Profession Pillar: It focuses on the issues covered by the long established Core
Activities - ALP, ICADS (webmaster: formerly known as ICABS), PAC, UNIMARC - and the
Sections and Divisions. They lie at the core of our professional practice and help libraries and
information services to fulfil their purposes and to shape responses to the needs of the clients in a
rapidly changing global environment.
iii) The Members Pillar: It is of course central to IFLA. It includes the services they offer to
members, management of their membership of IFLA, conferences and publications. We must
work together to make IFLA more vibrant and attractive and beneficial for members throughout
the world.
b) Organization: The governing structure of IFLA has been revised and came into force in
2001. The General Council of Members is the supreme governing body, consisting of delegates
of voting Members. It normally meets every year during the annual conference. The Governing
Board is responsible for the managerial and professional direction of IFLA within guidelines
approved by Council. The Governing Board meets at least twice every year, once at the time and
place of the annual World Library and Information Congress. The Executive Committee has
executive responsibility delegated by the Governing Board to oversee the direction of IFLA
between meetings of this Board within the policies established by the Board. It is the duty of the
Professional Committee to ensure coordination of the work of all the IFLA units responsible for
professional activities, policies and programmes (Sections, Core Activities, Special Interest
Groups).
c) Membership: Till 2009 IFLA have 1600 Members approximately in 150 countries around the
world. IFLA has two main categories of voting members: Association Members and Institutional
Members. Besides these, it has also Honorary Members (Honorary Presidents, Honorary
Fellows, IFLA Medal). Over the years the membership has been expanded to include individual
libraries, library schools and other appropriate institutions as well as personal affiliates.
d) Functions and Activities: The issues common to library and information services around the
world are the concern of the IFLA Core Activities. Directed by the Professional Committee, the
objectives and projects of the Core Activities relate to the Federation's Programme and the
priorities of the Divisions and Sections. Some of the major core programmes are given below.
i) Action for Development through Libraries Programme (ALP): The ALP Programme was
launched in 1984 at the IFLA Conference in Nairobi, Kenya, and was the subject of intensive
discussion between 1987 and 1989. It was further developed and defined during 1990 and 1991
as a special project and is fully operational ever since. The name of the Programme was
originally "Advancement of Librarianship Programme", but in 2004 it was changed to "Action
for Development through Libraries Programme". However, the acronym still remains as "ALP".
The mission of ALP is to further the library profession, library institutions and library and
information services in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Oceania, Latin America and
the Caribbean.
ii) Preservation and Conservation (PAC): IFLA Core Activity on Preservation and Conservation
(PAC) was officially created during the IFLA annual conference in Nairobi in 1984 to focus
efforts on issues of preservation and to initiate worldwide cooperation for the preservation of
library materials. The PAC programme was effectively launched in Vienna during the 1986
Conference on the Preservation of Library Materials co-organized by the Conference of the
Directors of National Libraries, IFLA and UNESCO.
iii) IFLA-CDNL Alliance for Digital Strategies (ICADS): ICADS is a joint alliance of IFLA and
the Conference of Directors of National Libraries (CDNL). The alliance was established in
August 2008 as a successor to ICABS (IFLA-CDNL Alliance for Bibliographic Standards) which
was established as a national libraries initiative in 2003.
iv) IFLA UNIMARC: Succeeding to the IFLA UBCIM Core Activity, the IFLA UNIMARC Core
Activity (UCA) was established in 2003 with the responsibility for the maintenance and
development of the Universal MARC format (UNIMARC).
IFLA’s previous programme includes Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC) launched in
1973, International MARC Programme (IMP) established officially in 1983, Universal
Availability of Publication (UAP) taken up in 1973, etc. Some other programmes and activities
of IFLA are:
v) Publication: Each issue of IFLA Journal (Quarterly) covers news of current IFLA
activities and articles, selected to reflect the variety of the international information
profession, ranging from freedom of information, preservation, services to the
visually impaired and intellectual property.
Council Report (biennial) records IFLA's achievements in five key areas: access to
information, the electronic environment, preservation and conservation, services and
standards and professional development. The IFLA publications series include such
titles as Intelligent library buildings, and adapting marketing to libraries in a changing
worldwide environment. The IFLA Professional Reports series feature reports of
professional meetings and guidelines to best practice. Recent reports include
Proceedings of the IFLA/UNESCO pre-conference seminar on public libraries and
Guidelines for easy-to-read materials.
Besides the above, many IFLA groups (Divisions, Core Activities, Sections and
Special Interest Groups) have their own newsletters. Some are produced regularly,
others only appear sporadically. Each year the proceedings of the World Library and
Information Congress, IFLA General Conference and Assembly are made available
on the IFLA website. It also publishes International Cataloguing and Bibliographic
Control (ICBC) Journal, IFLA Directory, International cataloguing, world directory of
administrative libraries, world directory of map collection, LIBRI- Library
journal.
vi) Seminars, Conference and Workshop: IFLA regularly holds “World Library and
Information Congress: IFLA General Conference and Assembly” and Regional
Meetings. IFLA’s general conferences are large scale conference. In 1961 IFLA holds
the international conference on cataloguing principles in Paris.
vii) Fellowships, Funds and Grants: IFLA administers a number of Grants and
Scholarships to enable the aspiring library and information professionals from all
over the world to enhance their training and to provide funding for new and exciting
projects in the field of librarianship. Such programmes include Guust Van Wesemael
Literacy Prize, IFLA International Marketing Award, Jay Jordan IFLA/OCLC Early
Career Development Fellowship, Margreet Wijnstroom Fund, Dr Shawky Salem
Conference Grant (SSCG), etc
vii) Cooperation: IFLA is now quite an active international organization. It has Formal
 Associate Relations with UNESCO, observer status with the United Nations,
associate status with the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and
observer status with the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In 1999, it established observer
status with the World Trade Organization (WTO). It has also offered consultative
status to a number of non-governmental organizations operating in related fields,
including the International Publishers Association (IPA). It is also a member of the
International Council on Archives (ICA), International Council of Museums (ICOM),
the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and the International
Committee of the Blue Shield (ICBS). Again, till 2009 more than 25 corporations in
the information industry have formed a working relationship with IFLA under its
Corporate Partners scheme.
viii) Standardization: IFLA has standardized international loan request form in 1935 and has
been progressively revising it since then. IFLA developed and published in 1974 the
International Standard Bibliographic Description for Monographic Publication [ISBD(M)] as the
basis for rules of description of monographic material in AACR-II. In 1975 IFLA and the Joint
Steering Committee for the revision of AACR - (JSC/AACR) jointly developed General
International Standard Bibliographic Description [ISBD(G)]. It serves as a framework for the
description of all types of publication.
ix) Mailing Lists and Forum: Sympa software provides web access to IFLA’s lot of mailing
lists. IFLA also serves as an international forum for librarians and advises international bodies
relating to library and information science. It provides expert advice and assistance in the
planning and development of library services.
x) IFLA advises libraries on matters such as interlibrary loan practices, copyright
laws, library building design, and development of legal deposit regulations that entitle national
libraries to receive copies of every work registered for copyright in their respective countries. It
also stimulates cooperation among writers, scholars, publishers, and libraries, and it assists
librarians in promoting literacy and universal access to knowledge. In addition, IFLA advocates
the formation of a worldwide information network.
xi) India is represented in the Executive Board of IFLA. In October, 1985 ILA
organised the IFLA’s regional seminar on UAP in New Delhi. ILA also hosted 58th General
Conference of IFLA in New Delhi from August 30-Septermber 5, 1992.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC): The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a
conceptual model used in project management that describes the stages involved in an
information system development project, from an initial feasibility study through maintenance of
the completed application.
The SDLC is used by a systems analyst to develop an information system, including
requirements, validation, training, and user ownership through investigation, analysis, design,
implementation, and maintenance. SDLC is also known as information systems development or
application development. An SDLC should result in a high quality system that meets or exceeds
customer expectations, within time and cost estimates, works effectively and efficiently in the
current and planned information technology infrastructure, and is cheap to maintain and cost-
effective to enhance. SDLC is a systematic approach to problem solving and is composed of
several phases, each comprising multiple steps.
a) Definition: Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) or sometimes just (SLC) is defined by
the U.S. Department of Justice (DoJ) as a software development process, although it is also a
distinct process independent of software or other Information Technology considerations.
b) SDLC Methodologies: Various SDLC methodologies have been developed to guide the
processes involved, including the following:
i) Waterfall model (which was the original SDLC method);
ii) Rapid Application Development (RAD);
iii) Joint Application Development (JAD);
iv) The fountain model;
vi) The spiral model;
vii) Build and fix;
And
viii) Synchronize-and-stabilize.
Frequently, several models are combined into some sort of hybrid methodology.
Documentation is crucial regardless of the type of model chosen or devised for any
application, and is usually done in parallel with the development process. Some
methods work better for specific types of projects, but in the final analysis, the most
important factor for the success of a project may be how closely the particular plan
was followed.
c) The Systems Life Cycle (UK Version): The SDLC is referred to as the Systems
Life Cycle (SLC) in the United Kingdom, whereby the following names are used for
each stage:
i) Terms of Reference: The management will decide what capabilities and objectives
they wish in the new system to incorporate;
ii) Feasibility Study: Asks whether the managements' concept of their desired new
system is actually an achievable, realistic goal, in-terms of money, time and end result
difference to the original system. Often, it may be decided to simply update an
existing system, rather than to completely replace one;
iii) Fact Finding and Recording: How is the current system used? Often
questionnaires are used here, but also just monitoring (watching) the staff to see how
they work is better, as people will often be reluctant to be entirely honest through
embarrassment about the parts of the existing system they have trouble with and find
difficult if merely asked.
iv) Analysis: Free from any cost or unrealistic constraints, this stage lets minds run
wild as “wonder systems” can be thought-up, though all must incorporate everything
asked for by the management in the terms of reference section.
v) Design: Designers will produce one or more “models” of what they see a system
eventually look like, with ideas from the analysis section either used or discarded. A
document will be produced with a description of the system, but nothing is specific -
they might say “touchscreen” or “GUI operating system”, but not mention any
specific brands.
vi) System Specification: Having generically decided on which software packages to
use and hardware to incorporate, you now have to be very specific, choosing exact
models, brands and suppliers for each software application and hardware device.
viii) Implementation and Review: Set-up and install the new system (including writing
 any custom (bespoke) code required}, train staff to use it and then monitor how it
operates for initial problems, and then regularly maintain thereafter. During this stage,
any old system that was in-use will usually be discarded once the new one has proved
it is reliable and as usable.
Structure of Subjects
Structure of Subjects: The structure of subjects can be viewed from the following angles-
a) Dichotomy: Dichotomy refers to a division into two. This is also referred to as binary
classification. In this system of divisions, the subjects are divided into two broad categories, each
broad category are again divided into two sub categories, and so on. Immanuel Kant gave a
dichotomous picture of the entire universe of subjects; however dichotomy is insufficient for
designing a scheme of classification for the existing universe of subjects. “Tree of Porphyry” is a
schematic representation of dichotomy.
b) Decachotomy: Decachotomy refers to a division into ten. Melvil Dewey Classification is the
best example of this kind of division. Dewey divided the field of knowledge into nine main
classes and tenth class was formed for general documents not belonging to any of the main
classes. This process of division into ten at each stage is continued until the required subdivisions
have been obtained. From the point of nature of growth and development of knowledge it is
unrealistic to bind the universe of subjects to a decachotomy, because it grows in different
directions and at different stages.
c) Polychotomy: Polychotomy refers to a division into many. In 1893 C. A. Cutter in Expansive
Classification introduced polychotomy in a limited way by stipulating the number of division (at
each stage of division) to be 24. But the restriction to 24, by the middle of twentieth century was
found to be an impediment. The lesson is that the number of division to be incorporated at a
given stage of division should not be predetermined.
d) Proliferation: It is not possible to predict the maximum number of division to be provided for
in a particular array or stage of division, because various are the ways in which the universe of
subjects gets proliferated. The extensive proliferation creates problems for the designers of
schemes of classification
Statistical Inference
Statistical Inference: Statistical Inference is concerned with the various tests of significance for
testing hypothesis in order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of values. It is mainly on the
basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation is performed.
In modern times, with the availability of computer facilities, there has been a rapid development
of multivariate analysis which may be defined as all statistical methods which simultaneously
analyze more than two variables on a sample of observations. Usually the following analyses are
involved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis:
i) Multiple Regression Analysis
ii) Multiple Discriminant Analysis
iii) Multivariate Analysis of Variance
iv) Canonical Analysis
v) a) Chi-Square Test: The chi-square test is an important test amongst the several tests of
significance developed by statisticians. Chi-square, symbolically written as X2 is a statistical
measure used in the context of sampling analysis for comparing variance to a theoretical
variance. As a “non-paramatric test”, it can be used to determine if categorical data shows
dependency or the two classifications are independent. It can also be used to make comparisons
between theoretical population and actual data when categories are used. Thus Chi square is
applicable in large number of problems.
Standard Citation Styles
Standard Citation Styles: A citation or bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article,
web page, or other published item, with sufficient detail to allow a reader to locate it. The
citation style refers to the rules and conventions established by the authoritative body for
documenting sources of information used in write-up of any kind. The citation identifies and
credits the sources that are used in writing a paper and allow the reader of the article to further
verify and access the cited work. The citation is a list of sources used in writing a work (article)
that are alphabetically arranged by author surname, works without authors are arranged
alphabetically by title [omitting the article (a, an, the)] within the same list giving essential
general information to trace the sources. Citations Styles are also known as Citation Formats or
Style Guide.
To maintain the honesty in academic pursuit it is important to cite the works of others,
otherwise knowingly representing the work of others as one’s own is treated as demanding the
work as his/her own. Failure to give credit for quotes or unique ideas will result in a null in a
research as well as other disciplinary actions. So, to avoid such disciplinary action always credit
should be given to the original author of information that is not generally known, unique, or
research data.
1. Types of Citation: All citation styles require two types of citation elements for citing
consulted work. They are - citing sources in the text and citing sources in bibliography or
references.
a) Citing Sources in the Text: In citing sources in the text, citations to sources are placed in the
text of the work i.e within sentences and paragraphs in order to briefly identify sources by the
readers so that they can enable them to locate it in the Reference or Bibliography portion. In
general, citing sources in the text, citations are placed within parentheses. This type of citation
helps to know whose sentences or words are quoted.
b) Citing Sources in References or Bibliography: References are the cited work in the text,
and the Bibliography is the list of sources not cited in the text but which are relevant to the
subject with which the article or work deals with. References cited in the text of a research paper
also appear at the end of the paper that are arranged in alphabetical order by authors’ surname,
works without authors are arranged alphabetically by title (omitting the articles) within the same
list. This list provides the information necessary to identify and retrieve the particular document.
Citation to consulted online works generally demands detailed information than that of
print sources of information. Again, in case of online sources, currently few standards are there,
governing the organization and presentation of it. In addition to the above points, in citing online
sources the following are considered important
i) Whenever possible attempt should be made to identify the author(s) of the document.
ii) The citation should direct the readers to the information sources immediately. So if possible
citation to the specific webpage [Uniform Resource Locator (URL)] should be made rather than
home or menu pages.
iii) One should try to mention the “date” (i.e the dates of publication, update, or date of
retrieval).
2. Types of Author: In studying the citation behavior, authors can be divided into three groups
based upon their expertise and qualification in citing sources.
i) Academician: It includes Lecturer, Reader and Professor of different academic and research
departments. They are generally treated as well qualified in citing sources and sometimes also
teaches the student about it. So, any kind of deviation in citing sources on their part is treated as
gross negligence towards their work.
b) Researcher: It includes those persons who acquire the Doctorate degree but do not come
within the perview of the first category or those who are doing Ph.D. under different universities
and research institutions. The researchers are generally aware of citing sources within their
papers, so any kind of deviation in citing sources are also not acceptable on their part.
c) Others: It includes those persons who are neither Ph. D. holders nor teaching staff and
generally lack the knowledge of citing sources. Deviations in citing sources in their papers are
the result of their lack of knowledge. So, if any kind of deviation is there in their papers, it is the
duty of the editors, compilers, etc. to decide whether the articles are considered for publication
and to correct the deviation in citing sources in consultation with the authors. In due course, the
editors can also take the responsibility to educate the authors in citing sources and the authors
should also come forward to learn this.
3. Deviation in Citing Sources: Deviation is a term used to describe the incorrectness. It is often
used interchangeably with error. It means the amount of error or variation in comparison to the
standard or expectation.
The expertise of the author(s) are wrongly justified by the number of publications in
many cases and so the authors give more emphasis in producing a mass volume of work by
ignoring its quality. The origin and development of Internet helps them in this regard. Some
times, some authors even produce an article within a day itself. If it is so, one can imagine what
its quality will be? It will be nothing but cut and paste. Not to speak about general writing, even
many seminar and conference proceedings are nowadays full of such type of works (deviation in
quality as well as citing sources).
a) Common Deviation Types: The common types of deviation in citing sources fall into the
following types-
i) Deviation in Alphabetical Arrangement: The cited works are generally not arranged
alphabetically.
ii) Deviation in Maintaining Consistency: If in one reference ‘and’ is used in the other ‘&’ is
used; If in one abbreviation ‘p.’ is used in the other ‘pp.’ is used to designate page numbers of
articles; deviation in maintaining italics and underlining for titles of books and journals is also
common in many articles. In case of online sources, if in one source the date of access is there in
the other source it is absent; if in one source the home page is cited in another the complete URL
is cited.
iii) Citing Irrelevant Sources of Information: Some authors cite the search engine URL but not
the actual information sources, which they have consulted.
iv) Duplication in Citing Sources: Some authors cite even a single work in two places, in one
case starts with “http://” and in the other case it starts with “www” (in place of http://www.).
v) Exclusion of Sources Used: Some authors do not cite the original sources that they consulted
as they cut and paste major portion from the work.
b) Why Deviation: The deviation in citing sources mainly occurs due to the following-
i) Lack of Any Standard Format: In most cases the editorial body of any journal, seminar or
conference proceedings does not ask the author to cite his /her consulted work according to any
standard format, and so in the absence of it, the authors are forced to follow their own format.
Even many Ph.D and M.Phil offering Indian universities do bother to follow any such standard
practices.
ii) Wrong Point of Justification: Generally, people think the bigger the volume of seminar or
conference preceding, the more it will be treated as a successful one. Such type of wrong
thinking pushes the editorial body to accept articles that are otherwise not appropriate for
inclusion in the proceeding.
iii) Lack of Time: Lack of time from the author and editorial body is another point to be
considered. Authors are justified by volume of information they produce, so they give more
emphasis in volume rather than its quality. Many authors are also very busy with their routine
work so they cannot devote much time towards their papers. Lack of time to recheck the work is
another reason on their part to be considered. Deviation in maintaining consistency arises due to
this factor.
iv) Lack of Knowledge about Citation Style: Many authors and editors are not aware about
different types of citation styles and how these need to be followed.
v) Lack of Knowledge about Different Types of Sources: There are different types of online
sources over internet like website, blog, wiki, etc. and many authors and editors are not aware
about it and cannot differentiate one from another. Even some authors thought that if they found
any sources of information relevant to their query by consulting some search engine then the
search engine itself should be cited.
vi) Gross Negligence towards the Work: Those authors who are well qualified in citing sources
as well as about different types of online sources, deviation in maintaining consistency and
alphabetical arrangement on their part arises due to the gross negligence towards their work.
vii) Wrong Personal Psychology: Many authors think that they are more intelligent and
computer savvy than the others and so if they cut and paste some portion of the online sources or
other work without citing them then the editorial body or reader will not be able to trace them
out. So, they are quite unaware of the fact that tracing the plagiarized text in any article is just a
matter of single minutes job and even less so for an internet savvy person, as many online tools
are available that perform such activities. Such type of personal psychology results in the
omission of the consulted sources from the reference and bibliography page of the work and also
degrades the quality of the paper as well.
c) How Deviation in Citing Sources can be Avoided: Some of the ways by which deviation in
citing sources can be avoided are-
i) Chapter on Citation Should be included in the Course Curriculum: The Knowledge about
citing sources should be treated as essential for all types of students and attempts should be made
by the concerning body for its inclusion in the course curriculum itself. If we can achieve it in
the grass root level itself, we can think of achieving a truly knowledge culture society, thereof.
ii) Universities and Colleges Should Adopt one Standard Format: The Universities and
Colleges can think of adopting one specific type of citation style and attempt should be made
accordingly to follow this format in the journals, magazines published from that institution. The
students and faculties should be encouraged to follow the adopted format in their writing that
may be a thesis and dissertations work or even in case of assignment, report, etc.
iii) Library and Information Science (LIS) Professional Should Transfer Their Knowledge
to Others: In the field of Library and Information Science, citing consulted sources has been
taught rigorously, and so the professionals are generally treated as academically or professionally
well qualified in this regard. As an expert in the subject, it is their duty to take initiative in
making their expertise accessible to others students and authors from different field.
iv) Editorial and Publishing Body Should Adopt One Specific Standard Citation Format:
Every Seminar, Conference organized by different institutions should ask the authors to prepare
their article by following a specific citation style. The articles, whose citation are not in the
specified format must be rejected or if no preference is specified, it is the duty of the editorial
body to use one specific citation style and rearrangement and preparation of the cited works in all
papers accordingly (consistently and accurately).
v) Knowledge About Citation Should be Made Mandatory for Research Scholar:
Knowledge about major type of citation styles should be made mandatory for all types of
Research Scholars, after all they are the pillar for the subsequent development of the society.
vi) Research Guide Should Recommend the Researcher: It is the duty of the research guides
to recommend the preferred citation format for the thesis and dissertation and communication of
the same with the researchers.
vii) Authors Should be Very Careful in Citing Sources: In the absence of any of the above, the
research scholar or the authors can ask reference staff of the library or the faculties and students
of the Library and Information Science Schools for the assistance or he/she can think of logging
on to the internet for the major type of citation styles.
viii) Organizing Seminars, Conferences and Workshops in Citing Sources: The Library and
Information Science Schools of different universities can think of organizing workshops and
seminars in citing sources to educate all types of authors and peoples in general. Other bodies in
consultation with Library and Information Science Professional can also think in this regard.
4. Different Citation Styles: Different organizations or institutions develop their own citation
styles to fit their individual needs. Though, there is a considerable overlap in different citation
styles, individual publishers have their own in-house variations. In general, all citation styles can
be divided into two broad categories, i.e. the Humanities and the Sciences. Some important
citation styles from both the categories are listed below.
i) The American Chemical Society (ACS) style: The ACS style is developed by the American
Chemical Society (ACS). It is often used in chemical literature.
ii) The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style: American Institute of Physics, references is
most commonly used in physics journals. It is devised by the American Institute of Physics.
iii) The American Mathematical Society (AMS) styles: The American Mathematical Society
AMS styles (e.g., AMS-LaTeX) are styles developed for the American Mathematical Society
(AMS). It is typically implemented by using the BibTeX tool in the LaTeX typesetting
environment. Brackets with author’s initials and year are inserted in the text and at the beginning
of the reference. Typical citations are listed in-line with alphabetic-label format, e.g., [AB79].
iv) American Psychological Association (APA) Citation Style: APA citation style is established
by the American Psychological Association. It is mainly used for psychology, education, and
social science bibliographies. APA style specifies the names and order of headings, formatting,
and organization of citations and references, and the arrangement of tables, figures, footnotes,
and appendices, as well as other manuscript and documentation features. It uses parenthetical
citation within the text, listing the author’s surname and the year of publication of the work,
which is more or less same as that of MLA style’s parenthetical citations. It lists sources at the
end of the paper, on a References Page. Listing electronic sources of information is more detailed
in APA style than in MLA style. APA style uses Harvard referencing, also known as the author-
date system of citations and parenthetical referencing, keyed to a subsequent list of References.
v) American Sociological Association (ASA) style: The American Sociological Association
Citation Style is mainly used in sociological publications.
vi) The Associated Press (AP) Stylebook: The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on
Media Law, is a style and usage guide for the newspapers and in journalism classes in the United
States.
vii) Bluebook: The Bluebook (or similar systems derived from it) is a citation system
traditionally used in American academic legal writing.
viii) Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide: The Chicago Manual of Style (abbreviated as
CMS or CMOS, or verbally as Chicago) is a style guide for American English published by the
University of Chicago Press. The CMS deals with all aspects of editorial practice, from
American English grammar and usage to document preparation. It is used for all subjects. Some
social sciences and humanities scholars prefer to use the nearly identical Turabian style instead
of it.
ix) Columbia Guide to Online Style: The Columbia Style was made by Janice R. Walker and
Todd Taylor to give detailed guidelines for citing internet sources. It offers models for both the
humanities and the sciences.
x) Hart’s Rules for the 21st Century: Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the
University Press, Oxford is a reference book and style guide first published in England by
Oxford University Press in 1893. It is renamed as ‘The Oxford Guide to Style (OGS)’, in 2002,
then from 2005 it came to be known as ‘New Hart’s Rules: The Handbook of Style for Writers
and Editors’ and has been promoted as ‘Hart's Rules for the 21st Century’.
xi) Harvard Citation Style: The Harvard Style (or author-date system) is recommended by the
British Standards Institution and involves a short reference [e.g (Barman, 2007)] being inserted
after the cited text in parenthesis and the full reference being listed at the end of the article. It is
mainly used for social science bibliographies.
xii) ISO 690: ISO 690 is an ISO standard for bibliographic referencing in documents of all sorts.
It includes electronic documents as well as other published documents, and specifies the
elements to be included in references, and the order in which the elements of the reference
should be stated.
xiii) Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) Style Guide: The MHRA Style
Guide (formerly the MHRA Style Book) is the Modern Humanities Research Association style
format and is most often used in the arts and humanities, particularly in the United Kingdom
where the MHRA is based. It is fairly similar to the MLA style, but with some differences. The
style guide uses footnotes that fully reference a citation and has a bibliography at the end. Its
major advantage is that a reader does not need to consult the bibliography to find a reference as
the footnote provides all the details.
xiv) Modern Language Association (MLA) Citation Style: MLA style was developed by The
Modern Language Association and is most often used in English studies, comparative literature,
foreign-language literary criticism, media studies, cultural studies, and some other fields in the
humanities. It uses a Works Cited Page to list works at the end of the paper, brief parenthetical
citations, which include an author and page (if applicable), are used within the text. These direct
readers to the work of the author on the list of works cited, and the page of the work where the
information is located [e.g. (Barman 98) refers the reader to page 98 of the work made by
someone with surname “Barman”).
xv) The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage: The New York Times Manual of Style
and Usage is a style guide by Allan M. Siegal and William G. Connolly. Although it was written
for The New York Times journalists, it has also been published for use by others and much of the
information is specific to neither ‘The Times’ nor ‘New York’.
xvi) Style Manual for Political Science: ‘Style Manual for Political Science’ is the publication
on citing by The American Political Science Association (APSA). It is often used by political
science scholars and historians and is largely based on that of the Chicago Manual of Style.
xvii) Turabian Citation Style: Turabian Citation Style is based on the Chicago Manual of Style.
It offers the authors and writers of all subjects the option of using an author-date system with
notes and parenthetical references.
xviii) Vancouver System: The Vancouver system, recommended by the Council of Science
Editors, is used in medical and scientific papers and research. In one of its major variant, citation
numbers are included in the text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. All
bibliographical information is exclusively included in the list of references at the end of the
document, next to the respective citation number.
5. Achieving Proper Citation: Two methods are available for citing consulted works. They are
a) Manual Citation: It is the process in which the researcher or academician or authors prepare
their citation by manual means in consultation with the standard format or handbook.
b) Automatic Citation: Nowadays there are many bibliographic citation management program
available that automatically generate citations in appropriate citation style. They allow one to
create a bibliography, or list of references, by importing references from text files or online
databases and automatically formatting it in a preferred style. Such types of packages are also
known as “Reference Management Software”. Example includes: Refworks, EndNote Web, etc.
6. Conclusion: In the event of different citation style, it will be better not to think of designing
and developing any new standard format, rather if deviations are there in already established
format attempt should be made to correct it, since in many cases scope is there.
The human being is in the present position only due to the fact that it is able to learn from
the knowledge base of past generation and during his/her life time he/she shifts it to another new
dimension that form the base for the next generation. Unlike other animals every time, every
generation doesn’t start from the knowledge base with zero. But, during our progress in stream
line we should not forget the contribution of the people that some times devote their entire life to
build our own knowledge base. Whenever we take help from the knowledge base of others we
must acknowledge them in the form of citing their work in our own work (papers). After all why
should not we, since it costs nothing, rather it gives an authoritative look to our own work.
Standard Bibliographic Format
Standard Bibliographic Format: Standardization is the process of formulating and applying
rules for an orderly approach to a specific activity for the benefit of all taking due account of the
functional conditions and safety requirements.
The needs for standardization of bibliographic description are as follows
i) To bring uniformity and order in the description of library materials of different kinds;
ii) For handling of data in an automated computer aided machine;
iii) To produce a centralized database;
iv) To exchange bibliographic information between and among different countries;
v) To overcome the problem of language barrier;
vi) To economise on time, space, effort, material, manpower and money.
Let Us Sum Up: The different bibliographic standards are helpful in maintaining uniformity in
the data so that exchange and compilation can be done easily. The ISBD (G) serves as a single
framework for the description of all types of publications in all types of media. Later on, IFLA
brought out different ISBDs on the basis of ISBD (G). The ISBD (G) is incorporated into AACR
II as a general framework for bibliographic description.
MARC format has become a generic term to all MARC formats including UKMARC,
CANMARC, InterMARC and is used for the identification, arrangement of bibliographical data
for handling by computer. The USMARC format became the U. S. National Standard in 1971
(ANSI Z39.2) and an International Standard in 1973 (ISO 2709). To solve the problem of
incompatible nature among different countries, IFLA launched a programme known as
UNIMARC. UNIMARC followed the ISO communication format ISO-2709 (1981), but it failed.
The UNESCO also came up with CCF, which is the implementation of ISO-2709 to solve the
problem of incompatibility. Several countries have adopted this standard for exchange and
creation of bibliographic record at national level. The MARC 21 is a new name of harmonization
of CANMARC and USMARC in a single edition. It uses the standard AACR II, LCSH, DDC,
ISO 2709 and ANSI/NISO Z39.2. Till now, MARC 21 remains the standard one which is widely
accepted in different library softwares and also in different countries.

Staffing Pattern of the Library

Staffing Pattern of the Library: The staffing is an assessment of the staff which is meant to
give the library a competent staff in all the different categories and to get the best out of them.
According to Evans, “staffing is the function by which a manager builds an organization through
the recruitment, selection and development of individuals as capable employees. The staffing in
libraries consists of the different categories of person with experience and expertise. The library
staffs provide materials, they also provide the services of specialists who are experts in finding,
organizing and interpreting information needs.
a) Basic Qualities of Library Staff: The librarian should try to find out the aptitudes of the
prospective employees because unless the library work suits their tastes proper output service
cannot be saved. Care also should be taken that persons with appropriate qualifications required
for particular posts are selected for particular job. If highly qualified young and ambitious
persons are appointed for lower category post, they may not stick to such posts. Some other
points to be noted are as follows
i) The prospective employee should be adequately qualified and experienced one to perform the
necessary jobs.
ii) The prospective employee should have love for books.
iii) He/she should regularly read some books for acquiring knowledge and pleasure.
iv) The prospective employee should have love for humanity.
v) He/she should deal with the readers in a sympathetic way and try to help them and remove
their difficulties.
b) Types of LIS Professional: There are various types of LIS professional in general which can
be grouped into the following:
i) Professional: Professional consists of those who are employed on professional job and who
possess degree in library and information science as well as in some other discipline.
Professionals are employed at higher level and middle level and are responsible for
administration and managerial and professional job. Usually Librarian, Deputy Librarian,
Assistant Librarian and Senior Library Assistants, whatever may be their designation, are
included in this category.
ii) Para Professional / Semi Professionals: They are with diploma or certificate in LIS. Their
designation may be library assistant, technical or professional assistant, junior cataloguer or
equivalent. They usually perform the routine professional and technical job.
iii) Unskilled / Supporting Staff: They are with the minimum educational background and are
adequately experienced in doing a particular job or trade and usually have a non-library degree.
The designation may be reprographic assistant, book arranger, book binder, conversation
assistant, typist and equivalent.
Besides the above categories of staff, some other staffs are also necessary. They include
attendant, cleaner, peon, gardener, and sweeper.
The quantum of the staff depends on the total service area of the library, the number of
departments / branch and other organized unit, the hours of opening, population and size of
library users, amount of circulation and demand for reference service, and the financial support
available.
c) Activities of LIS Professionals: The different categories of library personnel are assigned
specific public service activities, some of the functions may overlap while some of these can
vary from library to library but in general these are of the following types
i) Activities of a Professional
* General Activities: Establishes operating policy, assigns the personnel, public relations, general
supervision, work with faculty.
* Professional: Book selection, performing the book order; do classification and cataloguing,
indexing, etc. Selection of circulation system, non-routine registration, schedule staff. In case of
Interlibrary Loan determine interlibrary loan code.
* Reference: Initial patron contact at the Reference Desk or Information Desk, gives general
information and answers directional questions, interviews patrons and answers reference
questions, searches computer databases, compiles bibliographies, explains the use of library
catalogues and periodical indexes, recommends material for purchase.
* Miscellaneous Activities: Establishes subject headings for vertical files, works on displays,
bulletin boards and exhibits.
ii) Activities of a Paraprofessional
* General: Assigns personnel, public relations, general supervision, and work with faculty.
* Professional: Their job includes book ordering, accessioning and preparation of books for the
shelves, physical verification of books, membership registration, to maintain files, deal with
disputed fines. Supervise collection and catalogue maintenance, circulation, stock verification,
charge out and check in materials, accepting interlibrary loan requests, and bibliographic and
location search, to identify overdue and carry out overdue procedures, collecting fines, re
shelving, shelf reading, shifting materials on shelves, inventory.
* Reference: Initial patron contact at Reference Desk or Information Desk, to answer general
information and directional questions, answer simple reference questions within limits
established by the library, to interview patrons and answer reference questions, compile
bibliographies, explain the use of library catalogues and periodical indexes, bibliographic work
under librarian's direction, recommend material for purchase.
* Miscellaneous Activities: Establishes subject headings for vertical files, upkeep of files and
assign subject headings under librarian's direction, work on displays, bulletin boards, exhibits,
demonstrates the use of audiovisual equipment and compiles statistics.
iii) Activities of an Unskilled / Supporting Staff
* General: Public relations.
* Professional: Typing and other clerical work, book binding, maintaining files, to receive and
return different types of material other than document, reprography, micrography, operation of
different types of equipment, maintenance of fumigation chambers, de-acidification, lamination
and other conservation processes.
* Reference: Initial patron contact at the Reference Desk or Information Desk, answering general
information and directional questions, answering simple reference questions within limits
established by the library, typing and other clerical work.
* Miscellaneous Activities: Compiling statistics, upkeep of files and assigning subject headings
under librarian's direction, work on displays, bulletin boards, museum exhibits, demonstrating
the use of audiovisual equipment.
Special Library
Special Library: The libraries that are run by private businesses and public organizations,
including hospitals, museums, research laboratories, law firms, and many government
departments and agencies, fall into this category. Branches of a large academic or research
libraries dealing with particular subjects are also usually called "special libraries": they are
generally associated with one or more academic departments.
a) Definition: The special library is concerned with the literature of a particular subject or group
of subjects. According to R. Astall, “special libraries serve a specialist clientele, located within a
single establishment or group, and all engaged in working towards one common purpose”. The
Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureau (ASLIB) defined special library as “a
department/ faculty responsible for the acquisition, indexing, and distribution (dissemination) of
recorded knowledge directly concerned with the work of a specialized organization or a special
group of users”.
In simple, a special library exists as a service unit within an organization having non-
library objectives. Special libraries may be designated in different ways such as scientific library,
technical library, etc. It may also be designated by subject as agriculture library, medical library,
etc in relation to its parent institution as research organization, government agency and similar
others.
b) Objectives: The objectives of the special library in general are determined by those of the
parent organizations which established it. Mainly it is “putting knowledge to work” and it exists
to serve its parent organization. Therefore the aim of a special library is to further the interests of
its parent body by means of the following-
i) Provides information service, which enable the members of the organization to keep track of
the significant developments in their field of interest;
ii) The librarian searches literature exhaustively and brings it to the notice of the organization;
iii) Provides information pin pointedly, exhaustively and promptly, thereby saving time of the
users;
iv) Provides inspiration and stimulation to users by means of balanced collections and fine
services.
c) Collections: Collections of the special libraries are developed to support their information
services, both current and retrospective. It contains collections of unique materials to support the
needs of advanced and highly specialized scholarship including internally generated information
and information available from sources outside the parent organization. These collections may
include rare manuscripts, pamphlets and books, scientific documents, important printings of
literary works, regional histories, original musical scores, journals, technical and research
reports, translations, dissertations, patents, abstracts, directories, or other distinctive scholarly
resources.
d) Services: As the collection of special libraries may contain many rare and valuable materials,
their use is typically confined to the library buildings. It also may or may not be accessible to
some identified part of the general public. Special libraries also often publish scholarly materials
in their collections, sponsored lectures, colloquia, and arrange exhibitions of their most important
holdings. Information service is an integral part of the special libraries. The nature and extent of
information services offered by the individual special libraries varies according to the need of its
primary users and according to its own resources in staff and collections. At the minimal level of
information service it disseminates information and materials; answers reference questions,
directs users to appropriate sources, and deals with such simple current awareness services as
periodical routing. At the intermediate level, it offers literature searches, prepares bibliographies,
selects and transmits research materials and provides current awareness services such as
acquisition bulletins. At the maximums level it offers evaluative and comprehensive literature
searches and more complex current awareness services such as Selective Dissemination of
Information (SDI) services.
Many institutions make a distinction between circulating libraries (where materials are
expected and intended to be loaned to patrons, institutions, or other libraries) and collecting
libraries (where the materials are selected on a basis of their nature or subject matter). Many
modern libraries are a mixture of both, as they contain a general collection for circulation, and a
reference collection which is often more specialized, as well as restricted to the library premises.
In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are
experts at finding and organizing information and at interpreting information needs.
Sources of Documentary Information
Sources of Documentary Information: A document constitutes embodied thought which is a
record of work on paper or other material fit for physical handling, transport across space and
preservation through time. It may include manuscripts, handwritten and engraved materials
including printed books, periodical, microform, photograph, gramophone records, tape records,
etc. The recent advances in science and technology helps originate another kind of document i.e.
computer readable forms that includes C.D., DVD, pen drive, hard disk, web resources etc. All
documents are the records of human observation and thought and in its creation direct human
intervention is necessary. They provide some information to its readers or users. A library as a
gateway of knowledge provides access to a variety of such documentary sources of information.
The sources of documentary information can also be termed as an information product. It
is generated out of a service to be provided to the user. It is a kind of consolidation and
presentation process giving tangibility to information.
1. Classification of Documentary Sources of Information: Different authors classified the
documentary sources of information into different categories. Some popular classifications are
listed bellow
a) C. W. Hanson Classification: C. W. Hanson (1971) in the article “Introduction to science
Information work” published in ASLIB (previously Association of Special Libraries
and Information Bureau but now known as Association for Information Management) divides
documentary sources of information into two categories i.e. primary and secondary.
i) Primary: The primary documents exist of their own and usually contain original information
on the first formulation of any new observation, experiment, ideas, etc. Thus, according to C. W.
Hanson, a monograph, an article in periodical, text book, and encyclopaedia are all primary
documents. An article in encyclopedia or text book may not contain any new information on the
subject but it presents the information in the particular form for the first time. The articles
concerned are not a condensation or rewriting in any way of any existing document but has been
written specifically for the text book or the encyclopedia.
ii) Secondary: All secondary publications present the contents of primary document in a
condensed form or list them in a helpful way so that the existence of a primary document can be
known and access to it can be made.
iii) Primary / Secondary Sources of Information: Conference proceedings, theses and
dissertations, monographs, etc. have the characteristics of both primary and secondary sources of
information. Those of documents representing new facts can be regarded as primary publication
and those having the character of reviews can be grouped as secondary publication. As a result of
such mixing of primary and secondary sources of information some expert doesn’t consider this
division to be much practical utility.
b) Denis Grogan Classification: Denis Grogan, on the basis of level of reorganization, has
classified the documents into three categories. They are: primary, secondary and tertiary.
i) Primary Sources: Primary publications are those in which the author for the first time
supplies evidence, describes a discovery, makes or drives a new proposition or brings forward
new evidence about previous proposition. It was created at or near the time being studied, often
by the people being studied. It is a fundamental, authoritative document related to a subject of
inquiry, used in the preparation of a later derivative work. Thus, the primary sources of
information are basic sources of new information which are not passed through any filtering
mechanism like condensation, interpretation or evaluation and are the original work of the
author.
UNESCO (1968) defines a primary publication as “original scientific paper describing new
research, techniques or apparatus.” Primary does not mean superior. It refers to the creation by
the primary players, and is distinguished from a secondary source, which is a historical work,
like a scholarly book or article, built up from primary sources.
Primary sources may include periodicals, patent, standard, report, reprint, trade journal,
classic book, letters, diaries, and other personal papers, photographs, interviews and transcripts,
government and historical records, newspaper clippings, and other original sources. The
significance of primary publications is as follows:
a) A subject becomes a discipline in its own right when independent primary sources begin to be
produced in that area. The progress and development of a country directly depend on the primary
literature that reports a new discovery.
b) The information published in primary sources are newly generated, recent, current, full and
up-to-date for all other investigators working in the same field.
c) When any research or investigation or its any concept is first published in primary sources
only it becomes the basic and original sources of communication of information and reports
quickly to be used by other users.
d) Publication of primary sources of information avoids doubling and duplication in the research,
thus saves time, money and labour to be spent on it. It also acts as a guide to the researcher
engaged in the same field by pointing out what has been done? And up to what level? etc.
e) The primary sources of information help in the compilation of secondary and tertiary sources
of information. Often primary sources of information may be the only sources of information in
existence.
There are certain primary sources of information, which remain unpublished. Very often
these may be consulted for historical interest. Such materials include laboratory note book,
memoranda, diaries, letters to and from a particular individual, company, etc. The library also
tries to procure such type of material if it comes within its scope of area or is relevant to its
purpose.
ii) Secondary Sources: A document concerning a particular subject of inquiry which is derived
from or based on the study and analysis of the primary source of information is called the
secondary source of information. In the secondary source of information the original information
is selected, modified and arranged in a suitable format for the purpose of easy location by the
user. The secondary sources of information thus provide digested information and also serve as
bibliographical key to primary sources of information. Secondary publication includes text book,
reference book, review of the literature, etc.
iii) Tertiary Sources: The tertiary sources of information are last to appear and mostly do not
contain subject knowledge. It is designed to provide information about information and so acts as
a guide to the primary and secondary sources of information. The main function of tertiary
sources is to aid the user in using primary and secondary sources of information. The tertiary
sources of information are bibliography of bibliographies, guides to libraries, other
organizations, indexing and abstracting periodicals, list of accession, list of research in progress,
directories, etc.
Eventually there is no rigid line of demarcation between primary, secondary and tertiary
sources of information.
c) S. R. Ranganathan Classification: Based on the physical characteristics of documents S. R.
Ranganathan classified documentary sources of information into four categories. These also
reflect the chronological order of their development. They are:
i) Conventional: Books, periodicals, Map etc.;
ii) Neo Conventional: Standards, specification, patent etc.;
iii) Non Conventional: Audio visual, microcopy etc.;
iv) Meta Document: Direct records unmediated by human mind.
2. Types of Documentary Sources of Information: The documentary sources of information
can be of the following types
a) Newspaper: Newspapers are usually published as dailies or weeklies. The type of paper they
are printed on, called newsprint is not meant to last. They are usually preserved on microfilm for
this reason. Libraries usually keep paper copies of newspapers until the microfilm copies arrive.
Nowadays many newspapers are available on the Internet, some for free, and others by
subscription.
b) Periodical: Periodicals are issued at intervals and numbered consecutively. They are given
volume designations, several issues making up a volume. Periodicals include journals and
magazines.
i) Journal: Journal is a scholarly publication devoted to disseminating current information about
research and developments in a specific field or subfield of human knowledge. Journal is usually
regularly published at interval. Most journal articles are long and include a paragraph at the
beginning, called an abstract which summarizes the main points of the article and at the end a
bibliography or list of works cited. The writings of the journals are most often peer-reviewed.
ii) Magazine: The magazine usually refers to the non-scholarly publications written for an
educated audience and contains popular reading.
c) Reprint: Once an article is published in a journal additional copies are taken out separately
and provided to the author. A fixed number is generally supplied free of charge. Additional
copies are supplied at a cost; these copies are known as reprints and used for exchange with other
scientists working in the same field.
d) House Journal: It is a publication issued by an organization to inform the public of its
performance and style of function and also to know the reaction, opinions of its public. Generally
house journals are of two types:
i) External House Journals: The external house journal is meant for the external audience of an
organization. The external audience of an organization refers to those who do not work under the
roof of the organization, but are interested in it.
ii) Internal House Journal: Internal house journals are meant for the employees under the roof
of an organization. Broadly speaking, it aims to inform and educate the employees of all levels
about the organization’s activities, functions, etc.
e) Newsletter: Newsletter is a publication issued by an organization often simple in format and
crisp in style to provide speedy information for a definite audience. Newsletters are always
issued regularly and have a short life span. It is a modest publication containing limited pages
say four to eight and a few pictures and illustrations. Generally, the organizations that do not go
for house journals find a good substitute in newsletters. While some newsletters are intended for
the employees, others are meant for the external public.
f) Patents: A patent presents a detailed account of a new manufacturing process or improvement
of an existing process, a new product, a new method of testing and control etc. Generally, when
some kind of invention is made the manufacturer wants to protect his invention and the patent
offices in various countries on the request of the manufacturer generally issue the patent, which
provides an exclusive right to the manufacturer on the invention. It takes the form of an official
document having the seal of the government attached to it, which confesses an exclusive
privilege or right over a period of time to the proceeds of an invention.
g) Standards: Standards are units or measures in terms of weight, size, length, quality,
composition, process of production, etc., established by National and International
Organizations. Standards are often finalized through testing, research, and study and prescribe
the accepted quality or performance value of a product.
h) Research Report: Research reports are published as part of the annual report of an
organization or as a separate report published at periodical intervals by individual and agencies
that obtain research grants and have to produce them as a condition of such grants. The research
reports are generally produced in limited number of copies and the distribution is also restricted
and controlled.
i) Trade and Product Bulletin / Journal: Trade journals contain primary articles but of the
nature of applied research. It contains the particulars of goods manufactured by or sold by a firm.
Frequently illustrated and containing prices, it also often contains application oriented
description rather than theoretical description. These are published by Research and
Development Organizations, Trade Associations etc. The original objectives of all trade journals
are product advertisement. The complete description, principles and working of a newly
developed and highly sophisticated instrument may for quite time be available only in the
manufacturer trade journals. Eg.: International Product Finder. Bombay: Business press.
j) Conference Proceedings: Many conference proceedings present new findings or results of
work for the first time or at least months before they are published in scientific journals. Some
times, conference proceedings also include questions from participants and answers and
clarifications from the authors of the papers. The conference proceedings generally contain the
statement of objectives, opening address or presidential address, list of participants or
conference’s who’s who, resolutions or recommendations, etc.
k) Thesis and Dissertation: Thesis and dissertation are the results of purely academic pursuit. It
reports some original work in a specific field. Among all the primary sources of information
thesis and dissertation are probably least used mainly because their existence is not known in
many cases and also due to the limited number of copies of the document.
l) Treatise: A treatise provides an exhaustive treatment of a broad subject. It is encyclopaedic in
coverage of the subject but different in its treatment. It presents in a systematic and consolidated
manner the result of work and research in the field with full reference to the primary sources.
m) Monograph: The scope of a monograph is narrower than that of a treatise. Monograph is on
a single topic whereas a treatise is on a broad subject. Research monographs are separately
published reports on an original research that is too long, too specialized or otherwise unsuitable
for publication in one of the standard journals. Each monograph is self contained which
frequently summarizes the particular existing theory or practice along with the author’s original
work.
n) Review: A review is actually a narrative account or critical synthesis of the progress of a
particular field of study prepared by an expert in the field. It shifts, evaluates and puts each
significant contribution into its proper perspective. It indicates interrelationship of ideas,
significance and possible areas of application and so on, so that one can easily get an expert view
of the subject without having to go through the mass of literature.
o) Text Book: A text book is made of continuous exposition, sentences mount into paragraph,
paragraphs into chapter, chapters get woven into a single swelling exposition in the continuous
pursuit of a single idea, simple or complex, and text books are read consecutively for inspiration,
enjoyment or information. There is a link at each stage. There is an element of continuity.
According to Grogan, “a text book is a teaching instrument; its primary aim is not to import
information about its subject but to develop understanding of it. It concentrates on demonstrating
principles rather than recounting detail”.
p) State of the Art Report: These are types of reviews which do not have all embracing scope
and historical orientation. These present information assembled from various sources and
subjects to the operation of analysis, consolidation, extraction and evaluation in a formal
presentation representing the most advanced degree of technical achievement in its field at the
present time. Some owe their existence to a specific query while others are issued on a regular
basis, in many cases once in a year. State of the Art report emphasizes on the recent and up-to-
date ideas.
q) Trend Report: Trend report gives an account of the general direction of research in the
subject based on a review of the documents on current development.
r) Technical Digests: A digest service is directed to executives, engineers, technical worker, etc.
working in industries. It provides up to date technical information. It presents descriptive text of
information in a condensed form and on the core ideas in brief and orderly form.
Social Network
Social Network: A social network or online community is a web based service that focuses on
building online communities of people who share interests and / or activities by a variety of
ways. It is a social structure made of nodes (which are generally individuals or organizations)
that are tied by one or more specific types of interdependency, such as values, visions, ideas,
financial exchange, friendship, sexual relationships, kinship, dislike, conflict or trade, etc.
Few social networks currently charge money for membership to run the site. Companies
such as MySpace and Facebook sell online advertising on their site for the same purpose.
There are generally two types of social networks. These are-
i) Internal Social Networking (ISN): An ISN is a closed / private community that consists of a
group of people within a company, association, society, education provider and organization or
even an “invite only” group created by a user.
ii) External Social Networking (ESN): An ESN is open / public and available to all web users
to communicate and is designed to attract advertisers. Eg. MySpace, Facebook, Twitter and
Bebo.
a) Characteristics: Social network service provides the following ways for the users to interact
with others.
i) My Profile: Set up and customization facility for profile;
ii) Search: Can search for friends and others;
iii) Making Friends: One can invite others as friend. In most social networking services, both
users must confirm that they are friends before they are linked. Some social networking sites
have a “favorites” feature that does not need approval from the other user.
iv) E-mail: Can send or receive e-mail from others.
v) Instant messaging services (Chat): Can send chat message to online friends.
vi) Scrapbook: Can append short message in the profiles of the friends/network members.
vii) Calendars (Events): Can create calendars or events.
viii) Articles: Can upload, download and share write-up.
ix) Notes: Can create and view the notes created by others.
x) Blogs: Can post personal write up.
xi) Groups: Can create groups and join other group, post replied to, and so on.
xii) Forums: Can create forum and join forum created by other people, post replied to, and so
on.
xiii) Music: Listen, download and upload music.
xiv) Photos: Download, view and upload photos.
xv) Videos: Download, view and upload personal videos.
xvi) Games: Play online games, sometimes even can download.
xvii) Social Apps or Gadgets: Facility to incorporate others online social apps and gadgets.
xviii) Notifications on Websites: Social networks generally send notifications to users when
they are removed from a person’s friends list, some one comments on their profile page, send
email and for such other things.
xix) Privacy Settings: Helps in finding regular control of who sees what. Ability to block an
unwanted member, and so on.
b) Issues: Issues related to social network can be of the following types
i) Duplicate Entries: One has to enter and fill up the profile page of each of the social
networking services individually. There is a need to standardize these services to avoid the need
of duplicate entries of friends and interests.
Solution in the Line: The Open Source Initiative (http://www.opensource.org/) emerges due to
this issue. The Friend of a Friend (FOAF) (http://www.foaf-project.org/) project is creating a
Web of machine-readable pages describing people, the links between them and the things they
create and do, so that people can easily share and use information about them and their activities
(eg. photos, calendars, weblogs), and can transfer them between Web sites and automatically
extend, merge and re-use it online. “FOAF is a small but shapely piece of the wider Semantic
Web project” (http://www.foaf-project.org/about). But, all theses have led to some concerns
about privacy. There is also a trend for more interoperability between social networks led by
technologies such as OpenID (http://openid.net/) and OpenSocial (http://www.opensocial.org/).
“OpenID is a free and easy way to use a single digital identity across the Internet”. With one
OpenID one can log in to all their favorite websites by logging in to a single site. OpenSocial
helps the sites to share their social data with the web. “Applications that use the OpenSocial APIs
can be embedded within a social network itself, or access a site’s social data from anywhere on
the web”.
ii) Identity: In a social network service, any people can create a profile in the name of others. It
has caused concern regarding its potential misuse by individual patrons for bullying purposes
Solution in the Line: Some social networks are trying to use mobile phone to authenticate the
user.
iii) Privacy: The social networking service sites often contain a great deal of data that is hard to
obtain via traditional means, that is, a user giving out too much personal information in their
profile page which lead to growing concerns or threat about the data stolen by others. Even
though the data are public, republishing it in a research paper or for the sake of others might be
considered invasion of privacy. Furthermore, there is an issue over the control of information
being altered or removed by the user that may in fact be retained and / or passed to 3rd parties.
There are also examples when a social network service harvested e-mail addresses from user’ e-
mail accounts to use in a spamming operation.
Social network services are being increasingly used in legal and criminal investigations.
Information posted on sites such as MySpace and Facebook has been used by police (forensic
profiling), probation, and university officials to prosecute the users of the said sites. In some
situations, the content posted on MySpace has been used in court. All these are creating problems
for the user to be social.
Solution in the Line: In many social networks people are now able to completely control the
information they provide; the photos they include, and the friends they make. People are
therefore, now able to control their personal information and their desired social status. Many
social networking services, such as Facebook, provide the user with a choice of who can view
their profile. This prevents unauthorized user(s) from accessing their information. To edit
information on a certain social networking service account, the social networking sites require to
login or provide an access code. This prevents unauthorized user(s) from adding, changing, or
removing personal information, pictures, and/or other data.
iv) Sexual Predators: Citizens and governments have been concerned about the misuse by
children and teenagers of social network services, particularly in relation to online sexual
predators.
Solution in the Line: Many social networks do not permit people below the age of 15 or 18 to
enter into the social network.
 The other issues include the viruses, which is a problem common to most of the internet
based services.
c) Importance: Social network is daily used by billions of people. It is a spontaneous movement
of people using online tools to connect, take charge of their own experience, and get what they
need - information, support, ideas, products, and bargaining power--from each other. It can also
be used to build personal / institutional network and as a means of e-learning and social capital.
The importance of social network can be seen in regards to-
i) Advertisement: Formation and displaying profile page information that’s publicly available
can be used as advertisement. In this way one can find and be introduced to potential clients,
business opportunities, service providers, and subject experts and find potential partners.
According to Jody Nimetz, author of Marketing Jive, there are five major uses for businesses and
social media: to create brand awareness, as an online reputation management tool, for recruiting,
to learn about new technologies and competitors, and as a lead gen tool to intercept potential
prospects. The companies in this way will be able to drive traffic to their own online sites while
encouraging their consumers and clients to have discussions on how to improve or change
products or services.
ii) Communication: Through social network one can create projects, post and distribute
institutional information. Many social networks also have the facility to incorporate self-
description pages (profile) including hobbies and interests rather than developing website for
that.

Activity

1) Join in the Orkut community

and interact with your friend
through message, scrap, and
chat.
iii) Sharing Information Data, Files: Social networks extend the possibility for sharing
information and knowledge with one another. In this way one will be able to increase both their
learning and their flexibility in ways that would not be possible within a self-contained
hierarchical organization.
iv) Collaboration: Can build collaboration in different kind of projects. Participants can talk
online.
v) Problem Solving: Can be used to gain new insights from discussions with likeminded
professionals.
vi) Connects People: It is a means to connect with those people those who share similar interest
(classmates, friends, families, business people and co-workers, people looking for long lost
friends). Also it can be used as matrimonial site
d) Examples: Out of the following list of social network, we recommend you to have a look on
Facebook, LinkedIn, MySpace, Ning, Orkut, Twitter, and YouTube. They are grabbing the world
of social network with their special features.
Sl. No. Site Name Site URL
1) Bebo (http://www.bebo.com/)

2) Climateculture (http://www.climateculture.com/)

3) Cyworld (http://us.cyworld.com/)

4) dol2day (http://www.dol2day.com/)

5) Facebook (http://www.facebook.com/)

6) Friendster (http://www.friendster.com/)

7) Hi5 (http://hi5.com/)

8) LinkedIn (http://www.linkedin.com/)

9) Multiply (http://multiply.com/)

10) MySpace (http://www.myspace.com/)

11) Nexopia (http://www.nexopia.com/)

12) Ning (http://www.ning.com/)

13) Orkut (http://www.orkut.co.in/)

14) Skyrock (http://www.skyrock.com/)

15) Tagged (http://www.tagged.com/)

 16) Twitter (http://twitter.com/)

17) Wretch (http://www.wretch.cc/)

18) Xiaonei (http://www.xiaonei.com)

19) XING (http://www.xing.com/)

20) YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/)

Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan

Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan: Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan was born on 12th August
1892 in the rural village of Shiyali (also known as Sirkazhi), in the state of Tamil Nadu in South
India. He was an innovative mathematician and librarian from India. His most notable
contributions to the field were his five laws of library science (1931) and the development of the
first major analytico-synthetic classification system, the Colon classification (1933). He helped
to found the Madras Library Association, and lobbied actively for the establishment of free
public libraries throughout India and for the creation of a comprehensive national library.
Ranganathan's another major achievement was the establishment of the Documentation Research
and Training Centre at Bangalore in 1962.
Ranganthan was considered by many to be a workaholic. During his two decades in Madras, he
consistently worked 13-hour a days, seven days a week, without taking a vacation for the entire
time. He is considered to be the father of library science in India. The Government of India
awarded padmashree to Dr. S. R. Ranganathan for valuable contribution in Library Science. In
1965, he was honored by the Indian government for his contributions to the field with the title of
"National Research Professor." On September 27, 1972 at Bangalore, he died of complications
from bronchitis. Upon the centenary of his birth in 1992, several autobiographical volumes and
collections of essays on Ranganathan's influence were published in his honor. Ranganathan's
autobiography, published serially during his life, is titled A Librarian Looks Back.

Selection of Vendor
Selection of Vendor: Before placing the book for order the librarians should consider whether
the particular title can be acquired by gift, donation, by virtue of membership and so on. If not,
then only should it be considered for acquisition by way of purchase.
The vendor to be selected should be the one that is known to provide prompt and
satisfactory service. He should be honest in his dealings and must have a good reputation. In case
of titles published by learned societies, organizations, and institutions, it is often preferable to
place order directly to them for availing huge discounts.
The Good Offices Committee (GOC), New Delhi is a voluntary organization formed by
representatives of the book trade and libraries to standardize and introduce uniform terms of
book and periodical supplies to libraries. The committee meets at regular intervals and after
taking into consideration the fluctuations in currency rates it decides the rates conversion. It has
also laid down discount rates for different categories of books and periodical publications as well
as other terms for the book suppliers. As a result, there should be ordinarily no necessity for
calling for tenders and quotations, etc. for purchase of books and periodicals from Indian
vendors. A library should agree to abide by the terms laid down by the Good Offices Committee
and place order with the vendor who agrees to these terms.
The different practices followed by libraries in the choice of the supplier are:
i) Tender Method: In tender method, every book list of finally selected items is circulated among
a number of booksellers who are invited to quote their lowest prices for each item. The order is
placed for each item with the firm offering the lowest price.
ii) Quotation Method: In this method, quotations are invited for various categories of documents
along with trade discounts admissible in each case. This is done usually prior to the beginning of
the financial year. The supplier for each category is fixed finally on the basis of the most
economic terms offered.
iii) Standing Vendor Method: A standing vendor is one who is appointed as the authorized
supplier to library for a specified time, generally for a year or two, under prescribed terms and
conditions of supply.
iv) Books – on – Approval Method: In this case reputed publishers will be sending their new titles
as and when published to the library directly. These items are accepted after due process of
selection. The formal order will be placed with the local bookseller named by each publisher.
Sometimes the local booksellers, at frequent intervals, bring some recent publications for
approval and ordering. The selected items are included in a formal order and accepted while the
others are returned.
v) Open Purchase: Purchasing from the book fairs and buying from any bookseller from the
open market comes under this method.
vi) Direct Ordering with Publisher: Direct ordering with publishers or their representatives is
done by some libraries.
Search Engines
Search Engines: A search engine is a program or information retrieval system designed to help
one in retrieving a list of references or information, meeting a specific criterion from its own
databases that are stored on a computer. The computer may be a public server on the World Wide
Web, a computer inside a corporate or proprietary network, or a personal computer.
The earliest Internet search engine was Archie, which was created in 1990 by Alan
Emtage a student at Mc Gill University in Montreal for anonymous FTP sites. This is the
grandfather of all search engines. In 1993, the University of Navada System Computing Service
group developed Veronica, which was created as a type of searching device similar to Archie but
for gopher files. This is treated as the grandmother of search engines.
In June 1993, Matthew Gray, then at MIT, produced what was probably the first web
robot, the Perl-based World Wide Web Wanderer, and used it to generate an index called
“Wandex”. The purpose of the Wanderer was to measure the size of the World Wide Web, which
it did until late 1995. The web's second search engine Archie-Like Indexing on the Web (Aliweb)
appeared in November 1993 due to the effort of Martgn Koster. Aliweb did not use a web robot,
but instead depended on being notified by website administrators of the existence at each site of
an index file in a particular format. ALIWEB is no longer maintained.
In December 2003, Orase
(http://forums.searchenginewatch.com/showthread.php?t=1716) published the first version of its
new real time search technology. It comes with many new functions and the performance
increased a lot.
a) Component of a Search Engine: A general search engine typically functions by considering
three components.
i) Crawler / Spider / robots: Web crawling is the process of locating, fetching, and storing Web
pages. The Web crawler or spider or robot is a computer program. It starts from a seed pages to
locate new pages by parsing the downloaded pages and extracting the hyperlinks within.
Extracted hyperlinks are stored in a FIFO fetch queue for further retrieval. Crawling continues
until the fetch queue gets empty or a satisfactory number of pages are downloaded. Each time a
spider visits a web page it scans all the text and follows every link it sees.
Some search engines such as Google store all the scan pages but some like Altavista store
only the words of the scan pages in an ever increasing databases. Theses store pages are known
as cached pages. The contents of each page are then analyzed and it catalogues the URL and a
list of words in an index database for use in later queries.
ii) Indexer: The downloaded content is concurrently parsed by an indexer and transformed into
an inverted index. It represents the downloaded collection in a compact and efficiently queryable
form. The indexes are regularly updated to operate quickly and efficiently. The database of
search engine is most often created by spiders or robots automatically.
iii) Query Processor: The query processor is responsible for evaluating user queries and
returning to the users the pages relevant to their query. The search engine allows one to ask for
content meeting specific criteria (typically those containing a given word or phrase) into a search
“box”. When a user makes a query typically by giving keywords the engine looks up the index
and provides a listing of the best matching web page according to its criteria, usually with a short
summary containing the document’s title and sometimes a part of the text. The list is often sorted
with respect to some measure of relevance of the results. Because these databases are very large,
search engines often return thousands of results.
b) Ranking of Site at Search Engine: Best matches and what order the results should be shown
in, varies widely from one search engine to another. The method also changes over time as
internet usage changes and new techniques evolve but people at large accepted Google to be
more useful in this regard. But, researchers at NEC Research Institute claim to have improved
upon Google’s patented page rank technology by using web crawler to find Communities of
website. This technology instead of ranking pages uses an algorithm that follows link on a
webpage to find other pages that link back to the first one and so on from page to page. The
algorithms remember where it has been and index the number of cross links and relate these
into grouping. In this way virtual communities of web pages are found.
c) Types of Search Engine: Configurable Unified Search Index (CUSI) search engines, like All-
in One Search Page and W3 Search Engines are pages which list search engines.
The search engines can be categorized based on the coverage as-
i) Web Search Engine: It searches for information on the public Web.
ii) Enterprise Search Engines: They search on intranets.
iii) Personal Search Engines: It searches individual personal computers.
iv) Custom Search Engine: Search within the contents defined by the user(s).
v) Meta Search Engine: The content of search engines indexes and databases will vary. So if the
same query is typed into several search engines it is likely to produce different results, Because
of this in searching a topic a user often wants to see results from various sources. One way to
compare the results of several search engines is to type and retype a query into individual search
engines one at a time. However, this can be very time consuming. A Meta searcher helps to make
this task more efficient by providing a central location where the query is typed in once and the
result can be obtained from multiple search engines. Meta Crawler, Search.Com
(http://www.search.com), etc. are examples of Meta search engines.
Based on the contents that are considered for search, search engine can be-
i) Web Search Engine: Search all types of contents over the web. Eg. Google
(http://www.google.com).
ii) Discussion Group Search Engine: Search only discussion groups. For example Google
groups (http://groups.google.co.in), Yahoo groups (http://in.groups.yahoo.com/).
iii) Blog Search Engines: Search only Blogs. For example, Google blogs
(http://blogsearch.google.co.in), etc
iv) Image Search Engine: For example, Google images (http://images.google.co.in), etc.
v) Maps Search Engine: For example, Google maps (http://maps.google.co.in), etc.
vi) Video Search Engine: For example, blinkx (http://www.blinkx.com/), fooooo
(http://en.fooooo.com/), Truveo (http://in.truveo.com/), Google videos
(http://video.google.com/), etc.
vii) Hypermail Search Engine: It searches for mailing lists.
viii) Hypernews Search Engine: It searches for USENET newsgroups.
ix) News Search Engine: For example, Google news (http://news.google.co.in).
x) Books Search Engine: For example, Google books (http://books.google.co.in).
xi) Subject Directory Search Engine: They search Web directories which are maintained by
human editors. They include a keyword search option which usually eliminates the need to work
through numerous levels of topics and subtopics. For example, DMOZ.org, Yahoo!
(http://www.yahoo.com/), Looksmart (http://www.looksmart.com/), etc.
Some other types of search engines are-
i) Crawler based Search Engine: WebCrawler that was launched in April 1994 was the first
“robot” keyword search engine. Its robot program indexes the entire content of pages retrieved
but not URLs embedded in those pages. WebCrawler acquired by America Online in June 1995.
World Wide Web Word was also a robot based search engine; it indexes only HTML document
titles, text explaining page links and URL’s.
ii) Human-Powered Search Engines: The Human-Powered Search engines search the pages or
websites that are collected for index by the human. The examples of such type of search engine
include: Anoox <http://www.anoox.com/>, ChaCha <http://www.chacha.com/>, Collarity
<http://www.collarity.com/>, Earthfrisk <http://earthfrisk.org/>, iRazoo
<http://www.irazoo.com/>, Mahalo <http://www.mahalo.com/>, Sproose
<http://www.sproose.com/>, Wikia Search <http://alpha.search.wikia.com/>, etc.
iii) Mobile Search Engines: For example, Google mobile (http://www.google.com/mobile).
iv) Simultaneous Unified Search Engine (SUSI): The WebCompass acts as a personal SUSI
search engine, where the user defines a set of search engines in a local database, defines a
concept map of terms with associated search word, and then configure WebCompass to keyword
search. A personal edition of WebCompass and other shareware packaged with similar
capabilities are freely available. Other SUSI based services like SavvySearch or MetaCrawler
search a range of search engines at a time. The drawback of SUSI is that their response time is
slower.
v) Personalized Web Search: Google developed a personalized web search whereby the user can
set up a profile and retrieve the results based on their interests.
vi) Grid Search Engine: A grid search engine can be defined as “a type of a parallel and
distributed system that enables sharing, selection, and aggregation of geographically distributed
autonomous resources dynamically at runtime depending on their availability, capability,
performance, cost, and users’ quality-of-service requirements”. In a grid search engine, for each
user query an individual crawl is started over the fresh copies of the Web document i.e the
original one but not the cached one, and the relevant pages are selected. In this way, up-to date
versions of the pages are evaluated and accuracy of the resulting answer set of pages is enforced.
The grid search engines are sometimes known as Real Time Search Engine. For example, in
December 2003, Orase published the first version of its new real time search technology.
vii) Natural Language Queries (Index Crawling): For example, Altavista, Ask Jeevas.
viii) Freeware Search Software: Freeware Search Softwares are used via a WWW servers CGI,
like freeways, Glimpse and SWISH (Simple Web Indexing System for Humans).
In near future it is no doubt that some subject search engines will come out to overcome
the problem of general search engines.
d) Importance of Search Engine: Search engines are the most popular destination on the
internet. Again, the cached pages maintained by some search engines are very useful when the
content of the web page has been updated and the search terms are no longer in it, or the web
page is no longer available or the site’s server is down. So, in such cases when a particular
website is withdrawn one can search for cached pages for the data that may no longer be
available elsewhere.
Without search engine, to try to find what you need can be like finding a needle in a
haystack. To use search engines effectively, it is essential to apply techniques that narrow the
results and push the most relevant pages to the top of the results list.
e) Examples of Search Engine: Nowadays, we have thousands of search engines for searching
over internet. Each of the search engines makes an appearance over the web; continues for some
time, then the new one emerges and the old one falls to decay and disuse. Some of the popular
types of search engines, which create new milestone in the origin and development of search
engines, are discussed below
i) Lycos: Lycos (http://www.lycos.com/) was started at Carnegi Mellon University as a research
project in 1994 and it was one of the first engines. It ceases crawling the web for its own listing
in April 1999 and instead uses crawler based results provided by Fast i.e All the Web.com. Now
it is owned by Terra Lycos, a company formed with Lycos and Terra Networks merged in
October 2000.
ii) Altavista: Altavista (http://www.altavista.com/) was originated in 1995. It was the first search
engine to use natural language queries (index crawling), meaning a user could type in a sentence
like “Who is the Prime Minister of India” and does not get a million pages containing the word
“Who”. AltaVista also offers a number of powerful search features not found elsewhere. One
very effective tool available on the Advanced Search page is the NEAR search. A NEAR search
limits the results to pages where the keywords appear within 10 words of each other. This can be
extremely helpful in situations where an AND search produces too many results and a phrase
search (" ") produces too few results. Altavista also provides news and multimedia which was
owned by Digital Equipment Corporation.
iii) Ask Jeevas: Ask Jeevas (http://www.ask.com/) initially gained fame in 1998 and 1999 as
being the natural language search engine that lets one to search by asking questions and being
responded with what seemed to be the right answer to everything. i.e it can be said that it delivers
search results based on one’s question.

Activity

1) Search over Google for the

term “LIS Links” without
quotes and check all the first ten
links it retrieves.
iv) Google: Google (http://www.google.com) was originally a Stanford University project by
student Larry Page and Sergey Brain called Back Rub. In 1998 the name had been changed to
Google and the project jumped off campus and became private company. In around 2001 the
Google search engines rose to prominence. Its success was based in part on the concept of link
popularity and page rank which is very adept at returning the relevant results. Page rank is based
on citation analysis that was developed in the 1950s by Dr. Eugene Garfield at the University of
Pennsylvania. The page rank takes into consideration how many other websites and web page
linking pages and the number of links on theses pages contribute to the page rank of the linked
page. This makes it possible for Google to order its results by how many website links to each
found page. Finally, unlike other search engines, Google offers a cached copy of each result.
v) Yahoo: Yahoo (http://www.yahoo.com), the huge subject tree was started by two Stanford
graduate students David Flo and Jerry Yang. They created a list of their favorite site. The list
grew bigger and bigger and in time has become the Yahoo. In 2002, Yahoo acquired Inktomi and
in 2003 Overtune, which owned All the web and Altavista. In 2004 Yahoo launched its own
search engines based on the combined technologies of its acquisition and providing a service that
gave pre-eminence to the web search engine over the directory.
The other popular search engines include All the Web (http://www.alltheweb.com/),
HotBot (http://www.hotbot.com), Excite (http://www.excite.com/), etc.
Scientific Method
Scientific Method: The term Scientific Method can be understood from the two words
"Science" and "Method". The term Science has been used as an accumulation of systematic
knowledge, where knowledge refers to the goal of science and systematic refers to the method
that is used in reaching that goal.
a) Definition: According to Karl Pearson, scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined
by logical consideration. The idea of science is to achieve a systematic interaction of facts.
Scientific methods attempts to achieve this idea by experimentation, observation, logical
arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportion.
A scientific method is the way in which one can test opinion, impression or guess by
examining the available evidence both for and against them. It is simply pursuit of truth which is
determined by logical consideration.
To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable,
empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific
method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the
formulation and testing of hypotheses.
b) Role of Scientific Method in Research: The Scientific Method plays the following role in
the conduct of organized research
i) Verifiability: The conclusion drawn in research through a scientific method is subject to
verification at any time. Verifiability presupposes that the phenomenon must be capable of being
observed and measured. This will bring greater accuracy to the conclusion being reached in
research
ii) Generality: Scientific laws are universal in their application. So, the conclusion drawn from
scientific methods should be universal i.e. it should be applicable to the whole group.
iii) Predictability: The role of scientific method is that the results to be determined in research
can be predicted with sufficient accuracy. Thus predictability depends on one hand upon the
phenomenon observed in the given research and on the other hand upon the application of
various scientific methods.
iv) Objectivity: Objectivity is fundamental to all research as the very purpose of research is to
arrive at the truth. The results of scientific method should not be affected by observer’s own
views i.e. it should be unbiased by personal feelings. The main criterion of objectivity is that all
people should arrive at the same conclusion about the phenomena. Eg. Coal is black but not like
sentences like coal is the most useful material, as because for some other person there may be
some other material which are most useful.
v) System: The scientific mode of investigation should be followed from the first step to the last
step of scientific investigation, because the results arrived at by haphazard method even if true
cannot be called scientific because their accuracy is purely accidental. Scientific Method helps a
researcher to do his research in a systematic manner. It saves the researcher from going to non-
directional path in course of his research.
According to Cohen and Manion (1994) there are five major assumptions underlying
scientific method.
i) Order: There is some kind of order in the universe. So the researcher has to make an idea to
determine it.
ii) External Reality
iii) Reliability: Human perceptions and intellect can be reliable despite the many ways in which
it can be tricked.
iv) Parsimony: Phenomena should be explained in an economic manner.
v) Generality: There can be valid relationships between what is achieved and general situation in
the world.
c) Benefits from Scientific Method: Scientific method in research ensures systematic
investigation of subject. It makes possible an orderly process of investigation, the exercise of
analytical thinking and a critical approach to the study and development of a subject. So it can be
said that the Scientific Method helps in the systematic and orderly conduct of research. It helps
to arrive at truth without any kind of fallacy in the process of deduction of truth while conducting
the research.
d) Limitation of Scientific Methods in Research: Scientific method is never complete. At
every stage there are some basic principles which remain unexplained. Further, scientific method
involves abstraction. Again, science has a limited scope. Each science is concerned with a
particular area and is based on certain assumptions.

School Library
School Library: The school library is a part and parcel of a school set up. It exists to serve the
objectives of its parent institution. The school library awakens and fosters reading habits among
children and young students and enlightens their imaginative minds.
a) Definition: School libraries serve elementary schools, middle schools, high schools and
higher secondary schools.
b) Objectives: The primary school library aims to create a love for books, generate interest in
reading them and slowly develop the habit of reading. The secondary and higher secondary
school libraries maintain their identity fulfilling all the requirements of the young students for
learning and the teachers for teaching. The main function of a school library is to support various
educational programs and to develop students’ skills in locating and using information to
perform their class work. Teachers use school libraries to access information needed to develop
and support their classroom instruction.
c) Collections: School libraries usually maintain collections in a variety of media. In addition to
books, magazines, and newspapers they also contain photographs, films, sound and video
recordings, computers, CD-ROMs, games, maps etc. As such, they are sometimes also called
library media centers. Most school libraries further enhance their collections by becoming
members of school library networks; this allows them to share resources with libraries in other
schools.
i) Elementary School Libraries: The elementary school libraries should build up a good stock
of books and other learning and teaching materials. Collections should include picture books,
biographies of great men and women, books of travel and humor, folk tales, stories of animals
and birds, reference books for children, children’s magazines, audio-visual aids like motion
films, video-cassettes, models, charts, photographs and toys.
These libraries generally feature children’s illustrated storybooks, colouring books, and
audio visual materials. Some elementary school libraries feature computers with children’s
educational software.
ii) Middle School and Junior High School Libraries: It should develop an excellent stock of
text books, general books on popular science, biographies, travel books, books on sports and
games, fiction, short stories, conventional reference books such as dictionaries, encyclopedias,
year books, directories, etc., periodicals, audio-visual material and so on.
iii) High School Libraries: Libraries at the high school level (typically Class 8 to 12) have
larger and more advanced collections than the lower grade libraries.
d) Services: The service rendered by different types of libraries is as follows-
i) Elementary School Libraries: Elementary school libraries play a central role in early
childhood education by offering the young children some of their earliest encounters with books
and other resources. The librarian helps the students to cultivate the habit of using library, not
only with reference to their reading for course requirements but also for reading for pleasure,
general knowledge and recreation.
ii) Middle School and Junior High School Libraries: Libraries at the middle school or junior
high school level (typically Class six and seven) concentrate on maintaining students’ interest in
gaining information and developing ideas. To adequately support classroom assignments, middle
school and junior high school libraries usually offer larger and more varied collections than those
at the elementary level. They also often supplement these collections with computer databases
and more sophisticated bibliographic tools. Most school libraries also contain reference materials
such as encyclopedias as well as fiction and nonfiction books. They also give proper orientation
to search through the school library’s catalogue, find a book on the shelves, and check out the
book from the circulation desk. A growing number of schools at this stage encourage students to
come to the library throughout the day to complete the class assignments, to read for pleasure,
and to meet and work with their peers. This flexible scheduling allows schools to integrate
library resources into daily classroom instruction. It helps the parent organization in the
achievement of the educational programmes by providing materials to supplement and enrich the
subjects taught in the class-room. It suggests readings, supplies materials, and stimulates
interests.
iii) High School Libraries: These libraries are of larger type to accommodate at least 15-25
percent of the entire student body at any given time. The best-equipped high school libraries
feature reference collection, computer labs, the reading room, well equipped seminar or
conference hall etc. Most high school libraries also include separate areas devoted to college or
vocational preparation. These areas typically contain information on individual colleges,
examples of college applications, vocational aptitude tests, and other materials designed to
provide guidance for graduating high school students.
Sampling Technique
Sampling Technique: Survey is an important research method used to acquire knowledge
systematically from a context of human experience. But the entire context, i.e. the entire
population of interest cannot be acquired always as because one can neither afford money or time
nor resources for scientifically covering the entire universe. Hence a sample is chosen from the
entire population to project the result of the sample surveyed to its universe. The method through
which a sample is chosen from a population is known as “Sampling Technique”.
a) Definition: Sampling is a technique where the sampler selects some of the elements with the
intention of finding out a conclusion about the total population from which they are taken. It may
be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a
judgment about the aggregate or totality is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining
information about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
b) Need for Sampling: The need for sampling is felt due to the following reasons-
i) It is generally more economical in time, effort and money to use sampling;
ii) If sampling is conducted by trained and experienced investigators then sampling may enable
more accurate measurements for a sample study.
iii) Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many numbers.
iv) Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under
study.
v) Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling error and thus, assists in obtaining
information concerning some characteristic of the population.
c) Characteristic of Good Sampling: If the sample results are to have any worth while
meaning, it is necessary that a sample possesses the following essentials characteristics.
i) Representativeness;
ii) Adequate;
iii) Independence;
iv) Homogeneity.
d) Types of Sampling: Sampling can be categorized into the following-
i) Nonprobability Sampling: Non probability sampling methods are those which do not provide
every item in the universe with a known chance of being included in the sample. The selection
process is at least partially subjective. Nonprobability sampling again can be categorized into the
following types
* Convenient Sampling: A convenience sample is obtained by selecting “convenient” population
units i.e. the peoples who are convenient to response.
* Judgment Sampling or Purposive Sampling: In this method of sampling the choice of sample
items depends exclusively on the judgment of the investigator. In other words, the investigator
exercises his judgment in the choice and includes those items in the sample which he thinks are
most typical of the universe with regard to the characteristic under investigation.
* Quota Sampling: In a quota sampling, quotas are set up according to some specified
characteristic such as based on income, age, political or religious affiliations and so on. In the
next step within each quota the selection of sample items depends on personal judgment of the
researcher. It is the most commonly used sampling technique in non probability category.
* Snowball Sampling: It is a technique in which an initial group of respondent is selected
randomly, and then subsequent respondent are identified based on the referrals provided by the
initial respondents.
ii) Probability Sampling: Probability sampling methods are those in which every item in the
universe has a known chance or probability of being chosen for the sample. This implies that the
selection of sample item is independent of the person making the study that is the sampling
operation is controlled so objectively that the items will be chosen strictly at random. Probability
sampling can be grouped into the following
* Simple or Unrestricted Random Sampling: Simple random sampling refers to that sampling
technique in which each and every unit of the population has an equal opportunity of being
selected in the sample. In simple random sampling which item gets selected in the sample is just
a matter of chance – personal bias of the investigator does not influence the selection. To ensure
randomness of selection one may adopt either the lottery method or consult table of random
numbers. The advantages of simple random sampling includes-
- It requires only a minimum of knowledge of the population in advance;
- It is more representative of the population as compared to judgment sampling;
- It is free from personal bias and prejudice;
- The method is simple to use;
- The analyst can easily assess the accuracy of this estimate because sampling errors follow the
principle of chance.
* Systematic Sampling: If a population can be accurately listed or is finite, systematic sampling
technique can be used. The lists are firstly prepared in alphabetical, geographical, numerical or
some other order. The items are then serially numbered. The first item is selected at random
generally by following the lottery method. Subsequent items are selected by taking every nth item
from the list.
* Stratified Sampling: In stratified sampling the population of the universe is divided into smaller
homogeneous groups, or strata by some characteristic and form and from each of these similar
homogeneous groups draw at random a predetermined number of units. The usual stratification
factors are sex, age, socio, economic status, educational background, residence (urban or rural),
occupation, etc. In the standardization of test and public opinion polls, the method of
stratification is necessary.
* Cluster Sampling: In multi-stage or cluster sampling, the random selection is made of primary,
intermediate and final (or the ultimate) units from a given population or stratum. There are
several stages in which the sampling process is carried out. At first, the first stage units are
sampled by some suitable method, and then a sample of second stage unit is selected from each
of the selected first stage unit, again by some suitable method, which may or may not be the
same as that of the first method. Further stages may be added as required.
e) Limitations of the Sampling: Despite the various advantages of sampling, it is not
completely free from limitations. Some of the difficulties involved in sampling are stated as
follows:-
i) A sample survey must be carefully planned and executed otherwise the results obtained may be
inaccurate and misleading.
ii) If sampling is not conducted by qualified and experienced persons, the information obtained
from sample survey cannot be relied upon.
iii) If the information is required for each and every unit in the domain of study a complete
enumeration survey is necessary.

Role of Information
Role of Information: From the primitive days of human civilization to the present day
information has always been a component of growth and development and improvement of the
living standard. Nowadays, the information has come to occupy the central position to be
reckoned as the driving force for all human development. It is clearly interlinked with the growth
and development in economic, political, social, occupational, cultural and other sectors of the
society. Information and knowledge have become the principal generator of wealth in the form of
educational institutions, research and development establishment, scientific and technological
centres and other similar knowledge oriented bodies.
The impact of information and knowledge is seen in a number of human activities
centering on information. Some of these which will give a cursory account of societal changes
taking place in a few sectors are as follows:
a) Education: Education is the process of acquiring general and specialized knowledge by
means of study and learning that develop intellectual power of reasoning and judgment. At no
point of time in the life of a person does education really terminate and in real sense it is a
continuous process. While IT provides easy and effective access to the different types of
educational kits, information is the life blood of education. It is the essential ingredient in new
ideas, in course content and curriculum development, and in the creation of material and methods
of technology and learning. Students need information for pursuing academic studies; teachers
need information for teaching their students.
b) Research and Development: Research is a never ending spiral activity. It aims to provide
solution to problems. The inputs as well as the output of research are information. So
information is the life blood for research and development. The quality of information content
alone will determine the success or growth and development of research. Researchers need
information on a continuous basis for conducting research works.
c) Management and Decision Making: We are living in a world of change. We face
complexities, uncertainties and risks unknown to our predecessors. The list of activities in our
private life and its associated problems are virtually endless. In each of these personal activities
decisions are required to be taken and information is needed to support the decision. People need
information to make the best possible decision. People with information are likely to have better
career opportunities and to be better equipped to make personal decision.
Information provides a means of improving the management of enterprises and services
of all kinds. Information is needed by the decision makers in organizations. A common need
basic to all decision makers is an understanding of the purpose of the organization, that is, its
policies, programmes, plans and goals. The decisions to be made in an organization do vary and
the information needs also vary. A manager needs information to choose the possible alternatives
presented in terms of ranges of values of particular attributes. Information provides a wider
knowledge base for the solution of any problem; it gives new alternatives and approaches to the
solution of technical problems and opinions for minimizing future fault. It improves
effectiveness and efficiency of technical activities in the production and service sector. So
information is used for better decision making in all sectors and at all levels of responsibilities.
Governmental officials of different levels need information for decision making. They
need census, weather and other related information. Legislators need information of different
types to argue a point on the floor of the legislature.
d) Daily Life of a Person: Naturally, living today is quite different from what life was about a
generation ago. Nowadays people in different situations require information on a subject in
different forms and with different emphasis and different depth of explanation. An ordinary
person in his daily life needs to have access to information on many of his daily activities. It may
pertain to the quality, availability or cost of a number of things like articles of foods, health care,
education, entertainment, travel, social security, etc. One may need information on cooking,
gardening, house decoration and maintenance, and a host of other subjects. In private life one
needs information to organize vacation activities, to make intelligent purchases, fertilize a lawn,
soup up an engine, prune a shrub, groom a pet, select a garment, vote for a candidate, choose a
doctor or lawyer, protest a tax increase, evaluate career opportunities, pick an investment, select
a course, make a trip, plan meals and so on. The list of activities in a private life is virtually
endless.
e) Business and Industry: Information and knowledge are getting their appropriate place in
enterprises that are not static, because it is increasingly being recognized today that external
information on market, competitors, social and political environment, government regulations
and trade and tariffs etc. are invaluable if an enterprise is to thrive. It is only due to the central
role of information that business and industries are day by day inclined to invest in R & D to
generate new knowledge which would ultimately provide them an edge over their competitors.
In business sector, information helps in telemarketing, better financial management,
customer service, training, sales, product development, market intelligence, looking for
customers, etc.
In industry, the types of information needed are not limited to production, but cover all
aspects of industrial activity. The major types are: identification of product, determination of
technical and economic feasibility including the potential for use of indigenous resources; outlets
for disposal of waste either as saleable by-products or for further processing, market or
marketing, etc.
f) Scientific Development: The increase in population has resulted in mounting social pressure
for increased production, but as population increases, natural and near natural commodities start
depleting. So there is an urgent need for exploitation of new resources, creation of artificial
commodities. All these developments are impossible without the use of proper information and
immediate use of new scientific discoveries.
Air transportation, the concept of global village, satellite communication, nuclear energy,
exploitation of outer space, improvement in agriculture, health, environment, etc are some of the
results due to exclusive use of information in the field of science and technology.
g) Government: Information improves the capacity of a country to take advantage of the
existing knowledge and “know how” to achieve success in various fields. So, the governments of
almost all the countries of the world are the largest consumers of information and knowledge. In
their commitment and responsibility to create a welfare state, they need information and
knowledge on every conceivable subject. They collect, organize and disseminate statistical data
on all its activities which constitute the most important and vital information resources for their
planning and later implementation and execution.
All ministries of the government need up to date and timely information on the overall
management of the country’s resources and general administration. Management Information
System (MIS), Decision Support System (DDS) are widely used in planning and policy making.
h) Socio-Economic Development: The role of information in socio-economic development can
be viewed from the following angles
i) Entertainment: With the viewer’s complete control over programmes, interactive television
(watch a missed TV show).
ii) Health Care: With information sharing and even diagnosis and treatment by means of
interactive video link-up.
iii) News: With consumers able to point and click to select information for personally tailored
news items.
iv) Home Shopping: With a 24 hours a day, virtual global mall accessed by two way video and
digitized sales.
v) Security: Electronic fingerprint, retina scanning, voice recognition, DNA finger print,
signature dynamics.
Today, information has become a great source of power as a principal driving force for
the acquisition of wealth, political strength and more knowledge etc. Information-rich countries
of today are becoming even more powerful than the colonial powers of the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, on account of their expertise in creating new information and knowledge and
exploiting them for their advantage. Information is not only the source of power but also an
effective power in itself if released in appropriate time.
Retrospective Conversion
Retrospective Conversion: Retrospective conversion is the process of turning a library’s
existing paper catalog record into a machine readable form. Retrospective conversion usually
entails using catalog cards (with a minimum of data like call number, author, title, ISBN and / or
LCCN information) to find or create bibliographic record in a database of machine readable
record such as OCLC (World Cat) and brining those records into the existing local database.
Usually retrospective conversion is done to obtain the full MARC records on each item. A full
MARC record contains valuable information such as summary information that can be key-
worded and searched using the electronic catalogue. MARC records are a standard format that
allows exchange of data between various sites or systems. The local database then allows
electronic access to the catalogue and automated circulation using patron and item bar codes.
a) History: In 1968, with the financial support of the council on library resources, the Library of
Congress conducted a study by a task force for retrospective conversion of the library holding. It
was known as Retrospective Conversion (RECON). The report of the task force was published in
1969. In August 1969, the RECON pilot project was initiated. The pilot project of RECON
continued for two years and approximately 58,000 records were converted during the pilot
project and the work is still continuing. The retrospective catalogue conversion made by the
British Library is held in the BNB/LASER file. It was built up by the British National
Bibliography (BNB) and the London and South Eastern Library Region (LASER).
b) Problem in Retrospective Conversion: Retrospective conversion solves the problem of
entering the data on each item in the library into a computer system. But though it has many
advantages, it has also some limitations. Some of the disadvantages are mentioned bellow:
i) Lack of standardization among the national MARC format in assigning content designators to
elements of information in the machine readable record.
ii) Diverse functions of bibliographic agencies;
iii) Lack of an internationally accepted cataloguing code for machine readable cataloguing
record.
iv) Lack of agreement among different bibliographical communities in organizing data contents
in machine readable record.
v) Lack of agreement as to the function of content designators.
vi) Lack of money by a small library creates problem in retrospective conversion.
vii) Lack of expertise required to meet the standard for retrospective conversion.
viii) Retrospective conversion always demands standardization of bibliographic content and
machine format.
ix) Incomplete or incorrect bibliographic information makes it impossible to match the shelf list
cards with the correct MARC records. The result is the addition of an incorrect record to the
database or the need to return the title to you for additional information.
Today, the computers have entered each and every area of a library. The library automation is
the application of modern technologies including the application of computer hardware and
software, different storage medias, telecommunications, etc. which help the mechanization of
any activity in the library. To implement the computer in the library, the selection of proper
hardware and software forms an essential part. If proper software is selected, it will
automatically generate or create OPAC which will replace the traditional card catalogue of the
library. The feature-rich software will also have the provision of retrospective conversion. It will
help the library to enter minimum of details about the document in their collection in the
database of some other libraries and will help in getting the full bibliographic record of the
document that can be embedded in the local database.
There are different software packages available for different activities of a library.
Sometime they are bundled together with lots of cool features to form integrated library
management software.
The open source softwares are gaining importance day by day. They provide a free
licence with the additional facility of extensive customization to meet the local need. In case of
commercial proprietary library management software SOUL 2.0, and LibSys 7 are popular in
India. In case of free proprietary software, the E-Granthalaya of NIC is gaining importance and
in case of Open Source software, Koha is day by day heading to win the race.
In case of Institutional Repository Software Packages, the Green Stone Digital Library
software (GSDL), EPrints, and Dspace are deployed in different institutions in India. In the
category of Content Management System (CMC), Drupal, Joomla, and MediaWiki is used where
as from the category of Learning Management System (LMS), Moodle are favoring by large
number of institutes.

Resource Description and Access (RDA)

Resource Description and Access (RDA): In June, 2010, the Resource Description and Access
(RDA) was published, which will completely take over the place of AACR-2. RDA is built on
the foundations established by the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR). Instructions
derived from AACR have been reworked to produce RDA which is easier to use, more adaptable,
and more cost-efficient in its application. The RDA has been developed to replace AACR. It has
flexible and extensible framework for the description of digital and non-digital resources. The
AACR-2 was mainly for the non-digital resources. RDA uses MARC 21 as encoding standard
(Format for Bibliographic Data, and Format for Authority Data) and International Standard
Bibliographic Description (ISBD) as display standard. ISBD is also used by AACR-2 for display
of record. The RDA element set is compatible with ISBD, MARC 21, and Dublin Core.
A key element in the design of RDA is its alignment with the conceptual models for
bibliographic and authority data [Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR),
and Functional Requirements for Authority Data (FRAD)] developed by the International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA).
The Joint Steering Committee for Development of RDA (JSC) is responsible for
maintaining “RDA: Resource Description and Access”. JSC was previously responsible for
maintenance of the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR). The constituent organizations
represented on the Joint Steering Committee are The American Library Association, The
Australian Committee on Cataloguing, The British Library, The Canadian Committee on
Cataloguing, CILIP: Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals, and The
Library of Congress. The current Chair of JSC is Alan Danskin, the British Library
representative. RDA is published by: The American Library Association, The Canadian Library
Association, and CILIP: Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals.
The RDA is now available over the RDA Toolkit Web site (http://www.rdatoolkit.org). It
will help you navigate from AACR2 to RDA at no charge.
Research Supervisors / Monitoring and Evaluation
a) Research Supervisor: “Although supervisors want their students to succeed, there are clearly
limits to the amount of help which they may provide for their students”. (Oliver, 2004, p. 52).
Supervisors’ role includes:-
i) Tutorial about research work in general;
ii) Advice on research methodology and design;
iii) Advice on structuring the thesis;
iv) Reading the thesis and finding out its pitfall;
Supervisors also have the experience of examining other thesis as well, so he/she can
have a fair idea about the possible questions regarding the thesis, and will communicate the same
to the scholar, so that he / she can prepare for it in advance.
If a supervisor disagrees about some content in the research report, only a little scope is
left in the hands of the researcher to discuss it in length to arrive at a definite answer. If such a
thing happens it would be better if the researcher tries to explain his/her position in front of the
supervisor.
b) Research Monitoring Agency: Monitoring means keeping track with the overall progress
and achievement of objectives of the ongoing research work and progress in the use of allocated
fund to support the management task and timely decision making
c) Evaluation of Research Report: In case of any research work, evaluation is a process of
determining the worth or significance or value of the work in regards to the objectives, the
efficacy of design, resource use and the sustainability of results. It should also enable the
incorporation of lessons learned, credible and useful thought to help the funding agencies to
make correct judgment. Evaluation leads to decision-making process and probable
implementation of the research result. The supervisor(s) are not normally involved in the
approval process of a thesis. There will usually be both two or three examiners, and at least one
from other institutes / organizations to which the thesis was submitted.
The role of research evaluator includes the following-
i) Social Engineer: The evaluator is a social engineer, and is neutral;
ii) Controller: They attempt to hold the implementing agencies responsible for their decision and
actions.
iii) Advisor: He/She is the advisor to the researcher;
iv) Mediator: The research evaluator is the mediator between the research findings and its
applicability, between the researcher and the implementer.
v) Facilitator: By way of supporting the results.
The evaluator in general judges the value of the thesis in regard to the following.
i) Inputs: Human, physical and financial resource that are used to undertake the research;
ii) Outcome: Consequence / results of an intervention;
iii) Output: Results for implementation;
iv) Performance: Whether the results are justified in comparison to different performance
indicator;
Before the oral interview, the researcher should read the thesis fully; anticipate the
question that may be asked. Once the thesis is approved by the examiners, a copy of the thesis is
usually sent to the university / college library.
In case of thesis, it is good to see that only two options are left in the hands of the
examiners, either he / she have to accept it or otherwise reject it. The degree is only offered to the
candidate, who have critically investigated and evaluated an approved topic by using the research
methods appropriate to the chosen field, and makes an independent and original contribution to
the existing knowledge base and has presented and defended the research work in the oral and
verbal examination to the satisfaction of the examiner(s).
Research Report
Research Report: Research report is the written description of research providing information
about its aim and objectives, scope, limitation, methodologies, source of information used,
equipments, findings and all such necessary information. The writing of the research report is the
last and final steps of the research work done by a researcher without which his/her work remain
incomplete.
a) Objectives of Research Report: The result of every research needs communication to others,
who actually needs it. This can only be done by writing the research report. The main objectives
of the research report are:
i) A Permanent Record of the Research: The written report is a permanent record of the research
done by the researcher for the coming generation.
ii) Increase Knowledge Stock: The aim of research report is to make the people aware of the new
information, new standards and new interpretation received from the research. Knowledge of
human being increases if it is in the form which can be communicated to others.
iii) Useful for Researcher: With the help of research report, many other small subjects of
research can be arranged systematically and a definite principle can be formulated. Thus, the
report should be written in such a way that it may help in the formulation of new principles for
other researchers.
iv) Validation of Other's Conclusions: Research is the process through which every one can
learn from the others. In research report by way of writing foot note, references, etc. the views
and suggestions of others, the scholar pays homage to them.
v) Examination of Validity: The validity of any research work can be judged by others based on
the research report only.
vi) Communication Medium: The aim of research report is to communicate the knowledge of
the researcher to the others.
b) Scope of Research Report: The scope of research report is that through this report one can
examine the validity of the research study. In research report, all the facts should be presented so
as to prove the validity or invalidity of the facts by careful observation and experimentation.
c) Characteristic of a Research Report: In writing a research report, the research scholar
should keep in mind the following points-
i) Communalism: Research results are public property;
ii) Universalism: The results should be independent of gender, race, colour, creed, etc;
iii) Unbiased: Results should not be manipulated to serve some specific profit. In writing a
research work, the research scholar should keep an eye on the political and personal biasness; no
way should it influence the research report.
iv) Share All: It is good to share the results, experience, honor, as well as blame with others.
v) Openness: The government or the research funding agencies have spent the amount collected
from tax payers in the research. So every member of the society has the right to access to the
research report.
Some other characteristics of research report are:
i) Should be systematic and attractive. The report should be clear to the point and easy in
understanding, so proverb and exaggeration should be avoided;
ii) The title, graph and figures should be presented only when it increases the value of the
research study;
iii) Similar type of facts must not be repeated in the report;
iv) Outside resources used should be noted as such so as to increase its retrieval. Pay homage to
others contribution
v) Problem and difficulties faced during the research work should be nicely presented; it will
guide the further researchers.
vi) A research report should be long enough to cover the subject matter and short enough to
maintain interest. The research report should sustain the reader’s interest throughout the chapters.
d) Content of Research Report: The content of the Research Report is as follows:
i) Preliminary Pages: The preliminary pages carry the title and date followed by declaration,
foreword and acknowledgements. Then there should be table of contents followed by list of
tables, graphs, charts and abbreviation used.
The front page should contain the title of the research work, name of the author, date, and
names of any sponsors of the research. The research title should reflect the keywords of the
research work, for easy information retrieval.
In the preface page, why the researcher undertook the current research work, what was
his/her motivation factor for choosing this topic, etc should be stated.
The researcher may acknowledge the services or guidance of certain individuals,
organizations on which success of the research project has been dependent on the
acknowledgement page.
Today, many of the research reports are hosted over institutional repositories. To do so an
abstract or summary is very much felt. Considering this, an abstract or summary of the whole
research findings and recommendations should be enclosed in the research report itself. The
abstract or summary should cover the aim of the research, the methods employed, the outcome of
the research, and any theoretical implications. A two hundred worded abstract is more than
enough.
ii) Main Text: The main text of the report carries the following item:
* Introduction: Introduction should mention the background of the topic (from, where the
research problem emerges), aim and objective of the research work, and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. There should be a steady flow of ideas with
the introduction page and the research documentation as a whole.
* Literature Review: The literature review is not only a summary or series of annotation or
description of others work, rather it is a critical judgment on others work. The researcher should
judge the literature like a judge appraising the argument of a lawyer making a case and should
conclude it by making a note of summing up. The result of the hard working, reading, notes
taking and analysis of others work will give to fruitful results in the form of literature review.
The literature review can be arranged according to the chronological order as well as
development of ideas.
* Main Report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken
down into identifiable sections. One can use table, graphs and charts regarding primary data
collection in this chapter. In data analysis it would be better if the researcher uses the whole
numbers instead of percentage, using percentage will lose the actual power of the data.
Whenever the research scholar provides arguments, it should always be supported by data
gathered.
* Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results
of his / her research clearly and precisely. In this chapter nothing new should be introduced. Its
whole content should be based on the content of the preceding chapters. In conclusion chapter
the research scholar should also justify whether the hypothesis that has been adopted proved or
not, methodology used is alright or not, mention the problems encountered and lastly, should
point out the researcher scholars own contribution to the world of knowledge or what the readers
will benefit from the current research work. Ideas for further research should also be mentioned
including the skill, attitude, capabilities, and qualities to conduct such type of research work.
Possible recommendation for other research workers working on the same line should be stated.
What existing practices should be revised in the light of the current research, and so on should be
made statement wise in the recommendations pages.
* References / Bibliographies: All the sources of information from which information have been
taken should clearly be described so that any person can verify these.
* End Report: At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical
data. Any extensive list should be included in an appendix rather than in the actual report.
 It is expected that the report completed for the course is original for the class and
completed solely by the researcher. It is unethical to prepare a report that is the same, or basically
similar, to a report completed for another purpose.
The research report must be legible and word processed; appropriate margins and other
formatting as outlined in the research manual should be followed. The report must adhere to
appropriate rules of grammar, sentence structure, transitions between paragraphs, etc.
Finally, before submission of the research report to the competent authority, the research
scholar should check and recheck it for several times for errors and omission, consistency and so
on. If he/she is not a literature expert then he/she can also consider sending the research
documentation for editing to a literature expert before its submission to the competent authority.
e) Conclusion: A research report is an eye-opener to others to judge the work done by the
researcher in the field of given research. The research report consists of research that one does on
the topic as well as interpretation of the information, including applicability to the teaching
assignment. It explains how one will use the information that comes to the focus, how it will
impact on teaching pedagogy, discipline methods, curriculum development, assessment, etc.
Research Methods in Library and Information Science and Services
Research Methods in Library and Information Science and Services: The following research
methods are commonly used in Library and Information Science.
a) Survey Method: Survey research has been widely used in LIS. It deals mainly with
collection, analysis and presentation of data relating to the present time reflecting the present
state of affairs in social, economic and political activities. Survey method is approached through
the methods of personal interview, mailed questionnaires (both surface and Email), telephone,
personal discussion, electronic survey, and so on.
i) Cross Sectional Survey (=Single Short Survey): In this design, peoples are asked questions at
one points of time. It is difficult to establish the time order to variables. It is difficult to exchange
over a period of time.
ii) Panel Study and Trend Study: In a panel study the same peoples are interviewed two or more
times. Eg. Some users are interviewed at different times to seek their views on product. In a trend
study two or more different samples of people are drawn at different times from the same
population.
* Panel Study: Panel studies provide information on both the net and gross changes. Panel
studies can describe how the individual members of a population are changing.
* Trend Study: Trend studies involve information on net changes. Trend studies can describe how
the distributions of variable are changes in the population studied.
Some of the characteristics of survey method are-
i) It is directly concerned with social life as it exists there and now. What is observed, described,
collected or a body of facts about current situation and problem.
ii) It focuses upon given locality or geographical area.
iii) A large volume of information can be collected from a very large population.
iv) The information generally collected through survey is accurate.
Some of the limitation of Survey Method are
i) It demands more money, effort, and time.
ii) It need to train the interviewers, otherwise it will contribute to error.
iii) Survey information touches only the surface of the research field and does not make a deeper
thrust into it.
iv) The respondent’s personal inhibitions, indifference and unawareness of the nature and
purpose of investigation render survey information invalid or at least imprecise.
v) If sample information has not been collected very carefully, the magnitude of sampling error
may be too large to render the sample results reasonably accurate.
Some well known examples of survey research that are applicable to library and
information sciences are-
i) User Study or User Survey: To determine the utilization of library resources, satisfaction of the
clientele and their need.
ii) Community Survey: To know the characteristic of the population being served by a library or
to be served by the proposed library.
iii) Library Survey: To ascertain the resource of a library or a group of libraries and their growth
in a particular period.
b) Case Study Method: Case study is a population type of qualitative research and it can be
defined as “in depth investigation of a discrete entity (which may be a single setting, subject,
collection or event) on the assumption that it is possible to derive knowledge of the wide
phenomena from intensive investigation of a specific instance or case”. In the words of Pauline
V. Young “a comprehensive study of a social unit- be that unit a person, a group, a social
institution, a district, or a community – is called a case study”.
Case study is a qualitative analysis where careful and complete observation of an
individual or a situation or an institution is done. An effort is made to study each and every
aspect of the concerning unit in minute details, and then from the case data generalization and
inferences are drawn.
Case data may be gathered exhaustively on an entire life cycle of a social unit or a
definite section of it whether a section or the whole of a life is studied. The aim is to ascertain the
natural history that is an account of generic development of a person or group, revealing the
factors and method of life of the unit within the cultural setting. Thus, case study aid in studying
behavior in specific and in details.
The significance of Case Study Method is:
i) This method enables us to understand fully the behavior pattern of the concern unit.
ii) Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlighten record of personal
experiences, which should reveal man’s inner strivings, tension and motivation that drive into
action along with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behavior.
c) Delphi Technique: Delphi method is basically a technique of obtaining consensus among
experts opinion on a given problem. A questionnaire is prepared translating the aims and
objectives of research. The identified problem is put up to the panel of experts in many rounds
till a consensus agreement is achieved. The basic theory behind this technique is that consensus
opinion among majority of opinions will have grater creditability and authority than the guess of
only the most articulate / spokespersons in a group of participating respondent.
In the formulation of library legislations, policy making for libraries, curriculum design,
and method of teaching and evaluation process of decision making and in manpower planning
Delphi method can be used.
Research Design
Research Design: Research design essentially refers to the plan or strategy of shaping the
research, or as Hakim (1987) puts it “design deals primarily with aim, purposes, intentions and
plans within the practical constraints of location, time, money and availability of staff”.
a) Definition: According to Scltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch, and Cook “a research design is an
arrangement of the essential condition for collection and analysis of data in a form that aims to
combine relevance to research purpose with economy in the procedure”.
Suchman has pointed out that “a research design is not a highly specific plan to be
followed without deviation, but rather a series of guide posts to keep one handed in the right
direction”.
Decision regarding what, where, when, how much by what means concerning an enquiry
or a research study constitute a research design. So a research design or a plan is a tentative
outline of the proposed research work. The plan is not a very specific one. It is simply a set of
guideline to keep the scholar on the right track.
b) Need of Research Design: The need of research design are-
i) It may result in the desired type of study with useful conclusion;
ii) It reduces inaccuracy;
iii) Helps to get optimum efficiency and reliability;
iv) Minimize wastage of time;
v) Minimize uncertainty confusion and practical haphazard associated with any research
problem;
vi) Helpful for collection of research material and testing of hypothesis;
vii) It is a guide post for giving research a right direction.
c) Characteristic of Research Design: Some of the characteristics of research design are-
i) Regularity: State character or fact of being regular.
ii) Verifiability: To ascertain text, the truth or accuracy of anything opens for verification.
iii) Universality: A state or quality of being universal or general.
iv) Predictability: To predict or tell before with moderate accuracy.
v) Objectivity: Not subjective or unbiased.
vi) Systematization: In a coherent or orderly manner.
d) Components of Research Design: A practical research design has the following steps,
however these are not independent but rather they are interdependent and overlapping in a sense.
i) Title of the Study: The title or name o topic of research should be brief. In order to sharpen the
focus if necessary a subtitle may be added to the main title.
ii) Stating Problem: Stating the problem which surrounds the specific problem will provide a
focus on the chosen topic for research.
iii) Review of Literature: A review of the literature should be made.
iv) Area and Scope of Study: The area and scope of the study should be stated.
v) Objectives of the Study: The objective of the study should be clearly mentioned.
vi) Formulation of Hypothesis: Though it is not mandatory a few hypothesis should be taken.
vii) Definition of Concept and Terminology: The concept and terminologies likely to be used in
the research should be clearly defined.
viii) Methodology: There are several methods of investigation and collection of materials. A
researcher is free to adopt one or several method.
ix) Determining Tools of Data Collection: Determining tools of data collection and formulation
of schedules or questionnaire.
x) Sampling Design: A complete coverage of the unit of the universe selected for research is not
possible. So, sampling design deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study. Sampling design means determining the research participants.
xi) Determining Techniques for Data Analysis: The collected data should be processed and
organized.
xii) Limitation: Limitation in terms of gap in the data, sample should ascertain.
xiii) Interpretation of Results: The processed and organized data are interpreted for drawing
inferences.
e) Limitation of Research Design: The following are some of the limitations of research
design-
i) Non availability of sufficient data;
ii) Non availability of resources like money, manpower, etc.;
iii) Inadequate time in the formulation of research design;
iv) Poor skill and ability of the research scholar;
v) Unforeseen development during the course of design, which are uncontrollable as well.
The research design is a tentative statement, so the design is subject to change in the light
of the material available or experience gathered while pursuing the actual work.
Research
Research: The goal of research is to improve the level of living in society. The word research
carries an atmosphere of respect. As every object has got its own pros and cons, so does research.
But the advantages of research have out numbered the disadvantages of research and it has a
place of its own in the field of study.
In an academic environment, research activity is five fold i.e Master Dissertation; MPhil
Dissertation; PhD Thesis; DLitt Thesis; and Assigned Research Project (Most universities in
North America call a PhD a dissertation and the Masters a thesis, while most British universities
call the PhD a thesis and the Masters a dissertation).
A Masters dissertation in general does not contribute to the original knowledge that is
novel and unique, and takes a forward step in a particular branch of human knowledge. It is a
research work that makes one experienced with a series of high level education, intellectual and
ethical issues, whereby the person doing the work demonstrates his/her mastery of the skills of
data collection, handling, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, argumentation to a specific topic to
arrive at some conclusion, that is in turn recorded with the honesty of writing, which enlarges or
modifies the earlier concept on the topic. The objectives of a dissertation includes providing a
range of learning opportunities to go for original research work in future, by way of going
through different age old tradition of research methodologies; to equip the learner with the
knowledge of managing a project; etc.
In Master of Philosophy, stress is much given to the subject of research rather than on
theoretical research methodologies and the researcher has the full freedom to choose his/her
topic of interest. The individual capability of the students to choose their topic for research gives
a Master of Philosophy research a distinct look in opposition to the Master Dissertation, where
student is supposed to look forward to the topic relevant to their course contents only. Though at
Master of Philosophy, the research demands authoritativeness, it is also not able to contribute to
the original knowledge base.
 The Master Dissertation and MPhill Dissertation does not belong to pure research work.
Besides the above points, it can also be justified from another point of view. In both cases, the
examiner of the research work gives a percentage or score during evaluation processes to the
students based upon their level of doing pure research in future. It means for example if one
student is able to score 80%, it is not a great success, it has other side also, in regards to the
potentiality of doing an original research work i.e. he / she is incapable of doing the work by
20%. But in case of original research work, only two options are left in the hands of the
examiners, either he / she have to accept or reject the work, there are no steps in between the two
i.e the evaluation of the research work should lead to either 100% or null.
Doctor of Philosophy involves pure individual research where the researcher is assumed
to be the world expert on his / her particular topic. So offering PhD assumes precondition that the
researcher promotes the subject into a new dimension by promoting its greater understanding,
producing significant new information or by way of formulating new theories.
Doctor of Literature is just like the Doctor of Philosophy but with more commitment to the areas
of research with in depth study.
The research projects are different from that of academic research degree in regards to
different scale of time, resources and extent, pioneering qualities and rigor. Research project
actually involves a group work on a pre-assigned topic by the funding agency; it has wide scope
in regards to the greater resource availability.
a) Definition: Research is composed of two words “re” and “search”, which means to search
again or it is a careful investigation to understand or re-examine the facts or to search for new
facts or to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge. The term research is also used to
describe an entire collection of information about a particular subject, but it is in general used by
the students of higher schools.
Research in common parlance refers to search for knowledge; one can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on as specific topic. Some
people consider research as a movement, a movement from the unknown to known. It is actually
a voyage of discovery. Thus research is an endeavor to discover, develop and verify knowledge.
P. M. Cook attributes the research taking the clue from each initial alphabets of the word
“research”.
R= Rational way of thinking;
E= Expert and exhaustive treatment;
S= Search for solution;
E= Exactness;
A= Analysis;
R= Relationship of facts;
C= Critical observation, Careful recording; Constructive attributes, and Condensed
generalization.
H= Honesty and hard working.
The Webster International Dictionary defines research as “a careful critical enquiry or
examination in seeking facts for principles, diligent investigation in order to ascertain
something”.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of
research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge”.
 J. W. Best opined that research is not only specifically problem solving but is also closely
associated with verification of truth underlying the observed data”.
Thus research is an intellectual act that begins with the asking of questions and progress
through the critical examination of evidence that is both relevant and reliable to the reevaluation
of the truth that is generalization and universal.
b) Need of Research: The need of research is felt due to the following-
i) To discover the truth, which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet;
ii) To discover the solution of a problem;
iii) To expand the scope of theoretical knowledge;
iv) To discover the new application for old knowledge;
v) To understand, analyze and explore the phenomena;
vi) To know the cause effect relationship;
vii) To improve the level of living in society;
viii) For professional and intellectual development of the researcher by gaining knowledge;
ix) To obtain prestige and respect by a person or by the institution;
x) To obtain a research degree;
xi) As a means of livelihood by way of obtaining the source of finance.
c) Characteristic: Some of the characteristics of research are-
i) Research originates with a question or problem;
ii) Research requires a clear articulation of a goal;
iii) Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis or critical
assumption;
iv) Research follows a specific plan of procedure;
v) Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem
that initiated the research;
vi) Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical.
Mere information gathering, transportation of facts from one location to another, looking
through for information does not lead to research. It is not a catchword used to get attention.
d) Code of Conduct in Research: The following are some of the code of conduct in research-
i) Self Reflective: The researcher should use only the techniques, tools to which they are
familiar.
ii) Taking Permission to Undertake Research: In most countries, the researchers have to take
permission to conduct research or they will be expelled from the field of study or the country as a
whole.
iii) Research Participants: Participation is the voluntary contribution by the people towards
achieving the goal of the researcher and by this way a process of involvement in their own
development, their lives and environment. In case of field study, the researcher should go with
sufficient imagination, and care to prevent spoiling the field for himself / herself or for the future
researcher. If the researcher makes some promise with the participants, then he/she must try to
keep them. The research participants should also be given guarantees of confidentiality and
anonymity, unless there are clear and overriding researches to do otherwise.
* Voluntary Participation: Participants should be voluntary in all types of research. No
researcher should bring the participants under some compulsion. If required the researcher can
also sign in consent form from the respondents.
* Confidentiality and Anonymity: There are a number of ways in which participants can be
harmed; it may be physical, psychological, emotional, embarrassment and so on. So the research
data should be aggregated in such a manner where individuals cannot be identified, if it is
necessary to quote the respondents name, potential harm should be identified and measures
should be taken to overcome such harm and necessary permission should be taken from the
respondent to quote their name.
* Right of Review: The participants have every right to review the data before going for
publication. So for a researcher it is good to communicate with them.
* Informed Consent: If a particular research may harm participants, the participants should be
informed and consent should be taken in advance. In publicizing the result of research, personal
data may lead to mutual protection, political sensitivity, and private issues (family affairs, tax
avoidance, etc). So the researcher should take the consent before publicizing any data regarding
research participants.
* Risk Assessment: “Science is certainty; research is uncertainty. Science is supposed to be cold,
straight and detached; research is warm, involving and risky. Science puts and end to the
vagaries of human disputes; research creates controversies”. So before publicizing data the
researcher should assess the risk regarding psychological stress, legal liabilities, political, social
etc. of the research participants.
iv) Acknowledging Others: The researcher should always acknowledge others who are
associated with their research work. But, including the names of persons, who had little or
nothing to do with the research is deception again.
v) Intellectual Ownership and Plagiarism: Representing some one's work as one's own is
called as plagiarism and it may lead to expulsion from the institution. So, please deal with it
properly. “Unless otherwise stated, what you write will be regarded as your own work; the ideas
will be considered you own unless you say to the contrary” (Walliman, 2005, p. 336). So, one
should be honest, fair and respect other's work and are expected to give same kind of treatment
what he/she expects from the readers of their own publication(s) and it will be good to use other's
text, diagram, table, data, picture with their permission only (generally for academic work,
author as well as publisher feels free to grant permission to use their material in your work).
Without permission, single text extract with citation should not cross the limit of 400 words. For
a series of extract, with citation should not cross the limit of 800 words, provided no single
extract exceed 300 words). The worst offence against this ethic is called “Plagiarism” and in
order to avoid the stigma and shame of being labeled as one, acknowledging others work is
always needed.
vii) Academic Frauds: Academic fraud involves the intentional misrepresentation of what has
been done. Fabrication, falsification, omitting data and plagiarism constitutes misconduct and
academic fraud in any research practice. So, the researcher should avoid it right from proposal to
report of any research work. Making misleading or deceptive statement also constitutes academic
fraud.
viii) Publicizing Results: Publicizing the same article in more than one journal distorts citation
indexes and is therefore a bad practice. It is also a means to degrade your own contribution to the
total human knowledge.
Some of well designed research codes can be found in American Sociological Association
(http://www.asanet.org/members/ecoderev.html), American Psychological Association Ethical
Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html),
American Political Science Association (http://www.apsanet.org/pubs/ethics.cfm), British
Sociological Association Code of Ethics (1996) (http://www.britsoc.co.uk/index), British
Educational Research Association (http://www.bera.ac.uk/guidelines.htms), National Committee
for Ethics in Social Science Research in Health (India), Office of Research Integrity (ORI)
(http://ori.dhhs.gov), Oxford Brookes University (2003) code; etc.
e) Finding out Unethical Research Work: The following are some of the ways through which
unethical research works can be identified:-
i) Perfect Data: If a reader of some research work finds some work within the documentation of
the research work that reflects the perfect correlation with other sets of data, with which he/she
comes across in his/her past reading then he/she tries to recall them and goes for searching the
possibility to find out who (present or past researcher) tries to hide what. Such type of human
behavior leads to finding out the unethical research work. This type of unethical research
identification frequently happens in case when someone goes with the research work of their
peer groups research.
ii) Plagiarized Text: Some times in going through the text of a particular research work, the
evaluator or the expert or other reader is able to recall in the way that “I have read it earlier, is it
the same article I am reading it again?”. What he/she will do in the next step is he/she tries to
find out where is the problem? Such types of intuition for validity also lead to identification of
unethical research work.
iii) More Subjects than What Really Exists: In the process of falsification and fabrication of
data, sometimes may lead to an increase number of subjects than what really exist. If such type
of things happen then the readers who are alert with the field can easily identify the work as
unethical research work. Suppose there are 350 colleges in a city, and one’s research study
reveals it as 355 then the person who knows that only 350 colleges are there can easily identify
the present work through which he/she has gone recently as an unethical work.
iv) Data not Supported by Methodologies: There may be occasions when a researcher used
methodology and data reflects opposite direction. If such an occasion happens then the reader is
easily able to guess the work as unethical.
v) Time: If some research finding comes out to the surface within a short amount of time than
what it should consume, there may be occasion where the falsification in the data may be there.
vi) Researcher is Not Capable: The peers know their professional friends and colleagues and
their potentialities very well. So, when one of their colleagues publish some research work,
which according to his/her friend is not capable of working in that level, he/she immediately
goes for evidence to justify his/her points or to identify from which he/she copied the data. Such
types of peer to peer competition also lead to identification of unethical research work.
vii) Hide: When there are missing links in the data, the reader is easily able to guess that the
researcher must hide something to consider for publication in some other journals, or for other
purposes.
viii) Plagiarize Text Checking Tools: Over the web nowadays there are many plagiarize text
checking tools are available that check for text copied from other sources. If a reader of some
research work used such tools then within a minute he/she is able to find out which sentences in
the present work is copied from which sources.
f) Course of Action against Unethical Research Work: Unethical research work includes loss
of respect and recognition from the peers, and society at large. To have some classic examples of
course of action against unethical research you can consult: Hart, Chris (2005). Doing your
masters dissertation. New Delhi: Vistaar Publication. 286-296. The course of action against
unethical research work includes the following.
 The action taken by school / department / university where research work are undertaken
includes dismissal from school / department / university, dismissal from carrying out further
research work, dismissal from supervising other research work, making correctness to the
research work, sending the scholar to ethical training, and just warning.
Action from the employer includes termination of employment / academic career,
suspension with pay, warning, etc.
Action taken by research funding agencies includes repayment of grant / fund / award,
debarred from future research grant, etc
g) Criticism against Research: Prior to discussing the importance of research, let's have a
glance at the criticism raised against research-
i) Some people think that research is a waste of time, and effort;
ii) Some say that for degree sake, research is being undertaken;
iii) Most of the research deals with human being especially in social science research. But it is
being criticized that human behavior is difficult to study;
iv) Methods used for conducting research is inadequate. This is more so in case of developing
countries;
v) It is not always necessary that every research would lead to solution of problems rather it may
complicate the problem further;
vi) It is generally been seen that the problem under investigation may not be an area of interest to
the researcher, rather he / she may take the problem due to peer pressure or ego problem.
h) Let Us Sum Up: “Everywhere, our knowledge is incomplete and problems are waiting to be
solved. We address the void in our knowledge and those unresolved problems by asking relevant
questions and seeking answers to them. The role of research is to provide a method for obtaining
those answers by inquiringly studying the evidence within the parameters of the scientific
method.” It will be better to conclude by Patton (2002, 224) quotes “there is no rule of thumb
that tells a researcher precisely how to focus a study. The extent to which a research question is
broad or narrow depends on purpose, the resources available, the time available, and the interests
of those involved. In brief, these are not choices between good and bad, but choices among
alternatives, all of which have merit”.
Reference Sources
Reference Sources: A reference work / book / source is a compendium of information, usually
of a specific type, compiled in a book for easy consultation. The entries are disjointed but
arranged in such a way that the intended information can be quickly found when needed or
referred to, the sequence of which is determined by the scheme of arrangement chosen for that
purpose. It might be alphabetical, classified or some other type of arrangement. Even then the
connection between consecutive entries is not as compelling and continuous or as free from jerks
as between the paragraphs in an ordinary book. The writing style used in these works is
informative; the authors avoid use of the first person and emphasize facts. Indexes are commonly
provided in many types of reference work. Updated editions are published as needed, in some
cases annually. Sometimes reference sources are also described as approach material. Broadly
speaking, any book can be called a reference book provided the information contained in it is so
organized that it becomes readily accessible. It may consist mostly of formulae, statistics,
diagram, tables, maps, charts or list of documents with or without abstracts or annotations or
other features. All reference sources are also documentary sources of information.
According to ALA Glossary, a reference book has been defined as “a book designed by its
arrangement and treatment to be consulted for definite item of information rather than to be read
consecutively”. Most of the reference book anticipates a particular need and approach to
information.
Generally a reference source bears the following characteristics
i) Consulted for Definite Item of Information: They are not meant for continuous i.e. cover to
cover reading. They are consulted from time to time (occasional) for particular pieces of
information.
ii) Miscellany of Information: It is miscellany of information or facts and consists of disjointed
entries of varying length which are collected from a vast number of sources. One entry in sources
may or may not have any relationship with the other entry.
iii) Bird’s Eye View of the Topic: The books provide only the bird’s eye view of the topics and
rarely deal with them in depth.
iv) Item can be Randomly Located: The arrangement of information is such that it can be
conveniently and quickly recalled.
In the library, reference collections are shelved together in a special location separately
from circulating items. Ordinarily, the reference collections are not lent out (circulated) or
checked out from the library because they contain brief information about the topic in hand and,
if needed, can be photocopied and, therefore, do not need to be borrowed by the users. Its
availability in the library assures the provision of making it accessible on demand to any user to
answer questions immediately. Reference books are also too valuable to permit the borrowers to
take them out.
It may be added that the boarder line of demarcation between a reference book and others
is not always sharp. The decision as to whether or not to regard a given book as a reference book
will some time differ from library to library.
1. Classification of Reference Sources: William A. Katz divides the reference sources into two
large categories-
i) Control Access Directional Type: It itself does not contain the required information but directs
the user to the documents which contain the information. It includes bibliographies, catalogue,
indexes, abstracts etc.
ii) Work of Sources Type: It itself contains the information. For example, Encyclopedia,
Dictionary etc.
2. Types of Reference Sources: We may generally recognize the following kinds of reference
sources based on the internal characteristics.
a) Dictionary: A dictionary contains the words of a language or the terms of a subject,
profession or vocation arranged according to some definite order usually alphabetical, giving
their meanings, pronunciation, spelling, significance and use. Some times synonyms, antonyms,
derivation and history of the words or terms are also given. Many dictionaries also provide
grammatical information, etymologies (origin and development of the4 meaning of the word),
usage guidance and examples in phrases or sentences. The word "dictionary" comes from
neoclassical Latin word “diccio” meaning simply "word". Therefore, primarily it deals with
words and it is produced by lexicographers. A pictorial dictionary includes illustrations of the
objects represented by the words listed; some other types of dictionary may also list out
characters with their glyphs, or an alphabetical list of words with corresponding words in other
languages. It is most commonly found in the form of a book. However, in recent years some
dictionaries are also found in electronic portable handheld devices. Some examples of English
language dictionaries are Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Oxford English Dictionary (descriptive),
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Webster's Third New International
Dictionary (descriptive).
i) Lexicon: A dictionary of some ancient language that generally provides more grammatical
analysis is known as lexicon.
ii) Concordance: A concordance is an alphabetical list of the principal words used in a book or
body of work showing location in the text with immediate contexts. Because of the time and
difficulty and expense involved in creating a concordance in the pre-computer era, only works of
special importance, such as the Bible, Qur'an or the works of Shakespeare, had concordances
prepared for them.
iii) Glossary: A list of difficult terms along with some explanation or definition in a special field.
The glossary is sometimes also referred to as word book.
b) Thesaurus: It is designed for drawing distinctions between similar words and assisting in
choosing exactly the right word. So entries in a thesaurus should not be taken as a list of
synonyms and antonyms. It also does not define words. That work is left to the dictionary. A
formal definition of a thesaurus designed for indexing is: a list of every important term (single-
word or multi-word) in a given domain of knowledge arranged in a systematic order and
manifesting various types of relationship existing between the terms; and a set of related terms
for each term in the list. The word “thesaurus” more commonly means a listing of words with
similar, related, or opposite meanings (this new meaning of thesaurus dates back to Roget's
Thesaurus). For example, a book of jargon for a specialized field; or more technically a list of
subject headings and cross-references used in the filing and retrieval of documents (or indeed
papers, certificates, letters, cards, records, texts, files, articles, essays and perhaps even
manuscripts), film, sound recordings, machine-readable media, etc. Some examples of thesaurus
are Thesaurus of English Words & Phrases (ed. P. Roget); The Synonym Finder (ed. J. I. Rodale);
Webster's New World Thesaurus (ed. C. Laird); etc.
c) Encyclopaedia: The word encyclopaedia or encyclopaedia is derived from two Greek words
‘Enkyklios’ which means ‘circle’ and ‘Paideia’ which means “of learning”. The word
encyclopaedia itself is synonymous with cyclopedia which means compendium of information or
knowledge or a circle of knowledge, a work which represents synthesis of knowledge. It contains
comprehensive written information on all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of
knowledge, with the entries arranged in alphabetical order. Multi-volume encyclopedias often
include an index in the last volume.
The Oxford English dictionary has defined an encyclopaedia as “a literary work
containing extensive information on all branches of knowledge usually arranged in alphabetical
order”. ALA Glossary of Library Terms define encyclopaedia as “a work containing information
articles on subject in every field of knowledge usually arranged in alphabetical order or a similar
work limited to a special field of subject”.
Four major characteristics of an encyclopaedia are its subject matter, its scope, its method of
organization, and its method of production. It attempts to bring some order to the knowledge
reflecting the state of knowledge as it exists during the period of its compilation. The included
knowledge is related to kind of readership which an encyclopedia intends to serve. There have
historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopedias: the alphabetical method
(consisting of a number of separate articles, organized in alphabetical order), or organization by
hierarchical categories. The former method is the most common by far, especially for general
works. The encyclopedias are written by a number of employed text writers, usually people with
an academic degree but some modern encyclopedia’s articles are collaboratively written by the
experts on the subject.
The fluidity of electronic media, however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods
of organization of the same content in the encyclopedias. Further, electronic media offer
previously unimaginable capabilities for search, indexing, and cross reference.
Encyclopaedias can be general, containing articles on important topics in every field that
describe the total accumulated knowledge on each topic or all that came before them. The
general encyclopedias are larger compendia and often contain guides on how to do a variety of
things, as well as embedded dictionaries and gazetteers. Every general encyclopaedic work is, of
course, an abridged version of all knowledge discussed in depth However, the discussion of the
included topic represents the opinions and worldviews of a particular time and the target
audience is kept in view while discussing the topics. For example, New Encyclopædia
Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana, Collier’s encyclopaedia, and German Brockhaus. The
encyclopaedia can also specialize in a particular field such as an encyclopedia of medicine,
philosophy, or law, Encyclopaedia of library and information science, International
encyclopaedia of social sciences, McGraw Hill encyclopaedia of science and technology, etc.
i) Supplement to Encyclopedia: It is an annual or periodical publication issued by the publisher
of the encyclopaedia. The purpose of encyclopedia supplement is to provide up-to-date
information about the articles in the basic set and to bring out a summary of the major events,
which have taken place during a year. But in reality it only serves as general reading and
browsing and for summarizing the significant events. It is extremely useful to determine the
trend of development in a particular field during the previous year. Examples: Britannica Book
of the Year, Americana Annual, etc.
d) Bibliographical Sources: The term “bibliography” was first used by Louis Jacod de Saint
Charles in his Bibliographia Parisiana. It is a technique of systematically producing descriptive
list of written or published records or in simple writing and transcription of books. A
bibliography is a systematic listing of the records of human communication. In its most general
sense it is the study and description of books or other multimedia material. Bibliographical
works are almost always considered tertiary sources of information. They differ from library
catalogues by including all relevant publications rather than the items actually found in a
particular library. However, the catalogues of some national libraries also serve as national
bibliographies, as they contain almost all the publications of the concerned country. Standard
citation formats are used in writing the bibliographies. The main advantages of bibliographic
entries are that they contain enough information for readers to locate the materials and are
presented in a consistent format. In many cases bibliography is the end result of any literature
search. For example, Indian National Bibliography, Indian Books in Print, etc.
i) Bibliography of Bibliographies: A bibliography of bibliographies lists the bibliographies
which direct the reader to useful bibliographies through subject, place, institution, etc. The
bibliographies refereed to may be in the form of a separately published book or part of the book
or part of the periodical article or some other type of document. Bibliography of bibliographies is
highly selective in nature. For example, Bibliographic Index.
e) Indexing and Abstracting Periodicals: An index is a systematic guide to i) item contained in
or ii) concept derived from a collection. These items and derived concepts are represented by
entries arranged in a known or stated searchable order. According to Allen Kant, “an abstract is a
summary of a publication or articles accompanied by an adequate bibliographical description to
enable the publication or article to be traced”.
The indexing and abstracting periodicals present a condensed form of the literature of the
subject and provide a scientific or specialist bird’s eye view of the progress and development of
the subject so that the inquirer can select the most relevant documents relating to his work in the
hand. An indexing and abstracting periodical helps to find out specific information in the
literature of a subject.
i) Citation Index: A citation index is an index of citations between publications. It allows the
user to easily establish as to which later documents cite which earlier documents. It is an ordered
list of cited articles each of which is accompanied by a list of citing articles. The cited articles are
identified as references and the citing articles as source. In a simple way it can be said that cited
articles are ancestors and the citing articles are descendents and this descending relation of
subjects is reflected through the citation index. Citations provide a further reading list besides
paying homage to the pionners and giving credit for their work; sometimes it also criticises,
corrects and disputes the previous contributions. The first citation indices were legal citators such
as Shepard's Citations (1873). In 1960, Eugene Garfield's Institute for Scientific Information
(ISI) introduced the first citation index for papers published in academic journals, starting with
the Science Citation Index (SCI), and later expanding to produce the Social Sciences Citation
Index (SSCI) and the Arts and Humanities Citation Index (AHCI). Examples include ISI citation
indexes (available online under the name “Web of Science”), Scopus published by Elsevier
publishers (available online only), CiteSeer system publish, Google Scholar (GS), etc.
f) Geographical Sources: Geography is the study of the Earth’s surface and its lands, features,
inhabitants, and phenomena, people's responses to topography and climate, and soil and
vegetation. Geographical sources of information can be of the following types:
i) Gazetteer: A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary, an important reference for information
about places and place-names, used in conjunction with an atlas. It typically contains information
concerning the geographical makeup of a country, region or continent, the social statistics and
physical features, such as mountains, waterways, or roads. It also includes information about the
location of places, dimensions of physical features, population, GDP, literacy rate, etc. World
gazetteers usually consist of an alphabetical listing of countries, with pertinent statistics for each
one, with some gazetteers listing information on individual cities, towns, villages and other
settlements of varying sizes. Examples include The World Gazetteer, Worldwide Index, etc.
ii) Guides: According to ALA Glossary of Library Terms, a guide book has been defined as
handbook for travellers that gives information about a city, region or country or a similar
handbook about a building, museum, etc.
A guide to the literature assists a user to use literature of a specific subject. It helps to
evaluate and introduce literature. It lays emphasis on the literature of a subject rather than its
content and covers secondary and tertiary sources. It presents a detailed account of the
bibliographical apparatus and tools, basic literature, agencies, etc. through which it is possible to
follow the development, status and progress of a subject. It gives the broadest bibliographical
view of the subject. A guide to the professional organization gives the address and a brief
description of the organizations engaged in a particular field at the national or international level.
Guides generally include guides to the literature of a subject, guides to the libraries, guides to
organization etc.
iii) Map: A map is defined as “a representation of a part or the whole of the surface of the earth
or a celestial body delineated on a plain surface, earth points in the drawing intended to
correspond to a geographical or a celestial position”. It represents the outer boundaries of a part
of the earth or the earth as a whole on a plain surface. In simple, it is a simplified depiction of a
space which highlights relations between components (objects, regions) of that space. Most
usually a map is a two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representation, normally to scale, of
all or a portion of the three-dimensional earth's surface or of the heavens, or another celestial
body. More generally, maps can be devised to represent any local property of the world or part of
it. Maps are usually stored in specially designed cases which allow them to lie flat.
iv) Atlas: An atlas is a collection of maps, traditionally bound into book form, but also found in
multimedia formats. It gives geographic features, political boundaries and some time
geopolitical, social, religious and economic statistics. ALA Glossary defines atlas as “a volume
of map, plates, engraving, tables, etc with or without descriptive letterpress”. It may be an
independent publication or it may have been issued to accompany one or more volume of text.
Some cartographically or commercially important atlases include Times Atlas of the World
(United Kingdom, 1920-present); Atlas Mira (Russia, 1937-present); National Geographic Atlas
of the World (United States, 1963-present); Historical Atlas of China (China). Some other atlases
are thematic. Example: The Times Atlas of World Exploration.
v) Globe: A globe is a three-dimensional scale model of Earth (terrestrial globe) or other
spheroid celestial body such as a planet, star, or moon. It may also refer to a spherical
representation of the celestial sphere, showing the apparent positions of the stars and
constellations in the sky (celestial globe).
g) Biographical Sources: A biography is a description or account of the series of events making
up of someone's life, which is usually published in the form of a book or an essay, or in some
other form, such as a film. An autobiography is a biography of a person's life written or told by
that same person. The biographical information also can be obtained from almanacs,
biographical dictionary, directories, encyclopedias, etc. Examples include International Who’s
Who, Dictionary of National Biography, etc.
h) Current Sources: Current sources of information are brought out on annual basis that depicts
some important happening in the previous year. It may take the form of the following:
i) Year Book: A year book is an annual compendium of current information which may be
sometimes restricted by subject or country or region. It is mostly used for answering questions
involving the recent trends and current developments. J. K. Cates defines a year book as “a
publication which is issued annually for the purpose of current information in narrative,
statistical or descriptive form”. According to ALA Glossary, a yearbook is “an annual volume of
current information in descriptive and or statistical form, sometimes limited to a special field”.
ii) Almanac: The word almanac (also spelled almanack) is an annual publication containing
tabular information in a particular field (mostly covering information about rising and setting of
moons, periods of low and high tides, climate or weather related information) often arranged
according to the calendar. According to the ALA Glossary, an almanac is a) an annual
publication containing a calendar frequently accompanied by astronomical data and other
information or b) An annual year book of statistics and other information sometimes in a
particular field. It records most of the astronomical data and various statistics, such as the times
of the rising and setting of the sun and moon, eclipses, hours of full tide, stated religious
festivals, terms of courts, etc. Contents also include discussions of topical developments and a
summary of recent historical events. Major topics covered by almanacs (reflected by their tables
of contents) include: geography, government, demographics, agriculture, economics and
business, health and medicine, religion, mass media, transportation, science and technology,
sport, and awards/prizes. Sometimes almanac is grouped with yearbooks as this is also an annual
publication giving current events, developments, statistics, etc. Example: World Almanac and
Books of Facts, Whitaker's Almanack, Information Please Almanac, The Old Farmer's Almanac
etc.
i) Directory: A directory is a list of names and addresses of persons, organizations,
manufacturers or periodicals. It may list information in a way which best serves the requirements
of its user so as to enable them to get the required information readily. S. R. Ranganathan defines
a directory as “a book containing the names, address, occupation, etc of the inhabitants of a town
or a district, a list of the user of a telephone system or of the members of a particular profession
or trade or a descriptive list of institution, enterprises or trade”. ALA Glossary of library terms
defines a directory as “a list of persons or organizations, systematically arranged usually in
alphabetical or classified order giving address, affiliation etc. for individual and address, officers,
functions and such data for organization”. In a wider sense, even a list of periodicals or
newspapers or places may also be termed a directory. Example: Times of India Directory and
Yearbook including Who’s Who, Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information, World
of Learning, Universities Handbook, etc.
j) List of Research in Progress: A list or directory of research in progress covers the research
activities of a single institution, a laboratory or a group of institutions i.e. universities. The
information content usually is a short description of projects, names of investigators, period of
investigation, and names of funding agencies and, in some cases, reference to sources where
preliminary results have already been published or likely sources of publication of results.
List of research in progress helps an individual information seeker to get in touch with
the investigation, to get additional information about the work or can anticipate as to when and
where to get the full report or results of an investigation and thus to avoid duplication in
research. Example: Current research project in CSIR Laboratories, 1972 and 1976 compiled by
INSDOC, R and D Projects in Documentation and Librarianship of FID.
k) Notification of Forth Coming Conferences: The knowledge of forth-coming meetings,
conferences, symposia, seminar, etc. on a specific field should be notified to the members
belonging to that specific domain. Keeping this purpose in view some organizations publish
small booklets giving essential general information about forth-coming seminar, conference and
workshop in a specific field. Example: Forthcoming International Scientific and Technical
Conference, Quarterly published by ASLIB.
l) Handbook: The term “hand book” literally comes from the German word “handbuch” i.e. a
book which can be held in the hand comfortably. It is a compilation of miscellaneous information
in a compact and handy form. It is a small manual, reference work or other collection of
instructions, intended to provide ready reference regarding procedures, principles, etc. table,
graph, diagram and illustration are also provided. Louis Shores has defined handbook as “a
reference book of miscellaneous facts and figures on one or many subjects assembled for ready
use in response to popular interest or to a specific need for concise handy information”.
m) Manual: The word “manual” is derived from the Latin term “manualis” which means a guide
book or instruction book to pursue an occupation, art or study. The term “manual” in common
parlences refers to instruction to do something with the aid of very explicit step by step
directions. It gives instruction by means of specific and clear direction. Louis Shores opined that
“manuals are sources that contain instruction for doing”. ALA Glossary defines a manual as a) a
compact book, a handbook b) a book of rules for guidance or instructions in how to perform a
task, process etc. or make some physical subjects. Example: Fay, G.S. (1972). Rockhound’s
Manual. New York: Harper and Row.
n) Statistical Sources: The statistical information is distributed in other reference sources. The
dictionaries may contain population statistics. The encyclopedia may provide socio-economic
data about large geographical areas, which may be updated by their yearbook; the statistical
yearbook may provide some other kinds of statistics over a longer period of time, and so on.
Example includes Demographic Yearbook, Statesman’s Yearbook, etc.
o) Mathematical Table: In early days before calculators were cheap and plentiful, people were
using mathematical table i.e lists of numbers showing the results of calculation with varying
arguments to simplify and drastically speed up computation. The most common are
multiplication tables, which most people know from their early mathematics classes. Nowadays,
peple use logarithm tables and so on.
Some of the reference sources overlap. For instance a supplement to an encyclopedia can
be considered as a part of encyclopedia or separately. Similarly, the sources of statistics can be
considered under yearbook or as a separate category.
Many of the above sources are now available in audio- visual format or as an online
publication but still they can be included under their respective categories. Besides, the
traditional reference sources, Search engine, Meta search engines can also be considered as
reference sources of modern times.

3. Evaluation of Reference Sources: The checklists for evaluation of reference sources are
more or less same for all types of work. They can be applied to all sources with slight
modification. In general, they include the following
i) Authority: The work should be authoritative. The authority should be judged on the basis of
the reputation of the author(s), editor(s), compiler(s), sponsoring bodies and the publishers.
ii) Scope and Coverage: The kind of information included would depend upon the scope of the
work. Some work may cover a particular country or the whole world or all subjects while others
may be restricted to some specific or minute topic only. The date or period covered is an
important criterion. Sometimes it may relate to a particular subject, organization also. The
content page, preface, and introduction may give an idea of the information contained in the
work.
iii) Treatment: It is to be ascertained whether the information is reliable and accurate or not,
whether the treatment is biased or unbiased.
iv) Arrangement: The information must be systematically arranged. It is essential to have a
detailed index which should provide for various kinds of approaches.
v) Uptodateness / Revision: Though some reference sources may contain some retrospective
information, every year it should be thoroughly revised and updated. The time lag is important
for current sources.
vi) Format: All reference works should be a handy volume easy to withstand wear and tear. Type
face should be clear and legible with suitable headings and subheading in bold types for the
guidance of the readers.
vii) Special Features: The other special features of the work include its total cost and whether
the cost can be justified on the basis of its content.
Reference and Information Service
Reference and Information Service: The library is a service institution. The library services
fall into two main categories - information in anticipation and information on demand.
Information in anticipation relates to the current awareness / selective dissemination of
information service. The information on demand relates to the past information sought by a user
and for which there is the provision of reference and information service known as retrospective
searching.
The provision of information in anticipation aims to keep the users well informed and up
to date in their field of specialization and also in the related subjects. The service in anticipation
can be divided into three broad categories - technical services, public services, and public
relation and extension services.
Technical services are vital for all other services provided by the library. Any library
would find it impossible to provide public service for their patron without the work performed in
“the backroom” by technical staff. The Card Catalogue or in a modern library OPAC is the result
of the library technical services. Other technical work includes classification, preparation of shelf
list, preparation of various other kinds of guides, etc.
Previously, people used to differentiate the reference service from that of information
service, but in reality there is no borderline between the two. The two services cannot be
differentiated based on the fact whether the librarian is referring the user to the sources of
information or is directly providing the information himself. Even, referring the user to the
sources of information itself may serve the function of information service for a particular user.
The emergence of web has further changed the whole scenario. Now the reference and
information service goes side by side and they cannot be differentiated as it was done earlier. If
one however likes to differentiate then the information service can be treated as an extended
form of reference service. Infact, the information service is a relatively new term for reference
service. Characteristically, information service denotes the ultimate existence of the reference
work to all kinds of answers to questions which are based on all sources and which requires the
service of the library staff. However, the library services can be differentiated based on the user
approach into two i.e service on demand and service in anticipation. In case of service on
demand, the staff waits for the users to approach and make a request. The user gets the answer to
their specific inquiries pin pointedly, exhaustively and expeditiously. In the reference and
information service in anticipation, the staff goes to the user and the user waits for the staff /
document / information. The information provided is of general type mostly referred to the
document rather than providing exact information.
Reference service in the early years of the twentieth century was limited in general to the
instruction and guidance. The implied policy was of minimal assistance and emphasis on the
librarian as instructor. Librarians, however, soon found themselves increasingly drawn into “fact
finding” and providing direct information service. The need for librarians to become more expert
in diverse fields led eventually to a growing trend towards subject specialization in reference.
The Reference and Information Services Section addresses all aspects of reference works,
in all types of libraries, in all regions of the world. Current interests encompass the new
electronic environment and the resulting changes in reference work, role of the reference
librarian, and the quality of reference services.
1. Definition: According to Ranganathan, reference service is personal service to each reader in
helping him to find the document answering his interest at the moment pin pointedly,
exhaustively and expeditiously. It is the process of establishing “contact between the right reader
and right book at the right time and in the right personal way”.
According to James I Wayer, reference work is “that part of library administration which
deals with the assistance given to readers in their use of the resources of the library”. This
definition is too narrow because in these days, the reference librarian assists the readers to use
resources outside his/her own library.
Samuel Rothstein defines reference service as “the personal assistance given by the
libraries to individual readers in pursuit of information”.
According to Hutchins, “reference work includes the direct, personal aid within a library
to persons in search of information for whatever purpose and also various library activities
especially aimed at making information as easily available as possible”.
ALA Glossary states, “reference service is that phase of library work which is directly
concerned with assistance to readers in securing information and in using the resources of the
library in study and research”.
2. Need and Purpose: The demand for reference and information services in libraries grew
exponentially with the end of World War II and the tremendous growth in higher education that
followed. In general, the need and purpose of reference service arises from the following facts
a) Complex Nature of Library Tools and Techniques: In order to facilitate the use of the
library, the librarian provides various tools like classification numbers, library catalogue (OPAC),
shelf list, written guides of various kinds, bibliographies, indexing and abstracting of journals /
books, etc. But all these tools are based on complex rules and practices and the users are not
supposed to be aware of the ways by which they can be operated. So, there need to be a reference
librarian in the library who can serve as a sort of canvassing agent for these tools.
b) Increase Volume of Information: A variety of information sources emerged in large
numbers. It is so large that it is impossible for the reader to keep track of its variety and its
location. So, there is a need of reference service for the selection of the right kind of document at
less possible time.
c) Peculiarities of Sources of Information: Each kind of information source follows its own
practices in the arrangements of entries, provision of subject headings, preparation of indexes,
etc. So, it is not always easy to get the desired information out of some sources of information
(indexing and abstracting journals, bibliographies, encyclopedia, etc) without the help of the
reference librarian.
d) Lack of Time: Information has a value only if they are received in time and put into practice.
But many research teams and others do not have the time required to search for information in
their parallel development. It is also not desirable to expect from a highly paid research scientist
to spend time in search for the literature in libraries. It is also unprofitable for the parent
organization. So, the trend is to seek the help of a reference librarian to get the information in
time, for the preparation of bibliographies, indexes, abstracts, and for arranging for translation
etc.
e) Personal Psychology: The users may be of shy nature, gentle, aggressive, and meek; they
may be less educated or highly educated and so on. They need to be taken care of by a person
when they come to a library for the first time. Otherwise, they may feel utterly lost or confused
with the result that they may not come again. Even those who come regularly to the library
would need occasional personal assistance. All these call for an arrangement for reference and
information service on demand.
f) Promote and Support Library Service: A good reference and information service is bound
to encourage the use of the library. The satisfied users serve as a friend of the library and can
lead to greater library support. After all, the reference service is treated as the hub of all the
activities of the library. It may be considered as the ultimate manifestation of the laws of library
science.
g) National Economy: Sometimes the questions on a subject or topic are repetitive in nature in
the event of some local function. If each answer seekers goes to find the answer on their own, a
lot of man – hours will be wasted. So, in this regard reference service helps the national economy
by saving the time for the users.
3. Strategies in Establishing a Reference and Information Service: For establishing the
reference and information service, or to provide the reference and information service, the
librarian needs to go through the following steps:
a) Determining Aims and Objectives of the Library: The kind of reference service being
provided would vary from library to library. The service being rendered would depend upon the
type of library, its aims and objectives, its collection, the objectives of the reference section and
the philosophy of the chief librarian. The librarian should not waste much time in providing
answers to the questions that do not come within the scope of the parent organization, and his
library.
b) Staffing: Library and information science professionals should be appointed to look after the
on-demand reference and information service.
c) Facilities Organization: In addition to an extensive research/reading room, there is also the
need of a multimedia room equipped with high-speed computers with Internet and multimedia
capabilities, phone / fax machine in the reference section so that the Reference Librarian can
instantly provide the answers sought.
d) Building Reference Collection: The maintenance of the print reference collections including
dictionaries, directories, and encyclopedia is a must for any kind of reference service. Compiling
bibliographies, establishing and maintaining vertical files, preparing displays, bulletin boards,
and exhibits also often fall within the scope of the reference staff. Some fugitive materials
consisting of newspaper-cuttings, magazine clippings, folders and collection of some similar
kinds of materials should also be included in the reference section.
e) Gathering Knowledge of the Subject: The librarian should have a sound knowledge about
all the reference collections in his library. He should also know about the search engine, subject
directories and so on.
f) Marketing/Visibility: The library reference services should be marketed extensively to get
the attention of the library users.
g) Origin of the Query: Queries to the Reference Librarian can be made by the library user
himself physically, by post, through phone calls, email, online chat, and so on. The Reference
Librarian should be in a position to answer the queries in a mode suitable for the user. He should
be able to provide answer to the fact-finding question on phone / chat instantly.
h) Reference Interview: A user will feel the need for information. He may approach the
Information / Reference desk and make a request for information in the form of a specific query.
In the first attempt the Reference Librarian should determine the readers’ problem. He should be
able to state clearly what the reader wants.
i) Initiating the Search: The Reference Librarian should pick up the keywords to search in
bibliographies, indexes, online databases, subject search engines and so on. By using the prior
knowledge he/she should be able to decide the order in which each of the various sources
available should be consulted and then should follow the possible short-cut method.
j) Solving the Query: The reference librarian finds out and provides the answer to a specific
question raised by the library user. The information sought by the enquirer, its quality and level
will depend on the query and type of the question. It may take the form of delivering the specific
information itself or direct him to appropriate sources of information. The librarian may also get
the concerned information translated and provide the translated version of the document. He may
provide a self prepared subject bibliography, delivering the result of the literature search and so
on. In all cases the reference librarian’s answer should be user-centric.
k) Ethics and the Provision of High Quality Service: The library users have different
psychological temperaments, some are meek and inert, some have a superiority complex while
some are not articulate enough to express their wants or needs correctly or in a precise manner,
and some others may be of limited patience. The reference librarian should follow some basic
ethics to deal with every one. He should not share his personal experience about the users with
others.
l) Assimilation: In the reference service experience is the most important thing. The librarian
should periodically be able to absorb information and learn from his experience so that in near
future if same type of problem arises his movement should directly lead him to the path most
likely to provide the information he wants.
m) Sharing Experience with Others: A reference librarian should try to share his experience
with his colleagues in the reference section. During his work, he would discover certain
weakness in the collection, in the library catalogue, in the arrangement of documents, etc. He
should make suggestions to his colleagues in various sections of the library to bring about the
necessary improvement in the functioning of the library.
The reference librarian would also be dealing with the indexing and abstracting services
prepared by outside organization, bibliographies, national and international document service. He
should also share and point out the shortcoming of such tools to respective authorities.
n) Continuing Education of Reference Librarians: The reference librarian should be regularly
sent for training. For him training is essential to find the information he needs. Besides, the
emergence of the digital information sources and the rapid changes in technologies make it
necessary for the librarians to go for training periodically.
Recruitment, Selection and Test
Recruitment, Selection and Test: Recruitment of personnel refers to supply of new personnel to
work in an organization to fit into position with a well defined job description. The main aim of
recruitment should be to select best candidate for performing specific job in a library.
A library should aim to develop a positive and definite recruitment programme so that it
is able to reach out and attract the best available talent. There should be a continuous evaluation
of the recruitment programme.
Librarian should take care of all the aspects in recruitment of the staff in the library. He
should not have bias for anyone. He should keep in mind that only a suitable professional staff
can provide the adequate service to him as well as users.
a) Recruitment and Selection Procedure: The below mentioned procedures need to be
followed for recruitment or selection of candidate-
i) Ascertaining the Vacant Job: The vacancy may be due to retirement, resignation, termination
or dismissal. New post also may be created for specific job requirement.
ii) Deciding of Revising: If necessary, the requisite qualification, scale and other allowances, etc.
of the post should be revised.
iii) Advertisement: Inviting application by advertisement for the posts in national, state or local
newspapers or by publishing the information over website or broadcasting it through radio,
television, etc. should be carried out.
The advertisement should clearly give all related basic data about the post like the scale
of pay, position, job description, essential and desirable qualification, etc. The application form
to be filled up by the applicant should carefully be designed to get all the particulars of the
candidate to make tentative inference regarding his suitability for the particular post.
iv) Receiving the Application: Receiving the application of the candidates and processing these
methodically for deciding the names of candidate to be invited for interview. Library school
should also be consulted for this purpose.
v) Selection board: It involves task associated with deciding the interview dates, preparation of
the selection board, preparation of interview chart and verifying the data and sending these to
expert. For the selection of staff member, the chief librarian should be given a free hand and he
or she should also be free from bias. The chief librarian and the departmental head under whom
the person shall work must be the member of the interview board. It also involves the activity
associated with laying down interview criteria and test for the assessment of the candidates.
vi) Sending Interview letter: Sending interview letters to the candidate selected / recommended
by the expert or the library school or selection board.
vii) Interviewing the candidates: The purpose of interviewing is to find out the suitability of a
candidate and to seek more information to judge their personality and other traits. It is possible to
examine the academic background, knowledge of the subject, general awareness as well as
professional skills, areas of expertise, knowledge of technological development, and latest trend
of the profession within the country or abroad and other qualities. The interview board can also
assess the personal relation, study, motivation, attitude, mode of thinking, ability to adjust with
change, sense of co-operation, acceptance of challenge and efficiency of the candidates.
ix) Inviting opinion of referees: The references of suitable candidate are checked for their
personal details, especially their past history, political learning and professional standing. For
selection of the librarian, the authority may write to department of library science, prominent
librarians, etc. and consider their views.
x) Medical examination: Here, the candidate is asked to undergo medical / physical tests.
Medical examination serves to ascertain the applicant’s physical capability to meet the job
requirement.
xi) Selecting the candidate provisionally: After a candidate has cleared all the hurdles in the
selection procedure the candidate should be offered appointment subject to certain laid down
condition. For example probationary period, which gives an opportunity to the administrator to
correct mistake if any. If during the probation period candidate is not found suitable the
management may transfer him to some other job or give up the service.
xii) Issuing of a formal appointment order: In this step, a formal appointment order is issued by
the authority. The authority may also execute an agreement bond with the appointed candidate,
stating clearly all the relevant conditions of service, etc.
b) Testing the Candidate: Individuals differ with respect to physical characteristic, capacity,
level of mental ability, their likes and dislikes and also with respect to personality traits. When
matching of individual physical, metal and temperamental pattern with the requirement of the job
or field of training takes place the result is happiness for the individual and greater prosperity for
the organization and the society. This will require the use of selection test. These tests may take
the form of the following-
i) Personality test: These test aims at measuring the total personality of an individual.
Personality includes various traits and behaviour patterns such as initiative, judgment, self
confidence temperament, complex (superior / inferior), likes and dislikes, etc. Personality may be
measured by making use of any of the following three methods-
* Rating method: In the rating method the reliance is laid upon other person’s opinion about a
candidate.
* Question answer method: Here the personality of a candidate is judged from the answer given
by him to a series of questions asked from him.
* Experimental method: Here actual situation are created to know his reaction. For instance at
the circulation counter, a conscience box may be kept for collecting overdue charges from those
borrowers who return the books later. The honesty of the candidate can be judged from this
experiment.
ii) Intelligence test: The ratio of mental age to the real age can be judge by this method. A person
may be asked to name twenty five words in a minute. From such test, mental alertness,
understanding power, reasoning ability, etc. of a person may be found out. These tests are very
much prevalent now.
iii) Aptitude test: Every person has a peculiar aptitude. The aptitude test helps an employer to
know whether a candidate has got aptitude for a manual, mental, mechanical job or routine job.
One may be good at mathematical calculation while another may lack it. These tests give an
indication to the employer about the possible performance of a prospective employee. A person
for example may be asked to copy a straight line drawing.
iv) Trade test: Through trade test, a candidate’s knowledge to perform a specific work or job is
measured. He is asked to perform a similar job when he would be expected to perform when
appointed. A catalogue typist may be asked to type catalogue card. A professional may be asked
to classify actual books of a library in order to know his skill of classifying books. As such these
tests may also be named as “proficiency”, “performance” and achievement tests.
v) Interest test: Interest tests are useful in finding out the probable liking of a candidate for a
particular job. Through these test a person’s preference for a specific job may be known. A
candidate may be a good administrator but he may like a teaching job or vice versa. The interest
of a person may be found out through a well prepared questionnaire.
Any one or the combination of two or more test may be used in selecting library staff
because library work involves various types of jobs i.e. intellectual, manual, mechanical, routine,
administrative, guidance and teaching function.
c) Role of Librarian in the selection of the library staff: Sometimes librarians have been given
free hand to select the library staff but the condition is that he or she should be free from bias. In
all other cases librarian is the member of the library staff selection board. The chief librarian and
the departmental head under whom the person or candidate shall work is always the member of
the interview board. The main roles of librarian in the staff selection are –
i) Helps in the selection of harmonious administrative, technical and service staff.
ii) Recommend the Vice-chancellor or principal for employment of the staff.
iii) Can make recommendation to the Vice-chancellor or principal on all matter pertaining to the
status, promotion, change in position or dismissal of the library staff members.
Besides the above functions, librarians form an un-separable part of all the steps or
procedures of recruitment, test and selection of candidate as the staff member of the library.
Really Simple Syndication (RSS)
Really Simple Syndication: Really Simple Syndication, Really Simple Subscribing, Rich Site
Summary, RSS, feed, web feed (guardian.co.uk ) or channel or by whatever name we call it, it is
a family of Web feed formats that publish the contents from the frequently updated websites,
blog, podcasts, etc. It is the XML-based format that allows the syndication of Web content and
used to refer to the standards like Rich Site Summary (RSS 0.91), RDF Site Summary (RSS 0.9
and 1.0), Really Simple Syndication (RSS 2.0) and Really Simple Subscribing. RSS formats are
specified using XML, a generic specification for the creation of data formats. Although RSS
formats have evolved since March 1999 (My Netscape Network), the RSS icon first gained
widespread use in 2005/2006.
1. History: In 1995, Ramanathan V. Guha and others in Apple Computer's Advanced Technology
Group developed the Meta Content Framework (MCF) which forms the basic idea of
restructuring information about web sites. RDF Site Summary, the first version of RSS, was
created by Guha at Netscape in March 1999 for use on the My.Netscape.Com portal. This
version became known as RSS 0.9. (My Netscape Network). In July 1999, Dan Libby of
Netscape produced a new version, RSS 0.91 that simplified the format by removing RDF
elements and incorporating elements from Dave Winer's scriptingNews syndication format.
Libby also renamed RSS to Rich Site Summary and outlined further development of the format
in a “futures document”.
Winer published a modified version of the RSS 0.91 specification on the UserLand web
site, covering how it was being used in his company’s products, and claimed copyright to the
document. The RSS-DEV Working Group, a project whose members included Guha and
representatives of O’Reilly Media and Moreover, produced RSS 1.0 in December 2000. This
new version, which reclaimed the name RDF Site Summary from RSS 0.9, reintroduced support
for RDF and added XML namespaces support, adopting elements from standard metadata
vocabularies such as Dublin Core. In December 2000, Winer released RSS 0.92 a minor set of
changes aside from the introduction of the enclosure element, which permitted audio files to be
carried in RSS feeds and helped spark podcasting. In September 2002, Winer released a major
new version of the format, RSS 2.0, which redubbed its initials Really Simple Syndication. RSS
2.0 removed the type attribute added in the RSS 0.94 draft and added support for namespaces.
As neither Winer nor the RSS-DEV Working Group had Netscape’s involvement, they could not
make an official claim on the RSS name or format. This has fueled ongoing controversy in the
syndication development community as to which entity was the proper publisher of RSS. One
product of that contentious debate was the creation of an alternative syndication format, Atom,
that began in June 2003. The Atom syndication format, whose creation was in part motivated by
a desire to get a clean start free of the issues surrounding RSS, has been adopted as IETF
Proposed Standard RFC 4287.
In July 2003, Winer and UserLand Software assigned the copyright of the RSS 2.0
specification to Harvard’s Berkman Center for the Internet & Society, where he had just begun a
term as a visiting fellow. In December 2005, the Microsoft Internet Explorer team and Outlook
team announced on their blogs that they were adopting the feed icon first used in the Mozilla
Firefox browser. A few months later, Opera Software followed suit. This effectively made the
orange square with white radio waves the industry standard for RSS and Atom feeds, replacing
the large variety of icons and text that had been used previously to identify syndication data. In
January 2006, Rogers Cadenhead re-launched the RSS Advisory Board without Dave Winer’s
participation, with a stated desire to continue the development of the RSS format and resolve
ambiguities. In June 2007, the board revised their version of the specification to confirm that
namespaces may extend core elements with namespace attributes, as Microsoft has done in
Internet Explorer 7. In their view, a difference of interpretation left publishers unsure of whether
this was permitted or forbidden.
2. Need of RSS: In the days of the development of internet, users were maintaining bookmark or
favorite (Bookmark in Mozilla Firefox or Favorite in Internet Explorer) folder for the site that
they considered important to revisit after some interval of time to check its updating information.
In this case, users were left with no choice but to check the websites frequently or sometime
daily by actually visiting them in the browser irrespective of whether it is actually updated or
not. But due to the time constraint it is not possible to revisit each site of the bookmark or
favorite folder regularly, as each user have many favorite sites.
The development of newsletters or e-zine in the next step solves a general quest of the
problem. It helps the user to subscribe to the e-zine or newsletters of a particular site that in turn
contains a summary of all the latest updates made on the website. But it demands the disclosure
of email address to the website owners for subscribing, which can be easily used by spammers to
flood one’s mailbox with lots of junk mails. Subscribing to many newsletters at a time will also
itself flood one’s mail box and demand a considerable time to find out one’s valuable email out
of the whole. The task of reading every email, deleting it or shifting it to another folder will be
also a time consuming process in itself.
In the RSS environment, whenever a website is updated by means of producing an article
/ news item, it simultaneously produces a document that contains in it the summary of all the
updates made on the website. This document is in the form of an XML document. This XML
document that contains the summary of all updates is known as a “Feed” or “Atom” and it
usually has an “.xml” extension.
Blog that are hosted over Wordpress, Blogger, etc have an inbuilt feature of creating an
RSS feed automatically. So, every time when a blog is updated they create a RSS feed. So, the
blogger that hosted their blog does not require to create an RSS feed separately for their blog.
3. Versions: There are several different versions of RSS, falling into two major branches, 1.* and
2.*.
a) RSS 1.*: The RDF, or RSS 1.* branch includes the following versions:
i) RSS 0.90: It was the original Netscape RSS version. This RSS was called RDF Site Summary,
but was based on an early working draft of the RDF standard, and was not compatible with the
final RDF Recommendation.
ii) RSS 1.0: It is an open format by the RSS-DEV Working Group, again standing for RDF Site
Summary. RSS 1.0 is an RDF format like RSS 0.90, but not fully compatible with it, since 1.0 is
based on the final RDF 1.0 Recommendation.
iii) RSS 1.1: It is also an open format and is intended to update and replace RSS 1.0. The
specification is an independent draft not supported or endorsed in any way by the RSS-Dev
Working Group or any other organization.
b) The RSS 2.*: This branch (initially UserLand, now Harvard) includes the following versions:
i) RSS 0.91: It is the simplified RSS version released by Netscape, and also the version number
of the simplified version championed by Dave Winer from Userland Software. The Netscape
version was now called Rich Site Summary; this was no longer an RDF format, but was
relatively easy to use. It remains the most common RSS variant.
ii) RSS 0.92 through 0.94: They are expansions of the RSS 0.91 format, which are mostly
compatible with each other and with Winer’s version of RSS 0.91, but are not compatible with
RSS 0.90. In all Userland RSS 0.9x specifications, RSS was no longer an acronym.
iii) RSS 2.0.1: It has the internal version number 2.0. RSS 2.0.1 was proclaimed to be “frozen”,
but still updated shortly after release without changing the version number. RSS now stood for
Really Simple Syndication. The major change in this version is an explicit extension mechanism
using XML Namespaces.
 For the most part, later versions in each branch are backward-compatible with earlier
versions (aside from non-conformant RDF syntax in 0.90), and both versions include properly
documented extension mechanisms using XML Namespaces, either directly (in the 2.* branch)
or through RDF (in the 1.* branch). Most syndication software supports both branches.
4. RSS Readers: The XML document can not be accessed by eyes, or if it is, it is very difficult.
So, there is a need of software that makes it readable to our eyes. The software that makes the
XML document readable to human eye is known as RSS Readers, feed reader or aggregator. So,
an RSS Reader is specialized software which interprets the RSS feed (written in XML language)
and present it in a readable form to end user. Using an RSS Reader to view the XML document
just looks like checking the mail box.
a) Types of RSS Reader: There are mainly two types of RSS reader- Online RSS reader and
Offline RSS reader. Google Reader, Yahoo, Bloglines provides online RSS reader. Google
Reader is free, fast and reliable. It needs not to be download just to do is to create a free account
at Google Reader. Alnera Feed Buster is a commercial offline RSS Reader which cost about
$19.95.
b) Subscribing to an RSS feed: If one wants to subscribe to the RSS feed of a blog, then he/she
needs to look for the “Atom” or “RSS” feed icon. After clicking on the RSS feed icon it will
show the feed address (usually right-click on an RSS icon and open it in a new browser window
will show the address). The user then need to copy and paste the address of the RSS feed of the
website in the RSS Reader. Now whenever, the user checks its RSS feed in the RSS reader, it
will show the updates that where made in the website of one’s choice.
Initially, reading various websites through their RSS feed in an RSS reader may appear a
little odd to anyone. However, as one will accustom with this activity he/she will find it as the
fastest and the easiest method to keep abreast with the latest updates of his/her favorite websites /
blogs.
5. Advantages: RSS is creating an earthquake in the online communication environment. It
helps one to filter among the world of blog, to push the latest updating of his/her favorite blog to
the RSS Reader at his own desktop that meet his/her personal, professional, or business needs.
Even an RSS aggregator has many blogs aggregated. Some other benefits are
i) Time Saving: One doesn’t have to save the file in his/her browser’s favorite folder and visit it
regularly to check for its new updates. Checking the RSS reader will save a considerable time
from the busy schedule of heavy net surfer by directly brining the content to his own desktop.
ii) Summary or Full Contents: RSS contains either a summary of content from an associated
web site or the full text.
iii) Current Awareness Service (CAS): It will keep abreast with the latest posting to a favorite
website without visiting it.
iv) Filtered Display: RSS makes it possible for people to keep up with web sites in an automated
manner that can be piped into special programs or filtered displays.
v) Privacy: In the RSS environment, one doesn’t have to disclose his/her email address to
others.
Currently a majority of websites / blogs are coming up with their RSS feeds. If a website
is not publishing its RSS feed, it is considered as its drawback.
Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF)
Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF): The year 1972 was the year of
celebration of the bicentenary of Raja Rammohan Roy, a great social reformer. The government
of India decided that a library foundation would be the best tribute to the memory of Raja
Rammohan Roy, who spent his life in fighting against forces that shackle and retard the progress
of a society. Thus, Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation was set up by the government of
India in 1972 as an autonomous body under the then Department of Culture, Ministry of
Education and Social welfare with its head quarters in Calcutta.
a) Objectives: The major objectives of the foundation are as follows:-
i) To promote library movement in the country.
ii) To enunciate a national library policy and work towards its adoption by the central and state
government.
iii) To help in building a national library system by integrating the services of national libraries,
state central libraries, district libraries and other types of libraries through interlibrary lending
system.
iv) To propagate the adoption of library legislation in the country.
v) To provide financial and technical assistance to libraries, etc.
b) Organization: The foundation consists of 22 members. Minister of education, government of
India or his / her nominee is the chairman. Indian Library Association is represented on the
foundation. In addition four eminent librarians are also its member.
c) Functions: RRRLF provides assistance to state government on matching basis for purchase of
books, organization of seminars and conferences, running of mobile library service, purchase of
furniture, etc.
d) Publication: It brings out Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation Newsletter (Quarterly) to
disseminate information about its activities.
Public Service
Public Service: The library public service manages the activities that directly assist the end-user.
The public service can be grouped into two major headings essential public service and enhanced
public service.
Generally, reading room, circulation, list of accession, printed catalogue, etc are treated
as essential (general) public services and Current Awareness Service (CAS), Selective
Dissemination of Information (SDI) are treated as enhanced (selective) public services. The
public service of the library generally depends upon one major factor i.e. whether it provides
open access to its collection or it is closed access.
The library public service sometimes is also known as information service. L. M. Harrod
defines information service as “service provided by or for any information centre which draws
attention to information possessed in its departments in anticipation of demand, this is done by
presenting and circulating news sheet, literature surveys, reading lists, abstract, particulars of
articles in current periodicals etc which, it is anticipated, will be of interest to potential users of
the service”. The information service is provided directly to the potential user of the service.
1. General / Universal / Essential Public Service: The general public services include the
following facilities and services
a) Building Collection of Reference Material: It will include acquisition of dictionaries,
encyclopedias, and bibliographies, indexing and abstracting periodicals and so on. The library
can also bring out different types of bibliographies, indexing and abstracting of different types on
its own to draw the attention of the user.
b) Card Catalogue: The card catalogues are filled in a cabinet containing many drawers
identified books and other materials. In a large library, the card catalogue often fills a large room.
c) Accession List / List of Recent Acquisition: Here, a list of books newly added to the library
is regularly compiled and distributed. These lists provide new books and journals added to the
library and are generally indicative, bearing very few details like author, title, publisher, pages,
call number and accession number. Sometimes, the library can also display the book jacket of
new additions prominently in the library to bring it to the notice of potential users.
d) Book Display: Displaying of library material pertinent to a special interest or illustrating a
historic occasion like man’s flight to space, and so on can be helpful. This enables the users to
keep themselves currently aware of the recent developments.
e) Newspaper Clipping Service: In this type of service the important topics / news published in
newspaper are cut and filed subject wise for being provided to the user.
f) Public Relation: Public relation is a day to day building of the atmosphere of good will with
the public in which a library can operate most widely and most effectively to give the best
possible service to its community. It is the relationship of the library with its user or borrowers,
with non borrowers of the community, with the trustees or library committee, with dealers,
collectors, salesmen of equipment, with scholars, with the staff and administrator for which
librarians work.
2. Enhance / Selective Public Service: The enhance public services can be grouped into the
following types.
2.1 Current Awareness Service (CAS): The awareness service provides knowledge to the user
regarding recent developments in the field of general interest. This type of service is directed
towards all users of the services. It does not deal with the exact or specific requirement or
interest of the user and is thus distinguished from SDI service.
The CAS helps the user by keeping him up-to-date & well informed with the latest
information on a particular field and also in the related field. It indicates what one should read
and thereby it saves the time of the reader. It also serves as a rapid survey of retrospective
literature. CAS helps the user in the following ways:
i) Keeps Well Informed: Due to great advances made in the field of knowledge, it is becoming
more and more difficult for the users to keep themselves up-to-date and well informed in their
field of specialization. CAS meets this end for the researcher and others. Otherwise, too much of
information would make it difficult for them to use information effectively.
ii) Helps the User in Scanning the Literature: There may be users who do not possess the ability
or willingness to do the scanning regularly on their own. CAS provides aid in such situation by
widely and regularly scanning the literature and sending to the user the relevant topic of interest.
iii) Saves Time: The Library and Information Centres by scanning the sources of information and
notifying the members of the community, saves their valuable time. Again, in case each user
scans literature individually then this will lead to unnecessary duplication of effort. So, the CAS
can help the user avoid this duplication.
iv) Promotes and Supports Library Service: All services of the library are not free nowadays. So,
in this context, it is essential to promote and market library services. CAS is one of the ways to
bring the resources of the library / information centre to the notice of the users. This will in turn
lead to greater demand for the library service, giving opportunity to the library to prove its value
and justification for the money spent on it.
Librarians have been providing the CAS service on manual basis for a long time. But
nowadays computers are used to mechanize the procedure. The current awareness service
through computer may be provided through E-List (a Web-enabled contemporary reference
service offered to the registered members), online groups, blogs, RSS, E-Mail, SMS, etc. The
steps involved in CAS may be of the following types
i) Creation of User Profile: The profiles of the user, who are to be given CAS/SDI service, are
prepared. A profile consists of the key words that collectively characterize the subject interest of
an individual. The profile can be of a single user or a group working on the same project or some
limited subject field. The profile obtained thus must be kept up-to-date. Therefore, if the topic of
inertest changes then the corresponding profile must also be modified accordingly.
ii) Acquisition of Resources: The different sources of information, periodicals, research papers,
which are relevant to the parent body, must be selected and collected from different sources. In
the next step, through rapid reading the resources are scanned by the LIS professionals to find
out the key concepts.
iii) Creation of Document Profile: The relevant and significant information is recorded in the
form of content list for different contexts. The recorded information may be in the form of an
abstract or an extract. Depending upon the significance of the document, the bibliographical
details and indexing terms and the information itself are stored on the file / magnetic tape /
computer document.
iv) Matching Profile: In a regular interval, the user profile should be correlated or matched with
the document profile. The computer compares the two inputs; the output is printed out in the
form of two cards. One card is called information card that contain either the list of document or
the information itself along with bibliographical details of document which also has a tear off
strip request note. The other card is called response card.
v) Notification / Information Communication: If there exists any matching between the two
profiles then the matching information is sent to the user or group of users, who may require it,
through different means of communication in anticipation, like telephone calls, postal mail /
email / SMS with a request to call at the reference desk to get the pertinent information. In case
of postal communication, the two cards are sent to the user. The information can also be sent
through a messenger.
vi) Feedback Mechanism: The user keeps the information card for his use. In case he wants to
consult the document, he tears off the request note strip and sends it to the library along with the
response card, in which he indicates the degree of interest in the particular document.
vii) Library Action: The library takes action on the request note strip to send the document(s) to
the concerned user or to keep it in the library for him. The response card helps the library to
know about the usefulness of the information provided as well as the shift in the information
need. The library accordingly modifies the user profile page for improving performance.
2.2 Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) Service: SDI is a refinement of CAS service
which is directed to individual / personal requirement (personalized). It provides a deeper
analysis of literature. If two people exactly match in terms of their interest, then SDI also can be
provided to the two people. H.P. Luhn is a pioneer in this field. The steps in providing SDI
services are same as that of CAS, the difference is only in the depth of the interest.
The aim of SDI is to see that the user should neither be provided too much of information
nor made to miss information essential for his requirements. It should also meet the user need at
individual level.
SDI service may take the following forms-
i) Contents Alerts: This service is provided by photocopying, scanning the content pages of
learned journals and other important publications keeping in view the interest of the users.
ii) Routine of Periodicals (Automatic Loan): In this procedure, the current issues of periodicals
are routed. There are two systems of routing the current issues of the periodicals. In the first
method, the library sends the current issue to the first person on the last, who passes it on to the
next name in the list. The last person in the list returns the periodical to the library. In the second
method, the library sends the issue to the first person on the list, who returns it to the library, and
then the library sends it to the next person on the list, who again returns it to the library. Next the
library sends it to the third person, and the system goes on like this.
iii) Notification of Forth Coming Conferences, Seminars, etc.: The information about
forthcoming meetings, conferences, symposia, seminar, workshop etc. on a specific field should
be notified to the members belonging to that specific domain. Keeping this purpose in view some
library provides this kind of service to the user.
2.3 Liaison Service: In Liaison service, the library professionals go to the users to identify the
problems encountered by them in course of their activities, analyze their information need, and
put them in touch with the information sources or services.
2.4 Let Us Sum Up: An efficient library service does not merely depend on its stock and staff
but also on the awareness and attraction of the clients to the services offered by the library. It is a
prime responsibility, therefore, of the librarian to effectively interpret its activities to the public.
Computerized Current awareness services began with bibliographic databases that
contained references to periodicals, books, and other documents. Services then were expanded
to include online catalogues, CD-ROM sources, networking of libraries and library systems, full
text retrieval, and the Internet.
Public relation is as much a part of the daily life of the library as of any business, perhaps
more so, as the library is not self supporting and primarily depends even more than the usual
business, on the good wishes of its patron. The precisely stated public relation and extension
service of the library is the task of lending or delivering books and other forms of information to
the users who are distant from a library or who may be relatively near it but somehow unable to
travel to it. Staff news sheet, exhibits, guides to exhibit are all part of a library publicity
programme. Libraries can also supplement and complement the mass media of communication
i.e. Newspaper, Press, Radio, Television, Cinema for public relation.
Public Library or Public Lending Library
Public Library or Public Lending Library: These libraries provide service to the general
public and make at least some of their books available for borrowing, so that readers may use
them at home over a period of days or weeks. Typically these libraries issue library cards to
community members wishing to borrow books. Many public libraries also serve as community
organizations that provide free services and events to the public, such as babysitting classes and
story time. The public library system has rural library at its base to provide services to the rural
population.
Public libraries exist in most nations of the world and are often considered an essential
part of having an educated and literate population. It fosters and provides means for maintaining
individual’s individuality, helps in the progressive development of individual’s personality, and
individual’s acquisition of know how of daily life. It believes that a good reader is a better citizen
and an asset to the community.
a) Definition: A library that is open to the general public and that provides general library
services without charge to all residents of a given community, district, or region and is supported
wholly or in part by public funds is the public library. It may be operated by civil servants. Public
libraries are often funded (mostly) by taxes. Besides maintaining material collections, they
usually play community role. Considering all these facts the public library is called the people’s
university. Each individual in this university begins at his own level and progresses at his own
speed. Today, by public library, we mean a library with the following chief attributes-
i) Open to all without any distinction of caste, creed or sex;
ii) Free of any charge either in the form of security deposit or membership fee;
iii) Financed from public funds received by way of library rates and government grants;
iv) Supported by library legislation.
Benjamin Franklin not only looked upon the public library as an educational institution
and used it as one, but went further to define it as an institution for the diffusion of knowledge to
the end that people could control their own destinies and become better citizens.
According to Ranganathan, the public library is established out of the public fund; it
serves the general public of its locality; and it is essentially a service library.

The UNESCO Manifesto clearly states that “the public library should be established under the
clear mandate of law, so framed as to ensure nation-wide provision of public library service”. In
short, a public library is a free library for the public, by the people and of the public. According
to the UNESCO Public Library Manifesto 1994 (Revised), "the public library acts as a living
force for education, culture and information and as an essential agent for the fostering of peace
and spiritual welfare through the minds of men and women".
b) Objectives: The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto first issued in 1949 and revised in 1972
by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions on the occasion of
International Book Year is a broad charter of public library goals. The purposes and objectives of
the public library are described in relation to three basic concerns-
- The needs of people who use the libraries;
- The need to ensure that the library is located in suitable site; and
- The need to provide for effective means of operating it and developing its services.
c) Collections: Public library should try to procure books on most of the main subject areas. In
promoting the culture of the community the public libraries should include works of disinterested
pursuit of truth, beauty or goodness, even though it is always mixed up with other motivations
such as search for social importance (knowledge is power), or for status and acceptance, or for
comfort of a dream world, for the individual self-realisation. Its contents should be a living
demonstration of the evolution of knowledge and culture, constantly reviewed, kept up-to-date
and attractively presented. It should also include works on literature, art, philosophy, history,
biography and topology. In facilitating non-formal education or self-education, public library
should provide educational materials which include introductions or standard works on a subject.
Most users of the public library read for recreation at one time or another and the provision of
this kind of reading is essential. Public libraries not only collect books and periodicals but also
procure other graphic, holistic and acoustic material such as books and journals, maps and charts,
microfilm and the like all designed for use. Today, public libraries have a wide array of other
media including CDs, software, video tapes, and DVDs, as well as facilities to access the
Internet.
d) Services: The public library is planned so as to become the hub of social life, a real
community centre around which the daily life and habits of the people are geared. The main
function of public libraries is to serve the public's information needs generally. The public library
must offer adults and children the opportunity to keep in touch with their times, to educate them-
selves continuously and keep abreast of progress in the sciences and arts. It should also help
people to form their own opinions, and develop their creative and critical capacities and powers
of appreciation. For illiterates or neo-literates it needs to organize the audio-visual or mass media
communication.
Public libraries are typically lending libraries, circulating book and other materials to the
users; they also have non-circulating reference collections. It typically focuses on popular
materials such as popular fiction and videos, as well as educational and nonfiction materials of
interest to the general public; in the larger cities, they are to some extent reference libraries as
well. Public libraries also provide materials for children, including books, videos and other
materials (both fiction and nonfiction), often housed in a special section. Public libraries may
also provide services for other particular groups, such as large print or Braille materials, young /
adult literature and other materials for teenagers, or materials in other than the national language.
Librarians at most public libraries provide reference and research help to the general
public, usually at a reference desk. Depending on the size of the library, there may be more than
one desk; at some smaller libraries all transactions may occur at one desk, while large urban
public libraries may employ subject-specialist librarians to sit at multiple reference or
information desks to answer queries about particular topics. Often the children's section in a
public library has its own reference desk.
Public libraries may also provide other services, such as community meeting rooms,
children’s story time or after-school programme, and space for homework help programmes or
other community services. In some countries it pays authors when their books are borrowed from
libraries. These are known as Public Lending Right programmes.
Properties of Information
Properties of Information: Information has an origin. It is communicated from the origin or
from a “source” where information is termed as “message”. The message needs a “medium” for
communication. The message is aimed to be communicated to a “recipient”. At each step the
information possesses certain characteristics. Some of the characteristics or properties of
information are listed below
a) General Characteristics
i) Information is Heterogeneous: Information is extremely heterogeneous with virtually infinite
variation in response to individual conjunctions of supplier, processor, user and channel of
communication. It is inter-disciplinary in nature.
ii) Information Itself is Valueless: Information is rarely of value in itself. It always requires a
content structure or model within which it can be interpreted.
iii) Information is Central: The role of information in any organization is central and can be
viewed as a fundamental factor of production like money and manpower.
iv) Protection: The supplier and the user of information often need special protection by means
of government intervention such as copyright and patent laws, privacy legislation, fraud statutes,
etc.
v) Demand Varies: Demand for information is a function of such variables as age, perishability,
convenience, reliability, source, etc.
vi) Un-destroyable: Information is not consumed in its use.
vii) Shareable: It can be shared by many and can be used simultaneously without any loss to
anyone.
viii) Democratic Resource: Information is the best democratic resource that can be consumed
by the poor and the rich alike depending upon their intake capacity.
b) Characteristics at the Source of Origin
i) Reliable and Genuine Source: When information is received from a valid, reliable and
genuine source then only it should be considered for communication to the recipient or end user.
ii) Communicability: Information should be in a communicable form.
c) Characteristics as a Message
i) Accuracy: Information should be precise and free from error.
ii) Timeliness: The information should be timely. To achieve this modern electronic device can
be used.
iii) Completeness: Information as a message should include all the relevant information.
iv) Explicitness: The message should not leave any doubt in the mind of the user as to its
validity, comprehensiveness, etc.
v) Availability and Accessibility: Information must be available and readily accessible to the
user.
vi) Verifiability: The message must be verifiable so that its validity, accuracy, appropriateness,
etc can be assessed.
vii) Bias free: Information should be free from any kind of bias.
d) Characteristics at the end of the Recipient
i) Adaptability: Information should be adaptable for a new use, need, situation, etc.
ii) Cost Effectiveness: Information should improve the performance of a system at an acceptable
cost or at no cost or should reduce the cost without unduly effecting performance.
iii) Currency: The information should be timely available. It should not be obsolete as well.
Timely information will be of high value.
iv) Relevance: Information should be relevant to the user.
v) Conciseness: Information should summarize the relevant data so that it will be useful for the
managers.

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT): Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT) charts depict task, duration, and dependency information. Each chart starts
with an initiation node from which the first task, or tasks, originates. If multiple tasks begin at
the same time, they are all started from the node or branch, or forked out from the starting point.
Each task is represented by a line which states its name or other identifier, its duration, the
number of people assigned to it, and in some cases the initials of the personnel assigned. The
other end of the task line is terminated by another node which identifies the start of another task,
or the beginning of any slack time, that is, waiting time between tasks.
Each task is connected to its successor tasks in this manner forming a network of nodes and
connecting lines. The chart is complete when all final tasks come together at the completion
node. When slack time exists between the end of one task and the start of another, the usual
method is to draw a broken or dotted line between the end of the first task and the start of the
next dependent task.
A PERT chart may have multiple parallel or interconnecting networks of tasks. If the
scheduled project has milestones, checkpoints, or review points (all of which are highly
recommended in any project schedule), the PERT chart will note that all tasks up to that point
terminate at the review node. It should be noted at this point that the project review, approvals,
user reviews, and so forth all take time. This time should never be underestimated when drawing
up the project plan. It is not unusual for a review to take 1 or 2 weeks. Obtaining management
and user approvals may take even longer.
When drawing up the plan, it should also include tasks for documentation writing,
documentation editing, project report writing and editing, and report reproduction.
PERT charts are usually drawn on ruled paper with the horizontal axis indicating time
period divisions in days, weeks, months, and so on. Although it is possible to draw a PERT chart
for an entire project, the usual practice is to break the plans into smaller, more meaningful parts.
This is very helpful if the chart has to be redrawn for any reason, such as skipped or incorrectly
estimated tasks.
Many PERT charts terminate at the major review points, such as at the end of the
analysis. Many organizations include funding reviews in the projects life cycle. Where this is the
case, each chart terminates in the funding review node.
Funding reviews can affect a project in that they may either increase funding, in which
case more people have to be made available, or they may decrease funding, in which case fewer
people may be available. Obviously more or less people will affect the length of time it takes to
complete the project.

Processing of Books
Processing: Cataloguing is followed by the processing phase. The processing transforms a
collection of books into serviceable items, thus making books fit for use.
a) Stamping: It is necessary to put a library stamp on lower half of the title page, bottom of the
last page of text, bottom of the last page of the volume, and the secret page. In addition each
plate, map and other pages not included in pagination should also be stamped. The stamp should
be put properly and carefully without falling on the printed matter. The stamp should contain the
name of the library and its address.
b) Tagging: Paste a tag (spine label) on the back of the volume, after removing the jacket, if any.
It should be fixed one inch above the bottom of the spine of the volume. This is done so that the
call number may be properly visible to the readers when the book is shelved in a books rack.In
case the volume is not thick enough to allow space for a tag then apply it on the front cover close
to the back. Gummed white cloth is cut into round or square pieces of about 1.25 each to make
the spine label where class no., book no and location mark of the book are written. The location
marks are written on the left hand upper portion of the label. Such marks may be Reference,
Rare, Text Book, etc.
c) Date Labelling: A date label or slip should be pasted on the first page after the cover. It
should be fixed symmetrically and pasting should be done only along the top edge. In case of
reference books, manuscripts and other books which are not to be issued, this slip is not pasted.
d) Book Pocket Fixing: Near the right hand bottom corner of the inside of the front cover of the
book, the pocket should be fixed. For reference and other non–issuable books, this pocket is not
pasted.
e) Book Card: One printed book card of 5X 3 cm size is put in the book pocket of each book.
f) Fixing Ownership Slip: Ownership slip is generally pasted on the inner side of the front cover
at left hand top most corners. The slip may be of 3 X 2.5 cm, made of glazed paper. It may be
printed giving the name of the library, its logo, class number, book number, and accession
number.
g) Entering Call Number: The call number should be written in pencil at the back of the title
page and also on the secret page to be decided by the library. Call number can be written in ink
over tag, date label and book card to be put in the book pocket.
h) Entering Accession Number: Accession number is to be added on the date label, book card
and to the written near the book pocket.
i) Filling Book Card: Author, title, edition and year of publication are written on the book card.
j) Checking: All the call numbers and catalogue entries must be carefully checked. Any
mistakes found must be corrected.
k) Filling of Cards: The catalogue cards should be taken out from the books. From the main
cards, a list of latest additions can be prepared. It is a list of books added to the library. A
mimeographed or printed list can be distributed widely.
The catalogue cards except the shelf cards should be filed in the public catalogue. Shelf
cards should be filed in the shelf list. At this stage, the books can be released for display for a
week and then merged in the general collection. Book releasing work also includes making lists
of new additions or accession list. The accession list may be put up on the notice board and the
printed or cyclostyled ad copies are to be mailed to members, or published in the weekly editions
of library newsletter, etc.
Principles of Management
Principles of Management: Principles of Management are generalization based on experience
and careful analysis of case studies. These are universally applicable. These are not rigid; change
in circumstances would require adoption of these.
Principles of management are a powerful tool in the hands of a manager but these must
be used rather carefully after analysis of the problem and its diagnosis. Good management can be
learned only through practice and by solving problem rather than by memorization of principles
which may have only limited relevance to actual problem.
Henri Fayol was the first to put forward a list of general administrative principles. On the
whole, his observations are valid, even today. Fayol used scientific approach. Fayol formulated
the following fourteen management principles. These are the first categorized on management
and these have not lost their relevance in modern management policy. These are the basic
management principles.
i) Division of Work: In any organization the division of work, duties, and activities is a must.
The division of work lead to specialization. If possible only that work should be assigned to a
person in which field he has specialization. The principles of division of work are based on
common principle of experience that every person cannot do every job.
ii) Authority and Responsibility: An individual should be given authority equal to his
responsibility. Possession of authority means responsibility for actions. Actual work in the library
may be done by different persons but the ultimate responsibilities lie with the chief librarian. The
responsibilities without authority will lead to lack of confidence.
iii) Discipline: Discipline encompasses regularity, behaviors, conduct and interpersonal
relationship among the staff workers. In the best interest of the organization there should be
complete obedience, diligence, energy and outward marks respect. This is equally applicable to
everybody.
iv) Unity of Command: An organizational structure should be such that each employee is
supervised by only one supervisor. An employee should be responsible to and also receive orders
from only one superior. The command should generally come from the immediate superior.
v) Unity of Direction: In a planned administrative setup, direction should come from one end
and one person should be responsible for similar type of jobs.
vi) Subordination of Individual’s Interest to General Interest: Where there is a conflict of
general interest with individual interest, general interest should get the priority over the
individual interest. It is desirable in any social order.
vii) Remuneration: Remuneration should be reasonable and should commensurate to the
qualification, experience, technical knowledge, seniority, performance and such other factors.
Employees should be given incentives for successful efforts.
viii) Centralization: There should be judicious distribution of work of the library in terms of
centralization and decentralization. Anything that increases the importance of the role of a
subordinate should be decentralized. On the other hand any thing that decreases the importance
of the role of a subordinate should be centralized. For example book selection and managerial
function should be decentralized because in case of book selection the heads of the departmental
libraries knows more about their field of specialization. But ordering should be centralized so
that there is no duplication of bibliographical tool.
ix) Scalar Chain: This refers to hierarchy. A hierarchy consists of a series of steps extended in
an unbroken line from the chief librarian to the lowest employee. This principal implies that
authority and responsibility should flow in a clear, unbroken line from the highest executive to
the lowest rank. Orders go down the line traveling from top to bottom. However, information and
appeal travel in the reverse direction.
x) Orders: Orders indicate the disciplined flow of discharging the respective duties and the
systematic organization of work flow. It refers to the best possible management to achieve the
most efficient operation of the organization.
xi) Equity: In dealing with employees treatment of equality must be put into practice. Justice
must be combined with friendliness and kindness by those in the executive towards staff.
xii) Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Stability of tenure indicates a longer service period of an
employees and uninterrupted working period. It assures better service, steady growth and
systematic planning of work schedules. Rapid turnover of staff can cause anxiety.
xiii) Initiative: One should not only do his job assigned to him, but he should feel inspired to
perform his duties. In working situation anybody may have suggestion for improvement and
better work or redesigning the works schedule for better result, all the suggestion should be taken
with trust by the management. Due attention, proper consideration should be given to them. This
will inspire the person working with incentives and ultimately institution will get better result.
xiv) Esprit de Corps: The management should create environment which leads to harmony and
unity. The entire employees should not feel as an assemblage of individuals but recognize their
identity with the institution. Thus a sense of co-operation, a sense of belonging, a feeling of
identification with the institution, a corporate sense over self, a team spirit, a feeling of unity
make the institution as a organic whole.
Besides the principles put forward by Fayol, other principles often included are as
follows-
xv) Span of Control: This refers to the persons with whom a manager must deal directly. For
efficient management there should be a few people to be controlled directly by each head.
xvi) Coordination: Aim of co-ordination being to achieve harmony of individual efforts toward
accomplishment of group goals. Co-ordination is concerned with interrelating of the various
parts of an organization so that all procedures, operation and activities lead to maximum
contribution to the person to person relationship. Co-ordination in an organization is balancing
and interrelating of the various parts of an organization and keeping together all the staff for
getting best result with the minimum resources at hand.
xvii) Accountability: Accountability means liable to account. In any organization, the emphasis
should be given to measure the quality and quantity of performance.
Preservation and Conservation of Library Materials
Preservation and Conservation of Library Materials: The library houses the document by
considering the long-term preservation of the items while still allowing the end user to access the
material easily. But all library collections experience damage from use and decay from aging. So
there is a need of preservation and conservation of library materials.
Books and other materials suffer damage or deterioration because of several groups of
factors, some inherent in the materials and others beyond the control of the library. Library
holdings may begin to deteriorate because of the organic materials from which they are made.
Each type of material - paper, glue, plastic, etc. - that goes into the manufacture of a book,
recording or optical media has its own combination of physical and chemical properties, and a
life span. The other factors include all of the conditions surrounding the processing, storage and
use of the materials.
Preservation is the task of minimizing or reducing the physical and chemical deterioration
of documents. Conservation is the maintenance of documents in a usable condition through
treatment and repairs of individual items to slow the process of decay or to restore them to a
usable state. Conservation includes study, diagnosis, preventive care, examination, treatment,
documentation using any methods that may prove effective in keeping that property in as close to
its original condition as possible and for as long as possible. The conservation actions are carried
out for a variety of reasons including aesthetic choices, stabilization, needs for structural
integrity or for cultural requirements for intangible continuity.
a) Need of Preservation and Conservation: When an important, often used book is found in a
poor physical condition that restricts its future use and denies the borrower the pleasure of its
reading, then the need arises for its preservation and conservation. The need of preservation and
conservation are-
i) Compendium of Information: Books, journals, newspapers are the sources of information.
They reflect social, economic, political and cultural life. They also depict the latest trend on all
subjects or topics and, as such, they are a valuable asset of our society.
ii) Raw Materials of History: The old reading material constitutes the raw materials of our
history and provides background information about an event in history. Nostalgia for such works
is another point of consideration.
iii) Wide Range of Users: Everyone from a child to an old man, from layman to researchers, turns
to information even after hundred years of the publication of the material.
iv) Future and Heavy Use: Hard copies of the old as well as new materials are prone to decay.
So, to provide continuous and wider access to the collection preservation is a must.
v) Rare Materials: Manuscripts and other materials are of immense value from the cultural and
historical point of view and therefore they need to be preserved. Priority should be given to high-
value, at-risk materials of national interest. The purpose shall be to serve preventive preservation,
as well as security, goals by reducing the handling of the originals.
b) Strategies in Preservation and Conservation: The strategies in preservation and
conservation of library material can be viewed in the form of following points-
i) Document Selection: If preservation and conservation practices will be followed then the goal
should be to bring as many worthy collections as possible for the document at risk to improve
access.
ii) Options: Choosing the options that will be followed to meet the requirements of the custodial
function of the library as well as its current use.
iii) Budget: Preparing a budget for the preservation and conservation of the reading materials,
including cost in procuring equipments, and others.
iv) Procuring Necessary Infrastructure: According to the option chosen for preservation
necessary infrastructure should be developed. In case of digital preservation necessary hardware
and software should be procured. If possible the archive or library can go for automated
management systems that will manage digital resources for acquisition, use, and archiving
automatically.
v) The Conservation Laboratory: Conservators routinely use chemical and scientific analysis for
the examination and treatment of the works. The modern conservation lab uses equipment such
as microscopes, spectrometers, and x-ray machines to understand better the objects and their
components. The data thus collected help in deciding the conservation treatments to be provided
to the object.
c) Types of Preservation and Conservation Techniques: The preservation and conservation
techniques can be of the following types:-
i) Preventive Conservation: Many cultural works are sensitive to environmental conditions such
as temperature, humidity and exposure to light and ultraviolet light. Taking sufficient measures
to protect materials in a controlled environment where such variables are maintained within a
range of damage-limiting levels is called preventive conservation.
ii) Interventive Conservation: Interventive Conservation refers to any act by a conservator that
involves a direct interaction between the conservator and the cultural material. These interventive
treatments could involve cleaning, stabilizing, repair, or even replacement of parts of the original
object or consolidation such as securing flaking paint.
d) Ethics in Conservation: The conservator applies some simple ethical guidelines, such as:
i) Minimal Intervention: It is essential that the conservator should fully justify the intervention
for conservation if necessary before the work is undertaken and if necessary after the work is
over.
ii) Reversible Methods: Using appropriate materials and methods that aim to be reversible to
reduce the possible problems with future treatment, investigation, and use is one of the guiding
principles of conservation. It means, that all interventions with the object should be fully
reversible, and the object should be in a position to be returned to the state in which it was, prior
to the conservator’s intervention. This principle nowadays has been widely criticized within the
conservation profession itself.
iii) Complete Documentation: Complete documentation of the work carried out before, during,
and after the treatment is necessary. It is a must for all kinds of documents as it will provide what
was done with the document in the past and accordingly it helps in taking the right decision in
future treatment process.
Presentation of Data
Presentation of Data: Diagram attracts the human mind more, compared to numerical figures,
which causes one to pause for a while to have a glance at the diagram and thus can get an overall
ideas of the said data. In practice a very large variety of diagrams are in use and new ones are
constantly being added. In the following only more frequently used diagram are discussed.
1. One Dimensional: The one dimensional representation of data includes different types of bar
diagram.
a) Simple Bar Diagram: To draw a simple bar diagram, equidistant bars each of equal width are
drawn on a line, one for each group of data. The value of each group is represented by the height
of the corresponding bar generally, in case of time based data, vertical bars are drawn and to
represent space based (or other) data horizontal bars are drawn. A simple bar diagram is used to
represent only one variable.
b) Sub Divided Bar Diagram: The sub divided bar diagram is used if the total magnitude of the
given variable is to be divided into various parts or components. The method of drawing this
type of diagram is same as that of the bar diagram, only the bar drawn should be divided into
various segments, according to the given components of the total.
c) Multiple Bar Diagram: To represent two or more numerical characteristic by the same
diagram, multiple bar diagram is to be used. A multiple bar diagram is obtained by drawing a
number of equidistant vertical set of bars on a line. Each set of bars contain two or more adjacent
bars. Width of the bars is same and height of the corresponding bars is to be taken in the ratio of
the numerical figure which is denoted by that bar. The total numbers of set of bars are taken to be
equal to the total number of items.
d) Percentage Bar: Percentage bars are particularly useful in statistical work which requires the
portrayal of relative changes in data. When such diagrams are prepared the length of the bars is
kept equal to 100 and segments are cut in these bars to represent the components (percentage) of
an aggregate.
e) Deviation Bar: Deviation bars are popularly used for representing net qualities – excess or
deficit, i.e. net profit, net loss, net export or imports etc. such bars can have both positive and
negative values. Positive values are shown above the bars line and negative values below it.
2. Two Dimensional: In two dimensional diagrams, the length as well as the width of the bars is
considered. Thus the area of the bars represents the given data. Two dimensional diagrams are
also known as surface diagram or area diagram. The important types under this category are-
a) Rectangles: In constructing rectangle one may represent the figures as they are given or may
convert them to percentage and then subdivide the length into various components. The area of a
rectangle is equal to the product of its length and width, so in constructing a rectangle both
length and width are important.
b) Squares: The rectangular method of diagrammatic presentation does not look good when the
values of item vary widely. So, in order to overcome this difficulty squares method are used. In
this method one has to take the square root of the values of various items that are to be shown in
the diagrams and then select a suitable scale to draw the square.
c) Circles: In Circles both the total and the component parts or sector can be shown. Since the
area of a circle is preoperational to the square of its radius, so in the construction of circles, the
square root of various figures are worked out, and the radii of the circles drawn are proportional
to the square root of the figures.
d) Pie Diagram: For constructing a pie diagram the various components values of data are
transposed into corresponding degrees on the circle, and then the diagram obtained by dividing a
circle into various sector is known as circle or pie diagram. The number of sector should be equal
to the total number of components parts. The area of the sectors should be taken in the ratio of
the values of the constituent parts.
3. Three Dimensional: Three dimensional diagrams are also known as volume diagrams. In
such diagram, three things namely length, width and height have to be taken into account. Such
diagrams are used where the range of difference between the smallest and the largest values is
very large. It includes cube, cylinder and sphere. Amongst three dimensional diagram, cubes are
most popular and also simple to draw. The side of a cube is drawn in proportional to the cube
root of the magnitude of data.
4. Others: Some other tools that can be used to represent data are -
a) Pictographs: Pictures are attractive and easy to comprehend and as such this method is
particularly useful in presenting statistics to the layman. In pictograph the data are represented
through a pictorial symbol, which is very carefully selected, so pictographs depict the kind of
data we are dealing with.
b) Cartogram: Cartograms or statistical maps are used to give quantitative information on a
geographical basis. They thus represent spatial distributions. The quantities on the map can be
shown in many ways, such as through shades or colors, by dots, by placing pictograms in each
geographical unit and by placing the appropriate numerical figures in each geographical unit.
c) Graphs: When we observe the values of a variable at different points of time, the series so
formed is known as time series. Time based data can be represented by line diagram. In this case,
points are plotted on the graph paper by taking time as X co-ordinate and the data corresponding
to that particular time as Y co-ordinate. After that, by joining the points in pairs by line segment,
line diagrams are drawn.
d) Histogram: Histogram consists of a series of adjacent vertical rectangles, drawn and each of
each class intervals. Area of each rectangle determines the frequency of that class. Generally for
the graphical representation of frequency distribution of continuous variable histogram is used.
To draw histogram, firstly class intervals are marked along horizontal axis (X-axis) and
frequencies are to be marked along vertical axis (Y-axis) after that taking, difference between
lower and upper boundaries as base rectangles are drawn one for each class recording to the ratio
of the area of the frequency. Since the area of the rectangles having same base are proportionate
to the length, therefore, in case of frequency distribution having equal class width, the height of
the rectangles should be taken in the ration of the frequencies.
e) Frequency Polygon: To draw frequency polygon, points are plotted on the co-ordinate plane
by taking the mid value of a class as X co-ordinate and corresponding frequency of the class as Y
co-ordinate. The points are then joined in pairs represented by a line segment. The polygon is
closed at both ends, by extending it to the mid-points of two classes having frequency zero,
before the first class and after the last class.
f) Smoothed Frequency Curve: The smoothed frequency curve is drawn freehand in such a
manner that the area included under the curve is approximately the same as that of the polygon.
The object of drawing a smoothed frequency curve is to eliminate as far as possible accidental
variations that might be present in the data.
g) Cumulative Frequency Curves or “Ogives”: Cumulative frequency curve is a smooth curve.
To draw this curve, points are plotted on the graph paper by taking upper class boundaries as X
co-ordinate and cumulative frequency of the respective class as Y co-ordinate. The points so
obtained are joined by a smooth free hand curve. This curve is joined to the lower class boundary
of the first class. The smooth curve drawn in this manner is called the cumulative frequency
curve.

Planning a Library and Information Science Centre / Library

Planning a Library and Information Science Centre / Library: Plan is regarded as a
projected course of action or the course of action to be done in near future. According to Koont’z
and O’Donnell, “planning is deciding in advance what to do? How to do? When to do? And who
is to do it?”. After that planning is a continuous process requiring constant reappraisal. It is not
an end in itself, but a means to an agreed aim and objective. It involves selecting from alternative
future course of actions for the organization as a whole and for each of its department or section.
It might be evaluated and revised in the light of developing situation, that is to say, a plan is
always being brought up-to-date throughout the long or medium term in which it is based. The
planning of library and information centre involves the following steps-
a) Formation of a Committee: A planning committee should be formed in the first step. The
head of the parent institution, architect, librarian, library consultant, and interior designer and, if
possible, representative from the user community should also be included.
Inclusion of the a librarian should be treated as one of the most important components in
planning a library and information science centre because he / she is the best person for planning
and equipping the library. He himself should also be very conscious about his responsibility in
planning the library and information science centre. He should work closely with the building
committee. He must identify each and every factor with reference to which planning has to be
made. The librarian should also consult other experienced librarians if there is any confusion as
mistakes made at this stage could prove to be extremely serious.
b) To be Accustomed to the Concept of Library: The planning committee should be
accustomed to the library. To do so they should read the existing literature on planning a library
and information centre, visit some other library and information centre, and so on to assess the
existing situation. They should also try to understand the present strength and weakness of the
library in the light of where it stands.
c) Functionality of the Parent Organization: The committee should study the functionality of
the parent organization, its resources and visualize its future direction and be aware about the
changes and the consequent effect thereof.
d) User’s Identification and his / her Information Need: Libraries and information centers are
highly user oriented and so it should take care of the exact needs of the consumer. The
experienced planner immediately asks for the evidence of the extent and the nature of demand
for the libraries and information centre, going to be planned. Needs of the user may be
ascertained by questioning or by carrying out potential user studies. The nature and extent of
local demand will have to be checked by consultation, surveys and controlled test so that
information activities are well directed on demand criteria.
e) Establishment of Plan Premises or Forecasting: Forecasting is estimating or predicting the
future internal and external environment of the information centre. Premises refer to planning
assumptions concerning the expected internal or external environment under which the plan will
operate. Since planning is concerned with the objective to be attained in the future and the
provision of the means for their attainment, it is imperative that various dimensions of the future
are explored and estimated.
f) Establishment of Objectives: Objectives are the main factors on which the planning of a
modern library depends. Depending upon the objectives it may be a public, special or academic
library. The objective should be established for the entire organization and then for each
subordinate unit i.e. department or section of a library or information centres then the
subordinate parts of the department or section and so on. Major department objectives in turn
control the objectives of the subordinate departments and so on down the line. The objectives are
divided and sub divided into successively smaller components until each department or section
of the library has a definite set of goals for the short as well as long period.
g) Course of Action: The planners should search for and examine and evaluate the alternative
course of action by weighing them in the light of various factors involved i.e cost, time,
materials, manpower, equipment, etc. The use of operation research and mathematical and
computing techniques may be helpful in this regard. Out of the alternatives, a suitable course of
action should be selected.
h) Choice of the Site: Choice of the site should be the one conveniently accessible to the
community to be served taking into consideration the future expansion.
i) Public Library: For public library, the site should be centrally located where everybody finds it
convenient. This should be the place where normally public visit more often than any other
place. Therefore a place where they go for shopping might be found suitable.
ii) University Library: The site should be centrally located within the campus.
iii) College and School Library: The location of the library does not matter very much if the
distances are small, but if possible the library should be at the entrance path.
iv) Special Library: Library site in case of special library should be near the factory building or
the factory canteen or staff canteen. The ground floor might be preferred for the library.
i) Organizational Structure: Organizing means the establishing of a formal structure of
authority that is well defined and that can co-ordinate towards the attainment of the objectives.
Proper job analysis and assignment of job should be planned in such a manner that no
overlapping in duties occur. This can be achieved by establishing various departments. The
power, function and duties of various departmental heads must be clearly defined; similar jobs
should be put under one department while the jobs which are dissimilar should be isolated from
each other.
j) Financial and Cost Consideration: Without a proper source of finance an information centre
will fail to provide the expected services to its user. It should not depend solely on the grants
received from the parent organization. It should also make provisions for generation of funds by
itself.
k) Determination of Requirement of Resources: In this stage the various kinds of resources
that would be required for the implementation of objectives or planning are determined. The
resources mainly consist of the following.
i) Library Building, Equipment and Other Similar Facilities: A library and information centre
cannot exist without a proper building, without the furniture and equipment. So the construction
of a library building is of first and foremost step for planning a library or information centre. The
building should be well equipped and must be free from dust, dirt, cobwebs and also should be
water proof, theft proof and equipped with noise prevention measures, the provision of drinking
water, heating and cooling machine (air conditioned), proper lighting.
The basic aim of the design of a library building should be to achieve flexibility by using
the modular system. The library building has to demonstrate a remarkable ability to grow, to
adapt to changing conditions to meet new demands and to implement new technologies. If these
aspects are taken care of then one need not give much weightage to the predictions made about
their future expansion and existence. The space estimates for the library staff, documents,
services, users and for other purposes i.e corridors, entrances, lobbies, toilet, etc should also be
prepared.
ii) Library Staff: Library staff constitutes an important component of the library trinity. The
entire staff structure of a library usually consists of certain ranks of employees of different
grades. The ranking of employees is determined according to the types of work they perform; in
other words, it relates to the number of posts at each level. All the employees in a library are
divided into three categories i.e professional, semi-professional, and non professional.
The professional staff are engaged in performing professional duties whose minimum
qualification should be graduation with at least one year training in library and information
science leading to post graduate degree or diploma. The semi professional staff of the library
employees are engaged in performing library routines and techniques under the guidance of the
professional staff and have to receive alternatively training in library science. Also some non-
professional (clerical) and unskilled workers are appointed to perform certain library works.
Planning for education and training in library and information science and technology is
to be given utmost attention so that a high quality of man power at all levels in adequate quantity
and with a variety of skills is constantly made available to take care of the ever increasing
complex of the information institution and the system. There should also be scope for continuing
education, training, and scholarship.
In order to promote exchange of experience, conference, seminar, workshop etc. should
be organized. Adequate facility for research and development, innovation should be built-up.
iii) Information Technology (Hardware & Software Resources): A modern library and
information centre should give thrust to the application of modern information technology, which
involves computer hardware and software, telecommunication, reprographic, digitization, and
micrographic equipment etc and should also create and develop facilities thereof; otherwise it
will find itself handicapped to have access to the world of information.
iv) Document (information) Resources: A compressive collection of documentary information
resources, whether primary or secondary or tertiary, should be built within the organization. The
collection should be focused on the user’s need. If it is a plan for a university library then
importance should be given for post-graduate students as well as research scholars. Similarly a
special library develops its collection and service according to the requirements of the parent
organization.
v) Institutional Resources: A modern library or information centre, however resourceful, cannot
be self-sufficient in respect of information due to the information explosion, so there must be
some provision to link up similar type of institutional resources i.e. libraries or information
centre, joining with other library network, and consortia.
l) Information Product and Services: A library or information centre should also have an
option to bibliographic control, indexing and abstracting services relating to indigenous
information, besides the traditional services. The scope should also be there to provide the
service by on line and off line mode. The scope for document delivery service, translation
service, reprographic service, accesses and repackage of information should also be there.
Establishing database of indigenous information, establishing feed back mechanism and
evaluation of the services and products should be made constantly.
m) Standardization: Standardization in terms of methods, procedures, hardware, software,
services must be followed so that exchangeability of information is facilitated in the national
network. Standardization will contribute to overall economy of cost time and effort.
n) Cooperation: Cooperation with other similar institutions and national information system
should also be maintained in the information field to exchange information between institutions.
o) Preparation of Preliminary Plan: A preliminary plan should be prepared at this stage by
considering all of the above considerations.
Besides the above steps the following steps are also required to be taken.
p) Publicity: Every plan has a movable horizon i.e. it is never definitive but can and should be
improved in the light of experience and will inevitably have to be adopted. It is important,
therefore, that the initial plan includes arrangement for education and amendments as necessary.
The planning officer should encourage energetically such studies as help in improving the plan
further before its submission to the competent authority. Considering this view, planning must be
free to discussion and public should be asked for constructive criticism and suggestion regarding
the aim, objectives and arrangements.
q) Preparation of Final Plan: In the light of open discussion / advice received the preliminary
plan should be revised or modified and a final plan should be prepared. The final plan should
state clearly the list of equipment needed, stating the sources of funds, budget estimates, time
needed for completion of the project etc.
r) Numberizing Plan by Budgeting: The final step consists of numberizing the plans by
converting them to budget. Each section of a library can have its own budget which may form
part of the total budget.
s) Obtaining Approval from the Top Management: After the preparation of the final plan, if
the library and information centre going to be established is a part of the parent institution then it
is important to obtain general approval from the top management.
t) Execution and Evaluation: In course of execution the short term section of the plan will
indicate the urgent and basic problem, legislative, staff training, setting up of executive bodies
that must be disposed of in order to attain the medium and long term objectives. The information
centre should have a continuous user-orientation programme to attract the new users to the
system. After the full implementation of the project it should be periodically evaluated and
maintained to keep it up-to-date with time.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism: Plagiarism is the use or close imitation of the language and ideas of another author
and representation of them as one's own original work. The intentional plagiarism refers to using
someone’s ideas or results without citing the source, using someone’s ideas or results without
using quotation marks, even though he/she cites the source and using someone’s ideas or results
without crediting the source. The accidental plagiarism is when the author does not know what is
considered as plagiarism and he/she can’t think of a better way to say it and so copy sentences,
phrases, or even sentence structure from the original without using quotation marks and in the
event while preparing the notes he/she does not put exact wording in quotation marks and so
he/she plagiarizes without realizing it.
a) Why Plagiarism should be Avoided: Plagiarism intentional or accidental is considered
academic misconduct. Plagiarized work can result in a failing course grade, expulsion, rejection
of a paper submitted for publication, denial of an advanced degree, or loss of job. Every year –
thousands of research scholars and students are expelled for committing plagiarism.
b) How Plagiarism can be avoided: The plagiarism in best can be avoided by adopting the
following measure-
i) As you take notes, put quotation marks around any wording that you copy directly from the
source so that later you can put it into your own words and won’t accidentally plagiarize.
ii) If you copy something word for word, put quotation marks around it and cite it, if you cannot
remember the source, you don’t have the right to use that information.
iii) If you paraphrase by putting ideas into your own words, cite the source of the ideas.
iv) Put the complete bibliographic reference for all citations in the Bibliography (or Works
Cited).
v) Use plagiarism detection software on your own text and make necessary correction.
vi) Use some content composing software like Content Composer
(http://www.contentcomposer.com/) that will help in creating plagiarize-proof content.
c) How to Detect Plagiarism: Nowadays there are a number of software packages available in
the market to detect plagiarism. Some of them are mentioned below-
i) CopyTracker (http://copytracker.ec-lille.fr/?lang=en): Copytracker is software to detect
plagiarism in text documents. It can be freely downloaded and used.
ii) Plagiarismdetect (http://www.plagiarismdetect.com): A plugin to MS Office 2007 to check
for plagiarism.
iii) Plagium (http://www.plagium.com): In this software, one can track plagiarism by pasting the
original text in the webpage of the site.
iv) SeeSources (http://seesources.com): SeeSources.com takes a whole text, automatically
extracts its unique signatures and searches the Internet for them. It checks for plagiarism online -
no need to install software.
v) Plagiarism-detector (http://www.plagiarism-detector.com): Plagiarism-Detector (also known
as Plagiarism-Detector Software) is a standalone Microsoft Windows based computer desktop
application created by SkyLine, Inc. Plagiarism-Detector targets mainly individual users, though
Institutions (typically universities and high schools) can acquire licenses to use the software for
their own purposes.
vi) SafeAssign (http://www.mydropbox.com): SafeAssign™ is a plagiarism prevention service,
offered by Blackboard to its Blackboard Learning System Enterprise, Vista Enterprise and CE
Enterprise clients. This service helps educators prevent plagiarism by detecting unoriginal
content in student papers. In addition to acting as a plagiarism deterrent, it also has features
designed to aid in educating students about plagiarism and importance of proper attribution of
any borrowed content.
vii) Turnitin WriteCycle (http://www.turnitin.com/static/index.html): Turnitin (also known as
Turnitin.com) is an Internet-based plagiarism-detection service created by iParadigms, LLC.
Institutions (typically universities and high schools) buy licenses to submit essays to the Turnitin
website, which checks the document for plagiarism. Turnitin WriteCycle is the complete, web-
based solution for managing writing assignments, via multiple phases of feedback and revisions.
Its three interrelated services greatly accelerate the learning process, involving students in their
own development, freeing instructors from the burden of tracking papers, and promoting critical
thinking, while maintaining academic integrity.
viii) Scanmyessay (http://www.scanmyessay.com): Scan My Essay scans over six billion online
sources including websites, online journals, news sources and much more online to detect
plagiarism.
ix) Urkund (http://www.urkund.com/int/en/): Urkund is owned and developed by PrioInfo AB.
PrioInfo is a company with over 25 years of experience of the requirements and needs of
information intensive organizations. PrioInfo is an agent for net based services from a multitude
of international information providers and publishers. PrioInfo also delivers a licensed e-book
platform to corporations, publishers and libraries as well as Universities.
x) Copyscape (http://copyscape.com): The Copyscape service makes it easy to find copies of any
document on the Web. Simply one needs to type the URL of the document or web page and paste
the address into the Copyscape. Copyscape finds sites that have copied the content without
permission, as well as those that have copied with quote.
xi) Google (http://www.google.com): One can also check for the plagiarized text by way of using
Google. For this one needs to copy the text with a maximum of 32 words from any article and
paste it in the Google Search box and makes a search to know who have copied those words or
from whose work the present content is copied from. One can also receive Google Alert by way
of Email when new instances of the phrases for which search has been initiated are published on
the Internet.
xii) Plagiarism Checker (http://www.plagiarismchecker.com/): One can type one or more
phrases from different parts of a document into the search box of Plagiarism Checker by hitting
the Enter key after each phrase and then can make a search to know from where the present
contents has been copied or whom copied from the present content.
xiii) Glatt Plagiarism Screening Program (GPSP)
(http://www.plagiarism.com/screening.htm): A highly sophisticated Screening Program to
detect plagiarism. Typically used in academic institutions or in the legal profession for cases of
copyright infringement.
xiv) Glatt Plagiarism Self-Detection Program (GPSD)
(http://www.plagiarism.com/self.detect.htm ): GPSD test is designed to help one become more
sensitive to his/her own writing style. It also helps to gain some insight into how to detect and
avoid plagiarism. One can order a Windows 95/98/NT version of this test for $65.
xv) JPlag (https://www.ipd.uni-karlsruhe.de/jplag/): JPlag is a system that finds similarities
among multiple sets of source code files. This way it can detect software plagiarism.
xvi) MOSS (http://theory.stanford.edu/~aiken/moss): Moss (for a Measure Of Software
Similarity) is an automatic system for determining the similarity of C, C++, Java, Pascal, Ada,
ML, Lisp, or Scheme programs. To date, the main application of Moss has been in detecting
plagiarism in programming classes. Since its development in 1994, Moss has been very effective
in this role.
xvii) Plagium (http://www.plagium.com): In Plagium, you can track plagiarism by pasting the
original text in the box.
xviii) AC (http://tangow.ii.uam.es/ac): AC is an anti-plagiarism system for programming
assignments. It aids instructors and graders to detect plagiarism within a group of assignments
written in C, C++ or Java. AC incorporates multiple similarity detection algorithms found in the
scientific literature, and allows their results to be visualized graphically.
xix) Plaggie (http://www.cs.hut.fi/Software/Plaggie): Plaggie is a stand-alone source code
plagiarism detection engine purposed for Java programming exercises. Plaggie's functionality
and graphical user interface are similar with previously published JPlag web service but unlike
JPlag, Plaggie must be installed locally and its source code is open.
xx) Sherlock (http://www.cs.su.oz.au/~scilect/sherlock): Sherlock is a program which finds
similarities between textual documents. It uses digital signatures to find similar pieces of text. A
digital signature is a number which is formed by turning several words in the input into a series
of bits and joining those bits into a number.
xxi) SID (http://genome.math.uwaterloo.ca/SID): SID stands for Shared Information Distance
or Software Integrity Detection. It detects similarity between programs by computing the shared
information between them.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
1. History: In 1977, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), began to develop
its OSI networking suite. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the
Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concrete protocols. The standard
documents that describe OSI are for sale and not currently available online.
Parts of OSI have influenced Internet protocol development, but none more than the
abstract model itself, documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a
networking system is divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its
functionality. Each entity interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and
provides facilities for use by the layer above it.
In particular, Internet protocols are deliberately not as rigorously architected as the OSI
model, but a common version of the TCP/IP model splits it into four layers. The Internet
Application Layer includes the OSI Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and most of the
Session Layer. Its End-to-End Layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI Session
Layer as well as the Transport Layer. Its Internet work Layer is equivalent to the OSI Network
Layer, while its Interface layer includes the OSI Data Link and Physical Layers. These
comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather
than refinements in such things as the Internal Organization of the Network Layer document.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same
layer in a remote host. Service definitions abstractly describe the functionality provided to a (N)-
layer by an (N-1) layer, where N is one of the seven layers inside the local host.
The Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or
OSI Model for short) is a layered, abstract description for communications and computer
network protocol design, developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
initiative. It is also called the OSI seven layer model. The layers, described below, are, from top
to bottom, Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link and Physical. A
layer is a collection of related functions that provides services to the layer above it and receives
service from the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications
across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower
layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of the path.
Even though newer IETF and IEEE protocols, and indeed OSI protocol work subsequent
to the publication of the original architectural standards that have largely superseded it, the OSI
model is an excellent place to begin the study of network architecture. Not understanding that
the pure seven-layer model is more historic than current, many beginners make the mistake of
trying to fit every protocol they study into one of the seven basic layers. This is not always easy
to do as many of the protocols in use on the Internet today were designed as part of the TCP/IP
model, and may not fit cleanly into the OSI model.
Description of OSI layers
 Data Unit Layer Function

Host layers Data 7. Application Network process to application

Segments 6. Presentation Data representation and encryption

5. Session Interhost communication

Media layers Packets 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability (TCP)

Frames 3. Network Path determination and logical addressing (IP)

Bits 2. Data link Physical addressing (MAC & LLC)

1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission

2. Layer 7: Application Layer: The application layer interfaces directly to and performs
common application services for the application processes; it also issues requests to the
presentation layer. Note carefully that this layer provides services to user-defined application
processes, and not to the end user. For example, it defines a file transfer protocol, but the end
user must go through an application process to invoke file transfer. The OSI model does not
include human interfaces.
The common application services sub layer provides functional elements including the
Remote Operations Service Element (comparable to Internet Remote Procedure Call),
Association Control, and Transaction Processing (according to the ACID requirements).
Above the common application service sub layer are functions meaningful to user
application programs, such as messaging (X.400), directory (X.500), file transfer (FTAM),
virtual terminal (VTAM), and batch job manipulation (JTAM). These contrast with user
applications that use the services of the application layer, but are not part of the application layer
itself.
File Transfer applications using FTAM (OSI protocol) or FTP (TCP/IP Protocol)
Mail Transfer clients using X.400 (OSI protocol) or SMTP/POP3/IMAP (TCP/IP protocols)
Web browsers using HTTP (TCP/IP protocol); no true OSI protocol for web applications
3. Layer 6: Presentation Layer: The Presentation layer transforms the data to provide a
standard interface for the application layer. MIME encoding, data encryption and similar
manipulation of the presentation are done at this layer to present the data as a service or protocol
that the developer sees fit. Examples of this layer are converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to
an ASCII-coded file, or serializing objects and other data structures into and out of XML.
4. Layer 5: Session Layer: The Session layer controls the dialogues/connections (sessions)
between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local
and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and
establishes check pointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model
made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of TCP, and also
for session check pointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet protocols suite.
Session layers are commonly used in application environments that make use of remote
procedure calls (RPCs).
iSCSI, which implements the Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) encapsulated
into TCP/IP packets, is a session layer protocol increasingly used in Storage Area Networks and
internally between processors and high-performance storage devices. iSCSI leverages TCP for
guaranteed delivery, and carries SCSI command descriptor blocks (CDB) as payload to create a
virtual SCSI bus between iSCSI initiators and iSCSI targets.
5. Layer 4: Transport Layer: The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between
end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer
controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/de-segmentation, and
error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport
layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail.
Although it was not developed under the OSI Reference Model and does not strictly
conform to the OSI definition of the Transport Service, the best known example of a layer 4
protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The transport layer is the layer that
converts messages into TCP segments or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc. packets.
Of the actual OSI protocols, not merely protocols developed under the model, there are
five classes of transport protocols, ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and
provides the least error recovery) to class 4 (which is also known as TP4 and is designed for less
reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains
functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the Session Layer.
Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post Office,
which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember,
however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the
equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic Presentation services that can be read by
the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as
carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end
encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network
layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes
closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to
deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packets.
6. Layer 3: Network Layer: The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means
of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more
networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network
layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly,
and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended
network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are
chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The best known example
of a layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). Perhaps it's easier to visualize this layer as
managing the sequence of human carriers taking a letter from the sender to the local post office,
trucks that carry sacks of mail to other post offices or airports, airplanes that carry airmail
between major cities, trucks that distribute mail sacks in a city, and carriers that take a letter to
its destinations. Think of fragmentation as splitting a large document into smaller envelopes for
shipping, or, in the case of the network layer, splitting an application or transport record into
packets.
7. Layer 2: Data Link Layer: The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural
means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that
may occur in the Physical layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-
to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area
network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multi access media, was developed
independently of the ISO work, in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sub layering and
management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not
flow control using sliding window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for
most protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area networks, its flow control and
acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and
acknowledgment is used at the transport layers by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in
niches where X.25 offers performance advantages.
Both WAN and LAN services arrange bits, from the physical layer, into logical
sequences called frames. Not all physical layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these
bits are purely intended for physical layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit
stream is not used by the data link layer.
a) WAN Protocol Architecture: Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to
framing, detect and may correct errors. They also are capable of controlling the rate of
transmission. A WAN data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control and
acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC
and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD.
b) IEEE 802 LAN Architecture: Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE
Ethernet specification, which is the ancestor of the IEEE 802.3 This layer manages the
interaction of devices with a shared medium, which is the function of a Media Access Control
(MAC) sub layer. Above this MAC sub layer is the media-independent IEEE 802.2 Logical
Link Control (LLC) sub layer, which deals with addressing and multiplexing on multi access
media.
While IEEE 802.3 is the dominant wired LAN protocol and IEEE 802.11 the wireless
LAN protocol, obsolescent MAC layers include Token Ring and FDDI. The MAC sub layer
detects but does not correct errors.
8. Layer 1: Physical Layer: The Physical layer defines all the electrical and physical
specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a
physical medium. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Hubs,
repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area Networks) are
physical-layer devices.
To understand the function of the physical layer in contrast to the functions of the data
link layer, think of the physical layer as concerned primarily with the interaction of a single
device with a medium, where the data link layer is concerned more with the interactions of
multiple devices (i.e., at least two) with a shared medium. The physical layer will tell one device
how to transmit to the medium, and another device how to receive from it, but not, with modern
protocols, how to gain access to the medium. Obsolescent physical layer standards such as RS-
232 do use physical wires to control access to the medium.
The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:
-Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
-Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among
multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.
-Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the
corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating
over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.
Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical
SCSI protocol is a transport-layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various physical-layer
Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data-link
layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, FDDI, and IEEE
802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.
Interfaces: In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission, there are also
interface standards for different layers to talk to the ones above or below (usually operating-
system–specific). For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and
System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layers 5 and above)
and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the
network protocol (layer 3).
OSI Service Specifications are abstractions of functionality commonly present in
programming interfaces.
Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC)
Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC): An Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) is a
computerized online catalogue of the materials held in a library, or a library system. OPACs are
often part of an integrated library management system or software. The library staff and the
public can usually access it in computers within the library, or from home via the Internet. Since
the mid-1980s, it has replaced the card catalog in most libraries. Since the mid-1990s, character-
based OPAC interfaces are being replaced by Web-based interfaces. Today more complex
OPACs offer a variety of search capabilities on several indexes, integrate rich content (book
covers, video clips, etc.), and offer interactive request and renewal functionality.
Most integrated library systems offer a browser-based OPAC module as a standard
capability or optional feature. OPAC modules rely on pulldown menus, popup windows, dialog
boxes, mouse operations, and other graphical user interface components to simplify the entry of
search commands and formatting of retrieved information. Many libraries have their catalogues
accessible via Internet; some of them can be queried using a simple browser, other using a
special version of browser (with JavaScript and CSS features), and some others using Z39.50
clients. If one has few elements to identify a document, then he/ she can use a meta-searcher
where he/she can fill the query form once and spread his/her query over many library catalogues.
The OPAC has many advantages over card catalogues. It can store entries; it can add new
entries, withdraw entries and print out updated version of a catalogue in book, card or shelf form.
It can also be used to search and produce catalogue in CD, DVD, etc. It itself can be used as a
catalogue cabinet with enhance features i.e information can be stored within the computer and
kind of entries required can be easily got as and when required. It has also the facility to input the
data from the point of origin and output data can be transmitted directly to the place where it is
needed by using teleprocessing.
OPAC is more useful than the traditional card formats because:
i) The online catalogue does not need to be sorted statically. Here the user can choose the author,
title, keyword, or systematic order dynamically.
ii) Most online catalogue offer search facility for any word of the title. The goal of the
grammatical word order which is to provide an entry on the word that most users would look for
is reached even better.
iii) Many online catalogues allow links between several variants of an author’s name. So, authors
can be found both under the original and the standardized name (if entered properly by the
cataloguer).
Online cataloguing has greatly enhanced the usability of catalogues, and its origin from
the effort of MAchine Readable Cataloging (MARC) standards in the 1960s. The rules governing
the creation of catalogue MARC records include not only formal cataloging rules like AACR2
but also the special rules specific to MARC, available from the Library of Congress and also
OCLC.
Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC)
Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC): OCLC is a library network of USA. In 1967, the
presidents of the colleges and universities in the state of Ohio founded the Ohio College Library
Center (OCLC) to develop a computerized system in which the libraries of Ohio academic
institutions could share resources and reduce costs. It was established under the guidance of
library automation pioneer Frederic Kilgour. In 1977, the Ohio members of OCLC adopted
changes in the governance structure that enabled libraries outside Ohio to become members and
participate in the election of the Board of Trustees; the Ohio College Library Center became
OCLC, Inc. In 1981, the legal name of the corporation became Online Computer Library Center,
Inc (OCLC) <http://www.oclc.org/>.
a) Objectives: The objectives of OCLC are
i) To establish, maintain and operate a computerized library network and to promote the
evolution of library use, of libraries themselves and of librarianship;
ii) To provide processes and products for the benefit of library users and libraries;
iii) To Increase the availability of library resources to individual library patrons and to reduce the
rate-of-rise of library per-unit costs, and
iv) To further the ease of access to and the use of the ever-expanding body of worldwide
scientific, literary and educational knowledge and information.
b) Membership: Together OCLC member libraries make up the world's largest consortium.
More than 53 thousand libraries in 96 countries and territories around the world use OCLC
services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
c) Functions and Activities
i) Cataloguing and Metadata: OCLC offers full-service online cataloguing, simple copy
cataloguing, MARC record collections, offline cataloguing, customized OCLC cataloguing from
library’s materials vendor, automated copy cataloguing for materials purchased and custom
cataloguing serviced.
ii) Dewey Decimal Classification System: OCLC administers the Dewey Decimal Classification
system, the most widely used library classification system in the world. It also provides
WebDewey, the online version that is continually updated.
iii) Open WorldCat: WorldCat is the world’s largest bibliographic database. The Open WorldCat
programme makes it feasible to internet users who broadly search the Web at popular search
portals to discover materials owned by OCLC libraries. Current Open WorldCat participants
include Yahoo! Search (http://www.yahoo.com) and Google (http://www.google.com).
iv) OCLC Research: OCLC’s 25-year-old Research arm furthers the science of librarianship by
incubating new information access and exchange technologies, sponsoring the work of library
scientists and serving on global standards bodies (including those of the Dublin Core and Open
Archives initiatives).
v) Digitization and Preservation: OCLC’s digitization, microfilm and archival services are
designed to protect, share, and manage collections. The Intercat and Persistent Uniform Resource
Locators (PURLs) are such project of OCLC.
vi) Standardization: OCLC Terminologies Service provides single interface to access multiple
thesauruses. Access often-used controlled vocabularies such as mesh, gmgpc, gsafd, lctgm, ngl
and dct.
vii) Publication: OCLC regularly develops and publishes studies and other informational
documents that all libraries can use for "future-forward" planning. Recent reports include:
“2004 Information Format Trends: Content, Not Containers”, “The 2003 OCLC Environmental
Scan: Pattern Recognition”, etc.
viii) Mailing Lists and Forum: “WebJunction” is a Web-based community dedicated to the
emerging technology and training needs of librarians. It was funded by the Bill and Melinda
Gates Foundation’s U.S. Library Program, and coordinated by OCLC and other partners.
WebJunction feature articles, handouts, courses and forum discussions address the real issues
that librarians and library staff face everyday. OCLC also maintains groups and forums to foster
and maintain communication with its members.
ix) Others: NetLibrary provides full-text digital books, journals, newspapers and other published
works in hundreds of subject areas. NetLibrary, OCLC's eBook division, recently celebrated the
surpassing of the 58,000-title milestone. The Electronic Collections Online provides easy Web
access to thousands of full-text academic and professional journals.
The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) is a nonprofit, membership based,
computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering
access to the world's information and reducing information costs. Its Headquarters is in Dublin,
Ohio, USA.
Online Chat
Online Chat: Online chat refers to the text-based (keying or type words) communication
between two or more participants over the internet / intranet in real-time. Sometime it is also
known as synchronous conferencing, or Instant messaging (IM). Online chat is also referred to as
web chat. The expression online chat comes from the word chat which means "informal
conversation". In some chat program the users need to install some specialized software whereas
in some others, only the internet browser is necessary. There are also Graphical User Interface
(GUI) text-based chat rooms which allow users to select an identifying icon and to modify the
look of their chat environment.
Synchronous conferencing or Real Time Chat is the formal term used particularly in
computer-mediated communication, collaboration and learning, to describe online chat
technologies. Today it is also occasionally extended to mean audio/video conferencing or instant
messaging systems, provided that they also have a text-based multi-user chat function.
Synchronous conferencing protocols include Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Protocol for
Synchronous Conferencing (PSYC), Secure Internet Live Conferencing protocol (SILC),
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP).
Chatiquette describes the basic rules of online communication. To avoid
misunderstanding and to simplify the communication between the users in a chat these
conventions or guidelines have been created. Chatiquette varies from community to community,
generally describing basic courtesy; it introduces the new user into the community and the
associated network culture. As an example, in Chatiquette it is considered rude to write only in
UPPER CASE, because it looks as if the user is shouting.
a) Types of Online Chat: Based on the number of users that participate in the chat it can be of
the following types-
i) 1 – on – 1 Chat: 1-on-1 or private chat refers to an environment where only two people share
their knowledge base.
ii) Group Chat: Here more than two people chat over an interface and share their thought.
Stranger Chat or anonymous chat is an environment where each other identity remains
hidden.
Chat can also be categorized based on cost factor as commercial or paid and free; based
on type of software used as Open Source (eg. Adium), and Proprietary (eg. Digsby).
b) Importance of Chat: Internet chat allows one to connect with people all over the world in
real time. The primary use of a chat room is to share information via text with a group of other
users. New technology has enabled the use of file sharing and webcams to be included in some
programs and almost all Internet chat or messaging services allow users to display or send to
each other photos.

Activity

1) Invite your friends for chat in

Gmail, accept the invitation
from other friends and chat with
them.

c) Examples: There are thousands of chat programs available over the web. In the following,
some commonly used free chat services are listed. An expertise in two or three will be an added
advantage for you. We recommend you to use Google Talk or chat that is integrated with your
Gmail. To use this service, you can use your own Gmail id and password.
Sl No. Name URL

1) Adium (http://www.adium.im/)

2) AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) (http://products.aim.com/)

 3) Climm (http://www.climm.org/)

4) Digsby (http://www.digsby.com)

5) Ebuddy (http://www.ebuddy.com/)

6) Google Talk (http://www.google.com/talk/)

7) IMVU (http://www.imvu.com/)

8) KMess (http://kmess.org/)

9) Kopete (http://kopete.kde.org/)

10) Mibbit (http://www.mibbit.com/)

11) Miranda IM (http://www.miranda-im.org/)

12) Pidgin (http://pidgin.im/)

13) QQ (http://www.imqq.com/)

14) Trillian (http://www.trillian.im/)

15) Windows Live Messenger (http://windowslive.com/Desktop/messenger)

(Formerly MSN Messenger)

Non Documentary Sources of Information

Non Documentary Sources of Information: There are mainly two types of information
sources. They are: documentary and non documentary. The documents are physical sources of
information that are fit for physical handling or they are the record in some physical form. The
non documentary sources of information are live sources that provide information instantly. The
non documentary sources of information include research organizations, societies, industries,
government establishment, departments, learned and professional bodies, universities,
technological institutions, etc.
The non documentary sources of information are live sources which are extremely important in
the process of communication. Very often, if a scientist working on an experiment needs some
information, he would turn to his / her colleague working in the same laboratory rather than to a
printed page. It is easier to have a dialogue with an expert than to use a bibliography or index or
card catalogue or even a consultation with a reference librarian. Non documentary sources of
information provide information instantly and it is very easy to handle. The main disadvantage of
non documentary sources of information is that it involves high cost when distance between the
people is large and that it also demands the use of highly sophisticated techniques i.e. computer
system, video conference, telephone etc.
The non documentary sources of information include government establishment,
departments, universities, technological institutions, data centres, information centres, referral
centres, clearing houses, consultants, technological gatekeeper, etc. Non documentary sources of
information also include discussion with colleagues, visitors, participants of seminars and
conferences, etc. The library through the referral service provides access to important non
documentary sources of information which may include the following types:
i) Research Association: Research association may establish cooperative information centres. In
such cases there is a possibility of firm to firm discussion and exchange of information between
the members of an association.
ii) Learned Societies and Professional Institutions: A member of these bodies forms the core of
a discipline or profession. The head quarters staff help the members personally on professional
matter and sometimes they may direct the queries to the expert member of the body.
iii) Industrial Liaison Officer: These officers provide particularly the preliminary information
needed to put a firm on the right track and for information which needs to be given personally
and supported by practical advice in order to be fully effective. They visit firms, explore their
needs and problems and help them to find solutions, sometimes directly on the spot, more often
by putting them in touch with specialized sources of information and assistance or refer to some
other specialists.
iv) Mass Media: Mass media is a means of communication of information through broadcasting
and telecasting or a combination of these two for the masses, which is more effective than any
documentary sources.
NKN Vs NME-ICT
NKN Vs NME-ICT: A meeting was held on 30/12/2010 under the Chairmanship of Secretary,
DIT to discuss the connectivity issues of universities and colleges under the NKN and NMEICT.
The following are the decisions taken in order to have seamless integration of NMEICT and
NKN networks.
i) There will be two different list of universities to be called NKN list of universities and
NMEICT list of universities.
ii) NKN connects its list of universities with a cost model of 100% by the project and NMEICT
connects with a cost model of 75% from the project and 25% chargeable from the universities (it
is 90:10 % for North East India).
iii) NKN does not provide any assistance to universities for establishing LAN whereas NMEICT
provides support for LAN from the project. So a university under NKN list would not have to
pay any money to get OFC connection to NKN, but it would have to invest 100% cost of LAN
and get the LAN established on its own.
Networking
Networking: A network is a physical connection between / among the devices (autonomous
computer) that are distributed widely in different geographical location. It is the computer and
communication link that permits computer to communicate with each other and to share
program, facilities, data and knowledge base. It is a group of devices that are linked to one
another by data communication system. In a computer network two or more computers are
linked together with a medium and data communication devices for the purpose of
communicating data and sharing of resources.
According to Martin “a network is a group of individuals or organizations that are
interconnected. The linking must include a communication mechanism, and many networks exist
for the express purpose of facilitating certain types of communication among their members. In
the library world, institutions from network primarily to achieve better sharing of resources –
resources consisting of bibliographic information and of collection – and better services to
patrons.”
Based on the type of participants who are participated in the network, network can be
divided into the following categories-
a) Private Network: These networks are usually owned by some corporation or other entity that
control access and use of network to its staff.
b) Public Networks: These networks provide services to any individual or organization who
becomes the member or subscriber. Eg. Telephone system.
c) Cooperative Networks: These networks are managed and supported by their user.
Based on the techniques used to transfer data and control, communication network can be
classified into two categories - Switched Network and Broadcast Network. In Broadcast system,
there is no intermediate switching nodes. All station share a single transmission channel. Packet
transmitted by one station is received by all other station. An address field within the packet
specifies the destination of the packet. Packets that are intended for other station are ignored. Eg.
Satellite network, LAN, etc.
Network architecture refers to the arrangement of nodes and their interconnection
communication circuit to represent the structure of the network and the significance of nodes in
the network. Based on the architecture of the network, network can be of the following types-
a) Peer to Peer Architecture: In this type of network each workstation has equivalent capabilities
and responsibilities. No one computer is in charge of the network.
b) Client / Server Architecture: Here the servers are dedicated to serving the client. Servers are
powerful computer or processor and clients are less powerful PCs or workstation on which users
run applications.
Topology refers to the way in which the end points or station of the network are
interconnected. It is the structure or the arrangement of nodes for a network. It is the physical
layout of the LAN. Topologies are named for the figure created by the web of wiring called data
path used for data transfer. Based on the topology network can be of the following types-
a) Bus: In a bus network each computer is connected to a single communication cable via an
interface and every computer can directly communicate with each other. The bus is a single pair
or a bunch of wires that carry the electrical signals. The individual nodes are connected to the
bus using a passive tap such that all systems are able to monitor the signal on the bus
simultaneously. The bus acts as a broadcast medium. Access and control of bus network are
typically maintained by a method called contention where by if a line is unused a terminal or
device can transmit its message at will but if two or more terminal initiate message
simultaneously they must stop and transmit again at different intervals. The connection of the
node to the bus is similar to Christmas light. Each ends of the bus network is also terminated
with a resistor to keep the signal that is sent by a node across the network from bouncing back
when it reaches the end of the cables. Traffic travels in both directions.
The bus topology appears to be the most flexible one and suitable for LAN networks. It is
able to handle the wide range of devices in terms of numbers of devices, data rates and data
types. Again being passive units the failure of an interface tap in a bus topology does not affect
the operation of a LAN.
b) Ring Topology: Like a bus network, ring has the nodes daisy chained. The difference is that
the end of the network comes back around to the first node creating a complete circuit. In a ring
network several devices or computer are connected to each other in a closed loop by a single
communication cable so a ring network also called as loop network. The data travels around the
ring to each station in turn until they arrive at the required station.
A ring can be unidirectional or bidirectional. In a unidirectional ring, data moves in one
direction only and in bidirectional ring data moves in both direction, but in only one direction at
a time. Each node of the ring takes a turn sending and receiving information through the use of a
token. The token along with any data is sent from the first node to the second nodes which
extract the data address to it and adds any data it wishes to send. Then the second node passes the
token and so on. Only the node with the token is allowed to send data, others must wait for the
token as it comes to them.
The advantage of ring network is that they can travel larger distances with a very high
speed link than other types of network such as bus network because each node regenerates
messages as they pass through it.
In a ring network each unit serves as a controller. All messages travel in only one
direction so when one unit is down the system could be down. So, it becomes necessary to
consider fault tolerance techniques such as dual ring or folded ring operation for handling RIV
failure in a ring topology.
c) Star Topology: In the star topology single controller is there in the middle of the system. All
communication takes place through the controller. All other devices are connected to the
centralized device called hub / switches. In the star topology, the controller is responsible for
managing the network. Other nodes share a fixed amount of the Central’s CPU’s time called a
time slice. So if controller is inoperative the whole system is down for all.
The star topology is good for terminal intensive requirement because of the minimal
processing works. Star LANs are generally designed in banking sector for centralized record
keeping.
d) Tree Topology: In a tree network several devices or computer are linked in a hierarchical
fashion. In constructing the network the frequently interacting nodes are placed near to each
other so it is also known as hierarchical network. This type of distribution system is commonly
used in the organization where headquarters communicates with regional offices and regional
offices communicate with district offices and so on. The tree networks are difficult to expand
once established.
e) Completely Connected or Mesh Network: Completely connected network has a separate
physical link for connecting each node to any other node. Thus each computer of such network
has a direct dedicated link, called a point to point link with all other computers of the network.
The control is distributed with each computer deciding its communication priorities.
This type of network is very reliable as any line breakdown will affect only
communication between the connected computers. Again, each node of the network needs not to
have individual routing capacity and communication is very fast between any two nodes.
It is most expensive system from the point of view of line cost. If there are n nodes in the
network, then n(n-1)/2 links are required. Thus the cost of linking the system grows with the
square of the number of nodes.
f) Hybrid Network: The basic network topologies can be linked together to form hybrid network
of considerable complexity. For example, the star and bus topologies can be combined to form a
hybrid network.
There are a number of other topologies that have been studied in the content of LAN.
These include hypercube, multistage store, and forward network. However, LANs based on these
topologies are not widely used at present.
Again, based on utility criteria, network can be of the following types-
a) Resource Sharing Network: This type of network are intended to share the resources which
includes specialized computer, software or other devices that are expensive and are not
affordable by an individual user. Eg. A super computer in an institution is accessed by several
station located in different department / section of the institution.
b) Data Sharing Network: This network provides access to various databases from workstation
situated at distance apart. Eg. Remote access to stock exchange data or hotel and airline
reservation system.
c) Communication and Data Exchange Network: This type of network allows users to
exchange data graphs and document with each other using such devices as e-mail, bulletin board,
etc irrespective of their location.
Classification of network based on the concept of “area” made good sense at this time
because a key distinction between a LAN, MAN and WAN involves the physical distances that
the network spread. As technology improves the new types of network appeared on the sense.
These too become known as various types of area network for consistency’s sake (eg. Storage
area network, system area network, campus area network, etc) although distances no longer
proved a useful differentiation.
a) LAN: In an LAN two or more computers or node are directly linked within a small well
defined areas such a room, office, building, campus or a local neighborhood with a range of 10
kilometer. Each hardware device on a LAN such as computer or a printer is called a node. Most
LAN’s are privately owned, controlled and managed by a single person or organization and uses
direct high speed cables to share hardware, software and data resources. LAN uses the Institute
of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE-802.5, IEEE 802.3) Ethernet, IBM token ring, etc
protocol where as WAN uses TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, etc.
b) MAN: The networks which spread over a city or that connect an area longer than a LAN but
smaller than WAN are known as MAN. It covers a city with dedicated or high performance
hardware. Eg. DELNET, CALIBNET, MANLIBNET.
c) WAN: A Wide Area Network is a computer network that directly connects computer separated
by long distances, more than a mile and as much as half the globe. WAN uses special purpose
telephone wires, dedicated line, fiber optic cables, microwaves or satellites for communication.
WAN is a geographically dispersed collection of LAN and are not owned by any one
organization but rather exists under collective or distributed ownership and management. The
largest WAN in existence is the internet.
A WAN is composed of a number of autonomous computer that are distributed over a
large geographical area often a county or continent and it is a satellite based network eg.
INFLIBNET, ERNET, I-NET, INDONET.
National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC)
National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC): NASSDOC is an India's
Leading Information Centre for Research and Innovations in Social Sciences. It was established
in 1969 as a Division of ICSSR with the objective to provide library and information support
services to researchers in social sciences; those working in academic institutions, autonomous
research organisations, policy making, planning and research units of government departments,
business and industry, etc. NASSDOC provides guidance to libraries of ICSSR Regional Centres
and ICSSR maintained Research Institutes.
To cater to the information needs of social scientists, NASSDOC offers many services. These
include the following
i) Library and Reference Service.
ii) Collection of unpublished doctoral dissertations, research project reports, current and old
volumes of selected social science journals of Indian and foreign origin.
iii) Literature Search Service from printed and digital databases, i.e CD-ROMS, floppies, online
database, etc.
iv) Compilation of short bibliographies on request.
v) Study grants are made available to doctoral students for collection of research material from
various libraries located in different parts of India.
vi) Financial assistance is provided for taking up bibliographical and documentation projects.
vii) Published bibliographies, directories, reference sources in social sciences are acquired in
bulk for distribution among institutions and libraries.
viii) Document Delivery Service is provided by procuring books and journals on Inter-library
loan or by photocopying the documents.
ix) Short-term training courses are organized for the research scholars, social scientists, librarians
and IT professionals to acquaint them with the latest information and communication
technology.And
x) Cyber Cafe, to facilitate access to internet resources on social sciences.

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL): NPTEL is an acronym
for National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning which is an initiative by seven
Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT Bombay, Delhi, Guwahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras and
Roorkee) and Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore. The main objective of NPTEL
program is to enhance the quality of engineering education in the country by developing
curriculum based video and web courses. The NPTEL project, receives its funding support
through the National Mission on Education through Information and Communication
Technology (NMEICT) since the year 2009.
Five engineering branches (Civil, Computer Science, Electrical, Electronics and Communication
and Mechanical) and core science programmes that all engineering students are required to take
in their undergraduate engineering programme in India were chosen initially. Contents for the
above courses were based on the model curriculum suggested by All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) and the syllabi of major affiliating Universities in India.
In the first phase of the project, supplementary content for 129 web courses in
engineering/science and humanities and 110 courses in video format have been developed. Each
course contains materials that can be covered in depth in 40 or more lecture hours. The courses
are available freely over the NPTEL website
National Mission on Education through Information and Communication
Technology (NME-ICT)
National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology
(NME-ICT): Under this project all the colleges, institutes and universities are being provided
with high speed data connectivity so that high quality e-content could be reached to the teachers
and students of educational organizations.
According to the project, all UGC-approved colleges (degree level and above) would be
provided VPN over Broadband (VPNoBB) @512 kbps each-10 connections in the first year, 15
connections in the second year and 20 connections in the third year. Internet bandwidth will be
fed centrally to this VPN network @ 5 Gbps in first year, 10 Gbps in second year and 30 Gbps in
third year. All the 419 universities will be given 1 Gbps link to nearest National Knowledge
Network (NKN) node on OFC. All the universities will be provided a LAN network of 400
nodes each and BSNL will be responsible for its maintenance for next 5 years.
The connectivity under NMEICT would seamlessly integrate with the National
Knowledge Network (NKN).
National Library Day / National Library Week
National Library Day / National Library Week: Ayyanki Venkata Ramanaiah, Secretary,
Andhra Pradesh Library Association organised an All India Library Meeting on 12th November,
1912 in Madras. This meeting lead to the formation of Indian Library Association (ILA). Later,
ILA gave prominence to the 12th November meeting and declared 14th November as National
Library Day. This was also the Birth day of our former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Since
1968, 14th-20th November are celebrated as National Library Week all over India.

National Library Associations

National Library Associations: The American Library Association (ALA) (1876), Association
for Information Management (ASLIB), The Canadian Library Association (CLA) (1946), The
Library Association, London, The Special Libraries Association (SLA), (1909), The Association
for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE) (1915), The American Society for
Information Science (ASIS), The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) (1932), The Society
of American Archivists (SAA) (1936), etc are some of the most popular national library
associations in the world.
In India, All India Public Library Association (1919); Indian Library Association (1933);
Government of India Library Association (1933); All India Rural Library Association (1933);
Indian Library Association (1933); All India Manuscripts Library Association (1944) are some of
popular library associations that were established before independence.
The Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF), Indian Association of Special Libraries
and Information Centers (IASLIC) (1955); All India College Library Association (1966); Indian
Association of Teachers of Library and Information Science (IATLIS) (1969); Society for
Information Science (SIS) (1969); Indian Theological Library Association; Medical Library
Association of India (MALI), etc. were established after independence.

National Library and Information Services Infrastructure for Scholarly Content

(N-LIST)
National Library and Information Services Infrastructure for Scholarly Content (N-LIST):
N-LIST is an initiative of Ministry of Human Resource Development under National Mission on
Education through ICT to extend e-resources to colleges in India. The Project entitled “National
Library and Information Services Infrastructure for Scholarly Content (N-LIST)”, being jointly
executed by the UGC-INFONET Digital Library Consortium, and the INDEST-AICTE
Consortium.
a) Aims and Objectives: The project has four distinct components. The INDEST and UGC-
INFONET are jointly responsible for the following activity listed at i) and ii). The INFLIBNET
Centre, Ahmedabad is responsible for activities listed at iii) and iv).
i) To subscribe and provide access to selected UGC-INFONET e-resources to technical
institutions (IITs, IISc, IISERs and NITs) and monitor its usage;
ii) To subscribe and provide access to selected INDEST e-resources to selected universities and
monitor its usage;
iii) To subscribe and provide access to selected e-resources to 6,000 Govt./ Govt.-aided colleges
and monitor its usage; and
iv) To act as a Monitoring Agency for colleges and evaluate, promote, impart training and
monitor all activities involved in the process of providing effective and efficient access to e-
resources to colleges.
b) Membership: The N-LIST project provides access to e-resources to students, researchers and
faculty from colleges and other beneficiary institutions through server(s) installed at the
INFLIBNET Centre. More than 6,000 colleges covered under 2F/12B Act of UGC are eligible to
register with N-LIST programme. The colleges that are not covered under 2F/12B, can apply for
Associate Membership Programme. All members will be required to pay Rs. 5,000/ for annual
membership.
National Library
National Library: The governments of most major countries support national libraries. The
national library has a national responsibility. It stands as the apex institution for library services
in a country and is funded by National government. Three noteworthy examples are
the U.S. Library of Congress (located in Washington, D.C.), Canada Library and Archives and
the British Library. The countries which wish to preserve their particular culture, have
established a national library, with the provision of legal deposit. In addition to having a law
requiring the publishers to deposit books, those countries with legal deposits usually have many
other incentives for a proper and speedy deposit, such as a tie-in with laws affecting copyright of
the same documents, and/or a cataloguing- in- publication service.
a) Definition: A national library is a library specifically established by the government of a
nation to serve as the preeminent repository of information for that country. According to
UNESCO’s definition “National library of a country is the one responsible for collecting and
conserving that country’s book production for the benefit of future generation.”
According to the ALA glossary of library and information science, a national library is “a
library designated as such by the appropriate national body and funded by the national
government. Its functions may include the comprehensive collection of the publication output of
the nation (frequently as a copyright depository library), the compilation and maintenance of a
national bibliography, the comprehensive collection and organization of publications on an
international scale for the scholarly community, the production of the bibliographic tools, the
coordination of a library network, the provision of library services to the national government or
some of its agencies, and other responsibilities delineated by the national government”. It has a
comprehensive collection of the published output of a nation to serve the nation as a whole.
Unlike public libraries, National Library rarely allows citizens to borrow books. Often, it
includes numerous rare, valuable, or significant works.
b) Objectives: According to International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
(IFLA), IFLA National Libraries Section, “national libraries often serve as a national forum for
international programmes and projects. They may have a close relationship with national
governments, may be concerned with the development of national information policies, and may
act as a conduct for the views of other sectors of the profession. Occasionally, they also serve the
information needs of the legislature directly”. Some of the objectives of national libraries are
i) To acquire and conserve the whole of the national production via legal deposit (i.e., copyright)
of the national imprint (both print and electronic);
ii) The provision of central services (e.g., reference, bibliography, preservation, lending) to users
both directly and through other library and information centres [(i.e., Inter Library Loan (ILL)];
iii) The preservation and promotion of the national cultural heritage; acquisition of at least a
representative collection of foreign publications;
iv) To undertake the production of current national bibliographies and also of retrospective
national bibliographies;
v) To assemble material for a central register of manuscript collections and to keep it up to date;
vi) To set up a national plan for the acquisition of foreign materials in countries where no such
plan exists;
vii) The promotion of national cultural policy; and leadership in national literacy campaigns.
c) Collections: National library is usually notable for its size, compared to that of other libraries.
It is compressive in the extreme but it also concentrates on current, working collection. Its thrust
is immediate use. National libraries are however still trying to collect all significant materials
produced in the respective country as well as important documents published outside the country.
d) Services: Library services available throughout the world vary so much in detail from country
to country that it is impossible to present any thing but the most general picture of their activities.
International organization for Standardization has recognized the following functions of a
national library:
i) Responsible for acquiring and conserving copies of all significant publications published in the
country, built up by legal deposit or under other arrangement;
ii) Hold and keep up to date a large and representative collection of foreign literature including
books about the country;
iii) Produce a national bibliography;
iv) Publish a retrospective national bibliography;
v) Act as a national bibliographical information centre;
vi) Compile a union catalogue.
To the above basic functions, the following additional functions are identified.
vii) Provide interlibrary lending and for this purpose develop central loan / photocopy collection
of both national and foreign literature;
viii) Developing and maintaining bibliographic data bases relevant to the country;
ix) Act as a national repository for the receipt, storage, preservation and supply by loan or
photocopy of items withdrawn from other libraries;
x) To conserve the national intellectual and cultural heritage for the benefit of the future
generations;
xi) Act as exchange centre, national and international.
The national library is the central agent receiving information and inquiries and initiating
library services for the common good. The national library should be the prime mover in library
matters and should be expected to be the leading library in all fields. It should act as the hub of
nation’s research and reference and referral centre.
National Knowledge Network (NKN)
National Knowledge Network (NKN): The idea of setting up of a NKN was deliberated at the
office of Principal Scientific Advisor to the Government of India and the National Knowledge
Commission. Collaborative engagements were held with key stakeholders including experts,
potential users, telecom service providers and educational and research institutions. This project
is again a part of the Knowledge Commission headed by Sam Pitroda.
The decision to set up NKN was announced in 2008-09 with an initial allocation of INR 100
crore to the Department of Information Technology (DIT), Ministry of Communications and IT.
However, to provide the much needed impetus to this initiative the Cabinet Committee on
Infrastructure in March 2010 approved the establishment of NKN at an outlay of INR 5,990
crore to be implemented by National Informatics Centre (NIC) over a period of 10 years. The
project is being monitored by a High Level Committee headed by Dr. R Chidambaram,
Principal Scientific Advisor to the Prime Minister of India. Under this project, nearly 2500
institutes like all state universities, central universities, IITs, government medical and
engineering colleges, R & D institutes like ICMR, BARC, etc. are going to be connected.
NKN will provide a unified high bandwidth (low latency) network backbone for all the
sectors. It will also provide necessary equipment required to connect the institute to the
network. It will encourage and enable the use of specialized applications, which allow sharing
of high performance computing facilities (for example GARUDA through mutual consent with
the owner of HPC services), R & D Networks (for example GLORIAD, an Indo-Us initiative,
TIEN 3, an Indo-European initiative, etc), e-libraries, virtual classrooms, large databases and
high speed internet. It will be a critical infrastructure for India to evolve as a Knowledge
Society.
At present, 15 Points of Presence (PoP) for NKN have been established across the
country. The target of NKN shall be to connect 1,500+ institutes by March, 2012.
National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources
(NISCAIR)
National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR): The
National Institute of Science Communication (NISCOM), the erstwhile Publications and
Information Directorate (PID) was set up in 1951 to published scientific journals, periodicals
and to compile information on the country’s raw material in the form of an encyclopedia of
great importance. Again, the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) was
set up in 1952, with the technical assistance from UNESCO. Both the institute NISCOM and
INSDOC merged on 30th September, 2002 giving rise to National Institute of Science
Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR), which devotes itself to science
communication, dissemination and Science & Technology information management systems
and services user with the application of modern Information Technology infrastructure.
a) Aims and Objectives: The main aims and objectives of NISCAIR are-
i) Mission Statement: To become the prime custodian of all information resources on current
and traditional knowledge systems in science and technology in the country, and to promote
communication in science to diverse constituents at all levels, using the most appropriate
technologies

ii) Mandate of NISCAIR

* To provide formal linkages of communication among the scientific community in the form of
research journals in different areas of S & T;
* To disseminate S & T information to general public, particularly school students, to inculcate
interest in science among them;
* To collect, collate and disseminate information on plant, animal and mineral wealth of the
country;
* To harness information technology applications in information management with particular
reference to science communication and modernizing libraries
* To act as a facilitator in furthering the economic, social, industrial, scientific and commercial
development by providing timely access to relevant and accurate information
* To develop human resources in science communication, library, documentation and
information science and S&T information management systems and services
* To collaborate with international institutions and organizations having objectives and goals
similar to those of NISCAIR
* Any other activity in consonance with the mission statement of NISCAIR
b) Activities and Services: Broadly the core activity of NISCAIR is to collect/store, publish
and disseminate S & T information through a mix of traditional and modern means, which
benefits different segments of society.
i) Acquisition of Information Resources: One of the core activities of NISCAIR is to collect,
organize and disseminate S & T information generated in India as well as in the world which
has relevance to Indian S & T community. Under this programme, the institute is building
comprehensive collection of S & T publications in print as well as in electronic form and
disseminating through traditional as well as modern means benefiting different segments of the
society.
ii) National Science Library: The National Science Library (NSL), which was set up in 1964
has a comprehensive collection of over 2, 00,000 volumes including monographs and bound
volumes of journals in the country and is offering services on a national scale. NSL also acts as
a referral centre and clearing house for the best utilisation of the existing collection in the
country. The NSL is enrich with electronic resourcdes, online databases, CD-ROM Databases.
iii) In-house Databases: The database developed by NISCAIR includes
* National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India (NUCSSI)
* Indian Patents (INPAT) Database
* Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts (MAPA)
* Indian Science Abstract (ISA)
iv) Raw Materials Herbarium & Museum: NISCAIR has set up a Herbarium and Museum
housing economically important raw materials of plant, animal and mineral origin from India at
one place, to cater to the needs of scientists, researchers, industrialists students and the public.
The NISCAIR Herbarium & Museum has been assigned the acronym RHMD (Raw Materials
Herbarium & Museum, Delhi) by the International Association for Plant Taxonomy, which
appears in the publiication "Index Herbarium, New York, USA". The Herbarium houses over
6000 specimen of economic and medicinal plants of India and the Museum comprises over
2500 samples of crude-drugs, animal and mineral specimens.
v) Consultancy Services: Under this programme, services are offered in the identification of
plants and crude drug samples against payment. Information on plants regarding availability,
use, cultivation, export/import data is provided on request. Services on other important aspects
of plants, animals and minerals of commercial and industrial uses are also supplied against
payment.
vi) Official Certifying Centre (OCC): Based on the herbarium and museum of crude drug
samples and in-house expertise, NISCAIR herbarium serves as one of the nodal agencies in
India for authentication of crude drugs used in the Indigenous Systems of Medicine.
vii) NISCAIR Citizen Charter: The charter would essentially incorporate citizen’s entitlement
to public services, wide publicity of standards of performance, quality of services, access to
information, simplified procedures of complaints, time-bound redressal of grievances and
provision for independent scrutiny of performance.
viii) E-journals Consortia: NISCAIR is the nodal agency for developing a "Consortium for
CSIR Laboratories for Accessing e-journals". The activity ranges from creation to monitoring
of the access facility of scientific periodicals published by leading international institutions.
ix) Translation Service: NISCAIR provides translation of S & T documents from 20 foreign
languages into English. The languages include Chinese, Czech, Danish, Dutch, French,
German, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Russian,
Serbo-Croatian, Spanish, Swedish, etc. The clients include National Laboratories, S&T
institutes, R&D organisations, Corporate and Public Sector Undertakings, Universities,
Research Scholars, etc. NISCAIR also provides reverse translation (English into foreign
language).
x) Document Copy Supply Service (DCSS): NISCAIR provides DCSS to the Indian scientific
community by supplying copies of articles from Indian and foreign journals at nominal charges
Copies of Indian and foreign patents and standards can also be obtained from NISCAIR.
xii) Human Resource Development: NISCAIR conducts training programs in library and
information science, documentation, science communication and herbarium techniques with an
objective of human resource development. Short-Term / Attachment / On-site Training
Programmes including a two year master’s level academic course [Associateship in Information
Science (AIS)] in information science (one course every year) is the peculiarity of NISCAIR.
xiii) Publication: The institute brings out 17 primary and two secondary scientific journals of
international repute. The institute also brings out three popular science magazines in Hindi,
English and Urdu to meet the scientific quest of the masses. Encyclopaedic volumes of "The
Wealth of India" and "Bharat Ki Sampada", which deal with the natural resources of the
country, cater to the needs of enterpreneurs, progressive farmers, students, researchers, etc.
Besides, Fortnightly issues of CSIR News (in English) and monthly issues of CSIR Samachar
(in Hindi) serve as an effective link between various CSIR constituents and users of
information on various R & D programs and other activities of CSIR, other R&D organizations,
university departments and industry. The journals published by the institute includes Indian
Journal of Traditional Knowledge (IJTK) and Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts
(MAPA).
It also publishes digitized versions of Indian Science Abstracts (ISA), Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants Abstracts (MAPA), The Wealth of India, Raw Materials Series.
xiv) International Collaboration: NISCAIR is the National Centre of the ISSN International
Centre for assigning ISSN numbers for serials published in India. NISCAIR exchanges
publications with over 150 institutions in 44 countries in the world. Distinguished experts from
other countries visit the institute every year. NISCAIR's scientists also attend international
conferences, seminars, workshops and training programmes.
c) Conclusion: In addition, NISCAIR provides various services such as Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants Information Service; Contents, Abstracts and Photocopy Service (CAPS);
Literature Search Service; S & T Translation Service; Bibliometric Service; Editing, Designing,
Production and Printing of scientific publications.

National Information System for Science and Technology (NISSAT)

National Information System for Science and Technology (NISSAT): The increasing role of
science and technology in the economic and social development of the country generated a
pressing demand for faster technology transfer to the industries. In fact information centres
serving the needs of different industries and Research & Development units, were therefore
required to be coordinated and organized into an integrated system to avoid a haphazard growth
and duplication of activities and to conform to national and international standards. In order to
meet this requirement the National Information System for Science & Technology (NISSAT)
was launched in 1977. In tune with the changing global scenario and in pursuance of the
national efforts in liberalization and globalization of the economy, NISSAT reoriented its
programme activities continually in order to be useful to a wider base of clientele in diverse
subjects. Besides establishing the internal linkages between the information industry, its
promoters and users, NISSAT also made efforts to establish a bridge between information
resource developers and users in India and other countries.
a) History: In 1971 the government of India made a request to UNESCO for advising the
government about the establishment of an information network in science and technology in the
country. In 1972, Dr. Peter Lazer, who worked as a consultants submitted a report on NISSAT.
In 1973, the panel group of National Committee on Science and Technology (NCST)
recommended the establishment of NISSAT under the Department of Science and Technology
(DST) and finally NISSAT was launched on 13th May 1977 under the Department of Science
and Technology and was put under the charges of Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research in the Ministry of Science and Technology..
b) Closure of Scheme: The scheme has not been included as a component of the Tenth Plan of
the Planning Commission. So, finally the NISSAT comes to an end. Though, it has not been
possible to provide financial assistance to many of the projects during 2002-03, most of them
continued their activities and provided services.
Motivation of Personnel
Motivation of Personnel: The term motivation is derived from the work motive which may be
defined as needs, wants, drives or impulses within an individual. Motivation may be defined as
the complex of force inspiring a person at work to intensify his willingness to use his capacities
for the achievement of certain objectives. Motivation is something that motivates a person into
action and continues him in the courses of action enthusiastically. It determines the behaviors of
the person to a great extent.
According to D. E. McFarland, motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives,
desires, aspiration, striving or needs direct control or explain the behaviours of human beings.
An employee of the library should not think that he has got a job and he has to do his job.
In the library it is the service which matters and this service is not in one’s own job but in the
service of the library as a whole. Therefore, the motivation of the library staff is of prime
importance.
a) How of Motivation: The workers must be motivated by congenial service condition and
environment. They must be made to realize that if they work properly they will be rewarded for
the same through promotion, recognition and incentives so that they perform their job willingly
and conscientiously. The motivation will create proper environment for employees to put in their
best effort and work more. For motivation of personnel following factors should be considered-
i) Providing a suitable environment for work and elimination of potential sources of danger in
work;
ii) Determination of the motives or needs of the worker and providing an environment in which
appropriate incentives are available for their need and satisfaction. The incentives may be
monetary reward, status, power, etc.
iii) Persons should be directed, controlled and when needed must be threatened.
iv) Giving scope to develop and control worker’s own commitments, responsibility, self
direction, self control, etc.
v) Giving recognition to the worker for their achievement.
vi) Giving scope for achievement needs i.e. giving responsibility for problem solving;
vii) Creating positive feeling towards job;
viii) Acceptance of the hierarchy level of need and to apply it in motivating the personnel.
b) Theories of Motivation: There are number of theories on human motivation in general. These
can be applied to the personnel management in libraries also. Some of them are-
i) Douglas McGregor: Douglas McGregor in his “the Human side of enterprise”, 1960 describes
that there are two contrasting sets of assumption about individual and their perception of work.
According to him, the theory “X” assumes that the human being on an average has a
inherent dislike of work and always will avoid it. So the personnel should be directed, controlled
and even threatened where necessary to put them to work. They need direction for their work and
when reluctant to take much responsibility in their work. They are also not ambitious and prefer
to have a secure and predictable work situation.
In contrast to the above, he also describes the theory “Y” which argues that motivation
comes from within and one can work efficiently without persuasion. He states-
* Individual will seek responsibility when conditions are favourable for work;
* Workers wish to develop and control their own commitments in a favourable work situation;
* They will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are
committed under proper condition.
* They will learn to accept responsibility as well as they will seek it.
* Workers will seek recognition for their achievement;
* They will make significant contribution to achieve the goal of the organization
In the situation of a library, both the theory of “X” and “Y” is applicable.
ii) David C. McClelland: David C. McClelland in “the achieving society”, 1961 describes the
achievement motivation theory. In this theory, he emphasized the importance of high level of
accomplishment or the satisfaction of “achievement needs”. The monetary reward, status and
power have impact over the motivation of individual. He points out that the accomplishment of
objectives is a prime factor. According to him, individual have a sense of achieving and will
accept responsibility for problem solving even in an adverse situation. The entrepreneurial
activity within a controlled environment is liked by the individual. If they are given the
opportunity to develop in such a situation they will prove their efficiency.
iii) F. Herzberg: F. Herzberg in “Work and the nature of man”, 1968 describes his motivation –
hygine theory. He made an extensive examination of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction among
various classes of professionals and non-professional staff. He found that the causes of
satisfaction were not the same as the cause of dissatisfaction. The factor providing satisfaction in
a job situation are the motivating factors and when there are absent in a situation the
dissatisfaction causes in the form of indifference. The element of work generating positive
feelings leading to greater productivity and job satisfaction are described as satisfiers. The
satisfiers are achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibilities and advancement. These
elements create a good climate of productivity and motivate individuals. On the other hand faulty
planning, poor organizational policies, bad administration, environment, lacking inspiration and
motivation, no-recognition of achievement and the like create dissatisfaction leading to low
motivation and indifference.
iv) A. H. Maslow: A. H. Maslow in “Motivation and personality”, 1970 develops the theory that
an individual is motivated by two kinds of needs – basic needs and those that are socially
determined and that both of these must be satisfied to allow emotional maturity. The needs of an
individual are in hierarchy just like a pyramid. At the base, the lowest strata are the basic
physiological needs for survival. Next higher are the safety needs concerned with physical and
psychological well-being and the next higher is the social well-being in terms of belonging and
acceptance. Next higher to that are esteem needs and the self-confidence derived from
recognition and status. At the top is self actualization – the zenith of the individual needs
whereby his own potentialities are realized fully. Maslow gave emphasis on the progressive
nature of needs achievements. When the lowest level is satisfied the individual strives for the
next higher and in this way he aspires for the zenith. According to him, to motivate the personnel
the progressive higher order should be created for the individual in any work situation to get the
best performance from the individuals.
The motivation factors can be improved through better organization of work, the planning
and implementation of work schedules in a better way, monitoring of the works done,
elimination of bottle-necks in work schedules, proper flow-charting, assigning responsibilities to
the individual, placing of right person at the right position capable of doing the job are certain
situations which influence the motivation factor. But higher effective factor is the staff
participation.
c) Significance of Motivation: Motivation is called the core of management. It is the major task
of every manager to motivate his subordinates or to create the will to work among the
subordinates. Some of the significance of motivation is-
i) The workers are generally immensely capable of doing some work. Nothing can be achieved if
they are not willing to work. So motivation is an effective instrument in the hands of
management in creation of will to work.
ii) Motivation helps in the better utilization of resources, abilities and capabilities of the worker.
iii) Higher motivation leads to job satisfaction of the worker which can reduce the absenteeism,
turnover and unrest of the staff. This will create better relation in the library. Workers will be
willing to join in the organization.
iv) Motivation will faster team spirit among the workers and increase their loyalty to the work
group.
v) Motivation is intimately connected with morals. Good motivation leads to higher moral.
Metadata
Metadata: Metadata is structured information that describes, explains, locates, or otherwise
makes it easier to retrieve, use, or manage an information resource. Metadata is often called data
about data or information about information. Metadata shares many similar characteristics to the
cataloguing that takes place in libraries, museums and archives.
a) Metadata Schema: There are literally hundreds of metadata schemas to choose from and the
number is growing rapidly, as different communities seek to meet the specific needs of their
members. Each metadata schema usually has three main characteristics- A limited number of
elements, the name of each element, and the meaning of each element. Two commonly used
metadata schema are Dublin Core (http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/), and Anglo-
American Cataloging Rules (AACR-II).
i) Dublin Core: The Dublin Core Metadata Element Set arose from discussions at a 1995
workshop sponsored by OCLC and the National Center for Supercomputing Applications
(NCSA). As the workshop was held in Dublin, Ohio, the element set was named the Dublin
Core. The continuing development of the Dublin Core and related specifications is managed by
the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI). The fifteen-element of Dublin core are Title,
Creator, Subject, Description, Publisher, Contributor, Date, Type, Format, Identifier, Source,
Language, Relation, Coverage, and Rights. The fifteen-element "Dublin Core" achieved wide
dissemination as part of the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-
PMH) and has been ratified as IETF RFC 5013, ANSI/NISO Standard Z39.85-2007, and ISO
Standard 15836:2009.
b) Creation of Metadata: The metadata can be created and collected at point of creation of a
resource or at point of publication. There are many such tools available and the number
continues to grow. Such tools can be standalone or part of a package of software, usually with a
backend database or repository to store and retrieve the metadata records, some examples
include:
i) DC-dot (http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/dcdot/). This service will retrieve a Web page and
automatically generate Dublin Core metadata, either as HTML tags or as RDF/XML, suitable for
embedding in the section of the page.
ii) DCmeta (http://www.dstc.edu.au/RDU/MetaWeb/generic_tool.html). Developed by Tasmania
Online. It is based on SuperNoteTab text-editor and can be customized.
iii) HotMeta (http://www.dstc.edu.au/Research/Projects/hotmeta/). A package of software,
including metadata editor, repository and search engine.
Melville Dewey
Melville Dewey: Melville Louis Kossuth Dewey was born in Adams Center, New York in the
United States on December 10, 1851. Dewey invented the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
system for library classification when he was 21 and working as a student assistant in the library
of Amherst College. This classification system is the most widely used library classification
scheme in the world. In 1884, he founded the Columbia School of Library Economy, the first
ever institution organized for the instruction of librarians.
He was an advocate of the metric system and English language spelling reform and is
responsible for, among other things, the “American” spelling of the word Catalog (as opposed to
the British Catalogue). He also considered changing his own name from Melville Louis Kossuth
Dewey to simply Melvil Dui. Dewey is a member of the American Library Association’s Hall of
Fame. His work created a revolution in library science and set in motion a new era of
librarianship. He well deserves the title of “Father of Modern Librarianship”. He died after
suffering a stroke on December 26, 1931 at an age of 80.
MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS)
MEDical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS): MEDical Literature
Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS) is the computerized system of databases and
databanks offered by the National Library of Medicine. The National Library of Medicine
(NLM) enters into bilateral agreements with public institutions in foreign countries to serve as
International MEDLARS Centers.
These Centers assist health professionals in accessing MEDLARS databases, offer search
training, provide document delivery and perform other functions as biomedical information
resource centers. There are more than 20 international MEDLARS centres worldwide. In the List
of international MEDLARS centres of the National Library of Medicine one can find the
corresponding addresses.
Manpower Planning
Manpower Planning: Effective manpower planning is a crucial job in the library system. It
should consider both the existing staff as well as new persons to be recruited. An effective
planning should be made for the personnel management at the organizational level itself so that
at the planning stage itself the library system have a well defined, well structured and realistic
manpower policy.

The preplan activities before manpower planning includes-

i) Collection of data for job specification and job analysis;
ii) Preparation of flow charting for various operation and system analysis;
iii) Subsequent quantification and interpretation of the data;
iv) Translation of the system analysis into manpower requirements.
The points that should be considered in manpower planning includes-
i) The objectives and goals of the library and the performance to achieve these through
implementation of services should be considered in the manpower planning;
ii) Besides the routine jobs the emphasis should also be given on changing circumstances,
revised objectives and programme adjustment because libraries are constantly changing social
organization. The social forces and new technology are always influencing factors of the library.
iii) The staff structure should facilitate the understanding of the role of individual
responsibilities.
iv) Each staff should be given opportunity to make useful contribution to the general functioning
of the library.
v) Motivation is of prime importance in a library because in the library it is the service which
matter.
vi) Adequate communication should be maintained among the staff member and the staff must be
kept informed of facts affecting their work.
vii) The manpower planning also should give clear-cut guideline about recruitment and selection,
test, placement, induction and orientation, training and development, etc.
Managing Research Work
Managing Research Work: The following activities will lead one to manage his research work
effectively:
a) Managing Yourself: Doing any kind of research work is a lonely experience. Sometimes it
looks like that the person doing the research and his/her guide or supervisor is the only two
people in this world who are interested in that particular subject. So, keeping it in mind the
research scholar should not try to discuss about their research work with a common person
unless he / she is the professional colleague.
b) Managing Friends and Family: It would be better if the researcher does not expect too much
from his/her friend and family members, as they can do nothing, except giving a glimpse of
encouraging words and a moral support. The researcher should also avoid in telling in an
extensive way about the research work to the friends and family members, otherwise others may
see the researcher like a bore. So, in simple, during the course of the research work the
researcher should try to maintain a balance (though it’s really a difficult task) between research
work and the social responsibility.
c) Managing Time: One cannot find more time than what he / she has. What one can do is only
to manage his / her time for a productive work instead of spending it in the way of gossiping,
unnecessary thinking, etc.
d) Managing Document: The research scholar should arrange all the resources collected or own
resource,s i.e books, articles, etc. in a systematic way, so that in case of immediate retrieval it
does not cost much time.
e) Research Diary: During the course of research work, the research diary should move along
with the researcher. He/she should keep notes of everything (necessary/near unnecessary),
because what today seems to be unnecessary may be relevant tomorrow.
f) Keeping Backup: During the course of the research work, different ideas will invade the mind
of the researcher. Keeping a back up copy of these ideas by way of documenting over the note
book may some times prove extraordinarily important. Some times ideas are invaluable one, and
it may have the capacity to give a new wing to the researcher’s career. The researcher should also
keep backup copy of the writing on daily basis, both in soft copy as well as hard copy ignoring
whatever the cost may be.
g) Managing Supervisor: In any field of study, resource persons are very busy but they are also
crucial to the success of any research work. The majority of the supervisors are highly
experienced and will do their best to make the researcher’s visit to them productive and
enjoyable (exceptions will always be there). So, as a research worker, the research scholar
shouldn’t hesitate to use his /her supervisor within their legitimate time period.
h) Citation Style: Before going through the research work, the research scholar should
determine which citation format he/she is going to follow and after wards whatever the research
scholar reads, he / she should immediately include it in the reference page, according to the
chosen citation style. It is crucial, if one does not want to include his/her name in the list of
“plagiaries”, by not citing them. The normal strategy for longer quotation is to write it in italics,
keeping a small gap before as well as after the quotation.
Management School of Thought
Management School of Thought: During the present century, certain schools of management
thought have developed. Each school reflects the problems of the period during which they were
popular. Herold Koontz was the first who have attempted to classify the various approaches on
the management in the schools of management theory. Based on the writings of some of the
scholars and Koontz, the management thoughts, have been classified in the following schools of
management theory.
a) Management Process School: This school developed in France. Henri Fayol, a Frenchman is
considered as the father of this school. Sometimes this school is referred to as “Traditional or
Universalist” or Classical school. It regards management as a universal process. The
management process is analyzed, conceptual framework is established, principles are identified
and a theory of management in built from it.
Henri Fayol applied scientific approach but looked at administration from the top to
down. He focused on a systematic understanding of the overall management process. It holds
that management is a process which can best be understood by analyzing its function.
The traditional school is also called the rules of thumb, where workers are not given the
chance for decision-making. It is running as usual without any logic. There is not any
consideration of scientific method. The traditional school gives rise to:
i) Narrow work specialization;
ii) Rigid hierarchical structure of management;
iii) Gulf between vision and work due to organizational levels;
iv) Salary and perks determining the structure of management rather than work structure.
b) Scientific Management School: Scientific management is the application of the principles
and methodology of modern science to problems of administration. Scientific management, in
brief, involves certain combination of the following elements-
i) Science instead of rule of thumb;
ii) Co-operation instead of individuation;
iii) Harmony instead of discord;
iv) Maximum output instead of restricted output;
v) The development of each person to his greatest efficiency.
The term scientific management was introduced by Louis Brandeis in 1910 in his
appearance before Interstate Commerce Commission. “The basic assumption of this school is the
philosophy that workers are economically motivated and they will respond with their best
emphasis is on maximum output with minimum effort by eliminating waste and inefficiency at
the operative level”.
The above theory owes its origin to Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is regarded as the
father of scientific management. Efficiency was the central theme of his writing. He aimed at
making management a science based on well organized, clearly defined and fixed principles of
management instead of depending on more or less lazy ideas.
 Scientific management is also called Modern management. Modern management gives
due emphasis on Human Resource Development (HRD), so that they can use the existing
resources. Existing resources should be trained so that they can handle the latest technology.
Modern management looks into the personal development of the staff. Welfare of the staff is the
objective of modern management.
c) Bureaucratic Theory: This theory was propounded by Max Weber which has profoundly
influenced modern thinking in these areas. Weber developed a bureaucratic model of
organization which is essentially a universal model of efficient organization. Bureaucracy refers
to a certain characteristic of organizational design. This emphasized specialization within an
organization and considered hierarchy of the decision making process of great importance. He
analyzed the authority and responsibility of the office rather than individual. He made
monumental contribution to authority structures in a complex organization.
Luther Gulick, an American has described the functions of an executive in terms of an
acronym POSDCORB, representing Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, COordinating,
Reporting and Budgeting.
d) Human Relation School: The human relations approach to management began with the
Hawthorne experiments in the early 1930s. Its findings led to the development of a new
hypothesis i.e. motivation to work, morale and productivity are related to social relations among
the workers and the supervision and not to physical condition of work. The human relation
school considers that as managing involves getting things done through people; therefore
management studies should be evolved around interpersonal relations. Thus the main emphasis is
on the individual and the informal group in the formal organization. The basic concern is to study
people as human beings rather than as mere work units. Sociologists and psychologists have
been very active in developing this school of thought.
i) Human Behavior School: The focus of the human behavior school is on behaviour of the
individual, the group and the organization. This theory looks at the human factor as the central
theme. It lays greater emphasis on interpersonal relationship, leadership, group dynamics and
motivation of personnel. The basic assumption is that in case the management can keep the
employees happy, then this will result in the maximum performance.
Elton Mayo and group of industrial Psychologist conducted experiments at the Western
Electric Hawthorne plant in Chicago. They came to the conclusion that social interaction and
psychological factors are important in determining the level of productivity and satisfaction.
ii) Social System School: This theory views organization as a system which is composed of
interacting and inter dependent parts. As a system, an organization is composed of a number of
subsystem of parts, each of which are in itself a system composed of various subsystems which
are also in interdependent and interaction relationship among themselves. The various
subsystems of an organization are linked with each other through its communication network,
decisions, authority, responsibility, relationship, objectives, policies, procedures and other
aspects of coordinating mechanism. The social system school encourages employees to develop
social group on the job, to participate in management and allows democratic functioning in the
enterprise.
e) Decision Theory School: The decision theory school of management, led by Simon looks
upon the management processes as a decision making process. In view of the decision theories,
since the performance of various management functions involved decision making the entire
field of management can be studied from the study of the process of decision making. They have
expanded their area of theory building from the decision making processes to the study of the
decision, the decision maker and the social and psychological environment of the decision
maker. The decision theory starts with the small areas of decision making and then looks at the
entire field of management through this keyhole.
f) Democratic Schools: With development, people are now aware about their rights and
responsibilities. Democratic rights are given to the workers. They have the right to oppose to
illegal works. They can demand for the right to oppose to illegal works. They can demand for
their rights. All these approaches led to the development of democratic school of management.
g) Contingency Theory School: This theory emphasizes that there is no best way to manage. It
focus on the inter relationship within and among the subsystems as well as between the
organization and its environment. It emphasizes the multivariate nature of organization and
attempts to understand how organizations operate under varying conditions and in specific
situation. It regards management as situational.
None of the above school provides a comprehensive view. Each has strong and weak
points. In the present time, people don’t support the traditional school, as there is not any scope
of right of the workers. It is not the mentality of workers to work as a toy under the authority. As
a result, democratic school has got the importance. But the contingency school of management
includes all other schools of management and so seems to be more adaptable.
Human relation school should get importance, as for the development of an organization
it is most essential. An organization can fulfill its objectives only when the employees are
satisfied. They should get an environment to work and to get working environment mutual
respect for each other is essential.
The most suitable school in the present situation seems to be modern school. This is
because personnel constitute the most important and vital key to the effective functioning of an
organization. Their knowledge and skills have to be constantly upgraded to handle new task to
achieve organizational success and the modern schools feel the necessity of this point.
Similarly scientific schools can also be supported in the present time. Today, the library
and information systems are the complex organizations committed to serve the users demands.
Libraries have growth in times in the social, cultural, scientific and technological environments
in which they have been developing and operating. Modern libraries are not merely store houses
of information and knowledge, but are also live and active institutions involved in a vital service
to the society. Today, information and knowledge are considered as important as energy and
biotechnology and hence have to be taken care of and managed well. Therefore in the libraries,
the theories and principles of scientific management are being increasingly applied to manage
them.
A number of more or less separate schools of management thought have emerged since
the end of the 19th century and each sees management from its own viewpoint. Each of the above
school of management thought reflects the problems of the period during which they were
popular and these schools which have survived today are influencing management thoughts of
the present situation.
Management
Management: Right from the dawn of human civilization man has been acquiring and
sharpening the principle of management for better understanding of nature, better exploitation of
resources, better human relations, better organization and governance. As such management is
quite dynamic and flexible and responsible to changes in the social concept and economic
condition. Management structure is pyramid, i.e broadest at the base and tapering towards the
top.
The term management as used in business has a fairly precise meaning and includes the
four basic functions of planning, organizing, motivation (personnel) and controlling. In simple,
management means getting things done in a proper manner without conflict or with least
conflict. The purpose of management function is to yield the optimum good result by using the
resources at hand. The available resources may not be sufficient but the management attempts to
get the best result in a given situation.
According to ALA Glossary of library and information science “management may be defined as
the process of coordinating the total resources of an organization towards the accomplishment of
the desired goals of that organization through the execution of a group of interrelated function
such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
John Franklin Mee has analyzed a number of definitions and arrived at a definition which
defines management as being composed of three elements-
i) Objectives for group effort must exist;
ii) A process based on logic must be followed in attaining objectives and
iii) People must be utilized in the process to attain objectives.
Management is “the function….concerned in the execution of policy within the limits set
up by administration and the employment of the organization for the particular objects before it.”
Perhaps the simplest and most useful definition of management is “achievement of objectives
through other people”.
Management has been practiced in some form ever since the dawn of human civilization.
However, systematic study of management as a separate branch of knowledge is a product of 20th
century. It was confined to the study of organization, functions, powers and activities etc. of the
public authorities. Later, attempt was made to determine rules for effective and efficient
administrative organization on the basis of empirical evidence.
Managers are needed to convert disorganized resources of people equipment and finance
into a useful enterprise. The modern library managers are needed to exercise a positive influence
to make things happen, to be a dynamic, innovative force, to initiate change and follow through
action. To design job structure which will satisfy the social need of staff member by providing
opportunities for self expression, inner security and human satisfaction.
Maintenance Service
Maintenance Service: Documents are acquired, processed, stored and displayed for use. So it is
essential that these are maintained in proper order and in good physical condition fit for being
used by the library users. In fact, the ultimate success of various other functions like acquisition,
classification and cataloguing rests on the efficiency of the maintenance work. Maintenance
work involves continuous monitoring or keeping proper stocking, arrangement and display of
books on the shelves in the stack rooms and taking care of them.
There are always some users who forget to return materials. There are also thieves who
prey on libraries. The public may not always realize how valuable some of the library materials
are. Again, the price to be paid in a retail store for books and other materials is much lower than
what it costs for the library to acquire, process, store, and to maintain records and so on. Besides,
some documents are rare and some go out of print. So the documents that are in the library
collection can not be easily replaceable. The library security section that comes under
maintenance should try to ensure that no document is lost, no document is mutilated and so on. If
possible, the thief catching devices should be introduced in a library.
1. Guides: Guides should be put at different places in the library so that a user can find out his /
her way without asking anybody in different parts of the library such as reading room, stacks,
etc. Some general guides should be affixed at the entrance of the stack. It should give an overall
view of the arrangements of books in the stacks. Besides general guides, the following will also
need to be introduced, each of which should show the subjects covered in the particular area
giving the inclusive class numbers as well as equivalent names of the subjects in the natural
language / verbal plane.
a) Tier Guide: In case of more than one tier stack, a tier guide should be provided on each tier.
b) Gangway Guide: Each gangway should be provided a gangway guide.
c) Bay Guide: Bay is the part of the face of rack between two consecutive upright. The bay
guide should be put for each bay in the stack room.
d) Shelf Guide: Each shelf should be provided a shelf guide.
2. Shelf List: A shelf list consists of cards of standard size 7.5 X 12.5 cm. A library can also use
the catalogue cards without lines or colored cards for this purpose, or the duplicate copy of the
main entry catalogue card of the book. For each volume there would be one card. The call
number is written on the leading line in the left hand corner, starting from first vertical.
Accession number is written bellow it. In the next line comes the heading. Last line contains
title, edition and year of publication. These cards are then arranged in a classified order parallel
to the corresponding books on the shelves.
Shelf list enables the library to maintain correct sequence on the shelves and to put every
book in the correct place. It can also indicate immediately the position of any book on the self in
the library. As such, the shelf list is an important record; so it should be kept under safety.
Further, shelf list may be regarded as a stock register; therefore, it can be used for stock
verification purpose also.
* Shelf Rectification: The maintenance staff at all levels in a library can devote their free time in
studying the books on the shelves so as to develop a fair knowledge of their contents. According
to Ranganathan, shelf rectification is the process of restoring order among the books. In an open
access library, users have the freedom to select books of their choice from the shelves. While
doing so, some users may intentionally or unintentionally misplace the books in the shelves and a
book wrongly placed is as good as lost. All these would require restoration of order. This can be
achieved by reading the shelves systematically and shifting the misplaced books on the shelves
to their proper places.
In order to control the movement of books in a library system, we make use of the shelf
list. The cards will move with the books, wherever they are transferred. The regular shelf reading
will provide efficient retrieval of materials and helps in the identification of the damaged books
so that they can be removed for repair and binding.
3. Document Maintenance in and Around the Shelves: When the documents are in the shelves
the following maintenance procedures are implemented
a) Shelving: The documents should be properly arranged in the shelves of the library so that they
can be quickly located. The arrangement may be keyword based, classification based or such
other. This practice should be followed for the new books received in the library, books just
returned from circulation, books taken out by the user to the reading room, books taken out from
shelves for carrying out some type of correction, books received after binding, books that are
misplaced, and so on.
b) Maintenance of Document: If tags on books are found missing or get faded, then necessary
action should be taken. Books in need of binding or repair should be taken out from the shelves
for maintenance work. Maintenance of document will include following actions
i) Mending: Mending means minor restoration, not involving replacement with any new material
or the separation of books from cover. For example, the mending of a tear in a page or the
tipping in a loose leaf.
ii) Repairing: Partial rehabilitation of a worn volume, in which the amount of work done being
less than the minimum amount of money involved in rebinding and more than the maximum
involved in mending is called repairing. For example, the repairing of the cover cloth or restoring
the lost leaf corners.
iii) Reinforcing: Strengthening the structure of a weakened volume usually by adding material is
termed as reinforcing. For example, the strengthening of a hinge with cloth or the reinforcing of
a page by covering it with tissue.
iv) Recasing: Replacing the cover of a volume, which is still in good condition but come out of
its cover or has loosened in its cover, the sewing can be solved by recasing.
v) Re-backing: Attaching a new shelf back on a volume without any other binding in termed as
re-backing.
vi) Re-sewing: The process of making a new cover and of attaching it to the volume.
vii) Re-covering: The process of taking out the volume out of its cover, removing the old sewing,
sewing a new and replacing it in the same cover.
c) Dusting and Cleaning: Dust reduces the life of a book; further, the users will hesitate to take
out for consultation such a volume which is full of dust. Again, the books lying unattended in
dark corners for a long period have a greater possibility of being eaten by silver fish and other
insects. To avoid this, dusting and cleaning of books should be done on a regular basis, at least in
an interval of 20-30 days. In a library where the stack area is very large, cleaning can be done by
mechanical devices like vacuum cleaners, etc.
4. Binding: Binding enables the stock to be kept in proper physical conditions. Routine bindings
as well as specification are similar for both books and periodicals publications. Big libraries
should have their own binderies both for binding and repair of books. Other libraries should get
their books bound and repaired by commercial binders.
a) Picking up Books: Damaged books are picked up in the issue or return of the books by the
users, during shelving, shelf rectification and stock verification. New books having weak casing
should also be taken out for binding before being released for use.
b) Noting Details: For each volume the librarian needs to prepare a binding slip. The binding
slip should contain information regarding author, title, call number, accession number, kind of
binding required, colour of binding, lettering (in gold or ink), matter for lettering on the cover
page / spine, etc.
c) Sending the Books: The librarian needs to prepare an order copy for binding from the binding
slips, giving instructions to the binder. The order copy along with the books now should be sent
to the binders.
d) Receiving Books: On receiving the books, these should be checked with the binding slips to
know whether specifications listed out are followed or not. Specification should cover matter
regarding assembling (collation, removal of wrappers and advertisement), stitching (sewing,
mounting of maps, and illustrations, use of end papers, cutting of edges), forwarding, lettering,
sizes, materials to be used etc. If everything is found in order then the labelling and pasting
should be done, to be followed by shelving and releasing of the bill of the binders for payment.
In many libraries, the issues of a complete volume of a periodical are bound together in
hard covers which are known as bound volume periodicals. The bound volumes are shelved with
other books by classification number in some libraries. In other libraries they are shelved in a
separate periodical area. Some libraries acquire some of the current copies of periodicals in paper
and the back issues in digital form.
5. Stock Verification: Stock verification means a systematic checking of the library holdings
with an aim to find out the missing volumes in the library stock. It is a physical check-up of the
documents on record.
a) Need: Books may be mutilated, misplaced, and lost. The damaged books have to be repaired;
misplaced books should be taken out for correct placing, and the lost books should be simply
written off. Those books, which are important and in heavy demand, would need to be replaced.
In case too many books are found to have been lost, mutilated and misplaced, then steps have to
be taken to improve the situation. For all these stock verification will be necessary.
b) Disadvantages: One of the disadvantages of stock verification is that during the stock
verification process many libraries have to close down. The books borrowed by users are recalled
for physical verification and this may cause inconvenience to the users. Again, very often the
cost of stock verification is higher than the cost of the lost book.
c) Stock Verification Procedures: Let us now discuss stock verification procedures as given
below:
i) Accession Register: In this method, the accession register is taken to the shelves. One person
calls out the accession numbers of the books on the shelves and another person ticks the same
accession number in the accession register with a pencil. After this, the items on loan, the items
sent for binding, etc. are ticked in the register. At the end of this operation, a list of untraceable
books is prepared. An effort is also made to trace the missing books. This method is time
consuming, cumbersome and it spoils the accession register.
ii) Register Listing Accession Numbers: In this procedure a separate register is prepared that
contains the accession numbers. The register is taken to the shelves. One person calls out the
accession number from the book, another person ticks the relevant column against the particular
accession number. The rest are same as that of access register procedure.
For small libraries whose collections are within the range of 25 thousand, they can use
any of the above two methods. They can also use similar method that includes Check Cards,
Book cards, and so on. Large libraries cannot use these procedures.
iii) Loose Sheets Listing Accession Numbers: In case of loose sheet, on each sheet consecutive
accession numbers are written down. A single sheet may contain 100 accession numbers. An
accession number called out is crossed out in the sheet. This procedure has the advantage over
the above two in its ability to carry out the stock verification by more than two people at a time
since the loose sheets provide wide flexibility of taking out by multiple persons.
iv) Shelf List: When the shelf lists are on cards and the shelf list is up to date and accurate in
terms of details and arrangement, then this procedure can be followed for stock verification. It is
also essential that in this method, stock verification and stock rectification should be combined
into a single process for the ultimate success. In this method also sock verification can be carried
out by a number of persons at a time as portions of shelves to be checked can be allocated to
different persons.
v) Numerical Counting of Books: This involves mere counting of books lying on shelves and
those on loan. This number deducted out of total stock based on accession register would lead to
number of books lost. On knowing the average cost of a book, one can calculate the cost of all
the lost books.
vi) Sample Stock Verification Method: In this method, a few sections are chosen on the basis of
sampling method (statistics) for stock verification. This gives the figure for annual loss on
average basis.
d) Loss of Books: The stock verification is helpful in identifying and determining the loss of
books in a library. Loss of books in an open access library is inevitable. The General Finance
Rules 2005, The Ministry of Finance, Government of India, No. 194 (ii) (P. 74) envisages that
“loss of five volumes per one thousand volumes of books issued / consulted in a year may be
taken as reasonable provided such losses are not attributable to dishonesty or negligence.
However, loss of a book of a value exceeding Rs. 1,000/- (Rupees One thousand only) and rare
books irrespective of value shall invariably be investigated and appropriate action taken”. The
authorities should write off such loss of books. In case the loss is higher than the permissible
limit then there will be a need to investigate the mater. Causes for higher loss should be
determined and steps should be taken to improve the situation.
6. Evaluation: Library documents are selected by different people over a long period of time.
Librarians may vary in their perception of the general principles of the selection. Patrons’ interest
may change and what was a good collection a decade ago may no longer meet their needs, or the
community itself may change, bringing entirely new patrons with very different needs. All these
factors demand an evaluation of the total collection.
Collection evaluation is a part of collection development in which the existing collections
are measured, analyzed, and judged according to preset criteria for size, relevance, quality, and
use. Evaluation methodologies may be categorized by their focus (user-centered versus
collection-centered) or by the nature of their findings (objective / quantitative/ statistical versus
subjective / qualitative / interpretative).
a) Determining the Worth of the Collection: Various techniques can be used to get some idea
of the worth of a collection. Some of them are
i) Bestsellers, and Reviews: Each year the American Library Association produces lists such as
Best Books for Young Adults, Notable Children’s’ Books, and Notable Books for adult
collections. Certain ALA divisions cooperate to produce University books for secondary school
libraries and university press books for public libraries. Other organizations also produce such
lists. With more and more books being published and reaching the bestseller lists, librarians must
check these lists against their holdings. How many titles were bought, how many were missed?
Did the librarian decide consciously not to buy the missing titles and if so was the decision
correct? Do the titles fall outside the scope of the collection being developed or have the review
media being used to make choices failed to alert the librarian as to their value? Another point of
consideration is that no library can survive with only standard list of titles on its shelves, since no
list can meet the need of diverse patron interest to be found in varying communities.
ii) User Study: The librarian should be alert to study groups within the user community, their
movement and their changing demands from time to time. The users’ need is to be compared
with the existing collection. Soliciting opinions on adequacy and quality of local collections from
the users and/or experts can also prove effective.
iii) Interlibrary Loan Request: Keeping accurate statistics on the number of requests as well as
specific titles and subjects requested will provide an insight into the ways where the users’ needs
are shifting.
iv) Questions at the Reference Desk: Requests from patrons will show the relationship between
the patrons’ interest and the library’s collection. When a genuine conflict exists between the two,
reevaluation of the collection development policy is called for.
v) Titles on Reserve: The title on reserve also provides an insight into a patron’s interest. A large
number of reserves for a particular title would alert the librarian to procure more copies of the
same title.
vi) Circulation Statistics: Here, the circulation of locally held materials is analyzed to forecast
distributions of future needs.
vii) Request Analysis: In request analysis, the requests for materials that could not be found in
local collections are analyzed to determine the weaknesses while the fulfillment of requests from
other libraries is analyzed to determine the strength.
viii) Bibliographies: No library has enough staff to use all the specialized bibliographies
available for evaluation of a collection. But a wide range of such tools should be owned by
libraries for consultation in reader’s advisory and reference services.
7. Weeding: A garden can hardly attain the goals of beauty and elegance without the removal of
the earlier plants and the planting and nurturing of the new ones. In the same way, a library
should weed the obsolete or unused materials periodically to use its limited space most
effectively and for efficient utilization of its new collections. But, titles from old collection need
to be weeded only when the library periodically acquires new materials, as something is always
better than nothing in the library.
a) Why Weeding is not Practised in Libraries: In a service library, the collection loses its
value and significance if the important and valuable documents are mixed up with larger number
of outdated and useless documents. Still, weeding is avoided in many libraries because of the
following factors
i) Love for Large Numbers: The glory for numbers in libraries is still there. This is mainly
because official reports to be submitted by the librarian emphasize on numbers.
ii) No Reading is Obsolete: Many feel that every book, however old it may be, has its own value.
What seems superfluous today may contain the essence of our times for the researcher of
tomorrow.
iii) Pressure of Work: Library being a dynamic organization, a work pressure will always be on
the library professionals. Since weeding implies careful, judicious and justifiable action, which
needs time, librarians hesitate to weed out.
iv) Fear of Audit and Clientele Comments: At the time of audit one may face objection that
documents for which amounts were paid are not found in the library. Similarly, the clientele may
also comment upon the documents weeded out of the library saying that some very useful
documents are also discarded.
The librarians need to be discouraged by the above factors. A clear and well planned
weeding out policy free from biasness and approved by a committee will clear all hurdles.
b) Weeding Policy: The Council of American Library Association holds the view that in public
libraries “annual withdrawals from the collection should average at least 5 percent of the total
collection”. Sinha Committee Report (1958) holds a similar view in case of Indian Public
Libraries in the statement that “a conscious librarian should discard 5 percent of the fiction and 2
percent of the non-fiction every year”. According to Ranganathan, many collections lose their
relevance in 20 years. After that period such books should not be preserved in the library but
should be weeded out and written off.
c) What should be weeded: The following types of collection can be considered for weeding:
i) Obsolete Collection: In science and technology, the developments are so fast that the books
published twenty or thirty years ago become outdated. Such books have to be weeded out. The
books that are obsolete in content, style or theme also need to be weeded out.
ii) Older Editions: Superseded editions of books might well be eliminated, if the library is not
attempting a historical collection of all the editions of a given title. Almanacs and yearbooks may
be discarded after 5 years.
Bibliographies and encyclopaeidas are of little use after ten years, though exceptions may
be made in specific instances such as the famous eleventh edition of Encyclopedia Britannica.
iii) Unused Collection: The books that are not circulated or consulted by any library patron
during the last five years also need to be weeded out.
iv) Mutilated Books: Books that are mutilated because of constant use should be withdrawn.
Books that show signs of wear, books which have become dirty, shabby or just plain worn out
should also be withdrawn. When the heavily used items or the titles with significant content are
selected for weeding due to its physical condition then a new copy if it is still available from the
producer or publisher, should be acquired or it should be replaced with a reproduced / Xeroxed
copy (digital conversion).
The weeding should be regularly practised in the library. It might be possible for the
selectors to consider each new title in relation to the possibility of discarding one already on the
shelves. In such cases the weeded collection is replaced with a fresh edition or more
contemporary substitute.
d) Space for Weeded out Books: The weeded out books can be stored in a cooperative way, can
be provided to other library as a donation, can be sold out in the market of second hand book or
destroy.
i) Storage: At least one copy of the weeded books should be transferred from active collection to
storage (cooperative or individual), or transferring the title to some network partner. This is for
the possible remedies for preventing the permanent loss of the weeded collection. The provision
of cooperative storage will make the weeded collection available to the user of any other
libraries.
ii) Donation: If the books are in good condition, particularly if they are older editions of
reference sources like encyclopedia, handbook, etc, they may be donated to other libraries which
are not in a position to go for such costly books.
iii) Sold: The documents which are completely worn out, mutilated and irreparable should be
sold just like unpreserved old newspapers.
iv) Destroy: Some collection also needs to be destroyed. Ministry of Finance vide its circular of
7/2/1984 says that “there may be no objection to the librarian disposing of
mutilated/damaged/obsolete volumes to the best interest of the library. However, the disposal of
such volumes should be made on the recommendations of a three member committee”.
e) What should not be weeded: The titles that were in the bestsellers list should not be weeded
even if its circulation statistics is not good. The classic books in each subject also should not be
weeded out.
8. Let Us Sum Up: If proper care is not taken by the maintenance section in a library, the stock
would deteriorate and become unserviceable very soon. The maintenance section preserves the
most valuable or most-used items in the collection.
In a small library, it is generally possible to carry out stock verification once every year.
However, in a larger library, it is neither feasible nor necessary to do stock verification every
year. In such cases it should be a continuous process, in which regions of shelves are taken for
stock verification and the whole process should be completed in two to three years. Again, the
part of the stock which is prone to greater losses can be subjected to stock verification more
frequently. During stock verification, regular library services should not be affected as far as
possible. The use of shelf list for the purpose provides a method of stock verification, which can
be carried out without closing the library.
The library collection in numbers does not tell anything about how the collection relates
to the patron needs. Library collections must be continuously evaluated to go with the user
needs. The tools or methods that are used in selection of materials for library acquisition can also
be used in evaluation of the collection and weeding of the unused collection. The library
collection should be evaluated periodically within five to ten years, depending on the stability of
staff doing the selection and patron’s surveys showing major weaknesses. It should identify what
has been missed, what titles in the collection are not relevant to the users and so on. All
evaluation techniques are time consuming and costly.
Library materials may be weeded because of a combination of their out-dated content,
unnecessary titles, their physical condition (scratched, torn, generally ragged), and their use
patterns (declining or directly lost). The weeded titles may be sent to storage.
Machine Readable Cataloguing 21 (MARC 21)
Machine Readable Cataloguing 21 (MARC 21): The MARC 21 is a standard format for the
representation and communication of bibliographic and related information in machine readable
form. The MARC 21 is a new name of harmonization of CANMARC and USMARC in a single
edition. In 1987, the Library of Congress issued the first edition of the document MARC 21.
Subsequent editions were published in 1990, 1994 and 2000.
a) Necessity of MARC 21: Mark 21 is necessary because of the following factors:
i) Lack of standardization among different national MARC formats;
ii) Lack of internationally accepted cataloguing code to MARC record;
iii) Diverse functions of bibliographic agencies;
iv) Lack of agreement among different bibliographic communities.
b) Maintenance of MARC 21: The Library of Congress and the National Library of Canada
serve as the maintenance agency for MARC 21. The MARC 21 format, documentation and
reviewing and revision are done by the Machine Readable Bibliographic Information Committee
(MARBI). MARBI is a committee of the ALA. MARBI meets in conjunction with MARC
advisory committee at each American Library Association (ALA) conference.
c) Standard Used in MARC 21
i) Cataloguing Code: AACR II;
ii) Subject Heading: LCSH;
iii) Classification Scheme: DDC;
iv) ISO 2709 and ANSI / NISO Z39.2.
Till now, MARC 21 remains the standard one which is widely accepted in different
library softwares and also in different countries.
Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC)
Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC): MARC format has become a generic term to all
MARC formats including UKMARC, CANMARC, InterMARC, etc. which are used for the
identification and arrangement of bibliographical data for handling by computer.
The first conference on Machine Readable Cataloguing was sponsored by the Library of
Congress. The committee on Automation of the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) and
Council of Library Resources (CLR) was met at the Library of Congress. This conference
recommended that
i) MARC records should include additional information to be used as multipurpose records, in
addition to information available on printed card;
ii) The element of MARC data should be standardized;
iii) MARC records should be produced and distributed to libraries which have automated system.
In the second conference held at the Library of Congress in November 1965, Library of
Congress sought funds from CLR and in December 1965 it received a grant to conduct a pilot
project.
In early January 1966 the planning for the pilot project began. The third conference was
held in February 1966 at the Library of Congress which was considered the official opening of
the pilot project for machine readable cataloguing data. The pilot project was called MARC I. In
this way the MARC I format was set up in April 1966 which was restricted to books only. The
distribution of regular weekly service of MARC tapes started from Nov. 1966. The MARC I
format was based entirely on the structure of the Library of Congress catalogue card. So, BNB
(with active collaboration with Library of Congress) made some operational changes to make it
interchangeable record format. As a result, MARC II was developed. It is capable of containing
bibliographic data of all forms of library material such as books, monographs, serial, map, music,
etc. By subscribing to this service a library can acquire Magnetic tapes in machine readable
form.
Due to the differences between the British Library and the Library of Congress MARC II
was later split into two formats - BNB MARC (later UK MARC) and US MARC. The
USMARC format becomes the U. S. National Standard in 1971 (ANSI Z39.2) and an
International Standard in 1973 (ISO 2709). The MARC II also influenced the other countries to
develop their own standard format which followed the same structure but the tags were slightly
different. As a result, certain amount of incompatibility exists among the different countries. To
solve this problem IFLA launched a programme known as UNIMARC, but eventually it failed.
A) Structure of MARC Tapes
a) Leader: It provides information about ensuring such records as total length of the record, the
type of record, etc. It is 24 characters (00-23) long.
b) Record Directory: It shows what variable fields are in the record and what their locations in
the record are. It is of 12 characters long.
c) Variable Field: The variable fields are of two types- Variable Control Field (001-009) and
Variable Data Field.
B) Advantages of Using MARC:
a) MARC tapes can be used by individual libraries for producing their conventional card
catalogue / book form of catalogue, etc.
b) It helps in the creation of centrally prepared catalogue.
c) Distribution of MARC tapes to the receiving libraries avoid duplication of effort.
d) Uses of MARC tapes make different library softwares compatible to one another.
e) MARC tapes can be used for computerized SDI services.
f) MARC tapes perform sharing of bibliographical information.
Local Area Network (LAN)
Local Area Network (LAN): In a LAN two or more computers or node are directly linked
within a small well defined areas such as a room, office, building, campus or a local
neighborhood with a range of 10 kilometers. Each hardware device on a LAN such as computer
or a printer is called a node. Most LANs are privately owned, controlled and managed by a
single person or organization and uses direct high speed cables to share hardware, software and
data resources. LAN uses the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE-802.5, IEEE
802.3), Ethernet, IBM token ring, etc standardization protocol where as WAN uses TCP/IP,
HTTP, FTP, etc.
The main component of LAN are discussed below-
A) Cables and Other Medium for Transmitting Signal: Cables and other medium for
transmitting the signal is one of the very important components of any network. The cables can
be of the following types-
a) Twisted Pair: It is used in low speed LAN using base hand transmission. In this mode of
transmission data is transmitted as simple electrical levels often without any modulation. There is
no multiplexing and the entire bandwidth of the medium is used for transmitting signals from
one station. It is used for communication up to a distance of 2 km.
Twisted pair is vulnerable to interference from large machines such as air conditioners.
This interference can destroy data.
Twisted pair cables are generally two types-
i) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP);
ii) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP);
Twisted pair consists of a pair of insulated conductor’s that is twisted together.
Linkage of Library and Information Science with Other Disciplines
Linkage of LIS with Other Disciplines: Library and Information Science is an interdisciplinary
body of knowledge, taking shape in the form of new paradigmatic science recognizable from its
theoretical foundations and broad agreement as to its purpose and methods and the approach it
employs. This interdisciplinary subject has derived and drawn the benefits from most of the
traditional subjects which include Chemistry, Computer Science, Education, Linguistics, Logic,
Mathematics, Physics, Psychology and so on. In the following paragraphs an attempt has been
made to discuss the contribution of some other subjects towards library and information science.
The discussion has been arranged according to the alphabetical order of the name of the
discipline.
a) Chemistry: Chemistry is the science of matter. It deals with the composition of substances
and their properties and reactions upon one another. The Alchemists did much of the ground
work leading up to modern chemistry of which Antoine Lavoisier (1743-94) is considered the
founder. Chemistry helps the Library and Information Science in the preservation and
conservation of different types of documents. It is extensively used to save the print and / or
digital counterparts from different biological agents.
b) Computer Science: Computer science is the study of computation. It is the discipline that is
concerned with the methods and techniques related to data processing performed by automatic
means. It deals with theories of understanding computing systems and methods; designing
methodology, algorithms and tools; dealing with the methods for the testing of concepts,
methods of analysis and verification; and knowledge representation and implementation.
Library and Information Science often needs to handle very large quantity of data which
always demands the use of computer. In recent times, the work of every branch of Library and
Information Science relies directly or indirectly on the use of computer i.e. it is used for library
administration, acquisition, retrospective searching, current awareness, SDI services, online
database searching, machine translation, etc. It helps to reduce the burden of handling the ever-
increasing amount of information. It helps to automate the whole house keeping operation and so
on. The computer science with operation research or cybernetics helps in the study and
development of information processing, psychology and the behavioral sciences, through putting
light on the human processes involved in knowledge-transfer such as communication process,
analysis of user needs and man – machine interaction.
c) Economics: Economics is the branch of social science that deals with the production,
distribution and consumption of goods and services and their management. It includes interest
rates, gross national product, inflation, unemployment, inventories, as tools to predict the
direction of the economy, etc.
Library is a non profit making institution. So, its service must be justified in terms of
demand and uses. Economic theories are used for the evaluation of different types of reference
sources. It is extensively used to study the document procuring and processing cost of the staff,
cost of storage, cost of maintenance, cost of retrieval of information, overhead cost etc. It is also
used for the cost benefit and cost effectiveness studies in the context of different services.
d) Education: Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something
less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, good judgment and wisdom. It
also imparts culture from generation to generation.
Every seeker of information is a student in one sense and they need initiation into the
library and information system, tools and technique. The libraries and information centre also
serves as institutions of informal education. It teaches the library patron about how to use the
library material through user education programme, gives assistance through reference services,
and provides information service when the users need it. In addition, the subject education,
works out programmes of education and training for the profession itself regarding the design
and execution of courses, method of evaluation, certification, etc.
e) Law: Law is the combination of those rules and principles of conduct promulgated by
legislative authority. It is derived from court decisions and established by local custom. In library
environment there are also laws governing registration of newspaper and periodical, ISBN /
ISSN number, censorship, copyright, delivery of books act, transmission & communication of
information, etc. Within the premises of library itself, library rules are in existence for the proper
use of library material. Various states also have library legislation which enables the
establishment, maintenance, financing and governing the public library system within the states.
In the computer environment also there are laws related to data flow, networking, and uses of
information which are governed by special regulation. Library and Information Science demands
the detail study and evaluation of all these laws.
f) Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. In the library environment
linguistics is of great significance in information processing, indexing and abstracting of
document, automatic indexing, artificial intelligence, machine translation etc. In the process of
indexing, the indexer has to choose the terms from natural language by taking into consideration
different syntactic and semantic problems as the phrase or word chosen should match the
vocabulary of the text and the search terms of the user.
g) Logic: Logic is the branch of philosophy that deals with the formal properties of arguments
and the philosophical problems associated with them. It means gathering and reasoning;
investigating the principles governing correct or reliable inference and deals with the canons and
criteria of validity in thought and demonstration. The system of reasoning is applicable to any
branch of knowledge or study. In Library and Information Science, it is used in the classification
and indexing of document, and widely used in decision making by the librarian.
h) Management: According to ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science “management
may be defined as the process of coordinating the total resources of an organization towards the
accomplishment of the desired goals of that organization through the execution of a group of
interrelated function such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
Management science helps in system analysis, system design, and system management and by
this way helps in managing a LIS centre most efficiently. It is responsible for deciding the line of
authority and the objectives of the institution, analysing and describing a job and fixing policies
for recruitment and so on.
i) Mathematics: Mathematics is the science dealing with quantity, form, measurement and
arrangement, and in particular, with the methods for discovering by concepts and by models the
properties and interrelationship of quantities and magnitudes. The mathematics helps in
programming as well as in the study of economics of information, estimate cost, performance
evaluation, etc. Various information models are needed in preparing different types of library
software packages. Again, bibliometrics is a branch of Library and Information Science where
mathematical principles are used to a great extent.
j) Philosophy: The term philosophy is drawn from a combination of the Greek words “philos”
meaning love and “Sophia” meaning wisdom (love of wisdom). So, it is the study of the most
general and abstract features of the world and categories with which we think mind, matter,
reason, proof, truth and so on. It is the tool for the generation and development of information.
k) Physics: Physics (from the Greek ‘phusikos’ means natural and ‘phusis’ means nature) is the
science of Nature in the broadest sense. It is concerned with the study of the behaviour and
properties of matter in a wide variety of contexts, ranging from the sub-nuclear particles from
which all ordinary matter is made (particle physics) to the behaviour of the material universe as a
whole (cosmology). Different types of machines that are widely used in the library are product
of the physics. It includes reprographic, automatic binding machine, etc.
l) Psychology: Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour (derived from the Greek
word 'psyche' meaning breath, spirit, or soul and ‘logos’ means ‘study’), mental processes, and
how they are affected and/or affect individuals or groups physical state, mental state, and
external environment. Its goal is to describe, understand, predict, and modify behaviour. Though
it is largely concerned with humans, the behaviour and thought of animals is also studied.
Library and Information Centers have to provide information service based on user needs. But
the users have different psychological temperaments, which makes knowledge of human
psychology important in LIS. The human psychology helps the Library and Information Science
professional to understand the user correctly, analyze his/her problem or need precisely to
provide the specific information in a form most suitable to him/her, and to treat the user
appropriately. The knowledge of psychology is also important in designing and developing an
information retrieval system as it helps to select a term which majority of the users is likely to
use.
m) Sociology: Sociology, the study of the social lives of humans, groups, and societies, is
sometimes defined as the study of social interactions. It concerns itself with the social rules and
processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations,
groups, and institutions. Library is a social institution. In Library and Information Science
sociology examines the legal and social aspects of information processing, transfer and use.
n) Statistics: Statistics is concerned with the collections, classification, analysis and
interpretation of numerical facts or data. Statistics obtains data from a study of a large quantity
of numerical data which need not be exact but should approximate the true value. Statistical
methods in Library and Information Science help in improving the existing services of the
library. The statistical analysis is used to assess the users' needs and ascertain views on library
services, to measure productivity of library staff, to justify the need of reference service, cost
benefit analysis, library performance evaluation and so on.
Library and Information Science and other traditional subjects are inter-linked. It is sure that
information science is benefited by other traditional subject. But in return it also gives its best to
other subject. It takes the sole responsibility of the literary heritage of other subjects, its
document collection, conservation and preservation, dissemination and uses and by this way also
helps in their subsequent generation of new information. Again, it is only the library that
manages the literary heritages on which our modern civilization exists. Without the help of
Library and Information Science, the society will again move to the traditional days of human
civilization. When we come to the electronic environment, much of the information available
over the internet as a whole, is the product of the Library and Information Science or devised in
consultation with the help of the Library and Information Science professional.
Library Standards
Library Standards: It is desirable that a library should use standard specification. In this
connection the following standards will be found useful:
i) Indian standard specification for library furniture and fittings: Part I Timber [IS: 1829 (Part I)-
1978].
ii) Indian standard specification for library furniture and fittings: Part II Steel [IS: 1892 (Part I)-
1977].
Indian Standard Recommendations relating to primary elements in the design of library
building (first revision), Delhi, Indian Standards Institution, 1977 recommend the following
a) Documents: 150 volumes per square metre;
b) Library Staff
i) Librarian and deputy librarian=30 m2
ii) Classifier, cataloguer, accession librarian and maintenance librarian= 9 m2
iii) Administrative and professional staff not at service points = 5 m2
c) Users: Average area per reader in the reading room=2.33 m2
d) Services: Area required for services to users can be calculated on the basis of local
requirements;
e) Others: According to Keyes D. Metcalf, Planning academic and research library buildings,
New York, McGraw-Hill, 1965, P. 316 space for stairways, corridors, entrances, lobbies, toilet
facilities, walls, columns, vertical communication and transportation, etc would consists of 30
percent to one-third of area for documents, readers, and service to readers and staff.
The dimension for table, chair, shelving and card catalogue cabinet can be taken from the
Indian standard specification for library furniture and fittings: Part II Steel (IS: 1829 (Part II)-
1977), New Delhi, Indian Standards Institution, 1978.
Stacks are required for reading room, staff’s room, seminar and meeting hall, for non-
book materials and so on. While selecting stacks for any kind of library, the main consideration
should be to ensure maximum space utilization, user convenience and easy movement with the
stack room. The Indian Statistical Institution, Delhi has laid down a standard for wooden rack
vide IS: 1829 (Part 1)-1961 Library Furniture and Fitting: Part 1 (Timber). These have been
reaffirmed by the University Grants Commission’s Library Committee. These are very much in
use.
Library Rules and Its Components
Library Rules and Its Components: The library rules lay down the privileges and duties of the
library members so that they may know their limits precisely and there may not be any
confusion. These rules and regulations serve as a guideline to deal with the public. In the absence
of such rules it may be difficult for the library to meet the demands of its users. Freedom without
any limits cannot be called freedom because a person who claims freedom to himself to do any
act which is injurious to the freedom of another person will deny the other person his freedom.
So the diction “right” implies “duties” and “vigilance is the price of freedom” should be the
guiding factors. The components of the library rules may be as follows:
a) About the Library: A brief description about the library, its history, aims and objectives.
b) Library Hours, Holidays: A library shall be kept open on all days from 9 am to 9 pm except
on national holidays unless decided otherwise by the library committee. The issue counter shall
be closed one hour before the closing of the library.
c) Library Collection: The reference collection, rare books, thesis, periodicals may not be
issued out.
d) Library Services / Facilities: Circulation, reservation, reprography, inter library loan,
bibliographical services can be considered as a must in every kind of library.
e) Membership Eligibility: To get enrolled as a member of a library a person shall fill and sign
the enrollment form. The category of members may be administrative staff of the parent
institution, teachers, research scholars, students, and others.
f) Admission to the Library: Only regular members of the library should have the admission
privileges. However, non-members shall be admitted only by special permit to be issued by the
librarian or his deputy during his absence. Membership identity card shall be shown at the
counter when requested. Every member shall enter his name and membership number in the gate
register.
g) Property Counter: Sticks, umbrellas, boxes, personal books and such other items should be
left at the property counter.
h) Membership Privileges: Each category of member shall be given as many reader’s tickets as
many volumes of books he/she is entitled to borrow at one time. The category can be as follows
Administrative Staff – 5 volumes
Teacher – 20 volumes
Research Scholar – 15 volumes
Honors Student – 10 volumes
Students – 5 volumes
The borrowers must satisfy themselves about the physical condition of the books before
borrowing. They shall be held responsible for any damage or mutilation noticed at the time of
returning. In the membership privileges itself the condition of loan, period of loan, overdue
charge, condition of renewal should also be listed out. A member who loses a ticket shall make a
written report to the Librarian. He shall be responsible for the misuse of the reader’s tickets.
Duplicate ticket shall be issued after a lapse of two weeks from the date of such a notice and on
payment of Rs. 100. He/she shall also be required to sign an indemnity bond.
A member, who infringes rules, shall be liable to forfeit his privilege of admission to and
borrowing of books from the library.
i) Do’s and don’ts: Library rules include those regarding the prevention of misuse of library
resources, maintenance of silence, prohibiting spitting and smoking, switching of the mobile
phone or keeping it in vibration mode, and so on. The rules also insist that no person shall
damage or disfigure books or other property of the library. A member shall have to replace such
books or other properties those are damaged or must make payment for the value thereof.
j) Others: The rules also include the scope for their modification. The cases of misbehavior or
discourtesy by the staff or unwillingness to provide service shall be reported to the librarian or
his deputy during his absence.
The rules to be framed by a library should be worded in such a way that an average user
can understand them. The main rules should be printed on the library tickets, book label, pocket
and the back cover of the book.
Library Resource Sharing and Networking
Library Resource Sharing and Networking: The sharing of library resources started with the
concept of inter library loan, under which a library can get a document from another library on
loan for a certain period. It was followed by the term “Library Cooperation”, but now in its
revised and improved form it is called as “Resource Sharing”. Today, it is called “Library
Network” or “Library Consortia”, which is one of the cooperative ways of sharing online
resources. The inter library loan means sharing of the resources of one library by the other
libraries on demand, when they are needed by its user i.e sharing one’s assets with others.
Library Cooperation / Resource Sharing / Networking / Consortia all denote a mode of
cooperation among a number of libraries whereby the library collection, function or services are
shared by a number of libraries. According to Allen Kent the goals are to provide a positive net
effect on the library user in terms of access to more material or services and or on the library
budget in terms of providing level service at less cost, increased service at level cost or much
more service at less cost than if undertaken individually.
1. Library Cooperation: Library cooperation is a social phenomenon by which libraries are
mutually engaged to increase the service capabilities of a single library and by which the
librarians extend their option to serve clients. It includes sharing materials or function or services
that constitute a library system. A material includes both documentary and non documentary
forms. The function covers the activities concerning the acquisition, processing, storage, etc.;
services include techniques, activities and procedures employed to establish contact between the
document and its consumer i.e. lending, reference, documentation, translation, etc. Library
cooperation also can be looked upon as a broader term than resource sharing or networking or
consortia.
2. Types of Library Cooperation: Based on the geographical area covered, library cooperation
may be of
i) International Level: E.g. Universal Availability of Publication (UAP) programme introduced
by IFLA, Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC)];
ii) National Level: E.g. National Social Science Documentation Center (NASSDOC);
iii) Regional Level and
iv) Local Level.
Based on the functional area covered Library Cooperation may be
i) Sharing of documentary resources (cooperative acquisition, cooperative processing,
cooperative storage for the documents which are less used, cooperative delivery system ie inter
library lending, development of network, developing consortia).
ii) Sharing of manpower resources (arrangement for the cooperative staff training and such).
ii) Sharing of other library facilities or equipment (for eg. sharing of the computer and
reprographic equipment that cannot be afforded by small libraries due to their high cost), and
sharing of finance.
Based on subject basis it may be general or subject based.
3. Kinds of Library Cooperation: Following are some of the kinds of library cooperation.
i) Co-operative Acquisition: The process of acquisition involves selecting, placing orders to
vendors, passing of bills, payments, etc. All these activities can be minimized by cooperative
acquisition. This will also result in saving the cost, earning of a larger discount, saving time and
clerical labor.
The INSDOC, New Delhi, initiated Centralized Acquisition of Periodicals (CAP) through
which it is acquiring foreign periodicals for about 30 CSIR laboratories.
ii) Cooperative Processing: If each library, within the network of resources sharing, processes a
book through the computer then the job of cataloguing can be shared by all the libraries within
the network in the form of-
- Printed Catalogue Card Service: In this process some libraries, usually of national status,
undertake the responsibility of producing printed catalogue cards which are available on a
payment basis for other libraries. The Library of Congress and BNB are producing printed
catalogue card service.
- Prenatal Cataloguing / Cataloguing In Publication (CIP): The term prenatal cataloguing was
used by Dr. S. R. Ranganathan. Prenatal technical work involves completion of technical work
by the national central library of a country on each book before its release by the publisher.
The Cataloguing in Publication (CIP) programme was initiated by Library of Congress
(LOC), USA in 1971 with 27 participating publishers. The process of classification and
cataloguing of a publication is done before the book is released. The cataloguing data provided
by the LOC is printed on the reverse of the title page which helps the individual libraries in
copying down the data on their catalogue card.
- Centralized Classification and Cataloguing: Centralized classification and cataloguing service
of Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC), and Machine Readable Catalogue (MARC) project
of the Library of Congress are remarkable in this direction. Online cataloguing, retrospective
conversion using databases also lead to economy with quality.
iii) Cooperative Storage: Every library has limited space for storage of books. So the old and
less used books are weeded out regularly to provide space for new acquisition. Moreover, the
maintenance of the unused or little used books not only consumes valuable space of the library
but also involves money and labour. So, by resources sharing a centralized cooperative storage of
less used books can be achieved.
The material which is not in active use may be stored on a cooperative basis at a central
dormitory. With the initiative of NASSDOC (ICSSR), New
Delhi and Jawarharlal Nehru University, Delhi an Inter Library Resource Centre (ILRC) was
established in New Delhi in 1975. Some 38 libraries of Delhi deposited their less used serial and
government documents at the centre.
Library of Congress
Library of Congress: The Library of Congress is the national library (National libraries) of the
United States. Founded in 1800, the Library of Congress was originally housed in part of the
Capitol building. In 1897, the Library got its own building (now known as the Jefferson
Building). The Guinness Book of World Records currently lists the Library of Congress as the
"World's Largest Library". This apparently is based on the shelf space the collection occupies.
The Library of Congress states that its collection fills about 530 miles (850 km) of shelves. It
holds about 130 million items with 29 million books. It is estimated that the print holdings of the
Library of Congress would, if digitized and stored as plain text, constitute 17 to 20 terabytes of
information.
Library Network
Library Network: Library networking is an arrangement or a structure that links a group of
libraries which have agreed to work together and / or share their resources in an organized basis
to a certain degree. It can be defined as a two or more libraries engaged in a common pattern of
information exchange through communication for some functional purposes . It is meant to
promote and facilitate sharing of resources available within a group of participating libraries.
a) Definition: The National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS) in its
National Programme Document (1975) defines a network as: “two or more libraries and/or other
organizations engaged in a common pattern of information exchange, through communications,
for some functional purpose. A network usually consists of a formal arrangement whereby
materials, information and services provided by a variety of libraries and other organizations are
available to all potential users. Libraries may be in different jurisdictions but they agree to serve
one another on the same basis as each serves its own constituents. Computer and
telecommunications may be among the tools used for facilitating communication among them”.
b) Precondition for Networking: The agreements between library authorities of different
libraries, building or developing required infrastructure, maintenance of standardization in terms
of classification schemes, cataloguing schemes, uses of some common library management
software and so on are some of the preconditions before developing any kind of network. Some
other preconditions are
i) Automation of the Member Library: For the success of network in the long run, each of the
member libraries must have a policy to automate every function of the library – acquisition,
cataloguing, classification, serials control, circulation, SDI, current awareness services, etc. – in
the shortest possible time. This helps the library to have a computer environment which is
required to design, develop, maintain and to operate several databases, to reduce the cost of
library operations as well as network operations.
ii) Hardware and Software: The network should be able to recommend to participating libraries
the type of hardware and software they need for their in-house functions and for networking
purposes. Hardware should be selected considering the number of entries the participating
libraries can generate within the next 3-5 years.
iii) Trained Manpower: If there is no adequate trained manpower in each of the member
libraries, attempts should be made to train or/and recruit new skilled library personnel.
iv) Standardization: For the purpose of creating databases, it is essential to agree upon a
standard. All libraries should follow a standard MARC format, AACR-II, a standard thesaurus
like Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH), etc. uniformly. Although efforts should be
made to have one classification scheme for all participating libraries yet the use of different
numbers should not become a hurdle as search requests are mostly about authors, titles, editors
and subject descriptions.
Besides the above, it is preferable to have certain communication facilities such as Fax,
Telex, Telephone, etc. as a part of the network system in each of the member libraries for the
effective working of the network. E-mail and internet facilities should be available with the
libraries and they should be able to access international databases, preferably individually or
through the network host to begin with.
c) Advantages of Networking: The advantages of library networking are as follows:
i) Cooperative Collection Development: In the age of information explosion no individual
library, however resourceful, can be self-sufficient in terms of documents. For a library, however
rich it may be impossible to acquire and store all the documents within its four walls.
Networking will help to develop collection in terms of books, periodicals, patents, standards,
audio visual, CDs, etc. and share those resources.
ii) Meets Specialized User Demand: User needs are varied and diversified. To meet the
specialized need one has to approach such special collection or special service that are available
in special libraries. Networking will help in the sharing of experience and expertise of the library
personnel.
iii) Breaks Financial Constraint: The library budgets are decreasing. With the provision of
library networking a library can arrange for cooperative staff training, can exchange the staff for
performing some technical works. Sharing of the finance for cooperative acquisition and
collection development, processing, etc, can also be made.
iv) Reduces Unnecessary Duplication of Work: The networking will remove the efforts in
duplication of classification, cataloguing, and such others.
v) Barrier Breaker: Library networking is needed to break the barriers of distance and time.
Further, it will reduce the physical movement of materials.
vi) Sharing of Hardware Resources: Expensive computer equipment, microfilming equipment,
digitizing devices for newspaper, reprographic systems, etc. can be procured by a networking
group for the benefit of all the libraries of the network. Networking is also needed to connect
personal computer with the mainframe or super computer for problem solving.
vii) Sharing of Software Resources: The software that is too expensive to procure by individual
libraries can be procured and shared by the network for solving larger programmes, information
retrieval, and so on. The software can be installed in the central computer and all other
computers can be used as client.
viii) Development of Union Catalogue: Network helps in developing union catalogue to refer the
user to the documents in any of the other participating libraries and it can be consulted by the
user in order to know which document is available in which library. For example, Union
Catalogue of Social Science Serials was compiled and published by the NASSDOC
(ICSSR), New Delhi in 1980s.
ix) Development of Database: Library network helps in developing special database to meet
some special need by the participatory libraries. Again, through networking the local information
which is available over the network can be controlled locally that satisfies the accuracy. For
example, National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serial in India (1988) was the result of the work
of INSDOC in collaboration with several scientific libraries all over India.
x) Document Delivery Service (DDS): Networks enable librarians, faced with clients’
information needs beyond their local resources, to identify and obtain materials and services for
those clients. The interlibrary loan, Document Delivery Service (DDS) provides the user the
required documents irrespective of its location.
xi) Humanware: Manpower training and refresher course facilities – stimulating, promoting and
coordinating research and training programme for library staff- can be arranged by the network
members.
d) Development of Library Network in India: At international level Joint Academic NETwork
(JANET), Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC), etc. are functioning properly. The examples
of library networks in the western countries suggest that all networks based on a fee structure can
be maintained without grant and are viable in the long run.
NICNET, established by National Informatics Centre (NIC) in 1977 was started in the
late 1987’s. It is one of the largest VSAT Networks of its kind in the world. It was launched
basically for getting and providing information from/to district levels to facilitate planning
process. It links for regional nodes at Delhi, Pune, Bhubneswar and Hyderabad and has
established 32 nodes at state and union territory levels and 439 nodes at district headquarters.
At national level INDONET is India’s first data communication and computer network
that was started in March 1986 by CMC Ltd. It was launched as a solution to the growing need
for providing timely, well processed data to various institutions. In the First phase, they have
mainly network in Mumbai, Calcutta and Chennai. Later, Delhi and Hyderabad were also linked
as additional stations. INDONET presently has an international gateway which provides access
to the world wide pocket switched networks like USA’s Global Networks Systems (GNS) and
Internet.
Education and Research Network (ERNET) <http://www.eis.ernet.in/> was launched by
the Department of Education (DOE), Govt. of India in late 1986 with financial assistance from
United Nationals Development Programme (UNDP) to provide academic and research
institutions with electronic mail facilities. It is currently used by DSIR Labs, research centres and
academic institutions.
Scientific and Industrial Research Network (SIRNET) was established by INSDOC in
late 1989 to interconnect all the CSIR laboratories and other R&D institutions in India.
The success of the above networks and the initiatives taken by NISSAT, UGC, Planning
Commission and other departments of Govt. of India have led to the establishment and
development of library networks in India.
CALIBNET was established by NISSAT in 1986 in Calcutta. It was the first library
network visualized. At present, it has become the centre for CD-ROM databases which are
acquired from outside sources. DELNET was established in 1988 in Delhi by India International
Centre with the initial financial support of NISSAT. It is the first operational library network in
India. INFLIBNET was established by UGC in 1988 and its operations began in 1991. It is a
network of university and college libraries. MALIBNET is the result of the need for
interconnecting libraries and information centres in Chennai, which was visualized by INSDOC
in 1991. INSDOC undertook a feasibility study which was completed in March 1992.
MALIBNET was registered as a society in Chennai in Feb. 1993. Some other library networks in
India are PUNENET (1992) in Pune, ADINET (1993) in Ahmedabad, BONET (1994) in
Mumbai, MYLIBNET (1994) in Mysore (Chennai), and BALNET (1995) in Bangalore.
Library Movement in India
Library Movement in India: The first libraries were only partly libraries, and stored most of
the unpublished records, which are usually viewed as archives. The archeological as well as
literary evidence (written by Chiness travellers in India) make it clear that writing and reading of
manuscripts were regularly practiced in ancient period since the fourth century B.C. to the sixth
century after Christ. This must have led to the growth and development of collection of
manuscripts in important centers of learning. The important library of that period was that of
Nalanda University of Bihar in the fourth century AD. The library was said to be in three
grandest buildings, the area of which was called “Drama Ganja” meaning mast of religion. The
other important academic library of that period was Vikramsila, Odantapuri, Somapuri, Jaggadal,
Mithila, Vallabhi, Kanheri, etc. During that period there was a considerable activity in South
India too, and there was a tradition about the libraries in that period known as sangam age.
The Buddhist of India laid special emphasis on the writing of manuscripts and
maintaining their collection. The Jains and Hindus also made immense contribution in the field
of learning. They patronized education and literary activities, established innumerable institution
called Upasrayas and Temple College.
Acharya Nagarjuna, the founder of Mahayana Buddhism is known to have maintained a
library on the top floor of the university building. It was also said that Taxila has a rich library.
a) Medieval Period: The medieval cycle may be roughly taken to have ended with the
seventeenth century. It was during the ascending phase of this cycle that the giant intellectual and
spiritual leaders such as Sankara, Ramanuja and Madheva flourished.
i) Personnel Libraries: From the earliest times the kings and nobles of India patronized
education and encouraged writing of manuscripts and their preservation. Even the princes of
small states maintained their manuscripts libraries. The tradition was continued till the nineteenth
century. The emperors of Timuride dynasty were patrons of learning. With the exception of
Aurangzeb all the early Mughal rulers extended their support to art, music and literature. The
libraries also made remarkable progress during their times. Humayun converted a pleasure house
in purana quila in Delhi into a library. Akbar maintained an “imperial library”; he was also
instrumental in introducing reforms in the classification and storage of books. Jahangir is said to
have maintained a personnel library which moved with him wherever he went.
ii) Public Libraries: In the seventeenth and the eighteenth century, the development of libraries
received an impetus due to rise of European settlement in India. From 1690, Calcutta began to
develop as one of the principal English settlement, when a large number of British began to settle
there. Subsequently, the circulation and subscription libraries came into being.
The East India Company established the Fort St. David library in 1707 at Cuddalore. In
the year 1709, the society for promotion of Christian Knowledge sent out a circulating library
to Calcutta, the first of its kind in India. Subsequently, a number of such libraries were
established in India, the notable among them were Fort St. George library (1714), East India
Company’s library, Bombay (1715), John Andrews circulating library at Fort
William, Calcutta (1770), The Calcutta Circulating library (1787), etc.
b) Period of Modern Cycle (till Nineteenth Century)
i) Public Libraries: The role of Mughal rulers and missionaries in establishment of some
libraries also find their way to modern cycle. Some of the scattered manuscripts of the early
periods have been collected and preserved in many modern manuscripts libraries. These are
found in many states in India. Those of Baroda, Banaras, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Mysore,
Poona, Tanjavur and Trivandrum are well known.
The year 1808 is considered an important period during which the then government
of Bombay initiated a proposal to register libraries which were to be given copies of books
published from “funds for the encouragement of literature”. This has been the first attempt to
register the libraries and assist them with literature by the government.
 In the early 19th century John Andrew’s circulating library at Fort William, Calcutta
(established in 1770) was converted into a public library. A few public libraries started appearing
sporadically here and there during the same period in this country. The notable among them are
Asha Granthalaya, Waltair (1800), Calcutta Literary Society’s Library (1818), United Services
Library, Poona (1818), Raghunandan Library, Puri (1821), Bombay General Library (1830), etc.
In August 1835, the Calcutta public library was established. It was meant to serve the
needs of all ranks and classes without distinction. In 1860, a small library was established by
Jean Mitchel in Madras as a part of the Museum. It was opened to the public in 1896. It was
named Connemera Public Library, this library can be claimed to be the first true public library,
only a nominal refundable deposit was required. In 1948, it becomes State Central library.
In 1867, the Government of India enacted the Press and Registration of Books Act
(XXV) under which the publisher of a book was supposed to deliver free, to the provincial
government concerned, one copy of the book and one or two more copies, if the provincial
government so desired, to be transmitted to the central government.
In 1876, Khuda Baksh Oriental public library (Patna) was established. Maulvi
Muhammod Baksh Khan, on his death left a collection of 1500 manuscripts. It formed the
nucleus of the library. In 1891, the library was opened to the public.
The imperial library was also established at Calcutta in 1891. Lord Curzon, the viceroy
of India promulgated the imperial library act 1902, which is based on Registration of books act
of 1867, amalgamating Calcutta public library with imperial library. Soon after independence the
Government of India passed the National Library Act in 1948 following which the imperial
library was renamed as the National library of India.
By the end of nineteenth century, all the provincial capitals as well as many of the district
towns, especially in the three presidencies (Bombay, Calcutta and Madras) had so called public
libraries. Even princely states such as Indore and Travancore-Cochin had public libraries in their
capital. However, the masses in general did not take full advantage of these institutions.
ii) Academic Libraries: The first college to be started in this country is
the Fort William College in 1800. Sir John Colville in 1857, introduced the bill to establish
universities in India. In the same year Lord Delhousie, then the Governor General of India, gives
immediate consent to this bill. As a result, the first three modern universities were started
at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 based on the patterns of London University.
* Calcutta University Library: Calcutta University was the first to be established on January
24, 1857. On February 24, 1869 Mr. Joy Kissen Mookherjee of Uttar para donated Rs. 5,000.00
to the University for purchasing books for the library. The senate in the year 1872 succeeded in
constructing a beautiful building at a cost of Rs. 4, 34,697.00. This is the first and oldest
university library that was established in British India. In 1874, the library also started a
collection of periodicals. In 1876-77, Calcutta University library had a good collection of books
with printed catalogue service to the user. In 1934, a new library building was set up in
the Calcutta University. In 1937, the Calcutta University Library appointed the professionally
qualified librarian, Dr. Nihar Ranjan Roy. He, for the first time in India introduced the DDC and
AACR rule for providing effective library services to the user.
* Madras University Library: The Madras University Library was opened in 1907. The
government of India gave a special grant of Rs. 1,00,000.00 to the library to develop its book
collection. In 1924, Dr. S. R. Ranganathan joined the Madras University Library as librarian. He
was the first professionally qualified librarian in Indian history. Due to his active involvement he
was able to receive Rs. 6,000.00 and Rs. 10,00,000.00 in the year 1926. This was the first grant
to be received from the government in the history of the university libraries in India. As a result
of this grant, the University Library that was in-house at the Connemara Public Library since
1908, was shifted to the new location in 1936. Again five well-trained reference librarians were
appointed to provide special reference service to the user. This was done for the first time in the
Indian history.
* Bombay University Library: The Bombay University library was established very lately due to
the lack of donation. It was the university authorities of Bombay that offered a donation of Rs.
20,000.00 for construction of library building. In 1931, a very special grant of Rs. 10,000 was
given by Kikabhai and Meneklen the sons of late Premchand Roy Chand. In 1939, the Central
government provides a special grant of Rs. 50,000.00 to the University of Bombay library to
strengthen its collection.
* Punjab University Library: Punjab University was established in 1882 and in the year 1908
Punjab University Library was opened.
* Banaras Hindu University Library: Banaras Hindu University was established in 1916. In
1926-27 the construction of the library was made by the handsome donation of Rs. 2,00,000.00
by the late Sir Siyaji Rao, the Maharaja of Borada.
iii) Research Libraries: The Asiatic society of Bengal that was established at Calcutta in 1784
started building up a good research library since its inception. The Asiatic Society of Bombay,
founded in 1804, also developed a good library. The first technical library to be founded in this
country is the Victoria Technical library at Nagpur in 1806. The Madras Literary Society had
founded its library in 1812.
c) Twentieth Century
i) Role of Individual: The development of public libraries as a movement may be said to have
started by Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III, the ruler of Baroda state in 1906. During his visit
to USA he was impressed by the public libraries system in that country. In order to organize
libraries along modern lines, the Maharaja appointed an American librarian by name William
Allenson Borden as curator of libraries of his state. During his tenure of office that is in between
1910-13, Borden could organize a very good network of free library services in the state.
However, this example did not set a pace in the later development due to lack of interest on the
part of the state government. But the contribution made by Maharaja Sayajirao III would be
written in golden letters in the history of public library movement in India.
The library movement in Baroda originated as the peoples movement under the
leadership of Motibhai Amin (a public leader) in the form of Mitra Mandal (Society of Friends)
as early as 1906 which received state patronage in 1960. Newton Mohan Dutta, curator of
libraries at Baroda also did good work.
There has been a number of pioneers who made contribution to the library movement in
Andhra Pradesh. Out of them Sir Iyyanki Venkata Ramanayya holds a place of pride.
From Bengal we have the name of Monindra Dev Rai Mahashaya. Master Motilal (1876-1949),
by his own effort and meagre resource established Shri Sanmati Pustakalaya (a public library) in
Jaipur in 1920. From Punjab we had Sant Ram Bhatia, who played an important role in
promoting the cause of public libraries in Punjab. In Assam, the library movement at its true
spirit was led by Late Kumudeshar Barthakur (1893-8th November 1966), a retired Secondary
School teacher under the brand name of Assam Library Association.
The contribution of S.R. Ranganathan is unique and remarkable. He is regarded as the
father of Indian library movement. The idea of an integrated library system was first introduced
by him at the first “All Asia Educational Conference” held at Benerai in 1930. There he
presented a model library act that form the basis of the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka library legislation and as a whole the subsequent library legislation in India.
ii) Role of Library Association and Organization: Library association also played a vital role
in the progress and development of library movement in India.
The Andhra Desa Library Association, founded in 1914, is the first of its kind in India. It
started the first full fledged professional periodical in 1925 under the title “Indian Library
Journal”.
All Indian Library Association was also set up in 1920, but it could not do anything for
libraries and their development. By Dr. S. R. Ranganathan’s effort Indian Library Association
was set up in 1933 in its present form with its head quarter in Calcutta (Kolkata). The association
published a quarterly periodical named ABGILA.
Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF) was set up in 1972, on the occasion
of the bicentenary of Raja Rammohun Roy who raised the banner of revolt against obscurantism
in the society and devoted his life to fight against injustice. RRRLF is an autonomous
organization of Dept of Culture, Govt of India and it provides different types of grant to different
public libraries.
Bengal Library Association (1925), Madras Library Association (1928), Punjab Library
Association (1929), Assam Library Association (Sadau Assam Puthibharal Sanga) (1938), etc.
played vital roles for the growth and development of public libraries in the respective states of
origin.
iii) Role of Union and State Government
* First Five Year Plan (1951-56): The government of India in its first five year plan of
educational development includes the scheme of “Improvement of Library Service”. This
scheme envisaged a network of libraries spread all over the country. The proposal of setting up a
National central library at New Delhi was also made. During the first five year plan nine state
governments i.e. Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, etc. decided to set up state central libraries.
* Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961): Under the second five year plan the government
of India allocated about Rs. 140 lakhs for setting up a country wide network of libraries in 320
districts. Under this plan, the “Institute of Library Science” at University of Delhi was also
established. The refresher course on “The public library and national development” on March 2,
1959 also started.
* Third Five Year Plan: During the third plan period besides the Institute of Library science,
University of Delhi other universities also upgraded the facilities for training library personnel
and enhanced the facilities for research in library science.
* Fourth Five Year Plan: The government of India announced on July 16, 1964, appointment of
a 16 member education commission to make a compressive review of the entire field of
education and advice the government on evolving a national pattern at all stages of education.
The commission has formed various sub committees to prepare report on various aspect of
education including the libraries, which plays a great role towards the betterment of libraries
in India. During the fourth five year plan, the government of India set up the Raja Rammohan
Roy Library Foundation in 1972 to make the bicentenary of the birth of Raja Rammohan Roy,
the father of modern India.
iv) Role of UGC: The UGC gave a new life to the university and college libraries. It gave
librarian a status, prestige and a better life. The major commission and committees formed by
UGC for the growth and development of college and university libraries are
* Library Committee (1957): The UGC programme (Commission) appointed a committee under
the chairmanship of Dr. S. R. Ranganathan to advise on a wide range of subjects including the
standards and principles for the designing of library building, fitting and furniture, administration
of university libraries, training of librarianship etc.
* Review Committee (1961): In order to consider the question of improving and coordinating the
standards of teaching, and conducting research in the department of library science in Indian
Universities under the chairmanship of Dr. S. R. Ranganathan a review committee was formed in
July 1961. The first meeting of the committee was held on 15th July 1961, in which a
questionnaire was finalized on the basis of data supplied by the Indian Universities. In response
to this questionnaire a note was prepared by the UGC, which form the back bone of many
developments in the subject of library science.
Other mentionable Committees and Commissions are
* Education Commission (1964): Chairman D. S. Kothari.
* Pal Committee (1970): Chairman A. B. Lal.
* Mehrotra Committee (1983): Chairman R. C. Mehrotra.
* Committee on National Network System for Universities (1988): Chairman Yash Pal.
* Curriculum Development Committee on LISc (1990).
* Work Flow Seminar: UGC organized a seminar on “work flow” in libraries in New Delhi from
March 4-7, 1959, Dr. C. D. Deshmukh, the then chairman of UGC, extended assistance to
libraries for constructing building and furniture as well as for the engaging the staff on a scale
which is, relatively speaking, larger than found in many other countries. The recommendations
of the seminar were circulated to the universities and colleges all over the country. These
comments were considered by the commission and were accepted.
* Revision of Pay Scale: Another great improvement in the history of universities and college
libraries is the revision of salary scales of professionally qualified librarian under the third five
year plan.
v) Role of UNESCO: The great contribution of UNESCO towards the library profession
in India is that it gave it an international status. UNESCO for the first time started the first pilot
project by establishing the Delhi Public Library in October 1951. The main aim of this project
was to provide information on the problem of public library services for the parts of India in
particular and for Asia in general.
The Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) was set up in 1952 by
the government of India with technical assistance from UNESCO. In 1964, UNESCO assisted
INSDOC again in setting up its regional centre in Bangalore.
The second eminent step that the UNESCO took in this direction was the holding of a
seminar on the development of public libraries in Asia in Delhi from October 6-26, 1955. It was
the first international meeting on this subject to be organized in an Asian country. On the whole,
the seminar was a great success for the library profession in India.
Another UNESCO seminar which had far reaching effect on library profession
in India was the “Regional seminar on library development in South Asia”. It was held in
the University of Delhi library from 3-14 October 1960. The most significant achievement of this
seminar was the “grading of staff”, “salary scales” and “status of librarian”.
Besides these, the UNESCO honored the Indian librarians by inviting them to advice on
various library projects meant for the member country. The prominent among those are Dr. S. R.
Ranganathan, B. S. Kesavan, S. S. Saith and a few others.
Indian National Commission is the official agency of UNESCO, the National Information
System for Science and Technology (NISSAT) in Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research (DSIR) is the focal point for UNISIST (PGI) and is also the coordinating centre for
ASTINFO programme. NASSDOC of ICSSR is the focal point for UNESCO supporting
APINESS programme.
Library Management Software Packages
Library Management Software Packages: Library management or automation software
provides centralized management and processes for different types of libraries and library
activities such as acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, administration, reporting and patron
records. It provides integration of self-service kiosks and online web portal access for catalogue
search, content delivery or reservation requests and such others. They also track and automate
notification of overdue books and fines.
In the following paragraphs, an attempt is made to list some of the popular free and open
source library automation software packages. A very few commercial software packages are also
discussed.
a) Automatización de Bibliotecas y Centros de Documentación (ABCD): ABCD stands for
"Automatización de Bibliotecas y Centros de Documentación" (Spanish), which means: Library
and Documentation Centers Automation. Its development is promoted and coordinated by
BIREME, with the support of VLIR. ABCD is an integrated library management system that
covers all the major functions in a library. It is able to manage acquisitions, management of
bibliographic databases, user management, loan management, control of periodicals, and so on.
It uses MARC-21 cataloguing formats and other current standards or protocols (Dublin Core,
METS, Z39.50) and published as Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) with the
accompanying tools for the developer community. Website:
http://reddes.bvsaude.org/projects/abcd or http://sites.google.com/site/abcdtutorials/
b) DEL-PLUS: This software was designed and developed by Developing Library Network
(DELNET), New Delhi exclusively to work under all kinds of libraries. It is able to manage the
acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, and administrative work of the library. It also has an OPAC
end and follows internationally recommended standards and formats such as MARC 21. It is
suitable for small and medium size libraries which have collections upto one lakh holdings. It
also supports Barcode. Website: http://delnet.nic.in/software-development.htm
c) E-Granthalaya: e-Granthalaya is a library automation software from National Informatics
Centre, Department of Information Technology, Ministry of Communications and Information
Technology, Government of India. Using this software the libraries can automate in-house
activities as well as user services. The software can be implemented either in stand-alone or in
client-server mode where the database and WebOPAC are installed on the server PC while the
data entry programme is installed on client PCs. The software runs on Windows platform. The
software is provided at zero cost to the Ministries / Departments / Public / Academic /
Universities / Colleges and school libraries. Besides, libraries set up in Public / Private sectors
may also approach the NIC for free copy of the software. Website: http://egranthalaya.nic.in/
d) Evergreen: Evergreen is an open source library management software, freely licensed under
the GNU GPL. It was first launched in September, 2006 in Georgia's PINES consortium. It is
highly-scalable software for libraries that helps library patrons find library materials, and helps
the libraries to manage, catalogue, and circulate those materials, no matter how large or complex
the libraries. are Evergreen has an active community that participates in its coding,
documentation, and direction of the project. Website: http://www.open-ils.org/
e) FireFly: FireFly is a Complete Public Library system. It is being written in Python, Perl, with
all data being stored in XML. The driving force behind this project is to give public libraries a
Free-Software set to run and maintain library systems. Website:
http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/firefly/

f) Koha: Koha is the world's first open-source Integrated Library System (ILS) and it is
distributed free of cost (open source, and so no license fee, ever). It was initially developed in
New Zealand by Katipo Communications Ltd and first deployed in January of 2000 for
Horowhenua Library Trust. It is currently maintained by a team of software providers and library
technology staff from around the globe and is in use worldwide in the libraries of all sizes. The
name “Koha” comes from the Maori word for a gift or donation.
It runs on Linux, Unix, Windows and MacOS platform. Koha is a comprehensive system
that has the capacity to intelligently run a library, large or small, real or virtual. Koha is
compliance with copy cataloguing and z39.50, MARC21 and UNIMARC for professional
cataloguers. The software can also be used as document manager or digital library. Website:
http://koha.org/
g) Library Information and Management System (LIMS): LIMS is a unique library system,
designed, developed, implemented and fully tested by library professionals. It is distributed free
of cost to the libraries. Website: http://www.paklag.org/limsFreeware.htm
h) Library Manager: Library Manager is a library management software. It has been developed
under GPL licence. Website: http://libman.sourceforge.net/
i) LibSys 7: It is a web based library software product from Libsys Ltd., Gurgaon, Haryana. It
has the modules for acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, serials, article indexing, Web-OPAC,
and reports. It supports international standard like MARC21 (USMARC + CANMARC),
Unicode, SRU-SRW, Z39.50, NCIP-NISO, SICI-Barcode. If any library has the sufficient fund,
then it can be treated as the most field-proven library system in a wide spectrum of libraries with
unmatchable depth in functionality and features. Website: http://www.libsys.co.in/
j) NewGenLib: NewGenLib is an integrated library management system developed by Verus
Solutions Pvt Ltd. Domain expertise is provided by Kesavan Institute of Information and
Knowledge Management in Hyderabad, India. On 9th January 2008, NewGenLib was declared as
Open Source Software under GNU GPL Licence by Verus Solutions. It is estimated that 2,500
libraries across 58 countries are using NewGenLib as their Primary integrated library
management system. Website: http://www.verussolutions.biz
k) OpenBiblio: OpenBiblio is an easy to use, automated library system written in PHP
containing OPAC, circulation, cataloguing, and staff administration functionality. The software
is free. Website: http://obiblio.sourceforge.net
l) Sanjay: The NISSAT sponsored a project to DESIDOC for developing programmes on
UNESCO’s CDS/ISIS for enabling a library to do acquisition, circulation, etc. DESIDOC has
successfully modified the programmes and a new package based on CDS/ISIS was released in
1992 by the name of SANJAY. So, Sanjay is an augmented version of CDS/ISIS with modules
prepared for the various house keeping operations. The software is totally menu driven and
works in windows environment with LAN support. In India, NISSAT is the marketing agent of
this software. The package was released for marketing in September 1995.
m) Small Library Organizer Pro: It is a complete software for small private, public, or
corporate libraries. It able to manages all the library collections, member / patron information,
and keeps track of the library circulation data. The package has a separate module called
Designer. With Designer one can modify Small Library solution or can build their own. This is a
freeware. Website: http://small-library-organizer-pro.software.informer.com/1.0/
n) SOUL 2.0: Software for University Libraries (SOUL) is the state-of-the-art library
automation software designed and developed by the INFLIBNET Centre, Ahmedabad. It is a
user-friendly software developed to work under client-server environment. Looking at the name
of the software, one may think that it is meant for the university libraries only, but, in fact, it is
flexible enough to be used for automating any type or size of library. It is one of the best and
proven software for all types of libraries. Website: http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/soul/
o) WEBLIS: WEBLIS is a free-of-charge Web based Library Integrated System based on
CDS/ISIS. The system has been developed by the Institute for Computer and Information
Engineering (ICIE), Poland. The current version of WEBLIS, available in English, consists of
the cataloguing system, OPAC (search), LOAN module, and statistical module. WEBLIS runs
through the WWW-ISIS engine. More: http://portal.unesco.org/ci/fr/ev.php-
URL_ID=16841&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

Library Legislation in India

Library Legislation in India: Act means preparing the format of law or legislation. In the
context of libraries, the Library Act means to give legal provision for establishing a library
system, its maintenance, services, functions, right and management under any state or a national
government. Library legislation is capable of regulating various organs of public library services.
It is an instrument for the development of public libraries in a planned manner to ensure
establishment, development and maintenance of libraries in a uniform pattern. It can help in
promoting a sense of self consciousness among the people who would feel it obligatory on their
part to use services offered by the library.
In the year 1850 the first library act was passed in Great Britain. At present most of the
countries specify free use of public library services.
1. Need for Library Legislation: Provision of public library service is a natural corollary to the
democratic way of life. Free communication is essential for the preservation of a free society and
creative culture. A public library expects its users only to spend time and not money for the
utilization of services. In that situation, the question arises from where will the finance come? It
has been experienced that public library service can be effectively offered only through
legislation. Library Legislation is needed because:
i) A law helps in creating necessary conditions under which public libraries can be established
nation wide.
ii) To put the public library on a sound and sure financial footing by way of levy of library tax.
iii) To make the public library independent from subscription, donation or private gift and to save
the library from political influence.
iv) For a sound administrative setup permanent, uniform, efficient, balanced and coordinated
library service and also for proper line of growth.
v) To solve the problem of land, building, legacies, etc.
vi) For centralized services like acquisition, processing, etc.
The library legislation has the provision of financial support to the public libraries, but
the provision to be made in library legislation would depend upon the social, political and
economic environment. There are mainly two ways of making provision of finance to public
libraries through library legislation. They are
i) Annual budget allocation by the state out of its total funds with capital grants from central
government.
ii) Levying of library cess with a matching grant from the state government.
2. Components of Library Legislation: Dr. S. R. Ranganathan recognized the following
components of public library act.
a) Preliminaries: The description of all the terms used in the act and the brief title of the act are
under this component of library Act.
b) Top Management: It discusses the issues relating to the management of the libraries that will
fall under the jurisdiction of the Act, such as who will manage the libraries. It is the second
component for consideration.
c) Library Committee: To give suggestions to the library authority (top management) and to the
librarians, a committee is to be constituted. The library Act should clearly mention who will be
the members of such library committees, what are their functions, rights, qualifications,
responsibilities, etc.
d) Finance: The Act should mention clearly-
i) Rate of library cess / Local extra tax or surcharge;
ii) Goods on which tax will be levied i.e. vehicle, land, house, other properties, etc;
iii) The method of receiving the cess from the public;
iv) Checking of received money through cess;
v) Other sources of finance;
vi) There should be a component in the library Act itself to maintain all the records of accounts
and audit from time to time. The appointment of staff, categories of the staff, pay scale, service
condition and working period should also be mentioned in the Act.
vii) The laws, rules and by laws should be mentioned in the Act.
3. Characteristics of Library Legislation: Some of the important characteristics of library
legislation are-
i) The library legislation must be simple and general. It should also allow future modification or
development.
ii) It must be free from political influence or political changes.
iii) It must define the respective responsibilities of the local, state and national government.
iv) It must make the library service compulsory and free to one and all.
v) It should create conditions for libraries to flourish.
vi) It must coordinate and control library activities in full recognition of the people to have free
access to the information and knowledge.
vii) It must meet every interest of its reader.
viii) Different tasks can be assigned to different types of libraries based on specialization to
ensure a better service to the community with the least cost.
ix) It also must take into account the other types of libraries.
4. Role of Different Bodies in the Process of Enacting Library Legislation: In the process of
enacting the library legislation, the levying of library cess should not be the pre condition.
Otherwise, it will lose the support of the general public or other members of the society. The
following roles can be played by different bodies in the process of enacting the library legislation
in respective states.
a) Library Association: The local as well as the state and national level library associations can
lay down a strategy to get the public legislation passed. They can utilize various media and
platforms to propagate the idea of library legislation. Members of the state assembly, especially
the concerned ministers should be approached and be presented a strong case for library
legislation. Indian Library legislation must provide all the support and guidance needed for the
purpose.
b) Library Professionals: The library professionals should make the general as well as the elite
people aware about the significant role that can be played by the library. They should first do so
through their services in the organization in which they are working and then through
newspapers, radio, television, etc.
c) Elite Groups: The elite have the responsibility of framing policies, procedures etc. As the
leader of the society they also have the hidden responsibility to give the people the best they can.
As such, considering the role that can be played by the library they should take upon themselves
the responsibilities of awakening the general public about the library services, facilities, etc.
d) Political Leader and General Public: Leaders, who matter in decision making be given
special attention in enacting library legislation. The general people should also give pressure to
enact the library legislation.
5. Library Legislation in India: In ancient India learning was the concern of the Brahmin and
the common man had to depend for his enlightenment on the spoken words of gurus. General
people were also accustomed to this oral tradition of learning and, as a result in
ancient India there was no tradition of public library legislation.
a) Before Independence: Pre independence India shows some of the significant steps in
implementing the library legislation, which can be summarized as follows
i) The Press and Registration of Books Act (1867): The Press and Registration of Books Act
was passed in 1867 for the British India. This Act was for the regulation of printing-presses and
newspapers for the preservation of copies of books and newspapers printed in India and for the
registration of such books and newspapers. It helped some specific libraries to get some copies of
books free of cost and to maintain a continuous catalogue of early printed books in the country.
In terms of this Act the publisher or the printer of every book or newspaper was to send a copy of
the book or newspaper to the Secretary of state for India, another copy to the Governor General
in Council and still another to the local government.
ii) Funds for the encouragement of literature (1898);
iii) Imperial Library Act (1902);
iv) Model Library Act (1930).
Dr. S. R. Ranganathan drafted a “Model Library Act”, which was presented at the All
Asia Educational Conference held at Banaras in 1930. In 1942 on the request of ILA, Dr. S. R.
Ranganathan drafted another bill called ‘The Model Public Library Bill’.
b) After Independence: The major steps in implementing library legislation in the post
independence era are as follows
i) Imperial Library Act (1948): In 1948, the Government of India passed the Imperial Library
(change of name) Act. By this act the Imperial Library of Calcutta (Kolkata) became the National
Library (of India).
ii) Delivery of Books (Public Libraries Act) 1954: In 1954 Indian parliament passed Delivery
of Books and Newspaper Act which was further amended as the Delivery of Books and
Newspaper (Public Libraries) Amendment Act 1956 to include serials as well.
iii) Model Library Act / Bill (1963): A library bill was also drafted in 1963 by a committee
under the chairmanship of Dr. D. M. Sen. Then in 1972 revision was made to the model library
act of 1930. Another model public libraries bill was prepared by the library legislation
subcommittee of the Planning Commission in 1966.
c) Present Status of Library Legislation in India: The credit of enacting a library act for the
first time in India goes to the Kolhapur princely state of the present Maharashtra in 1945. The act
is presently non functional. In India, nineteen states have so far enacted library legislation and
the rest are providing library services without legislation. The list of the nineteen Acts is given
below
i) Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad) Public Libraries Act, 1960;
ii) Arunachal Pradesh Public Libraries Act, 2009;
iii) Bihar Public Libraries Act, 2007;
iv) Chattisgarh Public Libraries Act, 2007;
v) Goa Public Libraries Act, 1993;
vi) Gujarat Public Libraries Act, 2001;
vii) Haryana Public Libraries Act, 1989;
viii) Karnataka (Mysore) Public Libraries Act, 1965;
ix) Kerala Public Libraries Act, 1989;
x) Maharashtra Public Libraries Act, 1967;
xi) Manipur Public Libraries Act, 1988;
xii) Mizoram Public Libraries Act, 1993;
xiii) Orissa Public Libraries Act, 2001;
xiv) Pondichery Public Libraries Act, 2007;
xv) Rajasthan Public Libraries Act, 2006;
xvi) Tamil Nadu (Madras) Public Libraries Act, 1948;
xvii) Uttar Pradesh Public Libraries Act, 2005;
xviii) Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal) Public Libraries Act, 2005 and
xix) West Bengal Public Libraries Act, 1979.
6. The Delivery of Books and Newspapers (Public Libraries) Act, 1954: The Delivery of
Books (Public Libraries) Act, 1954 extends to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and
Kashmir. According to this Act, the publisher of every book, newspaper or serial must deliver at
his own expense a copy of the book within thirty days from the date of its publication to the
National Library at Calcutta and one copy each to three other public libraries specified by the
Central Government. The Delivery of Books (Public Libraries) Act, 1954: No. 27 of 1954,
amended by the Delivery of Books (Public Libraries) Amendment Act, 1956: No. 99 of 1956 and
thus it became “The Delivery of Books 'and Newspapers' (Public Libraries) Act, 1954”. The
insertions “and Newspapers” provided by the Delivery of Books (Public Libraries)
Ammendment Act, 1956: No. 99 of 1956 includes serials as well.
i) Mode of Delivery: A copy of every book published by a publisher and the publisher of every
newspaper, published in the territories to which this Act extends, shall deliver at his own expense
one copy of each issue of such newspaper as soon as it is published, shall be delivered by him to
the librarian of three public library either by registered post or through a special messenger.
Under the Delivery of Books and Newspapers (Public Libraries) Act, 1954, the National Library,
Calcutta (presently Kolkata) is entitled to receive a copy of every publication brought out by
anyone anywhere in the country. The other copies should be delivered to the Connemera Public
Library, Madras (Chennai), The Central Library, Town Hall, Bombay (Mumbai), and the Delhi
Public Library. The copy to be delivered to the National Library, Kolkata should be the best of its
kind.
ii) Receipt for Books Delivered: The person in charge of a public library (whether called a
librarian or by any other name) or any other person authorised by him in his behalf to whom a
copy of a book is delivered shall give to the publisher a receipt in writing and send it to the
publisher by registered post and such receipt shall be conclusive proof of the fact that a copy of
the book has been duly delivered to the public library of which he is the librarian.
iii) Benefit for the Publisher: The Indian National Bibliography is procured by all leading
libraries and learned institutions throughout the English speaking world and much beyond. The
books that are received by way of Delivery of Books (Public Libraries) Act 1954, 56 are
included in the INB. Thus, the INB provides the publisher or the author with an excellent and
unique opportunity of using the forum of the Indian National Bibliography to give the widest
possible publicity to their publications not only in India but virtually all over the world. So,
Delivery of Books (Public Libraries) Act 1954, 56 also gives a commercial advantage of
publicity to the publisher or authors.
iv) Penalty: Any publisher who contravenes any provision of this Act. or of any rule made
hereunder shall be punishable with fine which may extend to fifty rupees and, “if the
contravention is in respect of a book, shall also be punishable with fine which shall be equivalent
to” the value of the book, and the court trying the offence may direct that the whole or any part
of the fine realised from him shall be paid, by way of compensation to the public library to which
the book or “newspaper”, as the case may be, ought to have been delivered.
7. Let Us Sum Up: None of the countries in which library legislation exists are able to provide
entirely satisfactory and effective library services. All of them have problem to some degree
despite the fact that there has been revision of laws in most countries. Again, there are many
countries without legislation but they are serving the general public in a better way in
comparison to the countries that have legislation.
Library Governance and Authority
Library Governance and Authority: The library governance refers to the persons (or
committees or departments etc.) who make up a body for the purpose of administering the
library. The authority has the power or right to give orders or make decisions in the library.
a) Library Governance
i) University Library: University library is based on the statutes and ordinances adopted by the
governing body of a university. The statutes made in accordance with the policy enunciated by
the university act would determine the status of the librarian in the general set up of the
university and provide for its organization and administration.
ii) Public Library: The public library law enacted by a state legislature forms the legal basis for
the establishment, maintenance and governance of the public library. In India, the public libraries
were formerly under the ministry of education but now it is under the ministry of culture.
iii) Special Library: In a special library run by a company or industry, there may be no legal
basis of library government. The library concerned may be their internal matter and the librarian
may be at the mercy of the higher authorities of the concerned organization. There may be no
prescribed rules, regulations, etc.
b) Library Authority: The word “authority” implies a person having the power to do
something, the power being derived from his office or character or prestige. A person having
power is authorized by a competent agency / authority to carry out a certain job. The purpose of
granting authority is to allow him / her to perform some kind of service by means of
administrative process.
i) College Library: In a college, the Board of Management is the authority and college librarian
is directly answerable to the principal.
ii) University Library: In Indian Universities, the Executive Council (EC) is the library
authority. In actual practice, many powers are delegated by EC to the Vice Chancellor (VC). So,
the librarian is directly answerable to the VC.
iii) Public Library: In a public library, the Directorate of Library Services or Local or State
Library Authority is the library authority or otherwise a library board might be the authority. The
librarian is responsible to the board. In case of a public library, where there is a library
legislation, it is mentioned in the library act as to who will be the library authority. But when
there is no library legislation then the Director of Library Services will be the library authority.
iv) Special Library: The Board of Director or Board of Trustees of the parent body is the
authority. The librarian is answerable to the Managing Director or some other senior officer and
in practice the situation differs from library to library.
Library Furniture and Fittings
Library Furniture and Fittings: The furniture and fittings can be made of metal, wood or
plastic. The furniture and fittings should also be modular. This would be the case for tables,
chairs, book racks, book trolleys, doors, windows, etc.
a) Book Racks: For normal shelving in general libraries, the standard racks or shelves made of
either seasoned teak or sheesham wood can prove useful and functional. Book racks are used to
store books, bound volumes of periodicals, reports and such other kinds of materials. Each
individual rack is usually 180 cm wide, 195/225 cm high and 25/50 cm deep depending on
whether it is a single-sided or double sided. The number of shelves in a rack is usually 5-6
depending on the high of the rack. A number of racks can be joined together to make one row. In
general, the height of the unit book rack should be such that a person of normal height should be
able to pick up books from top-most shelf. The popular kinds of stacks are:
i) Fixed Shelves with Double Row: They are normal fixed shelves where material can be
arranged in double rows.
ii) Hinged Stacks: Here two shelves are joined together with hinges on one side and one shelf
fixed while the other is mounted in front of the hinges.
iii) Rolling Stacks: These are metal stack units mounted on ball bearing wheel placed side by
side.
iv) Compact Storage: This system consists of units of three stacks, the centre row of fixed
double-sided stacks at each side. This helps in increasing the capacity of the storage space.
v) Multitier Stacks: This kind of stacking consists of stacks from the floor to the roof and it has
become quite popular in very large libraries.
b) Periodical Display Rack: Double sided periodical racks are not recommended since the unit
becomes too bulky. It is better to place two single sided racks back to back, if necessary. The
following types of periodical display racks are generally available in the market.
i) Step or Gallery Type: In this type the periodicals are displayed stepwise, each step being 5 cm
deep and 15cm high. Length of the rack is generally 90cm. There may be 4-5 steps and on each
step 4-5 journals can be displayed and on a single sided rack 20-25 journals can be displayed.
ii) Pigeon Hole Type: This type of rack has two parts, one being a cupboard in the bottom and
other pigeon holes at the top. The usual height and width are 7.5 feet by 6 feet. The depth is
about one foot in the pigeon hole and about 1.5 feet in the lower cupboard portion. The cupboard
portion is for storing the back volumes of the periodicals and the pigeons holes hold about 36
current periodicals.
iii) Inclined Type: This type of display rack is an improvement over the earlier pigeon hole type
of rack. This is a box type rack with horizontal shelves, each covered with wooden planks with
an inclination to the shelf plank. The shelves can be portioned into pigeon holes, each hole being
provided with a wooden support for the periodicals. The inclined plank provides a way of
displaying periodicals with the back issues in the space behind the inclined plank. Display space
for 25-30 periodicals can be provided in one rack.
c) Catalogue Cabinet: The catalogue cabinet is a unit of drawers full of cards specially designed
to hold library cards (5 x 3) and equipped with a metal holding rod. These units are available in a
wide range of sizes starting from four drawers to about sixty drawers. For convenience and ease
of consultation, the trays of drawers are placed on stands of eye level. Each tray can hold about
1,000 thick cards.
d) Charging Desk / Issue Counter: In most of the libraries the charging desk is specially
designed to serve special need of the library, and it is not usually acquired from the open market
that has predefined shape and size. The issue counter is usually designed for two people to work
simultaneously. The height of the counter should be 4-5 foot and should have sufficient drawer
space to accommodate all the issued documents records. The counter should also have sufficient
shelving space for placing the books which are returned by the users. The common type of
design used for issue counter is circular, L-shaped, rectangular, and U-shaped.
e) Computer Table / Reading table: Proper computer tables with drawers are required for the
OPAC terminal, digital library section and such other. Some common type tables are also
required for the technical staff of the library and for the readers to use as reading table in the
reading room. The tables to be used in the reading room are large in size and without any
drawers.
f) Chairs: The chairs are required for OPAC terminal, digital library section, technical staff and
for the readers to use in the reading room.
g) Book Ends or Book Supports: These should be provided in large numbers. At least two book
supports are required for one plank so that the books are made to stand erect.
h) Book-lifts and Trolleys: If the book stacks are spread over many floors, it is desirable that
book lifts or dumb elevators, as these are called, should be provided. Similarly, to carry books
from one end to the other end of each floor, there should be a book trolley so that the time and
energy of the staff can be saved.
i) Record Keeping Equipment: In a modern library, most of the record keeping equipment is
replaced by computerized record keeping databases. The record keeping equipment includes loan
register, periodical record register, accession register, gate register, membership register and such
others.
j) Filing Cabinets: There should be filing cabinets for correspondences, newspaper clippings,
pamphlets, patents, standards, and other types of materials with odd sizes. For filing of
correspondences, vertical filing cabinets with drawers that can be pulled out can be used.
Pamphlet boxes of various kinds are also available in the market for storing pamphlets, leaf-lets,
standards and patents.
k) Photocopiers / Printer: In the libraries for various activities there will always be the need of
multiple copies of a single document. The photocopiers will also be needed when readers of the
library want to make Xerox copies of a chapter of a book or for such other activities. Several
leading companies are manufacturing photocopiers with several variations like coloured copies,
size enlargement or reduction and several copies at a time. Depending on the requirements of an
individual library and availability of funds, suitable copier as per requirement can be purchased.
In modern day libraries computer printer should also be procured.
l) Typewriters / Computers: Typewriters are gradually replaced by computers in most of the
libraries. So, it’s better to go for computer than typewriters. In an automated library bar-coding
printer, bar-coding reader and such others should also be procured.
m) Miscellaneous Items: It will include stool or step ladder for reaching the roof for cleaning,
for users in stack room for picking books from upper shelves, vacuum cleaners, air-conditioners,
binding equipment, projectors, etc. Some other library furniture may include notice board,
newspaper stand with sloping top, property counter or rack for keeping the users belongings.
Let Us Sum Up: Planning the library building is a team project and not exclusively the job of an
architect. The basic aim of the design of a library building should be to achieve flexibility using
modular system. In addition, open access and provision of future growth is an important
consideration. The design should be functional rather than a monumental consisting of a
rectangular area having pillars or modules.
The inclusion of the librarian in the library building committee is a crucial factor. He is
the best person for planning and equipping the library and determines the exact functional
relationship between the various parts of the structure. He will prepare a note on library building
programme explaining the requirements of the library to the architect, management, etc. The
architect on the basis of his note would propose a plan keeping in view the ways in which the
users would use a library. He would be able to suggest the designing of a functional and
attractive building within the budget allocated for the purpose. The decision of the library
building committee must be finally approved by the competent authority.
Library Extension Services
Library Extension Services: Extension work is defined as those activities which are undertaken
with the objective of reaching the group of people who might otherwise be unaware of the library
services and book stocks. Mc Colvin considers it as means “to increase the number of readers
and the volumes of work and later to make the library more useful to more people”. ALA
Glossary of Library and Information Science 1983 defines it as “the provision by a library of
materials and services (including advisory services) to individuals and organizations outside its
regular service area, especially to an area in which library service is not otherwise available.
1. Objectives: The main objectives in providing extension services are
i) To convert a library into a social, cultural and intellectual centre;
ii) To convert non reader into reader, non user to user.
iii) To bring books and readers together.
iv) To inform those who do not use the library services and to attract them to those services.
v) To inform the reader of all the facilities offered by the library.
vi) To remind both the reader and the non reader of the library and its resources.
vii) As a means of publicity to enlist financial support or otherwise for the libraries.
2. Prerequisites for Extension Services
i) The library should have a good collection to support all extension activities.
ii) The trained and experienced staff is obligatory.
iii) The library should have a lecture hall, an exhibition hall for holding meeting of different
groups.
iv) The library should possess audio-video equipment i.e. LCD projector, slide projector and
mike arrangement.
v) The librarian should be a good organizer, should understand the needs of the different
categories of the community and be knowledgeable about the collection of the library.
3. Forms of Extension Services: The Library extension services may be of internal or external
type. The internal extension service includes orientation programmes and the external extension
service includes the mobile library service, publicity programmes etc. Some of the main forms of
extension services are as follows
i) Library Orientation / Library Tour: Many potential library patrons do not know how to use a
library effectively. This can be due to the lack of early exposure, shyness, or anxiety and fear of
displaying ignorance. These problems led to the emergence of the library instruction movement,
which advocated library user education. Libraries inform the public of what materials are
available in their collections and how to access that information. The reference staff may orient
the user either in formal way or informally into the library system.
ii) Reading Circle, Study Circle: Persons with common interest may be bought together by the
library to a reading circle. Each reading circle should be given necessary facilities regarding the
materials and a suitable place to hold the meeting.
iii) Forming Friends of the Library Group: The Library can also think of forming “Friends of
the Library Group”; such group can assist the library through fund raising, volunteering, and
advocacy. They also hold book sales at the library.
iv) Reading to Illiterates: Reading hours for adults who cannot read should be arranged by
public libraries. Once they become neo-literates the public library then should take upon itself to
see to it that they do not lapse into illiteracy again.
v) Meeting, Public Lectures and Talks: A library should organize public lectures and talks by
eminent persons and also by library staff.
vi) Celebration of Festival and Events and Arranging Cultural Programmes: It is a good idea
to arrange popular festivals and events in the library which may also arrange a drama, a puppet
show, a music concert, a film show, a magic show etc. Such cultural programmes can prove great
attraction for the community. On such occasions a book exhibition related to the programme
should be arranged.
vii) Book Fair and Exhibition: At the time of talk, festival, fair, drama, etc. a book exhibition on
the relevant topic may be arranged. Exhibition on local history, local festivals, art, photograph
and painting can offer great opportunity to attract the attention of the community.
Periodical exhibition of books which have a bearing on topical theme enhances the
chances of books finding their readers. Occasional exhibitions of unused books might prove
useful for the reader in getting interested in books and using them.
viii) Mobile Service: Introduction of mobile library services to provide service to citizens
without access to central or branch libraries has devised an interesting variety of delivering
methods. For offering this service, the time for each locality is to be fixed and notified earlier.
ix) Publicity/ Propagenda: Propaganda through the newspaper, radio, television can be
introduced.
x) Book by Mail and Telephone Request: The public library should also provide library lending
service through mail and Dial a book and Dial a fact method. A public library can also think of
delivering books to any home bound person on a request. Introduction of library website is also
a good form of extension service.
xi) Publication: Publications like annual report, reading guide, library magazine / bulletin and
other similar publications are also helpful.
* Library Bulletin: The library bulletin should not only list fresh books and some important
articles published in current issues of journals but should also give brief annotations wherever
the content of new material needs. The library bulletin can take the form of indexing or
abstracting service or table of content of periodicals received in the library or the list of recent
publications or acquisition.
* Annual Report: The annual report is the official document of the library for recording the
annual library activities in totality. It is the statement of assessment and evaluation of all the
departments of the library. It is the survey of works carried out during the preceding year with
summarization of the activities and achievements of the library.
Libraries are the democratic institutions for the profit and enjoyment of all. So, in the
recent years much thought has been given to the best methods of popularizing the use of
libraries. How does one attract readers to libraries? How were it extend to all classes the facilities
for using them? How can one render the maximum amount of help to those who desire to use
libraries and how to save the time of the reader and library staff alike are some issues to be
addressed.

Library Consortia
Library Consortia: The basic premise of consortia is that its members can collectively achieve
more than what they can achieve as individual institutions.
a) Definition: According to American Heritage Dictionary a consortium is “a cooperative
arrangement among groups or institution,” or “an association or society”. According to Oxford
English Dictionary, “Consortium means temporary cooperation of a number of powers,
companies, etc. for a common purpose. It is an association of similar type of organization /
institution who are engaged for producing and servicing the common things / for providing
services for a specific purpose of its users.”
Library consortium is a “community (a cooperative) of two or more information agencies
which have formally agreed to coordinate, cooperate or consolidate certain function” to achieve
mutual objectives. It is an association of a group of libraries to achieve mutually the joint
benefits. It provides a way for its members to conduct business in a comparative manner.
Library consortia is a network for buying and accessing e- information in a cooperative
arrangement among a group of libraries in providing instant access to greater resources for the
users of the individual libraries. One of the libraries or agencies of the consortia works as
coordinator for identification of libraries for each publisher, negotiation, legal matters, etc.
Library consortia may vary from being decentralized to highly centralize in nature. The degree of
centralization of consortium is the primary factor affecting not only how member institutions
interact with one another, but also maintain relationship with external party (publisher/vendor).
More decentralized the consortium, the greater the degree of autonomy each member retains.
b) Precondition for Consortia: Technological developments, electronic publishing of scholarly
journals, emergence of consortia, pricing models of publishers are some of the factors that create
the condition for the development of the library consortia.
i) Emergence of Electronic Document: The whole world is moving towards electronic
publishing and the cost of the electronic publishing is much less than that of the print version.
The users also hope to have access to their learned journals article in electronic form.
ii) Access to Electronic Resources is a Precondition for a Modern Library: Library materials
have grown exponentially in many forms and formats like e-books, e-journals, etc. and all these
are very essential for the survival of the library itself.
The limitation in finance, space and manpower also stresses upon the need for library
consortia.
c) Benefit of Consortia: Library consortia increases the Cost Benefit Per Subscription. The
other advantages are:
i) Reduced Information Cost: Many libraries currently subscribe only to those journals that
they can afford. Though interested in other journals yet they cannot afford to provide access to
them. Consortia approach helps them to provide the access.
ii) Access to More Resources Than the Capabilities: A number of publishers offer consortia. If
the library’s purchase power is big enough they provide access to their whole range of journals –
that is, every member of the consortium gets electronic access not only to the journals currently
subscribed to but also to all the journals published in the field.
ii) Promoting the Rational Use of Funds: By forming consortia the purchasing power of the
collaborating institutions can expand the resource availability and offer automated services.
iii) Ensuring Continuous Subscription: The continuous subscription to the periodicals
subscribed is ensure in library consortia.
iv) DDS: Inter-libraries loan services will grow and it is interlinked with the search of the union
catalogues which will build effective DDS. Delivery of documents will be fast, either
electronically through Xeroxing, fax, courier or e-mail.
Consortia will give the library and also the user extended access- that is, better service for
reduced costs. With subscribed resources accessible online in electronic format, the member
libraries would have less pressure on space requirement for storing and managing print- based
library resources. Moreover, all problems associated with print media such as their wear and tear,
location, shelving, binding, organizing, etc. would not be an issue for electronic resources.
d) Development of Library Consortia in India: Library consortia has become quite popular in
India and many intuitions some of which are furnish below has made use of it.
i) Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) e-Journals Consortium
<http://124.124.221.7>.
ii) The Forum for Resource Sharing in Astronomy & Astrophysics (FORSA)
<http://www.iiap.res.in/library/forsa.html>.
iii) Health Sciences Library & Information Network (HELINET)
<http://www.rguhs.ac.in/hn/newhell.htm>.
iv) Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) Knowledge Park
<http://www.iciciknowledgepark.com/>.
v) The Indian Institute of Management (IIM)’s Library Consortia.
vi) Indian National Digital Library in Engineering Sciences and Technology (INDEST)
Consortium <http://paniit.iitd.ac.in/indest/>.
vii) UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research <http://www.tifr.res.in/~libws/>.
viii) UGC- INFONET <http://web.inflibnet.ac.in/info/ugcinfonet/ugcinfonet.jsp>.
ix) ISRO Library Consortium, ICMR Library Consortium, etc.

The library cooperation / resource sharing / networking / consortia or by whatever name we term
it aims to improve the existing organizational infrastructure of the participating libraries in terms
of finance, manpower, equipment, document, and other library facilities. It improves the
effectiveness and efficiencies of the participating libraries to serve the needs of the user,
improves access to resources, widens information coverage and accelerates the sphere in the
supply of information, and helps in utilizing the available resources to the optimum level.
Library Committee
Library Committee: A library authority may appoint a library committee, which is a body
consisting of persons who are assigned the job of looking after the library. The library committee
is needed because the librarian alone should not carry the whole burden of a big institution like a
library.
a) Members of the Library Committee: In case of a University, the library committee is
formed with the heads of the departments of the University, the Vice-chancellor, the Librarian,
etc. The Vice chancellor is the Chairman of the library committee, and the Librarian is the
Secretary. In case of college library, the principal is the chairman, and the librarian is the
secretary. In case of school library, there is no need of a library committee because the library
itself is a very small one and the librarian is the working head of the library.
The library committee should not be a very large. Only those people should be included
as members of the library committee who are interested in the library and in this way the
membership is restricted within the limit of twenty.
b) Types of Library Committee: There are mainly two types of library committees
i) Executive Committee: This committee is most powerful as it has full power over those matters
which are delegated to them by the library authority. So the decision of the library executive
committee is final and mandatory. It need not report its decision to the library authority.
ii) Advisory or Recommendatory Committee: It simply gives proposals which are subject to the
approval of the library authority.
If we go deep into the history of library committee we will also find some other types of
library committees. These are as follows:
iii) Self Perpetuating Committee: These committees have the sole authority and independence as
regards the control and management of the library under it. It does not have to report to any other
higher body about its activities.
iv)Adhoc Committee (Statutory Committee): It has the advantage of being independent of
politics. It takes decision expeditiously. This committee is more or less independent. The Madras
Public Library Act of 1948 provides the appointment of such a committee. This type of
committee serves as library authority.
v) Nominated / Elected Committee: A large committee or an authority nominates or elects a
smaller body for looking after certain bodies under it. It delegates certain power to such smaller
bodies or committees.
vi) Recommending Committee: It does not have any real power except that it simply gives certain
proposals which are subject to the approval of the library authority.
vii) Reporting Committee: This committee has sufficient powers to decide the matters within
certain limit. Such decision needs no confirmation of the supreme authority but the decision is to
be reported to the latter for information.
c) Powers and Functions of Library Committee: Powers and functions of a library committee
vary according to its nature. In case of the Executive Committee the powers, functions and
responsibilities are more whereas in case of a recommending committee, these will be narrowed
to a great extent. Almost all the proposals for discussion at the library committee meeting are put
forth by the librarian who generally acts as an ex-officio secretary to the committee. The library
committees generally serve the following purposes.
i) Library Building: Library committee plays a great role in the construction of the library
building and also makes necessary arrangement for the maintenance of the library building.
ii) Library Furniture and Fittings: Library committee ensures the availability of the adequate and
proper standard furniture so that in future any number of identical articles may be added without
any wastage of money or space.
iii) Library Staff: A library committee employs the qualified and adequate library staff for the
library.
iv) Library Rule: It frames a set of library rules and keeps them up-to-date.
v) Library Finance: The librarian not being an elected representative of the people cannot
successfully appeal for more fund allocation for the library. But the committee being a
representative body of the people can successfully and convincingly appeal for more funds. The
committee can also allocate the funds for the library.
vi) Collection of Documents: A library committee may appoint a sub-committee to serve as book
selection committee so that the lists of books are thoroughly scrutinized to avoid the purchase of
undesirable books.
vii) Library Accounts and Audits: A library committee provides the proper machinery for
checking the library accounts. It may appoint an account sub-committee for auditing the
accounts.
viii) Standard Library Service: A library committee put in its best efforts to secure full coverage
and standard library services to the users.
ix) Library co-operation: A library committee finds out ways and means of securing co-operation
between various branches within a locality and between other authorities.
x) Supervision and Advice: Public functions are best performed by a committee of persons who
may be elected or nominated out by the people themselves as such the library committees also
supervise and advise the librarian in matters on which public participation is essential.
xi) Buffer Agency: The committee serves as a buffer agency and an interpreter of the needs of the
library to the community, controlling and guiding the library activities. In the absence of a library
committee the librarian would find himself defenseless and unprotected.
Library Classification
Library Classification: Classification means putting together the like-entities and separating
the unlike entities. The characteristics of entities are used as a basis for determining the likeness
and unlikeness between them. A class consists of entities which are like in some respects and
possessing certain qualities in common. This helps in distinguish them from another class of
entities.
1. Definition: A library classification is a system of coding and organizing library materials
(books, serials, audiovisual, computer files, maps, photographs, manuscripts, regalia,
gramophone records, tape records, microfilm and so on) according to their subject. It provides
formal access to documents in a library.
Sayers defines library classification as “the arrangement of books on shelves or
description of them in the manner which is most helpful to those who read”. The emphasis is on
usefulness so that the users can locate the document without complication.
According to Margaret Mann, classification is “the arranging of things according to
likeness and unlikeness. It is the sorting and grouping of things, but in addition classification of
books is a knowledge classification with adjustment made necessary by the physical forms of
books.”
According to S.R. Ranganathan, “it is the translation of the name of the subject of a book
into a preferred artificial language of ordinal numbers and the individualization of the several
books dealing with the same specific subject by means of a further set of ordinal numbers which
represents some features of the book other than their thought content”. The first of these ordinal
numbers is called the class number of the book. The second ordinal numbers is called its book
number. The class number and the book number together constitute the call number of the book.
The library classification system provides a system for organizing the knowledge
embodied in books, CD, web, etc. It supplies a notation (in case of DDC, it is Arabic numerals)
to the document. The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system is a general knowledge
organization tool that is continuously revised to keep pace with the development of knowledge.
It is the most widely used classification scheme in the world. Libraries in more than 135
countries use the DDC to organize their collection. It is also used over the web for organizing the
web resources for the purpose of browsing.
2. Need: Until 19th century, most libraries had closed stacks, so the library classification only
served to organize the subject catalogue. In the 20th century, libraries opened their stacks to the
public and started to shelve the library material itself according to certain library classification
scheme to simplify subject browsing. So classification is needed for providing the following
advantages
i) Helpful Sequence: Classification brings the like documents together on the shelf in a helpful
sequence providing approach through subject.
ii) Locate a Particular Document: A library collects / preserves documents. It is very difficult to
locate a required document from a system of disorderly collection. So, it needs classification to
bring order to the collection.
iii) Self Help: Classification helps the locating of document by the patron of the library itself,
thus requiring less assistance from the library staff.
iv) Correct Replacement: Documents would be taken out from shelves by the users or library
staff. The classification helps in the correct replacement of documents after these have been
returned from use.
v) Mechanical Arrangement: The classification helps the mechanization of the collection by
allocating notation.
3. Different Schemes of Classification: To derive the particular class number different libraries
use different classification schemes. All classification schemes can be categorized into three
kinds- based on the language, based on the synthesis and based on arrangement. Let us discuss
them in detail
Based on the language library classification can be:
i) English-Speaking World: In the English –speaking countries Dewey Decimal Classification
(DDC), Library of Congress Classification (LC), Bliss Bibliographic Classification (BC),
Dickinson Classification are generally followed.
ii) Non English Speaking World: Non English speaking countries use Nippon Decimal
Classification (NDC), Principes de Classement des Documents Musicaux (PCDM), Chinese
Library Classification (CLC), Korean Decimal Classification (KDC), etc.
Synthesis means combining codes from different lists to represent the different attributes
of a work. Based on synthesis library classification may be Bibliographic Classification by Bliss,
Colon Classification by Ranganathan, Expansive Classification by Cutter, Universal Decimal
Classification, etc.
Based on the arrangement there are three main types of classification systems:
i) Enumerative: Produce an alphabetical list of subject headings; assign numbers to each heading
in alphabetical order. The most common classification systems, LC and DDC, are essentially
enumerative, though with some hierarchical and faceted elements, especially at the broadest and
most general level.
ii) Hierarchical: Divides subjects hierarchically, from general to specific.
iii) Faceted or analytico-synthetic: Divides subjects into mutually exclusive orthogonal facets.
The first true faceted system was the Colon classification of S. R. Ranganathan.
iv) Specialist Classification: Specialist classification systems have been developed for particular
subject areas, and some specialist libraries develop their own classification system that
emphasizes those areas they specialize in. An example is the Medical Subject Headings devised
by the US National Library of Medicine (NLM). Another example is the specialist classification
system for art and iconography (Iconclass). There are also emerging metadata standards that are
being developed for web resources, digital images, and other specialized materials.
4. Dewey Decimal Classification: The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system is the
world’s most widely used library classification system. American librarian and library educator
Melville Dewey devised the system in 1873 while he was a student
at Amherst College in Massachusetts. The Dewey Decimal system was first published in 1876 as
“A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of
a Library”. It appeared in the form of a small book of 44 pages. The Decimal Classification
Editorial Policy Committee (EPC) was established in 1937 to serve as an advisory body to the
Dewey Decimal Classification. In 1988, Online Computer Library Center, Inc (OCLC) acquired
the DDC. The editorial headquarters was located at the Library of Congress in the Decimal
Classification Division. The editors prepare the proposed schedule revisions and expansions, and
forward the proposals to EPC for review and recommended action. Nowadays, DDC is
published by Online Computer Library Center, Inc in full and abridged editions. The abridged
edition targets the general libraries having less than 20,000 titles. Both the full and abridged
editions are available in print as well as in electronic version.
4.1 Introduction to 22nd Edition of DDC: The edition 22 is the first edition of the DDC, which
is produced in the context of the web environment. DDC 22 is composed of the following major
parts in four volumes.
a) Volume 1: It includes special features of edition 22, introduction regarding how to use the
DDC, glossary, index to the introduction and glossary, a manual (guide to the use of the DDC),
and six numbered tables. It also has the lists that compare editions 21 and 22 with the list of
relocated, discontinued and reused numbers.
b) Volume 2: It includes DDC summaries (the top three levels of the DDC), and schedules (from
000-599). The summaries will help you to visualize at a glance the structure and scope of
various subjects as laid down in DDC.
The first summary contains ten main classes. The first digit in each three-digit number
represents the main class. For example, 600 represents technology.
The second summary contains the hundred divisions, ten for each main class. The second
digit in each three-digit number indicates the division. For example, 600 is used for general
works on technology, 610 for medicine and health, 620 for engineering, 630 for agriculture.
The third summary contains the thousand sections. The third digit in each three-digit
number indicates the section. Thus, 610 is used for general works on medicine and health, 611
for human anatomy, 612 for human physiology, 613 for personal health and safety.
c) Volume 3: It includes the organization of knowledge schedules from 600-999.
d) Volume 4: It includes a relative index. The relative index (it relates subjects to discipline)
contains an alphabetical list of subjects with the disciplines in which they are treated as sub-
arranged alphabetically under each entry.
4.2 Understanding the Structure of DDC: The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system
uses simple decimal notation to divide recorded knowledge into 10 main classes at the broadest
level which together cover the entire world of knowledge. Each main class is further divided into
ten divisions, and each division into ten sections giving 100 divisions and 1,000 sections. All the
numbers for the divisions and sections have not been used.
a) Tables: The six tables in the DDC are as following
T1 Standard Subdivisions
T2 Geographic Areas, Historical Periods, Persons
T3 Subdivisions for the Arts, for Individual Literatures, for Specific Literary Forms
T4 Subdivisions of Individual Languages and Language Families
T5 Ethnic and National Groups
T6 Languages
The notation from T1can be added to any numbers unless there is an instruction in the
schedules or tables to the contrary. The other table notations may be added only when
instructions are given in the schedules or tables.
b) Summaries: The Dewey Decimal Classification divides human knowledge into ten basic
categories, with subdivisions indicated by decimal notation. Each of the ten main classes has the
potential to be broken down into smaller multiples of ten. The word decimal in the name of the
classification system comes from decem, the Latin word for “ten”.
DDC has three summaries. The first summaries includes 10 main classes, the second
summary includes 100 divisions and the third summary includes 1000 sections.
i) First Summary: The ten primary classes of DDC are as follows:
000 Generalities
100 Philosophy and psychology
200 Religion
300 Social sciences
400 Language
500 Natural sciences and mathematics
600 Technology (applied sciences)
700 The arts; fine and decorative arts
800 Literature and rhetoric
900 Geography and history
A brief explanation of each of the class is given below.
000: Class 000 is the most general class. It includes the works that are not limited to any one
specific discipline or the works that are related to information and knowledge. It includes
encyclopedias, newspapers, general periodicals, computer science, library and information
science, journalism, etc.
100: Class 100 covers Philosophy, Parapsychology and occultism, and Psychology.
200: Class 200 is devoted to Religion.
300: Class 300 covers the social sciences that include Sociology, Anthropology, Statistics,
Political science, Economics, Law, Public administration, Social problems and services,
Education, Commerce, Communications, Transportation, Custom (including folk literature), etc.
400: It comprises languages, linguistics, and specific languages.
500: It includes Natural sciences and Mathematics.
600: Class 600 includes technology.
700: It covers arts in general, fine and decorative arts, music, and the performing arts. It also
includes recreation, including sports and games.
800: It covers literature, and includes rhetoric, prose, poetry, drama, etc.
900: It is devoted to History and Geography.
ii) Second Summary: Again, each of the 10 Main Classes is subdivided into 10 Divisions
resulting in 100 Divisions on the whole. The entire second summary is reproduced bellow for
your reference. You should remember the first and second summary of DDC fully.
000 Computer science, knowledge & systems
010 Bibliographies
020 Library & information sciences
030 Encyclopedias & books of facts
040 [Unassigned]
050 Magazines, journals & serials
060 Associations, organizations & museums
070 News media, journalism & publishing
080 Quotations
090 Manuscripts & rare books
100 Philosophy
110 Metaphysics
120 Epistemology
130 Parapsychology & occultism
140 Philosophical schools of thought
150 Psychology
160 Logic
170 Ethics
180 Ancient, medieval & eastern philosophy
190 Modern western philosophy
200 Religion
210 Philosophy & theory of religion
220 The Bible
230 Christianity & Christian theology
240 Christian practice & observance
250 Christian pastoral practice & religious orders
260 Christian organization, social work & worship
270 History of Christianity
280 Christian denominations
290 Other religions
300 Social sciences, Sociology & Anthropology
310 Statistics
320 Political science
330 Economics
340 Law
350 Public administration & military science
360 Social problems & social services
370 Education
380 Commerce, communications & transportation
390 Customs, etiquette & folklore
400 Language
410 Linguistics
420 English & Old English languages
430 German & related languages
440 French & related languages
450 Italian, Romanian & related languages
460 Spanish & Portuguese languages
470 Latin & Italic languages
480 Classical & modern Greek languages
490 Other languages
500 Science
510 Mathematics
520 Astronomy
530 Physics
540 Chemistry
550 Earth sciences & geology
560 Fossils & prehistoric life
570 Life science; Biology
580 Plants (Botany)
590 Animals (Zoology)
600 Technology
610 Medicine & health
620 Engineering
630 Agriculture
640 Home & family management
650 Management & public relations
660 Chemical engineering
670 Manufacturing
680 Manufacture for specific uses
690 Building & construction
700 Arts
710 Landscaping & area planning
720 Architecture
730 Sculpture, ceramics & metalwork
740 Drawing & decorative arts
750 Painting
760 Graphic arts
770 Photography & computer art
780 Music
790 Sports, games & entertainment
800 Literature, Rhetoric & Criticism
810 American literatures in English
820 English & Old English literatures
830 German & related literature
840 French & related literatures
850 Italian, Romanian & related literatures
860 Spanish & Portuguese literature
870 Latin & Italic literatures
880 Classical & modern Greek literature
890 Other literatures
900 History
910 Geography & travel
920 Biography & geography
930 History of ancient world (to ca. 499)
940 History of Europe
950 History of Asia
960 History of Africa
970 History of North America
980 History of South America
990 History of other areas
iii) Third Summary: In the third summaries, each one of the 100 divisions is further subdivided
into 10 sections resulting in 1000 sections. For the copyright issue, the third summary is not
included here in this unit. But, you can find the complete summaries of DDC 22nd edition over
OCLC website (http://www.oclc.org/dewey/resources/summaries/default.htm), and Chopac.org
(http://chopac.org/cgi-bin/tools/ddc22.pl). The Chopac.org provides the DDC summaries of 22nd
edition in a very easy to browse, and search structure. You can also use this interface to obtain
the main class number of any document.
You can also find the Dewey Decimal Classification System (13th Abridged) in the
website of Near North District School Board (http://www-
lib.nearnorth.edu.on.ca/dewey/ddc.htm).
c) Schedules: Schedules contain the schedules of Class Numbers assigned in numeric order
from 000 to 999. To follow the correct use of the Schedules, it is necessary to understand the
various notes and instructions suggested in different entries. So, let’s explore the schedule in
some details.
Entries in the schedules and tables are composed of DDC number in the left margin, a
heading describing the class that the number represents, and often one or more notes. All entries,
numbers, headings, and notes should be read in the context of hierarchy. The first three digits of
schedule number appears only once, when first used, in the number column. They are repeated at
the top of each page where their subdivisions continue. Subordinate numbers appear in the
number column, beginning with a decimal point. The numbers and notes in parentheses provide
options to standard practice. Numbers in square brackets represent the topics that have been
reallocated or discontinued, or unassigned. Square brackets are also used for standard
subdivision concepts that are represented in another location.
Only a fraction of the potential DDC numbers is included in the schedules. It is often
necessary to build or synthesize a number that is not specifically listed in the schedules. If you
turn the third page of the schedule (Vol 2), you will see that entries start with the notation “000”
at the top of the page and a summary of all divisions and sections below it. In the 5 th page you
will see the first entry that is “001” which stands for knowledge, and below it the numbers and
descriptions and different notes to arrive at the correct class number of a document.
d) Relative Index: The volume 4 contains the Relative Index. It is an alphabetical list of all the
subjects given in the Schedules and Tables. It is called the Relative Index because it brings
together under the name of the subject the various aspects of a subject which are scattered in the
schedules according to the disciplines. This index not only arranges the concepts and their terms
in an alphabetical sequence but also shows the relation between the terms and the contexts in
which the subjects appear in the Schedule. It is a key to the Schedules as well as an independent
approach to classification. In the index, all possible subjects are included under main divisions
and sub-divisions so that the classifier finds it easy to search out the possible subjects under the
alphabetical list of relative index. The numbers that are given for subjects in the index are
readymade numbers, but they are not the same as those of the schedule. The classifier has to
finally decide the number himself.
4.3 Steps for Classifying with DDC: While doing the classification of a document one should
procede to the class number in the following ways
a) Determine the Subject: First, try to determine the subject of the book or document in your
hand. The title often provides a clue to the subject, but it should never be the sole source of
analysis. The subject which the book deals with can be determined by going through the table of
contents, chapter headings, the preface or introduction, and the book jacket or the accompanying
materials.
If a work includes multiple subjects, class it under the subject that is being acted upon
(rule of application). The rule of application takes precedence over any other rule. For instance,
class an analytical work dealing with Shakespeare’ influence on Keats with the subject Keats.
Class a work (book) on two subjects with the subjects receiving fuller treatment. If two subjects
receive equal treatment, class the work with the subject whose number comes first in the DDC
schedules (first-of-two rule). For example, history dealing equally with the United States and
Japan, should be classed under history of Japan, because 952 Japan precedes 973 United States
(even if in the title of the work United States appears first, and it is discussed first in the contents
of the work). Class a work in which three or more subjects are treated equally but are all
subdivisions of a broader subject in the first higher number that includes them all (rule of three).
For instance, a history of Portugal (946.9), Sweden (948.5), and Greece (949.5) is classed with
the history of Europe (940).
b) Determine the Discipline: After determining the subject the classifier should try to
determine the disciplinary focus and, if possible, the approach or form of the work.
If a work is dealing with more than one discipline, interdisciplinary number should be
provided to the work.
If you are not able to determine the subject and the discipline of the book in hand, you
can consult “The Relative Index”. It will help by suggesting the discipline(s) in which a subject
is normally treated.
c) Consult the Schedule: The schedules are the only place where all the information about
coverage and use of the numbers may be found. So, once the subject has been determined and
information on the discipline has been found, the classifier should turn to the schedules. The
summaries, headings and notes within the schedules will provide the necessary guidance to
arrive at the appropriate class number.
In the schedule of DDC, special headings, notes, and entries indicate relationships among
the topics that violate the notational hierarchy. The notes are usually given at the highest level of
application. For example, the scope note at 700 applies to 730 to 736 and to 736.4. So, during
the process of classifying a document the classifier has to turn the pages up and down.
Even if the classifier has used “The Relative Index”, he should still rely on the structure
of the classification schedule to arrive at the proper class number of a work. Even the most
promising Relative Index citations must be verified in the schedules.
d) Close and Broad Classification: Close classification means that the content of a work is
specified by notation to the fullest extent possible. Broad classification means that the work is
placed in a broad class by the use of notation that has been logically abridged. For example, a
work on French cooking is classed closely at 641.5944 (641.59 Cooking by place + 44 France
from the T1), or broadly at 641.5 (Cooking). The DDC provides the basic options of close versus
broad classification. A library should choose between these two option based on the size of its
collection and the needs of its users. The abridged edition of the DDC is another source for
broad classification.
e) Other Points: It should be noted that DDC uses the convention that no number should have
fewer than three digits; zeros are used to fill in the numbers. A decimal point (or dot) follows the
third digit in a class number, after which division by ten continues to the specific degree of
classification needed. The “dot” is not used as a decimal point in the mathematical sense; it used
to ease the transcription and copying of the class numbers.
A number should never end in a zero anywhere to the right of the decimal point. Again,
subdivisions beginning with zero should be avoided if there is a choice between zero and 1-9 at
the same point in the hierarchy of the notation (rule of zero).
4.4 Examples of Classifying a Document with DDC Summaries: Now let’s try to classify
some general books practically, wherein we do not require to use seven tables and the details
about the Schedules. For classification of such books, the three summaries of DDC and the
Relative Index will be enough. Now, for example, take a book whose name is “A Text Book of
Geometry”
Here, in the title, it is very easy and expressive enough to determine the subject.
Geometry is the branch of Mathematics and it will come under science. So, go to the first
summary wherein you will find “500 Science”, then consult the second summary, wherein under
500 you will find “510 Mathematics”. Now, in the third summary under “510 Mathematics”, you
will find “516 Geometry”. Now, consult the schedule for verification. In the schedule also the
516 is for Geometry. So, the class number of the above book will be “516”.
Now, suppose, in lieu of the above approach you want to move from the Relative Index.
In such cases, find the word Geometry in the page number 331 of volume 4. Opposite to the
word you will find the number “516” in the following format.
Geometry 516
famous problems 516.204
Now consult the schedule for verification. In page number 515 of volume 2, you will find
“516 Geometry”, so the class number of the above book will be “516”.
4.5 Classification of Document by Using the Web: The cost of DDC is very high. Every
library in India and in other developing countries cannot afford to have a set of DDC as its own.
But the classification of the documents in a library is a must. To meet this end, librarians can use
some tools and techniques to have a class number of a document they have procured in their
library. There are some excellent tools over the web that share the class numbers. Some of these
tools and techniques are discussed bellow. They will provide the readymade class number of a
document and will save the time of the classifier. We may not require to follow these options if
we have a set of DDC. We are to only follow the options listed below in the event of not having
a set of DDC. We can also follow these options to verify the class number obtained by
consulting the DDC on our own.
a) Classify: An Experimental Classification Web Service: OCLC Research experimental
classification service launched “Classify” (http://classify.oclc.org/classify2/) which is targeted to
support the assignment of class number and subject heading by using the web. The interface can
be used both by a machine as well as human being. It provides access to more than 36 million
collectively built records from a large pool of related resources. Each record in the database
contains Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) numbers, Library of Congress Classification
(LCC) numbers, or National Library of Medicine (NLM) Classification numbers, and subject
headings from the Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST).
In the database of Classify (http://classify.oclc.org/classify2/) by inputting any one or in
combination of some basic information related to the document, the class number or subject
heading can be obtained. The inputted information may be of the following types-
i) ISBN: You can use the 10 or 13 digit ISBN. The ISBN should be used without hyphens in
between. You can find more about ISBN over: http://www.isbn-international.org/
ii) OCLC #: Each bibliographic record in the WorldCat has a unique number that range from 1 to
9 digits in length. You can also use this number to find out the information from the database.
More about OCLC # is available over: http://www.worldcat.org/links/default.jsp
iii) Barcode / The Universal Product Code (UPC): You can use the 12 digits UPC number
found in the document. You can know more about Barcode over: http://www.gs1us.org/
iv) International Standard Serial Number (ISSN): You can use the eight digits ISSN with or
without hyphen (as it is appeared in the document). You can know more about ISSN over:
http://www.issn.org
v) Title and / or Author: You can also use full title of the document or some portion of it or its
author or both the title and the author as a combined search.
vi) Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST): You can also use the FAST controlled
vocabulary that is based on the Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH). You can collect
more information about FAST over: http://www.oclc.org/research/activities/fast/
If you go to (http://classify.oclc.org/) web address and enter the ISBN / ISSN or any
standard number correctly in the interface it sometimes shows a “No data found for the input
argument” error. But, if you use the title and some portion of the authors’ name of the same
document it shows the result. It happens probably because sometimes people perhaps do not
entered those fields in the records of the database, while preparing it.
Entering some portion of the title and the first author’s surname (or sometimes the
forename) of the document in the interface mostly leads to the relevant document and class
number. You can use this option as your first approach to obtain the class number of the
document or its subject heading.
Fig. 1 : Home Page of Classify of OCLC
b) DeweyBrowser: The DeweyBrowser (http://deweybrowser.oclc.org) provides access to
approximately 2.5 million records from the OCLC Worldcat database. You can also use this
interface to obtain readymade class number of a document in your library. Just make a search by
entering the complete title of the document in the search box of the site to have its class number.

c) ISBNdb.com: ISBNdb.com (http://isbndb.com/) is a database of books that is built by taking

data from hundreds of libraries across the world. It is developed by Andrew Maltsev. He has also
a company named Ejelta LLC (http://ejelta.com/), based in San Gabriel, CA. This ISBNdb.com
is one of the outputs of the company. You can enter the keywords, book title, author, publisher,
topic or ISBN of the document in its search box to have its class number. After displaying the
result by the interface, click on the most relevant title under the heading of “Books Matching
(‘your enter title’)” and consult the “Dewey Class:” under “Classification:” heading. Here you
will find the classification number of the document you are looking for.
If you don’t find the heading “Classification:” or you find the heading “Classification:”
but don’t find the “Dewey Class:” then you should move to the appropriate title under “Libraries
this book has an entry in:”. Now under the “MARC Record” you should consult the number
against: 092: $a: or 082. This will be your classification number of the document you were
looking for.
d) Library of Congress Online Catalogue: To classify document by using Library of Congress
Online Catalogue (http://catalog.loc.gov/), enter the address http://catalog.loc.gov/ in the address
bar of your browser, and then click on “Alternative Interface to the LC Online Catalog
(Z39.50)”. It will lead you to a new screen, from where you have to opt for “Advanced Search
(multiple terms using Boolean operators)”. In the new page you have arrived at (it will look just
like the following) you can search for class numbers by entering different details about the
document in your library. Your search term may be the name of the author, title, series, ISBN,
ISSN, publisher and many others to choose from. After submission of the details in the interface
you have to click on "Submit Query" and then should navigate to “More on this record". Now,
against the "Dewey No.:", you will find the class number of the document you are searching for.
Please note that for some titles you will not be able to find DDC number in this database, as it
was mainly designed by using the Library of Congress Classification number.

Exercise

Type the title, author and ISBN of ten books

recently acquired by your library and classify
those titles by following the different online
methods listed above.

The WebDewey also offers easy-to-use, World Wide Web-based access to the Dewey
Decimal Classification (DDC) and related information, with searching and browsing
capabilities. One can also find Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) intellectually and
statistically mapped to Dewey numbers; and links from the mapped LCSH to the corresponding
LCSH authority records. It is also an excellent tool for online classification of the document, but
the bad thing is that it is a paid service. It costs from $ 225-$575 per year.
4.6 Let Us Sum Up: In this unit you have learnt how to classify a document by using the DDC
summaries as well as by using different online tools and techniques. Sometimes a book itself
may contain the classification number. In such cases, you can simply copy down that
classification number from Cataloguing in Publication (CIP) data. The CIP will provide
classification number, subject headings, and notes. This type of data is very common in the verso
of the title page of many books published from U.S., Australia, British, and Canada. So, if you
have a book published from the above countries, try to find the CIP data and copy it to your
document.
The unit takes into account the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) that includes the
structure of the DDC consisting of Tables, Summaries, Schedules and Relative Index.
Classification of document by using the web is another important point of discussion in the unit.
In this section the relevant matter includes “Classify”, Dewey Browser, ISBNdb.com and
Library of Congress Online Catalogue. Each of these concepts has been exercised to give an idea
about the use of the web for classification.
5. Library of Congress Classification: In 1898 a group under the guidance of J. C. M. Hanson,
the head of the catalog division at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C, and Charles
Martel, the library’s chief classifier, developed the first part of the Library of Congress (LC)
Classification system. In the years that followed, numerous specialists contributed to the further
development of the system and expanded it to cover other subject areas.
The Library of Congress Classification system divides human knowledge into 21 major
classes, using letters of the English alphabet for each, with further subdivisions indicated by
decimal notation. The system does not use the letters I, O, W, X, and Y.
The major classes of the Library of Congress Classification system are as follows:
A General works
B Philosophy; psychology; religion
C Auxiliary sciences of history
D History: General and Old World
E-F History: America
G Geography; anthropology; recreation
H Social sciences
J Political science
K Law
L Education
M Music and books on music
N Fine arts
P Languages and literature
Q Science
R Medicine
S Agriculture
T Technology
U Military science
V Naval science
Z Library science
6. Universal Decimal Classification: UDC, which was designed to facilitate the organization of
a universal bibliography of all recorded knowledge, first made its origin at Belgium in 1895 by
bibliographers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine. Initially UDC was based on the fifth edition of
the Dewey Decimal Classification that combines notation to express multiple concepts. The
Universal Decimal Classification system is issued by the International Federation for
Documentation, in the Hague, Netherlands, which is responsible for its ongoing revision.
7. Colon Classification: In 1933 Indian librarian Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan introduced
the Colon Classification system, which classifies all knowledge into broad, fundamental
concepts. The Colon system then divides these concepts into several distinguishing
characteristics, which Ranganathan called facets. The classification system uses colons (:) to
distinguish between the various facets in a single notation and the name “Colon Classification
system” is derived from its use in its notation scheme.
In United States, most research and academic libraries use Library of Congress
Classification, while most schools and public libraries use Dewey Decimal Classification. The
UDC system is widely used in Europe, Latin America, Russia, and Japan. Although the use of
the Colon Classification system is limited to a few Indian libraries, Ranganathan’s concept of
facet analysis in classifying knowledge has been widely recognized. Some of its key concepts
have been adopted by subsequent editions of the DDC or UDC, among others.

Terms

Classifier: The library professional who

is engaged in the process of classifying
of library materials is called a classifier
or classifier librarian.
8. Allotting Class Number: In classifying, a classifier first takes up those books which are
additional copies or new editions of works available in the library. In such cases, he/she would
put down the call number in the book order slip and on the process slip along with the fact
whether the book in hand is an additional copy or a new edition. Sequence numbers are also
copied in the processing slip. The rest of the books received by a classifier are sorted by basic
classes. The indexes attached to the classification schedules are used to find out the basic class
numbers. Each basic class is taken, one by one. In the process of classification, based on the
subject content of the item, a class number is assigned by consulting the schedules. The
classification of the document can be made by manual means or by copy cataloguing, etc. The
practice of complete reliance on the indexes for deriving the class number of any document is
not advisable. The class numbers so arrived at should be tallied with the other standard
catalogues, if necessity arises, especially in doubtful cases. The class numbers are given in
pencil on the upper half portion of the verso of the title page. It is in pencil, because in case there
is some changes in the class numbers, in future it may be corrected without any damage to the
book by rubbing the earlier class numbers. This phenomenon is common because almost every
classification scheme is revised periodically.
9. Allotting Book Number: Generally, the author marks constitute a book number. Cutter’s
Author Table, Cutter-Sanborne Author Table, Merrill’s Author Table, Author Tables of L. Stanley
Jast, Biscore Time Numbers, Ranganathan’s Book Numbers System may be used to allot author
marks. A decision is to be taken by each library as to which system is to be used for allotting
book numbers.
The class number and book number together constitute the call number of the book. The
call numbers should be written on the processing slips, adding the sequence number, wherever
required.
10. Assigning Subject Heading: Subject heading is the words or group of words under which
books and other materials on a subject are entered in a catalogue. The heading may include
punctuation to which an arranging significance may be assigned. In a classified catalogue the
subject heading consists of a classification symbols with or without its verbal meaning. It may
also include entries for all materials on the same subject in an index or bibliography. For
assigning subject heading, Library of Congress List of Subject Headings, Sears List of Subject
Headings, ALA List of Subject Headings, Ranganathan’s Chain Procedure may be used. The
chain procedure method is useful in deriving proper subject headings. The smaller libraries,
where minute subject headings are not required, may use Sears List of Subject Headings or ALA
List of Subject Headings. But large, research or special libraries may use the Library of
Congress List of Subject Headings which is a very comprehensive and standard one. Each
library due to some local and special conditions may adopt certain subject headings of its own in
order to meet the readers’ demand.
Library Cataloguing
Library Cataloguing: The cataloguing department decides on the appropriate form for
identifying authorship of works in the collection, describes the item as a physical item or a
virtual source, and assigns subject access points. In the cataloguing, on the process lip, headings
for different types of entries to be prepared should be listed. The headings should be listed on the
pattern of a tracing section. At this state, the cataloguer should pass on the volumes along with
process slips to the typist to type out catalogue cards or to handwrite the card. So at the end, the
product of cataloguing is just like a card or in modern sense an entry in the OPAC giving
essential general information about informational entity. This essential general information
includes details about author, title, place of publication, name of publisher, year of publication,
edition, editorship, pagination, illustration, etc. The individual cards which bear the class number
or call number to enable the item to be located are arranged in some definite order. It may be
noted that for each volume, an additional card called shelf list card shall be prepared.

Terms

Cataloguer / Catalog Librarian: The

library professional who is engaged in
the process of cataloging of library
materials is called cataloguer. He
compiles the list of documents according
to a definite set of rules to enable the
item to be located in the collection.

1. Definition: In order to provide access to the holdings of a library, an index or list of the
materials is always prepared and maintained systematically for the readers. It contains all the
essential details about the documents with location mark, usually in numerical form, by which
the documents can be located on the shelves of the library. This list or index or tool is basically
called a library catalogue.
Cataloguing meant those activities that record, describe and index the resources of a
collection that were acquired in a manner that will aid the end-user in locating materials in the
collection(s). Library items that are written in a foreign script are, in some cases, transliterated to
the script of the catalog.
Ranganathan has defined a library catalogue as “a list of document in a library or in a
collection forming a portion of it”. A “list” refers to some kind of arrangement based on a set
plan and a “document” constitutes embodied thought, which is a ‘record of work on paper or
other material fit for physical handling, transport across space and preservation through time’.
This means that document includes all types of records in which information can be stored or
presented.
According to Ruth French Strout, a catalogue may be considered “a work in which
contents are arranged in a reasonable way, according to a set plan or merely word by word”.
2. Need and Purpose: The objective or function of the early catalogue was to serve as an
inventory list with progressive pattern of arrangement based on the order of accession
chronologically by date of publication or period of author. From this arose a wide variety of
approaches and an expansion of the inventory idea to include retrieval.
The modern library catalogue serves both the inventory (listing) and retrieval (finding)
function. Without cataloguing, it would be difficult for anyone to know what is in the collection,
how many items dealing with a particular topic are in the collection and so on. What one sees in
the public catalogue is the result of the efforts of the cataloguing staff and the extent of the use of
library resources depends greatly upon the quality of it. A well made catalogue definitely adds to
the reputation of the library. Library cataloguing allows library aids to assist the end-users in
locating the materials. The need and purpose of the library catalogue can be viewed from the
following points of view
a) General Objectives: The general objectives of library catalogues are-
i) Register: At any time the user may not find the entire collection of the library on the shelf.
Therefore, to know about the entire collection (what is available) at any time reliance is to be
given to some other dependable tool. Catalogue, which is a register of all informational items
found in a particular library or group of libraries serves this end.
ii) Finding Aid: Cataloguing helps the user in locating the document in the stack. Simply it
guides the user to the exact location of a stack in which he / she will find the book of his/her
interest.
iii) Describes an Entity: Catalogue is only one of the many forms of bibliography, giving
essential general information about an informational entity (e.g., books, computer files, graphics,
regalia, cartographic materials, a webpage etc.).
iv) Satisfies Different Approaches: Cataloguing satisfies different kinds of approaches of the
patron of the library, say author, title, series, subject approach etc.
b) Charles Ammi Cutter Objectives: Charles Ammi Cutter made the first explicit statement
regarding the objectives of a bibliographic system in 1876. These have been frequently quoted
and criticized. According to Cutter, those objectives are
a) To enable a person to find a book of which (Finding objective) one of the following is known
i) The author
ii) The title
iii) The subject.
b) To show what the library has (collocating objective)
i) By a given author
ii) On a given subject
iii) In a given kind of literature
c) To assist in the choice of a book (Choice objective)
i) As to its edition (bibliographically)
ii) As to its character (literary or topical)
It is only a few readers who are able to express their subject requirements in specific
terms. They think of either a narrower or broader subject rather than the specific subject they
require. Considering this, Ranganathan raised an important point by quoting “if it is the interest
in the subject which takes him to the library, his wants will be better served if the catalogue can
spread before him a full connected panorama of all materials on his specific subject, all its
subdivisions and all broader subject of which it is itself a subdivision”. Ranganathan in the light
of the five laws of library & information science expressed the objectives of a catalogue as the
following
A catalogue should be so designed as to
i) Disclose to every reader his or her document;
ii) Secure for every document its reader;
iii) Save the time of the reader and with this save the time of the staff.
The Cutter objectives are more specific in comparison to the Ranganathan approach in
describing the objectives of a library catalogue.
c) Paris Conference: The principles adopted by the International Conference on Cataloguing
Principles held in Paris in 1961 are considered a landmark that leads to the standardization of
practices. The Paris conference resolved the function of a catalogue as given below
The catalogue should be efficient instrument for ascertaining
a) Whether the library contains a particular book specified by
i) Its author and title or
ii) If the author is not named in the book its title alone or
iii) If author and title are inappropriate or insufficient for identification, a substitute for the title
and
b) i) Which work by a particular author and
ii) Which edition of a particular work in the library.
The function as adopted by the Paris conference is more or less a restatement of the
Cutter objectives as described in his first edition of 1876.
d) Simonton Objectives: According to Simonton (1964) a library catalogue serves three
purposes in the conventional library and especially in the research library.
i) Describing all items catalogued to a degree of precision permitting positive identification.
ii) Establishing and describing the relationship of all items catalogued in terms of community of
authorship or sponsorship, similarly of context and continuity of bibliographic history.
iii) Serving as a finding list.
Though the objectives stated by Cutter have been criticized a great deal and quoted very
often, these can only explain the explicit objective of a catalogue. These have stood the test of
time and according to Patrick Quigg “later statements’ are most usually restatements of them”.
3. Different Kinds of Catalogue: The catalogue may be of different types based on different
approaches to division.
Based on physical form of presentation library catalogue can be of the following types
i) Printed Catalogue: The printed catalogue is also known as dictionary catalogues or bound
book catalogue. This type of catalogue is just like a book where individual catalogues are printed
to make it easy to consult for the user. The printed catalogues sometimes are interlaced with
blank leaves on which additions could be recorded. This type of catalogue is difficult to produce
and update; it’s very difficult to interpolate new entries and maintain correct sequence in it.
Again, its portability can be a disadvantage to other users because when a single volume is taken
to nearby table to be used by a particular user, it becomes difficult for the other user to consult
and there is no guarantee that the user will keep the volume in the proper place.
The British Museum catalogue of printed books is an example of this kind of catalogue.
ii) Guard Book Catalogue: This type of catalogue is also known as paste down catalogue. In
paste down catalogue, the base is a bound volume of thick blank sheets; each typed or printed
entry is pasted in the correct sequence on the successive right hand pages, leaving space for at
least five more entries to be inserted between any two consecutive pages. The left hand page is
left blank for pasting down any new entry not finding its due place vacant on the right hand
page, in the corresponding position. In case a given portion of the catalogue becomes too
crowded, the stripes are lifted and redistributed. This is similar to a printed catalogue except that
additional new entries can be pasted in and also new pages can be inserted. It is sometimes used
in conjunction with a printed catalogue and used prior to its production, bringing a new edition
or in producing a supplement for making addition, deletion, amendment and so on.
iii) Sheaf Catalogue: This type of catalogue is also known as loose leaf book form catalogue. It
contains about six entries on a single paper slip with holes or slots at one edge so that they can
be fastened into binders. Each binder has a locking / releasing mechanism to allow the insertion
of new entries when required yet ensures that the slips remain securely in place when the
catalogue is consulted. Owing to the fact that more than one entry was included on a single leaf
sometimes a break-down in sequence occurs.
iv) Card Catalogue: In card catalogue the size of leaf is reduced so that each leaf containes one
entry only and as the small leaf is inconvenient to handle so it has been replaced by the card.
Each card is of 125 mm X 75 mm. The cards are arranged in trays and held in their relative
position by a rod passing through holes near their bottom edge. The trays are all built into a
cabinet. The specification for the catalogue cabinet is given by the Indian Standards Institution.
The card catalogues allow much more flexibility.
v) Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC): The card catalogue was a familiar sight to library
users for generations, but the computerization of library activities has led to rethinking regarding
the form, purpose and function of a library catalogue. Now the card catalogue has been
effectively replaced by the OPAC or Web OPAC. Some libraries with OPAC access still have
card catalogues on site, but these are now strictly a secondary resource and are seldom updated.
Some libraries have eliminated their card catalogue in favour of the OPAC. The other form of
catalogue can be easily obtained as an output from OPAC.
Based on source where cataloguing is done catalogue can be grouped into the following
types-
i) Individual Cataloguing: Cataloguing done by individual libraries, institution, people to serve
their own need and purpose or for their own sake are known as individual cataloguing.
ii) Cooperative Cataloguing: Cooperative cataloguing refers to a situation where a number of
independent libraries share the work of producing a catalogue for their mutual benefit. It is done
in two or more libraries for the benefit of each participant and the results may or may not be
made available to other libraries. One of the important outputs of cooperative cataloguing is
Union catalogue.
iii) Centralized Cataloguing: Centralized cataloguing is defined as the cataloguing of documents
by some central organization for the benefit of other libraries. This form of cataloguing can take
place within one library system or within a number of library systems. Sometimes centralized
cataloguing may be done by another agency. Some of the forms of centralized cataloguing
services are Card or shelf service, Cataloguing in source, Cataloguing in publication, and
Prenatal cataloguing.
The term “Prenatal cataloguing” was used by Dr. S.R. Ranganathan. In this process the
cataloguing work has been done by the National Central Library of a country on each book
before its release by the publisher. This is done with the help of a copy of the form proof of each
book sent by each publisher. The National Central Library prepares a muster stencil of the
catalogue cards for each book before its release. The catalogue cards are later made available for
distribution to libraries on order along with the release of books themselves, Call numbers are
also printed on the back of the title pages and tooled on the binding as well. According to
Ranganathan, this type of process leads to saving 79% in the technical manpower of an intra
National and inter National Library System.
Based on the type of entry catalogue can be divided into the following-
i) Author Catalogue: A formal catalogue, sorted alphabetically according to the authors' or
editors' names of the entries.
ii) Title Catalogue: A formal catalogue, sorted alphabetically according to the title of the entries.
iii) Keyword Catalogue: It is a subject catalogue, sorted alphabetically according to keywords.
The keywords are derived by using some system.
iv) Mixed Alphabetic Catalogue: It is a mixture of author / title, or an author / title / keyword
catalogue.
v) Systematic Catalogue: A subject catalogue, sorted according to some systematic subdivision
of subjects is called systematic catalogue.
vi) Shelf List Catalogue: It is a formal catalogue with entries sorted in the same order as
bibliographic items are shelved on the stack.
d) Based on Scope: Based on the scope of a catalogue unit, cataloguing can be divided into i)
Individual catalogue and ii) Union catalogue. When a library catalogue lists holding or part of
holding of two or more libraries then it is called a union catalogue.
e) Based on Purpose: Based on purpose catalogue can be classified as Library Catalogue, Book
Sellers Catalogue, Publisher Catalogue, Dealers Catalogue, etc.
4. Criteria for Selection of Library Catalogue: In selecting the forms of catalogue to be
adopted by the librarian, he / she may consider the following factors-
i) Economic to produce and handle: The production and its subsequent maintenance cost and
labour of the catalogue should be minimal.
ii) Compact in size: It should not occupy much space in the library.
iii) Bring together like entries: It should have the provision to bring together entries with the
same heading or leading section.
iv) Updating: The selected catalogue should have the provision to insert or withdraw entries
easily as and when required.
v) Reproduction: It should have the provision to produce duplicate copies.
vi) Durability: The catalogue should be durable.
vii) Accessible: It should be reasonably accessible (within approach) to both users and staff
members of the library.
viii) Easy to handle and consult: To enable a user to find entries with ease. It should be easy to
handle and consult.
ix) Speed of searching: It should be amenable to fast speed of search.
x) Portability: It should be easily portable to enable the user / staff to consult it from inside or
from outside the library. The user should be able to take it home and consult it there.
5. Cataloguing Rules: Cataloguing rules have been defined to allow for consistent cataloguing
of various library materials across several persons of a cataloguing team and across time and
space. Users can use them to clarify as to how to find an entry and how to interpret the data in an
entry.
Cataloguing rules prescribe which information from a bibliographic item is included in
the entry; how this information is presented on a catalogue card or in a cataloguing record; how
the entries should be sorted in the catalogue. Currently, most cataloguing rules are similar to, or
even based on, the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a set of rules
produced by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) to describe a wide
range of library materials. These rules describe an item in terms of: title and statement of
responsibility (author or editor), edition, material-dependent information (for example, the scale
of a map), publication and distribution, physical description (for example, number of pages),
series, note, and standard number (ISBN).
A catalogue code is a set of rules for the guidance of cataloguers in preparing entries for
catalogues so as to ensure uniformity in treatment. These codes may also include rules for
subject heading, filling and arranging of entries. Classified catalogue code by S. R. Ranganathan
and Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, 2nd edition (AACR-II) are examples of such catalogue
codes. In June, 2010, the Resource Description and Access (RDA) was published, which will
completely take over the place of AACR-II. AACR-II was the most commonly used set of
cataloguing rules in the English speaking world. The AACR-II has been translated into many
languages for use around the world. AACR-II provides rules for descriptive cataloguing only
and does not touch upon subject cataloguing.
5.1 Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules – II: AACR-II was jointly prepared by American
Library Association, The British Library, The Canadian Committee on Cataloguing, The Library
Association, UK, and The Library of Congress. The code was edited by Michael Gorman and
Paul W. Winkler. It was published in 1978 by the American Library Association and Canadian
Library Association.
There are two parts and four appendices in AACR-II. An index was also provided at the
end of the code and it has been compiled by KG B Backwell.
Part I: Description
1. General Rules for Description
2. Books, Pamphlets and Printed Sheets
3. Cartographic Materials
4. Manuscripts
5. Music
6. Sound Recordings
7. Motion Pictures and Video Recordings
8. Graphic Materials
9. Machine-Readable Data Files
10. Three-Dimensional Artifacts and Realia
11. Microforms
12. Serials
13. Analysis
Part II: Headings, Uniform Titles and References
14. Choice of Access Points
15. Headings for Persons
16. Geographic Names
17. Headings for Corporate Bodies
18. References
Appendix A: Contains instructions for Capitalization
Appendix B: Contains list of Standard Abbreviations
Appendix C: Deals with Numerals
Appendix D: Glossary
AACR-II prescribes three levels of details in the description depending upon the nature
and the size of the library. The first level provides a brief cataloguing description just to identify
a particular document. It is recommended for a small library. The second level description is
recommended for a medium size library, whereas the third level of description includes all the
elements prescribed in the AACR-II and is recommended for the highly specialized libraries or
national and research libraries. Here, we will concentrate only on the second level of description.
5.2 Card Catalogue: In most of the libraries of India the entries are written on card. The
standard size of the card is 12.5 X 7.5 cm or 5’’X 3". The catalogue cards which are used for
preparing entries may be ruled, semi-ruled or plain. The ruled cards are very convenient if the
entries are prepared by hand, and if the matter is typed then plain cards are more suitable and
used. There are different lines on the card, which may be of the following types:
First Indention: It is the first vertical line that lays nine (9) spaces from left margin. This line is
in red ink.
Second Indention: It is the second vertical line that lays thirteen (13) spaces from left margin or
four letters space from first indention. It is also indicated in red ink.
Third Indention: Beyond the second vertical line there is also a third indention which is an
imaginary line. It lays fifteen (15) spaces from left margin. In a reference, referred-from heading
continues from third indention.
Horizontal Line: The card has also one horizontal line in the upper section of the catalogue
card. It is a bold line and is also indicated in red ink.
Hole: The card also contains one hole at the bottom portion at equal distance from both the
vertical cores of the cards. A rod of iron or brass is used to support all the cards in the tray
through this hole.
5.3 Types of Entries: Each library prepares various unit records for each document in its
holding. These unit records are prepared to meet the various need and approach of the library
user to the document. These unit records are called as entries.
AACR-I regards the main entry as “the complete catalogue record of a bibliographical
entry, presented in the form by which the entity is to be uniformly identified and cited. The main
entry normally includes the tracing of all other headings under which the record is to be
represented in the catalogue”.
An added entry is “an entry, additional to the main entry, by which an item is represented
in a catalog” (AACR-II, p. 563). The additional entries supplement the main entry by providing
an additional approach to the documents listed in the catalogue.
a) Type of Information Needed for Cataloguing: The cataloguer needs the following
information about a document for cataloguing.
Name of the authors
Name of the collaborators
Title, subtitle or alternative title of the document
Edition
Name of the series
Editor of series
Name, place and year of publication
Size and number of pages of the document
Copyright year
ISBN/ISSN
 The call number (class number and book number) of the document. It can be found at the
verso of the title page that will be provided by the classifier.
The accession number of the document. It also can be found at the verso of the title page.
The accessionist will provide this number.
b) Sources of Information Needed for Cataloguing: The prescribed source of information for
the preparation of the card catalogue is the title page. It provides most of the information about
the book. It is the next printed page to the cover of the book. Please note here that the cover page
of the book is not the title page. The page leaving one or two pages from the beginning and on
which the description mentioned bellow is printed is called the title page. The title page, in upper
most part of it, contains the title and subtitle (if any) of the book. The names of authors and
collaborators with their working institutions are given in the middle of the page. In the lower
part, the name of the publisher, place and year of publication and price etc are given. If there is
no title page, one can consult the cover caption or the half title page of the book. In the half title
page of the book, only the title of the book, but no author and publication statements, is printed.
Sometimes, the name of the series is also printed on this page. The verso / back of the title page
contains copyright year, print and reprint, edition, name and address of the publisher, the price,
and so on.
Besides the title page, we can also collect information about the book (in order of the
following preference)
i) Accompanying material
ii) A container
iii) Another published description of the book or
iv) Any other available sources.
AACR-II recommends the following types of entries
i) Main Entry: The Main entry is an author entry in AACR-II. If the authorship is diffused or
not known the main entry is prepared under the title. The Main Entry is the complete catalogue
record of an item. It also includes the tracing of all other headings under which the record is to
be presented in the catalogue.
ii) Added Entry: An added entry is a secondary entry, additional to the Main Entry, by which an
item is represented in a catalogue. S R Ranganathan calls it “entry other than the main entry”.
There are different types of added entries. i.e. Joint author(s), Editor(s), Translator(s),
Compiler(s), Subject, Title, Series, etc. The number and kind of added entries required by a
document depends upon the nature of a particular document and also on the nature of the
catalogue used in a library.
iii) Reference: Reference is a direction from one heading or entry to another. There are different
types of references in AACR-II. They are See Reference, See also Reference, Name title
Reference, Explanatory Reference, etc. Out of all the references “See” and “See also” type of
references are frequently used.
* See Reference: It directs the user of a catalogue from a form of the name of a person or a
corporate body or the title of a work to the form that has been chosen as a name heading or a
uniform title.
Examples:
Md. Syed Ahmed Khan
see Syed Ahmed Khan
Dhanpat Rai
 see Prem Chand
* “See Also” Reference: The function of a “See also” reference is to direct the user from one
name heading or uniform title to another that is related to it. If the works of one person or
corporate body are entered under two different headings a “see also” reference is prepared from
each heading.
Example:
Home Science
See also Interior decoration
5.4 Rules for Description of Monograph: The elements to be included in the catalogue entry
are divided into the following areas:
a) Call Number: Call number is the combination of class number and book number. It is the
first item which should be recorded in the upper left hand corner of the catalogue card with
pencil.
b) Accession Number: It should be recorded on the seventh line from the top of the card or
fourth line from the bottom.
c) Author: “Author” in the entry is indicated by writing the surname first which is followed by a
comma “,” and the remaining parts of the name (i.e. forenames) are given after leaving one
space which is followed by the date of birth and / or death of an author in full, if any, and a full
stop. This is written from the first indention and continued from the third indention on the next
line.
d) Title and Statement of Responsibility: The title proper should be recorded exactly as the
wording, order and spelling as it is found in the title page of the document. Capitalization and
punctuation should be avoided.
i) Alternate Title: Use the first part of the title with commas, and then the alternate title.
Examples:
Another world watching, or The riddle of the flying saucers
Indian song of songs, or Gita govinda
ii) Abridge Title: Abridge a long title proper only if this can be done without any loss of the
essential information. Indicate the omission by the mark of three dots “…”.
iii) Initial and Acronyms: If a title proper includes separate letters or initials without full stops
between them, record such letters without spaces between them. If such letters or initials have
full stop between them, record them with full stops.
Example:
“ALA Rules for filling catalog cards” and “A.L.A. Rules for filling catalog cards”
iv) Parallel Title: Record parallel title in the order indicated by their sequences. If the title
appears in two or more languages, choose one of these as the title proper and record the other
titles as parallel title. The parallel title appearing outside the chief source of information should
be noted in the note section of the catalogue card.
v) Title in Numerals: If the title of a document appears in numerals, record it in letters and
endorse it in the square brackets.
Example:
“20 [Twenty] – point programme”.
vi) Other Title Information: Record other title information (subtitle, etc) appearing in the chief
source of information. Use space colon space “ : “ between the title proper and other title
information.
Example:
“Cataloguing : theory and practice”.
e) Statement of Responsibility: Record statement of responsibility in the form in which they
appear in the chief source of information. The statement of responsibility should be preceded by
a diagonal slash. If there is more than one statement of responsibility, record them in the order
indicated by their sequence on or by the layout of the chief source of information. If the
statement of responsibility is taken from outside enclose it in square brackets.
Example:
“Cataloguing practice / by S R Ranganathan”.
f) Edition: This area should be preceded by a full stop, space dash space “. – “. The statement of
responsibility should be preceded by a diagonal slash, and then each subsequent statement of
responsibility should be preceded by a semi-colon. The standard abbreviations and numerals in
place of words should be used.
Example:
“2nd ed”, “3rd ed”, “New ed”, “Rev ed”, “Rev and enl ed”.
g) Place: If a publisher has many offices in more than one place, always prefer the name of the
first place and omit all other places. If the place of publication, distribution, etc is uncertain, give
the probable place with a question mark in square brackets.
Example:
“[Delhi?]”.
If, no place or probable place can be given, put the abbreviation sl (Sine loco) in square
brackets “[s.l.]”. “Sine loco” means “no place” in Latin.
Example:
“[s.l.]: Vikas, 2001”.
h) Publisher: After the place of publication, use the shortest form of the publisher in which it
can be understood and identified internationally. If the book has two or more publishers, record
the first named place and publisher. If the name of the publisher is not known, the abbreviation
sn (sine nominee) is given in square brackets. Example: “[s.n.]”.
i) Date of Publication: Give the year of publication in Arabic numerals preceded by a comma.
Example:
“, 2001”.
If there is no date, the copyright date is given.
Example:
“, c 1999”.
If the date of publication is not known then n.d. (no date) is written in square brackets.
Example:
[n.d.].
j) Physical Description Area: This paragraph starts from the second indention and continues
from the first indention. This area consists of pagination, illustrative matter and size of the
document expressed in cm.
If the volume is without pagination, ascertain the total number of pages and give the
number in square brackets. The sequence of describing page information is
“Preliminary pages, Roman pages, Arabic pages.”.
Example:
“xii, 786 p.”.
When preliminary pages are not numbered it should be in the form of : “[xii], 786 p.”.
The connecting symbol between pagination and illustrative matter is a colon “:”. The
illustrated printed monograph is described as “Charts”, “Maps”, “Music”, “Plans”, “Portraits”,
“Samples”, or simple as “ill”.
Example:
“786 p. ; ill.”.
The connecting symbol between the illustrative matter and the height of the document is
semi colon “;”. The height of the document is written in cm.
Example
“786 p. : ill.; 18 cm.”.
k) Series: The series are preceded by a full stop space dash space “. - “. Series statement is
recorded in circular brackets. The series statement may consist of name of the series, statement
of responsibility relating to series and number of series.
Example:
“. - (Ranganathan series in Library Science; 4)”, “. - (Research monographs / Institute of
Economic Affairs; 3)”.
l) Notes: Notes may be given to explain the nature, scope or artistic form of the item, language
of the item, sources of the title proper, variation in title, accompanying material, contents, etc.
m) Standard Number: If the item contains ISBN / ISSN, record International Standard Book
Number (ISBN) or International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) for the item. Example: “ISBN :
0-910608-70-9”.
n) Tracing: Tracing is the record of the heading under which an item is represented in the
catalogue. The information about the added entries should be recorded in a paragraph starting
from the second indention.
Before going for tracing, the subjects of the document need to be determined. In the main
card, the added entries for subject should be numbered in Arabic numerals (Example “1”, “2”)
whereas, the other entries should be numbered in Roman numerals (Example “I”, “II”). Another
point to be noted is that, in the added entries for subject, the names of the subject are written in
all capital letters. Example: “LIBRARY SCIENCE”.

6. Sorting: In a title catalogue, one can distinguish two sort orders-

a) Grammatic Sort Order: In the grammatic sort order, the most important word of the title is
the first sort term. The importance of a word is measured by grammatic rules; for example, the
first noun may be defined to be the most important word.
The most important word of the title is also a good keyword and it is the word most users
remember first when their memory is incomplete. This is an advantage in favour of grammatic
sort order. However, it has the disadvantage that many elaborate grammatic rules are needed, so
that only expert users may be able to search the catalogue without help from a librarian.
b) Mechanic Sort Order: In the mechanic sort order, the first word of the title is the first sort
term. Most new catalogues use this scheme. Still, the mechanic sort order includes a trace of the
grammatic sort order as they neglect an article (A, An, The etc.) at the beginning of the title.
c) Alphabetic Sorting: Here entries are arranged alphabetically.
In a subject catalogue, one has to decide on which classification system to be used. The
cataloguer will select appropriate subject headings for the bibliographic item and a unique
classification number (class number).
7. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC): The catalogues which are available for searching
online are known as OPAC. Such OPAC may be searched from a terminal within the originating
library or at a terminal elsewhere in the organization or remotely via national or international
telecommunication network. Now the scenario is that these databases are available over web.
OPAC has two different meaning-
a) Access to library housekeeping especially circulation (primarily for library staff use) and
which could also serve as rudimentary catalogue for the library user.
b) Access to machine readable bibliographic records from which card and computer output in
Microform (COM) can be generated.
a) Definition: The A. L. A. Glossary defines OPAC as “a commuter based and supported library
catalogue (bibliographic database) design to be accessed via terminal so that library user may
directly and effectively search for and retrieve bibliographic records without the assistance of a
human intermediary such as a specially trained member of the library staff”.
b) Types of OPAC: OPAC can generally be viewed being of two types-
i) First Generation OPAC: First generation OPAC has been derived from traditional catalogues
or computerized circulation system. They are also referred to as phase – indexed or pre-
coordinated OPACs and it demands exact matching between the search term and pre-coordinate
phrase. The number of access keys is limited and they are similar to that of manual catalogue i.e
author, title, class number and possibly subject heading.
ii) Second Generation OPAC: Second generation OPAC originated from common
bibliographic information retrieval system and so there is a growing similarity between second
generation OPAC and traditional information retrieval system. This generation OPAC provides
key word searching that is post coordinate searching together with phrase searching or pre-
coordinate subject heading.
c) Components of OPAC: There are three main components of OPAC. They are-
i) Computer and Terminal: The hardware requirement for OPAC i.e computer terminal and
server from which databases can be accessed.
ii) Software Enabling Networking: The network enabling software which will be able to
manage the entire database.
iii) Database: The database of books, serial, dissertation, etc can be generated by two different
ways. One is developing database by direct entry and the other is developing database through
retrospective conversion process.
d) Searching and Browsing OPAC: When the searcher knows precisely what he wants i.e.
when user information need is fairly well defined he/she can use word truncation, range search,
field level search, Boolean combination, word adjacency / proximity operator, etc. which are of
generally two types.
i) Phrase Searching: Phrase searching is done on pre-coordinate subject heading.
ii) Keyword Searching / Post Coordinate Searching: When a query is formulated using
Boolean expression.
iii) Browsing: Browsing is used when user’s information needs are not precisely defined. By
browsing one can determine the exact forms of entry of a subject heading or author name.
e) OPAC Vs Card Catalogue: The difference between OPAC and card catalogue are
represented in the following table.
Characteristic OPAC Card Catalogue

Time OPAC allows rapid retrieval. It is a time consuming job.

Access point It provides multiple access to the Access is only through entry
database and helpful for Boolean point and a build in cross
searches reference structure.
Indexing techniques Support both pre-coordinate and post Support only pre coordinate
coordinate searching. searching.

User Friendliness It is more user friendly and guides the The user has to decide himself
user in a step by step manner to find the how to find the required card.
information.
Current Status OPAC provides the current status of the It does not provide current
item being search i.e whether a status of the document.
document is on the shelves, on loan, on
reservation or at binders or the
document is lost.
Enhance Feature OPAC provides acquisition of titles, to Such types of facilities are not
reserve material and to send found in a card catalogue
personalized SDI, overdue/ recall /
collect notices and messages by Email.
Union Catalogue Helps to develop centralized database It is very difficult to achieve
and resource sharing among different resources sharing through card
libraries. catalogue

f) OPAC vs Information Retrieval System: The difference between OPAC and Information
Retrieval System are -
Characteristic OPAC Information Retrieval System

Coverage OPAC database includes one or Its coverage is limited in subject

more than one library’s scope either to a single subject or
collection; hence its coverage is to a range of discipline linked to a
on wide variety of discipline and particular mission.
subject areas.
Abstract Records in the OPAC mostly lack Information retrieval systems
abstract and subject descriptor is records are well indexed and are
inadequate. supported usually with abstract.
Indexing System OPAC provides pre-coordinate Information retrieval system
phrase searching and browsing mostly provides post coordinate
option. searches.
Underlying Assumptions The most searches will be on Searching will be for document
known document i.e searches for containing information of a
document whose bibliographic particular subject.
details are known at least
partially.
Skill OPAC is designed for end-user It is not designed for end user and
and so menu driven and provides required the skills of information
facilities like on-line help professional. The search
message, on-line index with negotiations are carried out by the
different approach points (author, librarian. He/she should interact
ISBN, class number, etc.) with the user to know their
information need then formulate
search strategy using vocabulary
control devices and modify the
search if required.

g) Advantages of OPAC: The main advantages of OPAC are -

i) OPAC searching is speedier and user friendly than that of manual cataloguing.
ii) Provides multiple access to the database and more or less designed as an information retrieval
system.
iii) Guides the user in a step by step manner for retrieving the specific information.
iv) Supports the post coordinate searcher, Boolean operation, etc.
v) Provides the current status of the item being search i.e. whether a document is on the shelves,
on loan, on reserved for some one, at the binder or whether it is lost.
vi) Designed as an integrated library management system.
vii) Helps to develop centralized database and resources sharing among different libraries.
h) Limitation of OPAC: Different in user and system vocabulary is a major reason for user
dissatisfaction with OPAC.
Library Automation
Library Automation: Library is a growing organism that requires constant positive changes to
meet the need of its user. The invention of computer has brought in a rapid change in the society.
Therefore, automation has become the need of the hour. Library automation not only improves
the image of the library staff but also provides additional services to the users with the existing
staff. The impact of automation on the library is quite obvious; it creates new environment where
each function redefines the traditional organizational structure and transforms it into new
institutional entries. In this unit a brief overview is given about library automation.
Automation is defined as a technique, a process, or a system which operates automatically.
According to the Encyclopaedia of Library and Information Science, “Automation is the
technology concerned with a design and development of the process and systems that minimize
the necessity of human intervention in their operation.”
Swihart Stanley S and Hefley Beryl F have defined the term ‘library automation’ as “the
processing of certain routine clerical function in the library with the assistance of computer or
other mechanized or semi automatic equipment”. It may also be defined as a process of
mechanization of all the housekeeping operation of a library which is repetitive in nature. The
housekeeping operation includes acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, serial control, references
and administration work.
To go with the library automation, the willingness of the librarian and library committee
is a must. The library should also have proper planning and adequate finance. The availability of
hardware (server, UPS, scanner, printer, storage media, etc.), software (operating system, system
software, application software, library automation software, etc.), and also trained manpower
together form the prerequisite for the library automation.
The first computer network was perhaps the OCLC (Online Computer Library Centre).
Although the microcomputer made its first appearance in 1971 it was not before 1981 that they
made an impact on libraries. The reason was limited storage capacity of the computer and
scarcity of good software for library applications. The development of OPAC in 1980s is a
remarkable addition to the field of library automation.
Library Association (LA)
Library Association (LA): The Library Association (U.K) was founded in October 05, 1877
during the first international conference of librarians held at Brussels. The name of the
association was changed from “Library Association of the United Kingdom” to Library
Association in 1896. It receives a Royal charter in 1898. The L.A. becomes a wholly professional
Association in 1962 when new bye laws come into operation. The headquarters of L.A. is located
at 7 Ridgmount street, store street, London.
a) Objectives: The L.A. has the following objectives.
i) To unite all persons engaged or interested in library work by holding conferences, seminar etc.
ii) To promote the better administration of libraries.
iii) The promotion of legislation.
iv) The encouragement of research.
v) The better training of librarians.
b) Organization: The association is controlled by a 60 member council elected by the members.
The L.A. has a number of departments devoted to various aspects of librarianship and library
service. The association is advised by four committees.
i) Executive coordinating.
ii) General purpose.
iii) Library service and
iv) Professional development and education.
c) Membership: Membership is not confined to any country or to library profession. It is open
to individuals and institutions interested or engaged in library work.
d) Source of Finance: Main financial support for programmers comes from the membership
subscription and publication of the association. However grants for specific projects are also
received from other sources.
e) Functions and Activities
i) Conferences and Seminars: L.A. holds annual conferences regularly. In addition to this, its
branches and groups also arrange their own seminars, conferences etc.
ii) Continuing Education: L.A. organizes continuing education programmers. It also organized
short courses, workshop and seminar to up date members regarding recent development in the
profession.
iii) Library Legislation: L.A. took active initiative in enacting the public library act of 1892 and
1919 and revising the bye-laws of the public libraries and museums act of 1964. It has been
active in clarifying issues arriving from legislation. It has kept a watchful eye on censorship and
copyright.
iv) Standards in Libraries: It has promoted a code of ethics for the library profession. It has
taken interest in evolving standards and guidelines of techniques, procedures, equipments etc and
has been working for the betterment of salary, status and service conditions of library personnel.
The association also approved and published standards for hospital libraries in 1965.
v) Professional Registry: L.A. maintains the professional register of chartered librarians
(professionally qualified members are known as chartered librarians and are of two categories
* Associates who are fully trained and professionally educated librarians and
* Fellow (FLA) who have successfully completed additional work at an advanced level to prove
their ability in special areas of librarianship.
Now in U.K. L.A. in the main body which is authorized to conduct the examination in
librarianship.
vi) COMLA: In 1971 the L.A. was approached by the commonwealth foundation to assist in
setting up a commonwealth Library association (COMLA). COMLA was inaugurated at Lagos,
Nigeria in November 1972 with full support from W.A.
L.A. also plays a role in the establishment of British Library in 1973.
vii) Research Programme: It sponsors numerous projects on its own initiatives and resources.
viii) Awards: The L.A. has a scheme of instituting awards to recognize excellence and
outstanding performance in library and information science. Some of such programmes are
* Wheat ley medal for outstanding index.
* Besterman Medal for outstanding bibliography and
* Mecoliven Medal for best reference book.
ix) Publication: Some noteworthy publication of LA are
* Library association record (Monthly)- official journal.
* Library and information science abstract (Bi-Monthly).
* Journal of librarianship (Quarterly).
* Information Science (Quarterly).
* Current research in library and information science (three issues)
* Wetland’s guide to reference material (An important publication of WA)
* British Humanities index (Quarterly).
* Current Technology index (Monthly)
x) Co-operation: L.A. makes bilateral contacts with the A.L.A., supports the work of IFLA and
Co-operate.
The Library Association (LA) and the Institute of Information Scientists (IIS) unite to
form the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) on 1 April 2002.
Library Association
Library Association: The existence of a profession rests on the bonds among the practitioners
and these bonds can take the shape of a formal association. So the professional associations are
by and for the professionals in the concerned field. It serves as a forum for coordinate efforts for
the concerned profession.
In the context of libraries, the association means the organization of the library staff members,
persons or institutions related to the library matter and profession. The library associations are
those professional organizations of learned people which foster a spirit of public service among
the members, promote the library services, and protect the interest of their members and builds
up the image of the library profession in the society.
Based on the coverage of geographical area library associations can be grouped into
International, National, State and Local. Library associations can also be grouped based on the
particular area of activities as Special and General. The special library association can again be a
medical library association, school library association, rural library association, and the like.
Most professional librarians belong to at least one professional organization.
a) Historical Account: In 1852 a group of librarians, scholars, teachers and clergymen met
in New York for the foundation and management of a collection of books or knowledge for
public use. In May, 1876 a few library devotees, by taking the hint from the meeting of 1853,
proposed a like gathering in connection with the great exhibition in Philadelphia. The
announcement of the meeting that would be held in October 4, 1876 was sent to the leading
libraries and to the leading librarians abroad. As a result of this gathering, the American Library
Association (ALA) was formally inaugurated on October 4, 1876 and this was followed only a
year later by the Library Association (LA) in the United Kingdom.
b) Functions and Activities of Library Associations: The functions of a library association
depend upon the particular pursuit for which the association is formed. Generally a library
association performs the following functions-
i) Act as a Common Forum: Library association acts as a common forum for library
professionals for exchange of information, ideas, experience and expertise.
ii) Library Movement: Library association works as the backbone of library movement in a
country. It spreads knowledge and information.
iii) Planning: The library association puts a behavioral future planning of the present position of
libraries, library staff and library services after proper evaluation of its present state of affairs.
iv) Force the Authority: The association forces the government to accept their demand by the
right movement for the welfare of the library staff, like enacting the library legislation.
v) Development of the Profession: The association works for the betterment of salaries, grades,
service and working conditions for the library professionals and also for improving their status in
the society.
vi) Problem Solving: Library association works hand in hand to find out solution for the adhoc
professional problem.
vii) Conduct Survey and Research: Library association conducts surveys and research of
library facilities and services to ascertain the existing conditions so as to take necessary steps for
improvement.
viii) Code of Conduct: Library association prepares the code of conduct for the librarians and
other library staff to maintain the professional standard.
ix) Resource Sharing: It works for the sharing of resources to avoid duplication of efforts.
x) Make General Public Conscious: Library association makes the general public conscious
towards the utility of the library and information centers.
xi) Holds Conferences, Seminars, Meeting, and Lectures: To discuss and exchange ideas and
experiences library associations hold conferences, seminars, meeting, lectures, etc.
xii) Training Courses: They also conduct training programmes for self improvement of the
professionals.
xiii) Standardization: A library association establishes and encourages the adoption of standards
to improve the quality of library services.
xiv) Institute Prizes, Rewards, Fellowship: Library association institutes prizes, rewards for
library science students and professionals in recognition of their contribution to the profession.
xv) Publication: A library association creates and publishes professional literature in the subject
areas.
xvi) Cooperation: Maintains cooperation and healthy relation with other professional
associations of various levels within and outside the country.
In the following sections we are going to discuss the different library associations and
their functions.

Let Us Sum Up: The professional associations address issues like financial support for libraries,
censorship, and cooperative acquisition of library materials. They also attempt to influence
legislation that affect libraries, establishes policies and standards relating to libraries and
librarians, and support continuing education for librarians. Almost all of these organizations
publish journals or monographs relating to their particular areas of interest. Professional library
associations hold conferences on a regular basis so that librarians may come together in order to
develop policies and share ideas.
Private foundations also promote increased and improved library services around the
world. Private philanthropic organizations also provide leadership in the establishment and
maintenance of libraries around the world. In the early 20th century the Carnegie Corporation of
New York was instrumental in establishing free public libraries in Africa, Latin America, and the
South Pacific, but the organization stopped this programme in 1917. Today the Ford Foundation,
based in New York City, provides vital financial support for libraries in the developing nations of
Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Library as a Social Institution
Library as a Social Institution: In modern societies all activities of the people are organized
through institutions. So, social institution is a product of the society. It is created to work as a
medium for expressing its social processes and it carries them out through its techniques
developed for the purpose. It is a form of social order.
Lowell Martin states: “A social institution is an integrated pattern of human relationship
established by the common will and serving some vital human need.” This definition indicates
that social institution deals with the integrated pattern of human being in the society. Their
pattern is caused through the interaction among the people as a vital social need. For example,
religious institution looks after the belief and unity, educational institution like school, college,
and universities promote knowledge, skill and socialization processes of the society. These
institutions incorporate a body of formal or informal rules and regulations through which
activities of a society are carried out or regulated.
1. Need of Library as Social Institution: We are living in an information age in which
information plays an important role in the complex, economic, political and social environment.
Information plays a crucial role in keeping the citizens well informed so that they can exercise
their right as citizens of a democracy properly. It is the information which allows us to change
and improve the society. Decision makers always seek information. Modern executives, farmers
in the field, workers in the factory and others need information while launching a new product,
plugging the field or building a skyscraper about the state of resources and knowledge about the
uncertain future events that may have to face. The researcher, the teacher, the student, the
administrator, the industrial and business managers, the entrepreneur, the farmers, the workers in
a factory etc all need information to equip themselves better for the fruitful pursuit of their
respective vocation.
In a modern society, every human activity is organized through institution. The society
also needs the institution to look after the above matters. The said institution in the broadest and
most practical sense should be a force for social betterment. No one can imagine other social
institutions except the library that can be entrusted with such type of responsibilities.
Libraries and other similar type of institutions collect, process, organize and disseminate
information and knowledge recorded in document. Since knowledge and information are vital for
all round development of human beings, libraries and other institutions that handle and manage
information and knowledge are indeed invaluable for the welfare of the society.
The libraries acquire, organize, offer for use, and preserve the reading material
irrespective of the form in which it is packaged (print, CD-ROM/DVD, Web form) in such a way
that, when it is needed, it can be retrieved and put into use. No other institution carries out such
long-term, systematic work.
a) It Represents the Society: The study of libraries as an institution provides us an approach to
analyze the past of a society. Its growth is not an isolated instance of society. It originated and
grew out of the necessities of life and in response to the society’s needs i.e. library grows with
the society. The location, the population served, the demand made upon the library, the nature of
collection, financial support, status of librarian, attitude of authorities towards the library, all
over a period of time reflects the growth pattern of the society. The story of the library gives
indication of the educational, social, economic and technological changes. Library collections in
the different countries represent their cultural identities. Language is at the heart of these
institutions. They are the collectors and stewards of our heritage.
b) It Represents the History of Civilization: Library history is an essential chapter in the
history of the intellectual development of civilization. It parallels the history of writing and
forms a component of the history of human civilization. It is the basic metaphor with which the
cycle of civilization began the step from the dark into the light of the mind.
The story of the growth and development of libraries forms an integral part of the history
of the peoples being served by it. A library does not exist for its own sake. Its objectives, role,
functions, services and kinds depend upon the needs of the people served by it. It is an extension
of the human memory. It is the repository of human culture, oral and written. The heritage of
man has been preserved for posterity in different containers of information.
2. Preconditions for the Emergence and Development of Libraries: Libraries tend to prosper
when a combination of certain social, political and economic conditions exist in a society. The
following are the preconditions for the emergence and development of libraries in any country:
a) Recorded Literature: Existence of recorded literature and the one worthy of being preserved.
b) Need of Preserving and Transmitting the Knowledge: Political and cultural maturity in a
society which recognizes the necessity of preserving, transmitting, and enlarging the body of
knowledge.
c) Literate Population: The existence of a literate population and the willingness on the part of
the community to use its resources create a proper environment for the creation and development
of libraries. The cultural and intellectual interest to stimulate the use of the library also plays a
great role.
d) Leisure Time: Nowadays the individual has both the leisure and the means to “cultivate the
finer arts and improve the common stock of knowledge”.
e) Secure Society: Library develops during stable social climates where there are periods of
relative peace and tranquility that enable the individuals to pursue leisure activities, and when the
country or an institution becomes stable and the security of tenure offers permanence and
continuity.
f) Financial Support: Economic prosperity and a surplus of wealth are needed to provide the
financial support for the growth of the library. The economic prosperity provides a sizeable
section of individuals and the corporate world with wealth and encourages philanthropic giving.
When society’s other institutions- its school, college or universities – need to educate and
inform its members, libraries also become an important supplement to the former.

3. Social Origin of Library: Looking back it may be observed that at different stages of history
the social forces have made their impact on the origin and development of libraries. Before the
advent of printing technology the manuscripts libraries were strictly restricted both in form and
content to the scholars in the community. In the 17th century the Kings, Emperors and Noble men
maintained their libraries as symbol of prestige and aristocracy in the society. It was by the
middle of the last century that the social forces came into play to revolutionize the character of
the library movement making it more and more a public institution. Among a vast number of
forces behind the library movement the following are three chief social forces at work:
a) Religion: It was the religious belief in our country that free gift of knowledge would bring
credit for the knowledge givers in the next birth. Manu, the codifier of law in
ancient India prescribed that gift of books was the highest of all gifts. So, religious forces are
also instrumental in the growth and development of libraries.
b) Industrial Revolution: The industrial revolution made great impact on the concept of
libraries transforming it from royal and personal library to democratic one for the benefit of the
people. Due to industrial revolution every country faced with the emerging problems of
increased leisure, high standard of living and greater accumulation of private and community
wealth. These conditions supported the creation and development of public institutions like the
library for the benefit of the people.
c) Information Revolution: Since the invention of printing, there has been a continuous
revolution in the generation, transfer and communication of information. The role of information
further receives new proportions with the acceleration of research, mounting social and
population pressure and so on.

4. Organization of Library as a Social Institution: A social organization has four parts of

which each is supposed to perform a definite function. Since, library is a social institution it also
has the following parts.
a) Authority: In case of public library -municipal committee or corporation etc., in case
of university library- university authority, and for special library- Board of Directors etc serve as
the authority.
b) Material: Library tries to procure all types of reading materials expected to be relevant to its
patron. It procures books, periodicals, C.D. etc to suit the different information needs of different
clienteles.
c) Service Personnel: The professionally qualified library staff is an integral part of the library.
d) Clientele: In case of public library - the general public, for a university library- students,
teachers, research scholars, administrative staff, etc. and for special library- researchers,
specialists etc are the clientele of the library.

5. Social Responsibility of Libraries: In the establishment of libraries the social purpose is

paramount viewing it as a social obligation. Many of the basic functions such as education,
research, recreation, information etc performed by libraries are also carried out by other agencies
and groups. But a library is the only agency devoted solely to the purpose of collecting, making
available and securing the widest and most effective use of the record of civilization, by the
society of which it is a part. Since the library is intertwined in purpose and function with the
society’s needs any piece or items of recorded material is a potential library acquisition and no
part of the social structure, regardless of the stages of its development is outside the scope of the
library. The main purposes of libraries are
a) Reach All People of the Society: The public library system with its network of branches and
book mobiles establishes an active reader contact and its aim is to reach the majority of the
population who are not library users.
b) Free Service: It provides free service so that no user should be required to pay any
subscription, fee or any other charges as far as possible.
c) Respond to Social Issues: Library anticipates and responds to social issues before these
issues reach a crisis point. It provides the facilities for life long self education, proper use of
leisure, advancement of culture and so on. It is the public library which can provide access to
documents / information free of charge for all in the community irrespective of any restriction. In
this way, it contributes to the welfare and progress of the community served by it; thereby it
becomes a social force.
d) Form the Link in the Communication System: Library is created to form a link in the
communication system that is essential to any society. In fact, without communication there can
be no society. It builds socially oriented information system and tries to procure information /
document on all subjects including local, national and international affairs to serve economic,
political and social welfare. Libraries secure the communication of culture; it secures the
communication of culture between the ages.
e) Preserve the Record of Civilization: There can be no enduring culture without some forms
of record and a means for the preservation of that record. The library preserves the records of
civilization, preserves the literary heritage for posterity. The public library is a necessary unit in
the social set up so organized and planned as to transmit the accumulated knowledge and
experiences of mankind and provides challenging and often unorthodox material.

6. Role of Library in Society: A library does not exist for its own sake. It exists to serve the
need of the community or the parent organization. Its objectives are the same as those of its
parent body. It assists in the achievement of those objectives as detailed below.
a) Communication of Knowledge: The information and knowledge has become increasingly
complex and at the same time the means of communication of information and knowledge are
also becoming equally complex. For the growth and development of a modern society,
communication of knowledge has become increasingly important. All citizens must be able to
find and use information. It is the key raw material and the libraries are the access points to it. A
library is concerned with the communication of information and knowledge and helps in
communication through user friendly devices by providing repackaging of information. It
disseminates information according to the needs of the individuals on anticipation or on demand.
b) Information Centre: We are living in an information age in which information plays an
important role in today’s complex, economic, political and social environment. The researcher,
the teacher, the student, the administrator, the industrial and business managers, the entrepreneur,
the farmer, the workers in a factory, etc all need information to equip themselves better for the
fruitful pursuit of their respective vocation. It can help farmers to improve production by using
different agricultural information. It enables businessmen to improve their business prospects. It
can help students of all ages. It provides job information for the unemployed youth, helps people
looking for better prospects and so on.
c) Education: Education is considered the most important activity forming the backbone of the
progress of a nation. Education strengthens the very fabric of a nation. It helps to produce men of
integrity, vision, character and, above all, democratically conscious citizens.
i) Formal Education: Formal education is the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded
education system, running from primary school through the university. Formal education is the
one that an individual attains by enrolling himself in an educational institution like a school or a
college or a university and through constant teacher student contact.
In formal education, libraries support the courses of study by providing systematic
collection at all levels. They recognize the requirement of teacher and student alike. It is through
the extensive reading of a variety of books bearing on a subject that a student will be able to
acquire in-depth knowledge of the subject. By being able to analyze and compare different view
points as expounded in different books a student will be able to develop his capacity for
analytical and critical thinking. This will enable him to formulate independent view points and
opinion. The basic function performed by academic libraries is to support formal education.
Public libraries also collect such material to cater to the students’ need in some cases.
ii) Non-formal Education: Non-formal education is an organised educational activity outside
the established formal system - whether operating separately or as an important feature of some
broader activity - that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles. In non-formal
education one educates oneself through courses offered by the distant education mode with the
help of either other methods of learning or through self study materials. The main responsibility
of supporting the non-formal education rests with the public library system.
Education of Illiterates: The public libraries work for the education of the illiterate people in its
community through the audio-visual media especially the video tape. It also establishes learning
clubs and organizes other programmes of oral communication for educating its illiterate clients.
Education of Working Groups: Public libraries stock books relevant to the needs of the people
engaged in different vocations in its area. By reading such books they will become better
informed and better educated in their areas of work. They may be sufficiently interested to
increase their work efficiency which will lead to greater productivity.
Education of Physically Handicapped: In recent years public libraries have provided reading
materials and other documents to the handicapped readers to alleviate their miseries, have
assisted the disadvantaged members of society in gaining a rightful place in society besides
educating and rehabilitating them in society.
iii) Informal Education: Informal education is a lifelong process whereby every individual
acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative
influences and resources in his or her environment - from family and neighbours, from work and
play, from the market place, the library and the mass media. Informal education can contribute to
learning a new job or transferring skills which were not necessarily the principal skills for a
previous job. These include communication, organizational and time management skills and the
ability to set priorities. Sometimes only a few weeks or a month of "on-the-job training" can
assist an individual to be able to perform a new job. Informal education also includes learning
and specialized skill development pursued in job-sponsored orientation courses (e.g. computer
training courses, project management).
iv) Lifelong Learning (LLL): The whole idea of education is to stress more and more
independent learning and acting. All learning activities are undertaken throughout life, with the
aim of improving knowledge, skills and competencies within a personal, civic, social and/or
employment-related perspective. The necessary implication is that the professional and
vocational competence of the members must be maintained with the changing needs of the
society.
d) Research: Research extends the frontiers of knowledge. Human beings appear to stand alone
among the earth’s creatures in their desire to understand their environment better and the world
around them. This requirement can be partially satisfied by the knowledge gained as a result of
daily occurrence. The formulation of generalization takes place on the basis of first hand
experience and the use of logical reasoning. A more effective approach to expand knowledge
however is the conduct of planned and structured investigation- a process known as research.
Both material and cultural progress of the society depends on research. It is now recognized as
the life blood of the modern society.
Access to existing knowledge and information is essential for research. Every library
attached to an institution collects the knowledge that is newly created and primarily
communicated through journals, research reports and other similar publications to support its
own research programmes.
e) Safeguard Democracy: Libraries have been identified as one of the key elements for open
access to information, which is crucial to democratic society for its growth and development. It
safeguards democracy, creating political awakening, bringing social awareness, and fostering
creative leisure activities.
f) Recreation and Leisure: The healthy use of leisure is a matter of great importance in
community life so that leisure time is not devoted to negative and destructive activities. The tired
and bored people like to escape from their drab little world to identify themselves with romantic
excitement and creative recreation. The libraries provide for one and all harmless and elevating
use of leisure. Novels and other similar forms of literature, works of arts, books of travels,
popular magazines, etc. are primary books of recreation and they have found a place in every
kind of libraries. Besides, public libraries organize programmes for healthy recreation and
entertainment like the performing arts, musical concerts, etc.
g) Cultural Centre: A society cannot function without some cohesive forces to hold it together.
That force is known to the anthropologist as culture. Ancient Byzantines and the Arabiaess used
libraries primarily to preserve their recorded cultural heritage for the posterity. Libraries attached
to medieval monasteries also perform this function admirably. In today’s context also local
libraries should undertake to take care of books and other material related to local history and
other subjects of local interest. A national library holds the national output. Besides, it preserves
the cultural heritage of the human race as represented by the books and other documents it holds.
It also plays a cultural role in two other senses. Firstly, it makes available books which would
bring to expression the creative talents of individuals and develop their faculties for aesthetic
appreciation. Secondly, it also organizes cultural programmes like music concerts, dances,
dramas, paintings competitions for children, exhibition of painting etc and thus enriches the
cultural life of the community.
h) Religious and Moral Instruction: The use of libraries for religious and moral instruction was
practiesed by all early civilizations. Monastery libraries established during the Middle Ages and
the libraries attached to ancient churches, ashramas, mutts, satras and other religious bodies have
primarily existed to support religious and moral instruction. All public libraries also possess
spiritual and religious books, books that propound ideological themes, and other books of
permanent value which may be described as classics. These types of collections are for
inspiration. They meet the spiritual, religious and theological needs of their followers. Every
other kind of library has also a representative collection of books of this type to inspire people to
high ideas in life and inculcate values in them.
i) Inspiration Centre: A public library can create in children a love for reading, which can lead
to formation of reading habits at an early age. It prepares people for disciplined and cooperative
social life.
j) Instrument of Social Change: Information is power and at present it is being regarded as a
national resource perhaps as fundamental as energy or matter or water and air, which affects all
human activities. It is indispensable and so it needs to be put in the service of the whole
community.

7. Changing Role of Library and Information Science Centres: The information society
demands to re-define and re-evaluate the position and objectives of all the institutions which
work with information, knowledge, and culture. In modern society special emphasis is laid on
literacy, adult education, formal education, life long education, dissemination of information, etc.
so that every person may make the best use of their life in the society, becomes good citizen and
discharge their social responsibilities besides supplementing their traditional knowledge and
experience about their own vocation or calling.
Above all, modern libraries are information centres. Nowadays it does not restrict itself in
procuring the books only but goes to the extent of CD ROM, DVD, network information, sharing
information among the like minded institution in the form of consortia and so on. The change
can be viewed from four angles.
i) Change in demand: A change from just in kind to just in time is a major shift.
ii) Change in structure of libraries: Emergence of the concept of data centre, data bank, data
consolidation and evaluation centre, learning resource center, documentation centre, clearing
house, information analysis centre, referral centre, etc.
iii) Change in services: Providing CAS, SDI, consultant, literature search, information broker,
gate keeper of information, etc services.
iv) New Information products: Emergence of the digest, newsletter and such others.
8. Let Us Sum Up: In modern societies cultural values are changing. A new social awareness
has emerged as we become more diverse, more independent and more highly educated. More
than ever before the modern societies acknowledge the right of every individual to be free, to
participate in democratic processes, and to strive for achieving his or her fullest potential. When
we consider such high expectations of the society in respect of man as individual, we realize the
full potential of the library as a social institute.
The culmination of centuries of advances in the printing press, cast-iron type, paper, ink,
publishing, and distribution, combined with an ever growing middle-class, increased commercial
activities and consumption, new radical ideas, massive population growth and higher literacy
rates forged the public library into the form that it is today.

Library and Information Science Education in India

Library and Information Science Education in India: In the early 19th Century, young people
learned librarianship by working under the more experienced practitioners. But, gradually the
tasks performed by librarians became more complex and more dependent on technology. As a
result, the study of library science has moved from the work-setting to professional schools in
Universities. The first ever library school was started by Melvil Dewey in USA in 1887 at
Columbia College (now Columbia University). In 1889 the programme moved to the New York
State Library in Albany when Dewey became the Director there. The success of Dewey’s training
programme and the publication of Training for Library Service, a book by the economist Charles
Williamson in 1923, led other universities, institutes of technology, and large public libraries to
establish their own professional degree programmes in library science.
1. First Course of Library Science in India: In India the existence of in service training was
initiated by John Macfarlane, the first librarian of the Imperial Library (Now National Library) at
Calcutta from 1901-06, as mentioned in some reports. In subsequent years, the training
programme was opened to the staff of other libraries and even those interested in librarianship
who deal with books and other documents.
i) Baroda School: In 1911, Siyaji Rao Gaikwad (1862-1939), the ruler of Baroda state called the
American librarian Mr. William Allenson Borden (1853-1931), a disciple of Melvil Dewey to
create a cadre of men for the newly established libraries in the state library system. In 1912, he
initiated the first training school in library education in India. In 1913, another training class for
working librarians of town libraries was started. These classes continued even after the departure
of Borden.
2. Certificate, Diploma, and Training Courses
i) Lahore School: In 1912, the Punjab University called another librarian Mr. Asa Don
Dickinson (1876–1960) from USA. He started the second educational course of three month
duration in library science in the year 1915. This happens to be the first university course
in India. Mr. Asa Don Dickinson later become the Librarian of
Panjab University, Lahore (now Pakistan) during 1915–1916.
ii) Andhra Desa: The Andhra Desa Library Association (founded in 1914) started conducting
“training classes for the library workers” at Vijayawadain 1920. The classes covered a module on
running adult education classes in addition to library technique.
iii) Mysore State: In 1920, a course for the training of librarians was conducted
at Bangalore under the “program of library development” initiated by the then Dewan of Mysore
Mr. M. Visweswaraya.
iv) Madras Library Association: A summer school for college librarians and lecturers in charge
of college libraries in Madras was held in 1928 and repeated in 1930. The Madras Library
Association also organized a regular certificate course in library science from 1929. Then in
1931, University of Madras took up the training course of MALA in 1931 and started offering
the course on a regular basis.
v) Andhra University: Andhra University started a certificate course in 1935, which was leter
abandoned.
vi) Imperial Library, Calcutta: The Imperial library, Calcutta started a training class under the
supervision of its librarian Mr. K. M. Asudulah in 1935. It was a full time regular Diploma
course in librarianship at the Imperial Library, Calcutta (now National Library, Kolkata). It
continued till 1946.
3. Post Graduate Diploma
i) University of Madras: University of Madras, in 1937, introduced a one year Post Graduate
Diploma course in place of the certificate course of three month duration. This was the first P G
Diploma in library science in India.
ii) Banaras Hindu University: The second university to start a post graduate diploma course was
the Banaras Hindu University in 1942.
iii) Bombay University: University of Bombay initiated a diploma course similar
to Banaras Hindu University in 1943.
iv) Government of India’s in-Service Training Course: A training course for the staff working
in various government organizations was started in 1953. This course was recognized as
equivalent to the university diploma courses.
4. Degree Courses
i) Aligarh Muslim University: In 1947, Aligarh Muslim University started B.Lib. Science
Course for the first time in the country.
ii) University of Delhi: University of Delhi was the first university to establish a full fledged
Department of Library Science in 1946. It also instituted the first post diploma degree course in
1948. In 1949, the structure was changed. The programme of Master of Library Science was
introduced as a two year course with the first year leading to Bachelor of Library Science.
In between 1956-59, six new LIS departments were established at Aligarh Muslim
University, MS University of Baroda, Nagpur University, Osmania University, Pune University
and Vikram University.
iii) Madras University: In 1960, Madras University replaced its full time one year diploma
course to B.LibSc. Degree course. By mid 1960, many other universities had fallen in the line
of university of Madras following the recommendation of Review Committee Report of UGC in
introducing different degree courses.
iv) Government Polytechnique for Women: The Government polytechnique for women,
Ambala, Bangalore, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jullandhur, Rourkela started post matric (class X)
diploma courses of two years duration in late 1960s.
v) Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC): In 1962, Dr. S. R. Ranganathan
established Documentation Research and Training Centre at Bangalore. Previously DRTC
courses were of 14 month duration which was later on moved to two years programme.
vi) Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC): INSDOC conducted a short
term course for Asian Documentalists in 1963. In 1964, it started a one year post graduate course
in Documentation and Reprography leading to “Associateship in Documentation and
Reprography”. In 1977, the programme was renamed as “Associateship in Information Science
(AIS)”. On September 30, 2002, INSDOC merged with the National Institute of Science
COMmunication (NISCOM) and was renamed as National Institute of Science Communication
and Information Resources (NISCAIR). At present, it is conducting “Courses in Information
Science”.
The DRTC and NISCAIR in Delhi concentrate on the training of professionals for special
and industrial libraries and information centers. Their course contents are biased toward
information science and technology. The programme of these two institutes is a class apart from
other similar programmes offered by various institutes.
In India advanced professional education has remained attached to universities, though
there are some regional library associations conducting certificate courses of a few months
duration and women polytechnics offering post-masters two year diplomas in library science to
train paraprofessionals. At present, about 107 institutions, mostly university colleges and
polytechnics, have library science education courses. Out of these, the M.Lib.I.Sc. course is
being offered by more than 75 universities.
5. Five Year Integrated Course in LIS: In 2010, University of Calcutta introduces five year
integrated course in Library & Information Science and thus becomes the first university to
launch such course in LIS domain. The entry qualification for this course was set at Higher
Secondary (10+2) in Arts / Science or Commerce. Launching of this course will force the
learners to choose the LIS by choice and not by chance. It will again help the students to grasp
and understand the contents for LIS in a better and exhaustive way.
6. Present Status of LIS Education in India: A few departments and associations provide
Certificate Courses in Library and Information Science (CLIS) and Diploma in Library and
Information Science (DLIS). The others provide BLISc and MLISc courses. In most of the
universities, the prerequisite for admission into the Bachelor or Master degree course in Library
and Information Science is 10+2+3 years of education from any faculty (arts, science, commerce
etc). The majority of the universities generally conduct two separate courses for the Bachelor’s
degree followed by the Master of Library and Information Science of one year (or two
semesters) duration each. In recent years, some institutions have offered two years of integrated
courses of four semester duration. The University of Calcutta went a step ahead and introduced
five years integrated course in LIS with entry qualification as 10 +2.
Specialization: Students in most schools of library and information science have the opportunity
to develop at least some degree of specialization. Some may take advanced courses in particular
library functions, such as reference work, while others may take courses related to a particular
type of library, such as a course in medical librarianship or public librarianship or academic
librarianship. In simple, there are many different courses available in LIS. It makes the
professionals available to work at all levels of library irrespective of type, structure and function.
Syllabus: The University Grants Commission (UGC), from time to time recommended the
broader outlines of courses of Library and Information Science. The latest effort has been
through a UGC Curriculum Development Committee (1993). The UGC and other higher bodies
now give emphasis to semester system rather than annual system, and credit-based rather than
marks-based system. Every university being autonomous is free to frame its own course of
studies, and syllabi of many universities / schools are quite modernized.
All programmes to educate librarians share certain characteristics. Programmes typically
offer courses in the history of books and librarianship to give students a background in the
profession’s past. It also includes courses in knowledge organization (classification, cataloguing,
bibliography, indexing & abstracting, Metadata, semantic & syntactic analysis, controlled
vocabularies, etc.), collection development (acquisition), information seeking behaviors of users,
search strategies, library services (dissemination of the acquired library materials, reference), and
management of the collection (preservation & conservation of documents). It also includes
contents related to scholarly communication (bibliometrics, informetrics, scientometrics,
webmetrics), digital libraries and ICT.
* ICT as an Integral Part: Technology is entering in a very big way to LIS where it has been
used extensively to store and retrieve information in different forms and structures. This new
dimension is reflected in the course structure of almost all universities that provides courses in
LIS. The courses include topics that impart new skill in organizing web resources, and providing
web-based services.
* Practical Exposure: All courses provide scope of practical knowledge rather than restricting
to only theory. Even some universities make it compulsory for their learners to undergo some
apprenticeship courses before practicing the librarianship.
Problems with Present LIS Education and Research
* Limited Accommodation Capacity: All universities which provide Library and Information
Science courses witness a great flow of learners. But they are able to accommodate only a
limited number of such desired students.
* A Very Competitive Entrance Examination: In most of the universities, students desire to
study the LIS has to go through a very competitive entrance examination for admission.
* Limitation as a Professional Subject: LIS is a professional course and so it has the limitations
of any other professional courses. The non-inclusion of Library and Information Science in
UPSC, Civil Service / State Public Service Commission examination, SET / SLET is a very
common.
The other problems include lack of a standard cohesive syllabus of LIS and low level of
awareness among the general people about this course.
7. LIS Research in India: The LIS research briefly means the collection and analysis of original
data on a problem of librarianship, done within the library school according to scientific and
scholarly standard. Research in this connection broadly includes investigation, studies, surveys,
academic work at the doctoral, post doctoral and research staff level, It also includes in house or
action research by practicing librarians, information personnel and documentalist, etc. The aim of
research in LIS, like any other discipline is to contribute towards the advancement of subject and
contribution to the existing knowledge.
a) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan’s Effort: The era of LIS research in India started with S. R.
Ranganathan. He has done individual research for several years. His works that lead to some of
the fundamental and theoretical principles have dominated the research activities for five
decades. His idea of classification and cataloguing becomes the area of research in different
library schools all over the world. The library and academic community of those days, even
today also respect him as a pioneer researcher in LIS. Some of his worth notable contributions
are
a) Five laws of library science
b) Colon Classification
c) Prolegomena to library classification
d) Classified Catalogue Code
e) Documentation and its facets
f) Library administration, etc.
b) M. Phil Programme
i) University of Delhi: University of Delhi was the first to introduce M. Phil programme in
Library and Information Science in 1980. Today more than 11 universities offer the M.Phil
programme. The duration of M. Phil programme in almost all universities in this country is one
year.
c) Ph.D. Programme
i) University of Delhi: The credit for introducing the doctoral degree programme in library
science in India goes to Dr. S. R. Ranganathan (1892–1972). In 1951, he started the same in
Delhi University in 1958. The university offered first doctoral degree in Library science to D. B.
Krishan Rao for his “Facet Analysis and Depth Classification of Agriculture” under the guidance
of Dr. S. R. Ranganathan. In 1977, Panjab University, Chandigarh offered the second Ph.D.
Today more than 35 Universities in India have Ph.D. research facilities.
ii) Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC): In 1962, Dr. S. R. Ranganathan
established Documentation Research and Training Centre at Bangalore. Since its inception, it has
been carrying out research studies on documentation and related areas.
iii) Library Associations: The contribution of library association of India towards research
activities is negligible. They restrict their activities in the field of publication of journals,
organization of seminars, conferences and workshop, etc. only. The ILA, IASLIC are the
mentionable among them.
iv) Funding of LIS Research in India: The University Grant Commission (UGC) is promoting
LIS research by awarding different kinds of fellowship to the students. Indian Council of Social
Science Research (ICSSR) and Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre
(DESIDOC) are also promoting LIS research programme by awarding scholarship to doctoral
students.
Till March, 1997, 350 theses have been awarded under various Indian universities.
d) D.Litt Programme: In 1992, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar awarded D.Litt. to Dr. B. B.
Shukla. It claimed to be the first such degree in library science all over the world.
8. Let Us Sum Up: The library and information science deals with all aspects of information and
knowledge which includes acquisition of materials, classification and cataloguing, searching
tools, information retrieval, preservation and conservation of documents and so on.
The library and information science closely related to all other subjects. It forms its own
foundation by taking the help of some other subjects.
Dr. S. R. Ranganathan in a pionner in the field of Library and Information Science in the
world as a whole and India in particular. He contributed almost to all aspects of the library
science. Nowadays many university and colleges provides different courses in Library and
Information and its related subjects. It ranges from certificate course to PhD.
Library and Information Science as a Profession
Library and Information Science as a Profession: In modern usage, professions tend to have
certain qualities in common. A profession is always held by a person, and it is generally that
person's way of generating income. Dalton E. Mc Farland in “Management Functions and
Practices” mentions some characteristics of a profession. Along with the characteristics,
necessary arguments are given below to justify whether librarianship is a profession or not.
a) Entrance is Competitive: All professions maintain rigid rules and high standard of
qualification for the new entrants into the profession. As entrance into professions is highly
competitive an entrant typically has to have above-average mental skills.
When we consider the employment aspect in libraries, at junior professional level, the
entry is direct, but even before that proper orientation into the system, service and professional
ethics is provided in many organizations. At the senior professional level the entry is by selection
among the experienced professionals.
b) Body of Specialized Knowledge and Technical Skill: A specialized knowledge of the
concerned field is needed by the professional. Those persons who are engaged in a library should
have the required academic background although; some of them may not possess a LIS degree.
To practise librarianship also requires extensive knowledge and technical skill such as an
extensive knowledge of classification or cataloguing without which one may find it difficult to
run a library.
c) Formal Training and Experience: Professions also require rigorous training and schooling
beyond a basic college degree for acquiring the needed skill and methods to put the knowledge
into work. Nowadays there is a large body of growing literature on library and information
science for training and educating the professionals to acquire specialized knowledge and skill in
the field of library science. Specialized journals have also started coming out in recent years. It
has also its own indexing and abstracting services.
d) An Ethical Code or Standard of Conduct: A set of principles, a social code or ethics is
needed for the professional. Many organizations have codified their conduct, often designated
“code of ethics”, and what they require for entry into their organization and how to remain in
good standing. Some of these codes are quite detailed and make strong emphasis on their
particular area or expertise; for example, journalists emphasize the use of credible sources and
protecting their identities, psychologists emphasize privacy of the patient and communications
with other psychologists, anthropologists emphasize rules on intrusions into a culture being
studied. Most of the codes do show an overlap in such concepts as, “do no harm”, “be honest”,
“do not use your position for private gain”, etc. In different parts of the world different
professional bodies of Library and Information Science codified such rules. In India also Indian
Association of Special Libraries and Information Centre (IASLIC) has evolved a code of conduct
and ethics for special librarians in India.
e) A Commitment to Public Service: A professional needs to work with the prime purpose of
rendering a public service rather than for monetary gain. It has also been suggested that some
professionals feel an obligation to society, beyond their client relationship. Doctors may not
merely sell their service if a procedure is medically inappropriate, however much the client may
want it undertaken; architects may refuse to work on a project that would be detrimental to its
surroundings, and lawyers may refuse to take cases which are merely exploitative. The obligation
to educate the client is often seen as a key part of the definition. Librarianship is a service
oriented job and the user of a library is regarded a king.
f) Guarantees of the Service Rendered: The concepts of professionalism may be inferred from
guarantees. But these are inferences only. The idea behind a guarantee is that the person offering
the guarantee is accountable to the extent of damages that will be compensated. One thing these
sources hold in common, implicit or explicit, is the idea of accountability. Those who are
members of these organizations or professions are held accountable for what they do.
g) Formal Organization: An organization generally binds all the members of a group, calling or
vocation together for concerted opinion, to achieve high standard in performance, and to act as a
force to achieve common goal.
The formal organization of librarianship started with the establishment of the American Library
Association in 1876. At modern times library association are there at different levels i.e.
international, regional, national, state and local. Many associations covering specialized interest
have also come into being. For example, Indian Association of Special Library and Information
Centre (IASLIC), Medical Library Association of India (MLI), Indian Association of Teachers of
Library and Information Science (IATLIS), etc.
h) Licensing of Practitioners: Membership in the profession is usually restricted and regulated
by a professional association. For example, lawyers regulate themselves through a bar
association and restrict membership through licensing and accreditation of law schools. Hence,
professions also typically have a great deal of autonomy, setting rules and enforcing discipline
themselves. Professions are also generally exclusive, which means that laymen are legally
prohibited from practising the profession. For example, people are generally prohibited by law
from practising medicine without a license and would be likely be to practice well without
acquiring the skills of a physician.
Generally, professional library jobs require an academic LIS degree as certification. In
the United States, the certification usually comes from a Master's degree granted by an ALA-
accredited institution. In the United Kingdom, however, there have been moves to broaden the
entry requirements to professional library posts, so that qualifications in, or experience of, a
number of other disciplines have become more acceptable.
Library Association (LA), UK maintain the professional register of chartered librarians
(professionally qualified members are known as chartered librarians and are of two categories
i) Associates who are fully trained and professionally educated librarians and
ii) Fellow (FLA) who have successfully completed additional work at an advanced level to prove
their ability in special areas of librarians.
Librarianship is as old as the book itself. However, librarianship started assuming some
of the characteristics of a profession from 1876 onwards. This was the year when American
Library Association was established, the American Library Journals was launched, and the first
edition of the DDC and the C. A. Cutter’s Rules for making a dictionary catalogue were
published.

Library and Information Science

Library and Information Science: Library and Information Science is concerned with the body
of knowledge relating to the origin, storage, retrieval, transmission and utilization of information.
The term “library science” first appeared in the early 1930’s, in the title of Dr. S. R.
Ranganathan’s “The Five Laws of Library Science” and in the title of Lee Pierce Butler’s 1933
book “An Introduction to Library Science”. In 1959, Information Science began to be used in
USA as a general brand for documentation which is summarized as a discipline that investigates
properties as well as behavior of information, forces governing the flow of information and the
means for processing information for optimal accessibility and usability. In recent years, the
trend is to term the subject as “Library and Information Science (LIS)” by merging both the
concepts, and it is the study of issues related to libraries and the information science. This
includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people interact with
library systems. These studies also tend to be specific to certain libraries at certain times. The
organization of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research
goal of LIS.
According to Borko, Information Science is an interdisciplinary science that investigates
the properties and behavior of information, the forces that govern the flow and use of
information and the technique, both manual and mechanical, of processing information for
optimal storage, retrieval and dissemination. He further stated that information science has both
pure science components which enquire into the subject without regard to its application and
applied science components which develop services and products. Librarianship and
documentation are also the applied aspect of information science.
According to J. H. Shera, Librarianship is the generic term and information science is an
area of research which draws its substance, method and techniques from a variety of disciplines
to achieve and understand the properties, behaviour and flow of information. Information science
contributes to the theoretical and intellectual base for the librarians operation.
 According to C. G. Viswanathan, Information science is concerned with the principles
and techniques governing the transfer and communication of organized thought (knowledge)
from one human to another and ultimately to society.
According to P. B. Mangla, Information science is a discipline which is concerned with
the study of the properties and behaviour of information as well as the forces influencing the
flow of information.
According to P. H. William both library science and information science are swiftly
developing subjects and so the relation between them is in a constant stage of change.
However, there are many thinkers who see the library science and information science as
overlapping discipline.
The Library and Information Science is at the cross road of science seeking a basic
principle which would bring together the knowledge in a general framework in which each
discipline would have its own place and in which its relationship with other discipline would be
clearly perceived. The activities and programmes in LIS often overlap with the activities of
computer science, various social sciences, statistics, and system analysis.
Many practicing librarians do not contribute to LIS scholarship but focus on daily
operations of their own library systems. Other practicing librarians, particularly in academic
libraries, do perform original scholarly LIS research and contribute to the academic end of the
field. On this basis, it has sometimes been proposed that LIS is distinct from librarianship, in a
way analogous to the difference between medicine and doctoring. In this view, librarianship, the
application of library science, would comprise the practical services rendered by librarians in
their day-to-day attempts to meet the needs of library patrons. Some other scholars are of the
view that the two terms do not make any distinction and can be treated as synonyms.
Library and Information Policy at the National Level
Library and Information Policy at the National Level: A Policy is a statement of commitment
to a generic course of action necessary for the attainment of a goal which in our case is library
development. A policy is conditioned on the political, economic, social, and cultural milieu.
Policies are value in a number of ways such as they standardise activities, facilitate decision
making, minimise confusion, coordinate the activities of various units, conserve time in training
etc. Policy statements are to be formulated at the institutional, regional, state, national and
international level. It comprehends a set of basic issues which are infrastructure development,
information services development, utilisation of new technologies, manpower development and
other general recommendations. Many countries have adopted a library policy which helped
them undertake library development with a certain commitment and assurance. Policies in
certain sectors of the national economy have also had their implications for library development.
1. Meaning and Definition: The concept of Library and Information Policy is new. Here, we
are going to discuss, how the concept of “Policy” originated in the field of Library and
Information Science. Today’s society is known as an Information Society which require
information at every step. In modern society, information is treated as a very important source in
all areas of development whether it is social, political, economic, cultural etc. The progress of
any nation depends on the information generation, disseminating it to the users, and putting it to
work. Lack of information is going to adversely affect the development. It is because of the ever
increasing demand for information from all walks of life that the need of a policy is felt. And
since, this information is being imparted or disseminated via the Libraries, Documentation
Centres, Information Analysis and Consolidation Centres etc. they are the means for collecting,
storing, and organizing information. Thus, the policy had to be formulated on Libraries and
Information Systems. In almost all countries, national governments are the major investors and
disseminators of information. As such, each country should evolve a national policy of its own
taking into consideration the developments at national and international level.
In the context of India, a National Information Policy must necessarily be governed by
and form an integral and harmonious part of the social, economic, educational, research and
development and other related policies, which get formulated at various stages of our national
development. Further, the Information Policy needs to be properly made compatible with the
Five Years National Plans of the country.
“A National Information Policy is a set of decisions taken by a government, through
appropriate laws and regulations, to orient the harmonious development of information transfer
activities in order to satisfy the information needs of the company. A National Information Policy
needs provision of necessary means or instruments such as financial, personnel, institutional for
concrete implementation”. (UNISIST: II Main Working Document).
A National Information Policy would ensure access to professional and specialized
knowledge at the global level as the development of any country directly depends upon the
planning and policies followed by the government of the country.
2. Library Information Policy at National Level for India: Libraries in our country function
under a variety of ownerships and jurisdiction. There is generally no coordination in their
development. The progress of libraries has been very slow because of the following factors:
a) Neglect of library services during the British period
b) Resource constraint in the post-Independence era
c) Sole dependence on Government funds for library development.
Due to above said reasons and many more, the need for an integrated library system or
policy for India was felt and in this direction, first step was taken by Dr. S. R. Ranganathan,
Father of Library Science, in 1944. He suggested that “library edifice of postwar India should be
so planned that primary libraries are attached to regional centres, regional centres to provisional
central libraries, these again to the national centre libraries of other countries and international
centres”.
The Government of India made various attempts to improve library services. Under the
National Library of India Act, 1948, the Imperial Library was renamed to National Library. In
1951, Delhi Public Library was set up. Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre
(INSDOC) was established in 1951. Five Year Plans included funnels for their improvement. In
1957, the Advisory Committee suggested library services “free to every citizen of India.”
National Policy on Library Information System was formulated by the Raja Ram Mohan
Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF) which was set up in 1972 and also by Indian Library
Association.
The Department of Culture, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of
India, appointed a Committee of senior library scientists and other specialists with Prof. D. P.
Chattopadhyaya as Chairman, to prepare a draft document on the National Policy on Library and
Information System in October 1985. The Committee completed its assignment and submitted a
draft document to the Government on May 31, 1986. The draft policy document consists of 10
chapters.
To implement the recommendations of the committee, Government appointed an
Empowered Committee under the chairmanship of Prof. D.P. Chattopadhyaya, in October 1986.
The committee submitted its report in March 1988.
 The recommendations of the committee are:
a) Constitution of National Commission on Libraries.
b) Creation of All India Library Services.
c) Active role of Central Government in Public Library Development in State.
d) Public Library Development has also to be supported by agencies involved in education,
social and rural development.
e) National Library of India, Calcutta should be strengthened.
f) Development of system of national libraries.
3. Salient Features: A number of features that constitute the National Information Policy are
given below:
i) To establish, maintain, and strengthen the free public libraries. A network of libraries would
result with a district library being the apex library in district, with public libraries at city, town
and village levels. These would, then be part of the national network with each state having its
own library legislation.
ii) Every school or college established should have a library and a qualified librarian. The policy
states that science libraries are essential part of education. There must be a state level agency for
proper development of school libraries of the state and a national agency for coordination at the
national level. The policy gives University Grants Commission, the authority for college and
university libraries and suggests that all these institutes form a network and share the resources
by signing Memorandum of Understanding (MOU).
iii) Expansion of national, regional, sectoral, and local levels of NISSAT (National Information
System for Science and Technology). The policy recommends that national, regional, sectoral,
and local levels of NISSAT scheme should be further strengthened and expanded.
iv) Similar systems are organized in Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages.
v) Development of information system and data banks in different fields.
vi) Parent bodies should be committed to provide support and infrastructure for libraries.
vii) The policy recommends for a system of national libraries consisting of The National Library
at Calcutta, National Depository Libraries, National Subject Libraries and National
Documentation/Information Centres, National Databases of Manuscripts, etc. A National Library
Board should be set up by the National Library of India for effective inter-relation among all
these national libraries and also between libraries, archives and museums.
viii) Manpower, planning and development. The policy also recommends specialized information
personnel who could apply modern management techniques to Information Services.
ix) Library legislation and regulation of information flow. To meet effectively, with the changing
information needs of society, the policy recommends a national library act to be enacted and
supplemented by model library legislation at the state level.
x) Use of technology. Information revolution is undisputably caused by the unprecedented
advances in technology. These advancements have made accessibility to world information and
knowledge possible, almost from any part of the world. All these developments in information
technology have far reaching implications for National Information Policy. It recommends the
access and use of technology for enhancing the existing services and to exploit and utilise the
available resources to its optimum.
xi) Removal of communication barriers. Information, being an important resource, any barrier in
its free flow should be removed for easy access and maximum use.
xii) National network of libraries. The National Information Policy recommends the setting of a
National Commission for Libraries and Information System by the Government. This would take
charge of the national network of libraries, within which, would be accommodated libraries of
different levels from the rural society to the modern society, from the school to the research
organisations. The policy states that the necessary financial support 6 to 10% of the education
budgets for systems will be made available by the Government of India and state of
governments.
4. Other Library and Information Policies: UNESCO has been advocating the adoption of a
National (Science) Information Policy by all the countries of the world. In this connection,
UNESCO held some regional meetings and seminars in India. NISSAT, which is the focal point
in India for the UNISIST/UNESCO programme, is expected to take interest in framing
information policy. The Society for Information Science in India has done considerable spade
work for preparing the National (Science) Information Policy.
Even, in India or other nations, there are various Associations formulated at state and
district levels for e.g. Library Association for Chandigarh and so on, contributing in formulating
and implementing the Library and Information Policies for the betterment of the Nation as a
whole.
The policies which have been adopted by Government in a few other sectors have direct
impact on Library field such as National Policy on Education 1986, National Book Policy 1986,
Scientific Policy Resolution 1958, Technology Policy 1983, Information (Communication)
Policy, National Knowledge Commission, 2005.
The primary objective of a national policy is to achieve a progressive upliftment of the
socioeconomic development of the country through the provision of access to and availability of
information and knowledge with speed and efficiency to all those who are involved in activities
for national development. Planning and programming endeavours are essential to aim at a
systematic and assured development. The formulation of a National Policy on Library and
Information System are epoch-making measures in the library movement in the country. If the
policy recommendations are faithfully implemented, a new phase in library development in India
towards a far better performance and achievement is sure to come about. A National Library
Policy is also necessary to have a commitment to provide library service to all the people as it is
suggested by the Advisory Committee. The Five Year Plans have given a great deal of attention
to library development and informatics and the Ninth Plan has made appropriate provision. If
implemented rigorously library development will get assured success.
Library
Library: Libraries are congenial homes of ideas to be enjoyed, valued and used regularly by all.
Libraries almost invariably contain long passageway to rows of books. It has materials arranged
in a specified order according to a library classification scheme, so that items can be located
quickly and collections can be browsed efficiently. Some libraries have additional galleries
beyond the public ones, where reference materials are stored. These reference stacks may be
open to selected members. Others require patrons to submit a “stack request”, which is a request
for an assistant to retrieve the material from the closed stacks. In today’s context, most of the
libraries provide open access to its entire collection.
Technical services work behind the scene. It includes selection, acquisition, cataloguing
and classification of new arrivals and weeding out of obsolete and unused materials. Collection
development orders materials and maintains materials budgets. Larger libraries are often broken
down into departments staffed by both para-professionals and professional librarians. Circulation
handles user accounts and the loaning / returning and shelving of materials. Reference staffs in
the reference desk provide answer to user questions (using structured reference interviews),
instruct users and develop library programming. Reference may be further broken down by user
groups or materials such as youth, teen, or special collections.
Since the advancement in technology made it possible to store information and media in
the form other than books, many libraries now act as repositories and access points for a variety
of microfilm, microfiche, audio tapes, video tapes, CDs, and DVDs, and provide public facilities
to access CD-ROM and subscription databases over the Internet. Thus, modern libraries are
increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats
and from many sources.
1. Definition: The word “library” comes from the Latin word liber=Book. Library means a
collection of written, printed or digital reading material organized to provide different services to
the user with the help of a trained staff. It is a collection of sources, resources, and services, and
the structure in which it is housed; it is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an
institution, or an individual. However, with the sets and collection of media and of media other
than books for storing information, many libraries are now also repositories and access points for
maps, prints, or other documents and various storage media such as microform
(microfilm/microfiche), audio tapes, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, and DVDs. Libraries may also
provide public facilities to access subscription databases and the Internet. Although mostly free
to access and use, some libraries assess service charges for some services, such as checking out
new fiction, DVDs, interlibrary loan, Document Delivery Service, etc.
ALA glossary of Library and Information Science has defined library as “a collection of
materials organized to provide physical, bibliographical and intellectual access to a target group,
with a staff that is trained to provide services and programmes related to the information needs of
the target groups.”
According to Dr. S. R. Ranganathan, the father of library science in India, “a library is a
public institution or establishment charged with the care of collection of books, the duty of
making them accessible to those who require the use of them and the task of converting every
person in its neighborhood into a habitual library goers and reader of books.”
The word “Library Collection” is synonymous with holdings. It is the total accumulation
of books and other materials owned by a library, organized and cataloged for ease of access by
its users. Encyclopaedia of Library and Information Science describes library collection as “the
sum total of library material – books, manuscripts, serial, government documents, pamphlets,
catalogues, report, recording, microfilms reels, micro cards and microfiche, punched cards,
computer tapes etc. that make up the holding of a particular type of library.”
Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to
information in many formats and from many sources. They are understood as extending beyond
the four walls of a building, by including material accessible by electronic means, and by
providing the assistance of librarians in navigating and analyzing tremendous amounts of
knowledge with a variety of digital tools.
2. Types of Libraries: No single library can contain the information sought by every potential
user; as a result, different types of libraries exist to serve different needs. Libraries can be
divided into categories by the following methods.
2.1 Based on Mission: The following are the main types of libraries based upon their mission.
a) National Library: The mission is to preserve the cultural heritage of a Nation. Eg. The
National Library of India, Kolkata.
b) Public Library: A free informational and recreational institution. Its mission is to provide
reading materials to people without any fee.
c) Academic Library: The libraries that are attached with educational institutions are known as
academic library. Its mission is to help the students, researchers, faculties in their study or
research. The primary mission is to support the educational and research need of the parent
institution. Academic libraries may be of the following types:
i) University Library
ii) College Library
iii) School Library
d) Special Library: Libraries attached to special institution i.e. industrial firm, insurance
company, All India Radio, Dordarshan Kendra, etc. belong to this category. Their aim is to
support the parent organization.
e) Personal / Private Library: A library owned by an individual or family or a a library with
reading materials collected, maintained and intended to be used by a single person or a family.
f) Archives: An organized collection of the noncurrent records of an institution, government,
organization, or corporate body, or the personal papers of an individual or family, preserved in a
repository for their historical value.
2.2 Based on Technology: A shift from the traditional library to digital library has already taken
place. The traditional closed access libraries are shifting towards open access library. The open
access libraries are shifting towards automated library, the automated one towards the
electronics, the electronics to digital and finally end in virtual library. Is it really true? The truth
is that nobody knows what will be the future of libraries. Still, based on the technology used in
processing of information as well as in providing services to the user community, the libraries of
present times can be grouped into the following types
a) Library (Traditional): The collection of the traditional libraries is mostly print material,
manuscripts etc and the collections are not well organized and the documents are deteriorating at
a rapid rate. The information sources are also hard to locate and so does not easily reach user.
Again, the traditional libraries confine themselves within a physical boundary.
b) Automated Library: A library with machine-readable catalogues, computerized acquisition,
circulation and OPAC are called as automated library. The holding of this type of libraries is
same as that of traditional libraries.
c) Electronic Library: When an automated library goes for Local Area Networking (LAN) and
CD-ROM networking then it is known as electronic library. The resources of the electronic
libraries are in both print and electronic forms, but resources are not available over the web. The
electronic Media is used for storage retrieval and delivery of information.
d) Digital Library: The Digital Library (DL) is a later stage of electronic library. When an
electronic library started procuring e-journal and other similar kind of publications and access is
over the web, then it is termed as digital library. In digital library, high speed optical fibres are
used for LAN and the access is over WAN and it provides a wide range of internet based services
i.e. audio and video conferencing etc. The majority of the holding of a digital library is in the
computer readable form. They have their own computer readable database and act as a point of
access to other on line sources. A DL, like a traditional library, is also a collection of books and
reference materials along with its associated services. But, unlike a traditional library, however,
the collection of a digital library is in digital form, and is usually served over the World Wide
Web.
e) Virtual Library: Virtual Library refers to the scientifically managed collection of information
resources and services on site as well as off site that are available in a virtual reality environment
and accessible electronically through the internet at any time from any geographical location.
f) Hybrid Library: The libraries, which are working both in electronic or digital and print
environment, are known as hybrid library. Actually it is a transitional state between the print and
digital environment. It is estimated that in near future libraries will be of hybrid nature, some of
the very strong points in favour of this view are the centuries old reading habit of paper, more
convenience of handling and reading a paper document than the digitized one (in case of
digitized, some equipment must be needed to read the document), incompatible standard of
electronic product, different display standard of digital product and its associated problem, etc.

Though, in the above, an attempt is made to categorize the different types of libraries based on the technology used
but in reality there is no strict line of demarcation between the last four types of libraries.

2.3 UNESCO’s Division: An overall classification of all types of libraries has been made by
UNESCO in “Recommendations concerning the international standardization of library
statistics” adopted by the General Conference at its 16th session (Paris, November 13, 1970).
a) National libraries
b) Libraries of institutions of higher education
i) University library
ii) Libraries attached to university / institute or department.
iii) Libraries which are not part of a university.
c) Other major non specialized libraries
d) School libraries (Size of collection only printed materials and manuscripts).
i) Up to 2,000 volumes.
ii) From 2,001 to 5,000 volumes.
iii) More than 5,000 volumes.
e) Special libraries open to the public.
f) Special libraries, reserved for their primary user.
g) Public (or popular) libraries financed by the public authorities, size of collection (Only printed
material and manuscripts).
i) Up to 2,000 volumes.
ii) From 2,001 to 5,000 volumes.
iii) From 5,001 to 10,000 volumes.
iv) More than 10,000 volumes.
Based on the entity i.e institution, municipality, or corporate body that supports or
perpetuates the library, library can be divided into Academic libraries, Corporate libraries,
Government libraries, such as national libraries, Historical society libraries, Private libraries,
Public libraries, School libraries, Special libraries, etc. Again, based on the collection of the
library material, library can be divided into Digital libraries, Data libraries, Picture (photograph)
libraries, Slide libraries, Tool libraries, etc.
Libraries can also be grouped based on the thought contents of procuring document as
Architecture libraries, Fine arts libraries, Law libraries, Medical libraries, Theological libraries,
etc. It can also be grouped based on the user or patron of the library as Prison library, Library for
blind, Public library, Military community’s library, Children library (actually children library has
grown as an offshoot of the public library functioning as a part of it. In some cases it has grown
independently), Private library, etc.
Let Us Sum Up: Libraries are by far the oldest institutions charged with the responsibility of
collecting, storing and disseminating of information. In a more traditional sense a library was
defined as “a place where books were kept for reading study or reference”. It is a collection of
books or other written or printed materials, as well as the facility in which they are housed to
serve the reader within an institution that is responsible for their maintenance. But a modern
library with a few exceptions is regarded as a service institution. Its aim is to enable the users to
make the most effective use of the resources and services of libraries. A modern library is a
public institution which is expected to convert the potential reader into actual reader.
In ancient days libraries gathered huge collection of manuscripts and preserved them
most efficiently for the posterity. Modern libraries may contain a wide range of materials,
including manuscripts and pamphlets, posters, photographs, motion pictures, and videotapes,
sound recordings, and computer databases in various forms.
Libraries are the carriers of information from one generation to the next generation. Most
of the new technology based information businesses are still largely dependent on the library for
their survival. The information broker, consultants, referral centre etc still largely depend on the
library for their survival. In these days of Information Technology (IT) libraries continue to serve
millions of grateful users in new and improved ways and it is hoped that in near future also it
will be the only affordable source of information.
More recently, libraries are understood as extending beyond the physical walls of a
building, by including material accessible by electronic means, and by providing the assistance
of librarians in navigating and analyzing tremendous amount of knowledge with a variety of
digital tools.
National libraries are responsible for acquiring and conserving copies of all significant
publications published in the country and functioning as a “deposit” library, either by law or
under other arrangements. It also produces a national bibliography, holds and keeps up to date a
large and representative collection of foreign literature including books about the country, acts as
a national bibliographical information centre, compiles union catalogues, and publishes the
retrospective national bibliography.
Public library serves the population of a community or region free of charge or for a
nominal fee. An academic library serves an institution of higher learning and is located on the
campuses of colleges and universities for the benefit of the students and faculty of that
organization. A school library or a school library media center is a library within a school where
students, staff, and often, parents have access to a variety of resources. Libraries had often been
started with a donation, an endowment or parishes, churches, schools or towns, and these social
and institutional libraries formed the base of many academic and public library collections of
today.
Special library is established, supported and administered by a business firm, private
corporation, association, government agency, or other special-interest group or agency to meet
the information needs of its members or staff in pursuing the goals of the organization.
An archives is a place for storing earlier and often historical, material. It usually contains
documents (letters, records, newspapers, etc.) or other types of media kept for historical interest.
The inactive records of an individual, organization, or institution are kept in archives for their
continuing value. Private or personal libraries are mostly made up of non-fiction and fiction
books.
Librarians in Different Types of Libraries
Librarians in Different Types of Libraries: The librarians of different types of libraries have to
perform work according to the library concerned. Following are the different types of libraries
where librarians have different types of work to perform
a) School: The school librarianship covers the library services for children in schools. In some
regions, the local government may set the standards for the education and certification of the
school librarians (who are often considered a special kind of teacher). School librarianship may
also include issues of intellectual freedom, pedagogy, and how to build a coordinated curriculum
with the teaching staff.
b) College and University: The college / university librarianship covers the library services for
colleges / universities. Issues of special importance to the field may include copyright,
technology, digital libraries, and digital repositories, academic freedom, open access to scholarly
works and specialized knowledge of subject areas which are considered important to the
institution. The librarian of a college / university library caters to a large number of user base and
therefore, involves higher responsibilities than his counterpart in a school library.
c) Public: The librarianship for public libraries covers issues such as cataloguing, collection
development for a diverse community, information literacy, community standards, etc. It is a
librarianship with focus on public service and serving a diverse community of adults, children,
and teens, and therefore, deals with intellectual freedom, censorship and legal and budgeting
issues.
d) Special: Special librarians include those who are involved with any other form of
librarianship that serves in medical libraries (and hospitals or medical schools), corporations,
news agency libraries, or other special collections. The issues in these libraries will be specific to
the institutions / industries they inhabit. But the librarians in these libraries also include for their
work such specialized functions as corporate financing, specialized collection development, and
extensive self-promotion to potential patrons.
e) Archives: This covers the study required to maintain and build the archives of records
intended for historical preservation. Special issues include physical preservation of materials and
mass de-acidification, specialist catalogues; solo work, access, and appraisal. Many archivists are
also trained historians specializing in the period covered by the archive.
Librarian’s Day
Librarian’s Day: At the 9th Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centre
(IASLIC) seminar held at Nagpur (1980) initiative were made to form JOint Council of Library
Association of India (JOCLAI). In the JOCLAI meeting held at Jaipur during the seventeenth
conference in 1989 it was decided to observe the birth day of Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan,
the father of Library Science in India as Librarians Day all over the country every year. So
considering this, 12th August, which was the birthday of Dr. S. R. Ranganathan has been assign
as librarian’s day.
At Kolkata since 1990, a day long Programme purely professional is held every year not
necessarily on 12th August but on Sunday following the date. This is as because librarianship is a
service profession so the user cannot be disappointed on working days in the name of the
profession itself. This is what librarianship is.
Librametric, Bibliometric, Scientometrics, Informetrics
Librametric, Bibliometric, Scientometrics, Informetrics: The Librametric, bibliometric,
scientometrics, informetrics are overlapping areas, though their scopes are not the same.
1. Librametry: Dr. S. R. Ranganathan coined the term librametry and presented his concept in
1948 at the ASLIB conference held at Lemington Spa. He said that “there is a need to develop
this subject on the lines of Biometry, Econometry, Psychometry, etc. He used the term to include
statistical approaches to the study of library and its services. However, the practice of using
quantitative method to measure information sources were made even before Dr. S. R.
Ranganathan either under different name or without any name at all. For instance E. J. Cole and
Nellie Eales in 1917, graphically mapped the literature and called this as “Statistical analysis”, E.
Wyndham Hulme in 1922 studied the literature and called it “statistical bibliography”, but the
terms were found to be clumsy as it could easily be mistaken.
2. Bibliometrics: The formal term “bibliometric” was first used by Alan Pritchard in his article
“Statistical bibliography or bibliometric” in 1969 published in the “Journal of Documentation”.
“Biblio” means book and “metric” means a scale or measure. Bibliometric means application of
statistical studies in library and information science.
Pritchard defines bibliometric as “the application of mathematical and statistical methods
to books and other media of communication”.
Potter defines bibliometric as “the study and measurement of the publication pattern of
all forms of written communication and their author”.
Thus bibliometric is a sort of measuring techniques by which interconnected aspect of
written communication can be quantified. It is the study, or measurement, of texts and
information. Bibliometrics utilizes quantitative analysis and statistics to describe patterns of
publication within a given field or body of literature. Researchers may use bibliometric methods
of evaluation to determine the influence of a single writer, for example, or to describe the
relationship between two or more writers or works. One common way of conducting bibliometric
research is to use the Social Science Citation Index, the Science Citation Index or the Arts and
Humanities Citation Index to trace citations.
a) Bibliometric Techniques: There are different kinds of bibliometric techniques. For example-
i) Productivity Count: It deals with books articles, words in a text, place of publication, subject
matter, time and date of publication, publishing institution, authors, author’s institution, etc.
Nicholas and Ritchie in the book “Literature and Bibliometrics” called it as productivity count or
descriptive.
ii) Literature Usage Count: It deals with citation in published works, circulation, frequency of
borrowing or browsing different library material, failure and success in search strategies, search
option , etc. Nicholas and Ritchie called it as “Evaluative”.
b) Laws of Bibliometrics: One of the main areas in bibliometric research concerns the
application of bibliometric laws. The three most commonly used laws in bibliometrics are -
Lotka's Law of Scientific Productivity, Bradford's Law of Scatter, and Zipf's Law of Word
Occurrence;
i) Lotka's Law of Scientific Productivity: In 1926, Alfred J. Lotka proposed an inverse square
law relating to scientific papers to the number of contributions made by each author. Lotka's Law
describes the frequency of publication by authors in a given field. It states that ". . . the number
(of authors) making n contributions is about 1/n² of those making one; and the proportion of all
contributors, that make a single contribution, is about 60 percent". This means that out of all the
authors in a given field, 60 percent will have just one publication, and 15 percent will have two
publications (1/2² times . 60), 7 percent of authors will have three publications (1/3² times . 60),
and so on. According to Lotka's Law of scientific productivity, only six percent of the authors in
a field will produce more than 10 articles.
 Lotka’s equation is xn.y= Constant.
Where
Y= Frequency of authors making n contribution, the value of the constant was found to
be 0.6079
ii) Bradford's Law of Scatter: Samuel Clement Bradford in 1934 points out that if scientific
journals are arranged in order of decreasing productivity of articles on a given subject, they may
be divided into a nucleus of periodicals more particularly devoted to the subject and several
groups and zones containing the same number of articles as the nucleus when the number of
periodicals in the nucleus and succeeding zones will be 1: n: n2.
Bradford's Law states that journals in a single field can be divided into three parts, each
containing the same number of articles:
* A core of journals on the subject, relatively few in number, that produces approximately one-
third of all the articles;
* A second zone, containing the same number of articles as the first, but a greater number of
journals, and
* A third zone, containing the same number of articles as the second, but a still greater number of
journals.
The mathematical relationship of the number of journals in the core to the first zone is a
constant n and to the second zone the relationship is n². Bradford expressed this relationship as 1
: n : n². Bradford formulated his law after studying a bibliography of geophysics, covering 326
journals in the field. He discovered that 9 journals contained 429 articles, 59 contained 499
articles, and 258 contained 404 articles. So it took 9 journals to contribute one-third of the
articles, 5 times of 9, or 45, to produce the next third, and 5 times 5 times 9, or 225, to produce
the last third.
Bradford's Law serves as a general guideline to librarians in determining the number of
core journals in any given field. Bradford's Law is not statistically accurate, but it is still
commonly used as a general rule of thumb.
iii) Zipf's Law of Word Occurrence: George K. Zipf, 1947 states that if the words occurring in
a natural language text of sizable length were listed in the order of decreasing frequency then the
rank of any given word in the list would be inversely proportional to the frequency of occurrence
of the word. Zipf’s equation is
r.f=k
Where
r = Rank;
f = Frequency of Word;
k = Constant
The Law states that in a relatively lengthy text, if you "list the words occurring within
that text in order of decreasing frequency, the rank of a word on that list multiplied by its
frequency will equal a constant. The equation for this relationship is: r x f = k where r is the rank
of the word, f is the frequency, and k is the constant. Zipf illustrated his law with an analysis of
James Joyce's Ulysses. "He showed that the tenth most frequent word occurred 2,653 times, the
hundredth most frequent word occurred 265 times, the two hundredth word occurred 133 times,
and so on. Zipf found, then that the rank of the word multiplied by the frequency of the word
equals a constant that is approximately 26,500".
c) Uses of Bibliometric Studies: Historically bibliometric methods have been used to trace
relationships amongst academic journal citations. The bibliometric research uses various
methods of citation analysis in order to establish relationships between authors or their work.
The Bibliometric studies are used in
i) Measuring the scattering of articles on a subject in various periodicals (Bradford).
ii) Measuring the productivity of an author based on the number of published articles. (Lotka).
iii) Ranking of words in a text based on frequency of occurrence of words.
iv) Productivity count of literature.
v) To identify the peers, social change and the core journal, etc.
vi) Indexing and Thesaurus;
vii) Research;
viii) Formulating search strategies in case of automated system;
ix) Comparative assessment of the secondary services;
x) Bibliographic control;
xi) Preparation of retrospective bibliographic and
xii) Library Management.
3. Scientometrics: This term was introduced and came into prominence with the founding of the
journal named “Scientometrics” by T. Braunin in 1977, originally published in Hungary and
currently from Amsterdam.
The term “Scientometrics” was used to mean the application of quantitative methods to
the history of science but it is now generally used as a generic term for a variety of research
approaches within the study of science that a quantifiable aspect of science can be utilized to
assess the characteristic of science.
Marton and Garfield have defined it as the field of enquiry given over to the quantitative
analysis of science and scientific field.
4. Informetrics: According to Brooker the term “informetrics” was first proposed by Otto Nacke
of West Germany in 1979. It focused on information productivity. It interprets information
technology and considers interaction of information theory, cybermetrics, decision theory, etc.
5. Webmetrics: Webmetrics can be defined as using of bibliometric techniques in order to study
the relationship of different sites on the World Wide Web. Such techniques may also be used to
map out (called "scientific mapping" in traditional bibliometric research) areas of the Web that
appear to be most useful or influential, based on the number of times they are hyperlinked to
other Web sites.
6. Let Us Sum Up: According to Sen, bibliometric deals with document and its component
while informetrics studies pertaining to information. Morales use the term informetrics to cover
almost all the aspect of bibliometric and librametrics.
Learning Management System (LMS)
Learning Management System (LMS): A Learning Management System (LMS) or
Courseware Management System is a software application for the administration,
documentation, tracking, and reporting of training programmes, classroom and online events, e-
learning programmes, and training content.
LMSs range from systems for managing training and educational records to software for
distributing courses over the Internet with features for online collaboration. Student self-service
(e.g., self-registration on instructor-led training), training workflow (e.g., user notification,
manager approval, wait-list management), the provision of on-line learning (e.g., computer-
based training, read & understand), on-line assessment, management of continuous professional
education (CPE), collaborative learning (e.g., application sharing, discussion threads), and
training resource management (e.g., instructors, facilities, equipment), are dimensions to
Learning Management Systems.
The following are some of the popular LMS softwares
a) ATutor: ATutor is an Open Source Web-based Learning Management System (LMS). It is
used in various contexts, including online course management, continuing professional
development for teachers, career development, and academic research. The software is cited as
unique for its accessibility features, (useful to visually-impaired and disabled learners); and for
its suitability for educational use. Website: http://www.atutor.ca/
b) Brihaspati (The Virtual Classroom): Brihaspati is an open source learning management
system and of Indian origin. Website: http://home.iitk.ac.in/~ynsingh/tool/brihaspati.shtml
c) Claroline: Claroline is a collaborative eLearning and eWorking platform (Learning
Management System) released under the GPL Open Source license. It allows hundreds of
organizations worldwide ranging from universities to schools and from companies to
associations to create and administer courses and collaboration spaces over the web. Website:
http://www.claroline.net/
d) Moodle: Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (Moodle) is a free and
open-source e-learning software platform, also known as a Course Management System,
Learning Management System, or Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). It is developed by
Martin Dougiamas to help the educators create online courses with a focus on interaction and
collaborative construction of content. Website: http://moodle.org/
Leadership
Leadership: Leader is a person who is like everyone else and have personnel needs and hopes.
In addition, he enjoys the formal authority and power of an influential position. The task of
leader is called leadership. The term leadership therefore can be defined as exercise of influence
in an organization in which the other persons attribute leadership qualities to the leader.
The leader should create a framework for activities, maintain norms and policies
motivate fellow members of the group and allow others to prove their efficiency. He should be
aware of changes in the wider environment and in the internal structure of the organization. In a
particular situation, the leader has to take the right decision for organizing and implementation
of a task.
a) Qualities of Leader: There are different theories which describe the qualities and function of
leader differently. Some of them are as follows-
i) Personal quality theory: This theory has been emphasized in Trait theories in which leader is
accepted as superior and the subordinates are expected to follow him by virtue of his personal
qualities.
ii) Environmental theory: The leadership is based on providing solution in a given crisis. The
leader may not be successful in a different situation.
iii) Personal – environmental theory: It gives emphasis on personal characteristics, capabilities
of managing various situations and the response of subordinate to accept the leadership.
iv) Exchange theory: Group interaction and its results are the focal concept of this theory.
v) Humanistic theory: It gives emphasis on the leadership of persons who will grant maximum
freedom to enable group member to achieve high level of self actualization having total
involvement in all affairs leading to success.
vi) Expectational theory: It is based on leadership to be gained by a person who is able to
maintain the aim and goals as well as to motivate the group.
vii) Contingency theory: No fixed patter of leadership behaviour can be effective in all situation.
In a particular situation the leader must design his own pattern to achieve the best result. The
contingent factors are the personality of the leader. The successful leader must be person-
oriented and task-oriented and should be capable of understanding the particular situation.
In the complex social situation while there are changing conditions under external
influences no one pattern of behaviour and approach is equally effective in all circumstances.
Some common qualities of leader are-
i) Hard worker and intelligent;
ii) Well qualified, academically and professionally;
iii) Entrepreneur;
iv) Always resourceful;
v) Spokesman and disseminator;
vi) Disturbance handler or conflict handler;
vii) Resource allocator;
b) Librarian as a Leader: The librarian should have the qualities of a leader so that his
subordinate derives inspiration from him. He should always stand in favour of his subordinates
interest and enthusiasm for the profession and loyalty to the organization by his own examples.
Today most of the librarians are discharging their function as a leader.
i) Secretary of the library committee: Librarian’s are the member secretary of the library
committee and it is his duty to prepare the agenda for the committee meetings.
ii) Conference, seminar, orientation: Librarians nowadays attending conferences, seminars, and
conduct regular orientation class for the new members of the library.
iii) Solves problems of the library: Due to the rapid changes in environment and in the education
trend libraries are always facing problem. The librarian as a well qualified person academically
and professionally so his subordinate when confronted with various problem are able to seek
solution from the him.
iv) Take decision: Librarians can take decision in library matter.
v) Gives order and direction: Orders and direction and instruction are issued from the librarian
and these are implemented by the respective level of subordinates.
vi) Represent the library and staff: The librarian represents the library and its staff in all internal
and external matter.
vii) Guidance and motivation of the staff: The librarian guides, directs and motivates all his
subordinates who work with and for him to accomplish the results as per the plans and policies.
Librarians also build confidence among the library staff.
viii) Building morale: Morale is expected as attitude of the staff towards organization. High
morale leads to high service. Librarian builds the morale of the staff.
c) Problems for the Librarians: Some of the problems associated with the librarian in carrying
out the leadership roles are –
i) Majority of librarians in school and public libraries have not any subordinate staff. So, they
cannot perform their function as a leader.
ii) The librarians generally do not get proper recognition from the parent organization and from
the society. This creates emotional problem to carry out the function of a leader.
iii) The salary and wages of the private sector librarians generally are not up to the mark. So
they don’t feel motivated to perform their function as a leader.
iv) The majority of old librarians are less qualified academically and professionally. So they
cannot compete with the member of the parent organization to discharge their duties as a leader.

Laws of Library Science

Laws of Library Science: According to Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan, considered by
librarians all over India as the father of library science, “there can be no doubt however, that
there are certain essential principles underlying the management of library according to the
present days’ need and conception”. Ranganathan expounded these principles in a systematic
form and reduced them to five cardinal principles. He has developed all these rules of library
organization and management as the necessary implication and inevitable corollaries of his five
laws.
In the context of library science Dr. S. R. Ranganathan conceived the five laws of library
science in 1924. The statement embodying these laws were formulated i.e. the laws took the
final form in 1928 and a detailed account of these laws and their implication were published in
the form of a book in 1931 by Bombay Asia Publishing House (This is also the year in which
Melville Dewey passed away). Most librarians worldwide accept them as the foundations of
their philosophy.
The five laws of library science are:
a) Books are for use.
b) Every reader his / her book (i.e. books are for all).
c) Every book its reader (i.e. every book in a library must find its reader)
d) Save the time of the reader (i.e. a user is supposed to be a busy person. So his / her time
must be saved). Corollary: Save the time of the staff.
e) Library is a growing organism (A library always grows in terms of document i.e. book,
reader or user and staff).
Ranganathan at first formulated the statement of four laws only, Laws 2-5 in the present
state. The first law emerged last from the casual hint provided by his professor E. B. Ross.
1. Need of the Laws of Library and Information Science: In the past before the formulation
of library science laws there was no evidence of an overall view of libraries. It looked as if
future development were totally unpredictable. By proposing the laws Ranganathan solved the
problem. The basic needs of the laws of library science are:
a) Give Pressure at the Subconscious Level to Work: Scientific methods are applicable
equally in both natural and social sciences. The only difference lies in the status of the basic
principles. These were hypotheses in the natural science and normative principles in the social
sciences.

Terms

Hypothesis: Proposed
explanation of some thing made
on the basis of limited evidence
used as a starting point for further
investigation.

b) Helps Library Science to Become an Independent Subject: A subject cannot stand in its
position unless some fundamental laws are not attached to it, so by proposing the laws
Ranganathan put the first stone in this direction.
c) Denote Library Practices: Laws of library science contain in a latest form all the library
practices of the past and the present and those which are likely to be evolved in the future.
d) Serve as a Higher Court: These laws are applicable to any problem in the areas of library
science, library service and library practice. In case of conflict between canons, an appeal is
made to the five laws of library science to resolve the conflict.
e) Boundary Condition: Laws of library science locate the boundary condition within which
the librarian might work.
2. Usefulness of the Five Laws
a) Act as Fundamental Laws: The five laws of library science are fundamental laws of library
and information science and are applicable to any problem in the areas of library science, library
service and library practice. Five laws are guiding norms; these are the verified principles
applicable everywhere in the library world.
b) Help in Deriving Canon, Principles and Postulates: With the help of these five laws of
Library Science we can derive canons, principles and postulates applicable in different fields of
library and information science. These fundamental laws will serve as a source of inspiration and
guidance in the years to come.
c) Resolve Conflict Between Cannons: The laws of library science help in solving any conflict
that may arise during the functioning of libraries. The five laws serve as a higher court. So in
case of conflict between canons of cataloguing, classification etc. an appeal is made to the five
laws of library science to resolve the conflict.
d) Guiding Rules: The laws of library science guide the staff in decision making about what is
right and what is wrong in a given situation. As such Ranganathan’s five laws of library science
have found universal acceptance as Pentagon of Library Philosophy.
3. Variants of the Five Laws of LIS: According to Ranganathan’s own words “One is the
generalization of the concept ‘Book’ this has been emphasized in recent years in the term
document”, so Ranganathan later on in his “Documentation and its Facets” reformulated the
laws as
a) Documents are for use.
b) Every reader his / her document.
c) Every document its reader.
d) Save the time of the reader.
e) Library is a growing organism.
In 1998, librarian Michael Gorman (past president of the American Library Association,
2005-2006), recommended the following laws in addition to Ranganathan's five in his small
book, "Our Singular Strengths":
a) Libraries serve humanity.
b) Respect all forms by which knowledge is communicated.
c) Use technology intelligently to enhance service.
d) Protect free access to knowledge.
e) Honor the past and create the future.
In 2004, librarian Alireza Noruzi recommended applying Ranganathan's laws to the web
in his paper, "Application of Ranganathan's Laws to the Web"
a) Web resources are for use.
b) Every user his or her web resource.
c) Every web resource its user.
d) Save the time of the user.
e) The Web is a growing organism.
4. First Law: Books are for Use: The first law embodies an elementary principle and all the
other laws of library science are based on the first law. The library becomes great not because of
its collection or building but as a result of the use made of by its users. Therefore, the motto of a
librarian should be to acquire process and serve document for use. The implication of this law is
limited to make the physical carrier of information accessible to the user. A modern librarian
who has belief in first law will feel satisfied only if the user keeps the shelves constantly empty.
In Ranganathan’s own words the implications of the first laws of library science are
a) Location of the Library: Location of the library should be the one which is conveniently
accessible to the community to be served. A public library should be at a place which most
citizens can frequently visit regularly on some business or other; at the same time the location
should be as free from noise and other disturbances as possible so that serious study can be
made. A University library should be centrally located. A special library should be near the
factory entrance or factory canteen. In case of school and college libraries the location does not
matter very much because distances are small from various sections. However it would be
preferable to have it centrally located.
b) Library Building and Furniture: The library building should be well planned. The exterior
should be inviting and the interior should be attractive. The building should be functional and at
the same time aesthetic. It should be functional one providing enough space for various purposes
to meet the requirements. The furniture should be so provided as to give comfort to the readers
and to make use of the resources of the library as conveniently as possible. Racks in which
books are kept should not be high and books on the top shelves should be easily reachable.
c) Library Hours: The opening hours of the library should be decided keeping in view the need
of the user. The influence of the first law on library hours has resulted in opening for long hours
and on all days of the year without any holidays. Library hours should also be convenient to the
users. If possible, each user of the library should be provided with a key of the library so that the
user can use the library at any hour, whenever he feels like using it.
d) Library Staff: In order to maximize the use of the library, it is essential that library staff
should be qualified and efficient. Every member of the staff should perform the role of a friend,
philosopher and guide to all those who come to the library to use it. The staff should believe in
and follow the philosophy of service to the user. They should be approachable, courteous,
helpful and willing to appreciate the point of views of others; a missionary zeal to serve the user;
amiable manners and professional competence are the essential qualities of the library staff for
carrying out the mandate of the first law.
e) Book Selection: The books should be selected and acquired keeping in view the present and
potential requirement of the user. There should also be a periodical weeding out of books.
f) Shelf Arrangement: The books should be classified, catalogued and arranged according to a
helpful sequence.
g) Reference Service: The personal service will lead to greater use of library document.
The forces of the first law can be looked at from the following-
In the ancient period books were rare i.e. multiple copies were not available due to the
non availability of printing machines. The copying of the Mahabharata was a very tough
requiring long hours to copy a document. So, in the past, there was a great deal of negligence
towards the first law. In modern times due to the availability of printing technology,
photocopying, scanning etc it is possible to overcome all such barriers. But unfortunately due to
the result of a rudimentary practice of preserving the documents, that tendency has remained as a
regular habit in the successive generation of librarians. The modern librarian should overcome
such a habit and there is an urgent need for the vigorous attempt to eliminate the negligence to
the first law.
A modern librarian who has faith in the first law is happy only when his/her reader make
his/her shelves constantly empty. Also in such cases he/she will go to them, not to snatch away
the book they are using but to distribute the new arrival that needs to be introduced to them as
quickly as possible.
The forces of the first law as a whole can be traced out as
- Make the library open access rather than traditional closed access;
- Make free access to the book world;
- Branch libraries should open in the larger cities in order to be easily reachable within a few
minutes walk from each house;
- Books should be sent free to the houses of those that would offer to get them introduced in their
neighborhood;
- Books should be carried in motor van from street to street for their distribution amongst the
residents.
The above forces of the first law will be possible only if library has enough funds and the
library itself obtains free copy of books from different sources. But in this industrialized world in
which everybody pays according to his/her need or requirement, there is a doubt that an
exception will happen for library and information science only. So the fulfillment of the first law
is bleak in near future. If library legislation comes to help in this regard or the readers of a
library are ready to pay according to their need, the law, Books are for use, can be satisfied in
every aspect.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth century books were actually kept in chains (chained library)
to confine their movement to the sphere determined by their chain. Such chaining was more
conducive to the preservation than to the use of the books. This practice was in contrast to the
first law of library and Information Science.
5. Second Law: Every Reader his / her Book: The second law is, every reader his / her book
(books are for all). According to the second law every reader of a library should have the books
he / she wants. It advocates for a mandatory provision of library services to each reader
according to his / her need. It advocates the universal and democratization of library services i.e.
documents are not merely for scholars but for all, including the poor, sick, blind, prisoner, neo-
literates and the old. The documents should be accessible irrespective of occupational and
income lines, irrespective of the normal and the abnormal, or irrespective of an adult and a child.
Ranganathan examines the implication of the second law under the following four
categories.
a) Obligation of the State
i) Library Legislation: In order to achieve the second law it is desirable that economy factor
should not stand as a barrier. This will be possible through library legislation, which will provide
for finance of public libraries at various levels to achieve free library services for all.
ii) Maintenance of a Library System (Network): As far as students, teachers and researchers are
concerned the public library plays only a marginal role in fulfilling the second law. Therefore,
the state also has the responsibility of establishing other types of libraries like school library,
college library, university library and special library.
iii) Co ordination and Resource Sharing: A given library would not have the finance to purchase
documents on occasional demand. Therefore the second law would suggest the formulation of a
National library network to share the resources, especially for the purpose of inter-library loan.
b) Obligation of the Library Authority
i) Choice of Book (Book Selection): The second law implies that all the books that can be useful
should be selected and all the useless books should be discarded. The selection should be based
on individual needs. The library authority should ensure the proper selection and acquisition
policy in order to build up a balanced collection in the library for each category of users i.e. the
blind, neo-literates, scholars, children, young, adult, man, women, etc. Buying a document that
has no potential demand is a violation of the second law.
ii) Choice of the Staff: The library authority should select an adequate and competent team of
library staff and it should take utmost care in the recruitment of the library personnel, their
subsequent promotion, recognition and status.
c) Obligation of the Library Staff
i) Open Access: The library staff should also feel the obligation to introduce open access to help
the readers in gaining access to all the books of possible interest to them. The open access makes
it possible for a reader to approach books directly and handle them personally without any
barrier. A user can, thus browse amongst the world of books and thus they will have better
chances of choosing the right book.
ii) Cataloguing: Some times the information contained in a chapter or a few pages of a book
may be of interest to a reader but the users often tend to miss such content. To avoid such
oversight the library should introduce subject analytical or cross reference entries.
iii) Shelf Arrangement: The shelf should be arranged according to the subject of the document
and not based on the size and other aspects.
iv) Maintenance: In case of open access libraries there is every possibility of some document
being misplaced intentionally or unintentionally by the patron of the library. To fulfil the second
law misplaced books must be restored to their proper places. Books in need of binding or repair
should be taken out from the shelves from time to time.
v) Reference Service: Reference service is an effective means of ensuring that the reader gain
access to all the documents of potential interest to him that are held by the library. So the library
staff should have proper training in reference work and be able to provide an effective reference
service to the user in getting the right book.
d) Obligation of the Reader
i) Library Rules Should be Followed: A user must realize that library rules are framed to get the
maximum out of the library resources and to prevent the misuse of library resources. The rules
are aimed at increasing the use of the library rather than curbing its use. Thus, the user should
regard the rigid enforcement of the rules as an aid rather than a hindrance in the use of the
library.
ii) Maintenance of the System: A user should not misplace the books within the library or
damage it. This will deprive the other users; similarly a user should not mutilate or take out cards
from the library catalogue, tear pages or steal etc.
iii) Should not Ask for Any Undue Special Privileges: The Library is meant for every body’s use
and no one should have undue privileges at the expense of others. The current issues, the
reference books etc which are in much demand should not go through the process of any special
privileges.
iv) Returns of Books In Time: The books that are borrowed must be returned on or before due
date so that other users do not have to suffer. If a document is lying unused at home, it is the
obligation of the user to return it as soon as possible.
6. Third Law: Every Book its Reader: Every book in a library must find its reader. This law
emphasizes the approach to the document. According to this law, every book in a library must
find its reader, not a single item should be lost in the darkness of the stack.
The following measures should be adopted for giving effect to this law.
a) Introducing Open Access: In the open access system books are arranged in shelves in the
classified order and the readers have freedom to access them. In the course of readers’ browsing
through the shelves they may come across books of interest to them the existence of which they
may not be aware of; so the chances of readers noticing the books and reading them are
enhanced by the open access system only.
b) Provision of Popular Department: The provision of popular department like newspaper
reading room, periodical section, etc. offer baits to the reader and such provision increases the
chances for every book to get its reader. Recent additions, rare books, specific collection, festival
collection etc displayed at prominent places attracts the reader’s attention.
c) Book Selection: Best attention should be paid to book selection so that the chances of books
remaining unused are reduced.
d) Cataloguing: Subject cataloguing, series entries, cross reference entries etc. may often reveal
to the reader the books which might not have otherwise been noticed.
e) Shelf Arrangement: If the shelf arrangement is made by the subject approach then there are
better chances of books finding their reader. Again, the subsequent attention should be given by
the library staff to maintain the arrangement by way of restoring the misplaced books to their
correct place and so on.
f) Reference Service: There must be the provision for personal assistance to each reader when
they feel they need it. The reference staff should act as a canvassing agent for book.
g) Publicity and Library Extension Service: Internally, within the premises of the library, the
staff should provide shelf guide, bay guides, etc. which will guide the reader to appropriate
places in the library. Externally, the reference staff should go to make the use of mass media like
press, radio, television, public lecture, demonstration, tours, exhibitions, library weeks, brochure
and leaflets, etc. for publicizing the library.
7. Fourth Law: Save the Time of the Reader: A user is supposed to be a busy person; so his /
her time must be saved. Corollary of this law is “save the time of the staff”. A reader coming to
the library should get an exact and fast service; they should not be made to wait longer than
necessary. Unnecessary delay may cause vexation and readers may be dissatisfied. Dissatisfied
readers may cease to come to the library.
 The implications of the fourth law are as follows.
a) Location of the library: The library must be centrally located so that it is conveniently
accessible to the community being served.
b) Open Access: There are many advantages of introducing the open access. One of the major
advantages of open access system is the subjective time decline which gives satisfaction to the
readers.
c) Classification and Cataloguing: Proper Classification system which would bring together
documents on a specific subject and also the related subject should be adopted.
d) Shelf Arrangement: The arrangement of documents according to the degree of mutual
relationship of subjects would lead to saving the time of the readers.
e) Signage System: Stack room guide, bay guides, tier guides, gangway guides should be
provided to save the time of the reader.
f) Reference Service: The fourth law advocates the need of reference service.
g) Charging System: The issue method, charging and discharging should be done as quickly as
possible.
h) Centralized Cataloguing: Cataloguing in press, cataloguing in publication, cataloguing with
the aid of OCLC database greatly reduce the time factor.
i) Information Technology: The use of IT in libraries invariably speed up many activities. So to
fulfill the fourth law the IT should be introduced.
8. Fifth Law: Library is a Growing Organism: The main components of the library are
documents, the user and the staff. A library always grows in terms of documents, the reader or
the user and the staff. The growth of a new library can be compared to the growth of a child as it
grows in every aspect. In case of a service library that has attained certain degree of stability its
growth can be compared with the growth of the adult i.e. it grows in terms of replacing old
document by new one and new user will continuously replace the old one.
The implication of the fifth law of library and information science are:
a) Library Building: The library building should be modular and should have the provision of
future growth.
b) Choice of Classification and Cataloguing Code: The classification and cataloguing scheme
chosen should have the provision to keep apace with the development in the universe of subject.
c) Physical Forms of Catalogue: The physical forms of catalogue chosen should have the
provision of updating, sorting in different order, editing and so on.
d) Weeding out of Document: To make the space for new addition the documents that are
obsolete and unused should be weeded out. The weeded out document should be stored, where
they are available for occasional use or at a central place (a central library) with cooperation
among libraries.
e) Modernization, Computerization: Library that grows fast both in terms of size and services
may have to go for the computerization of various house-keeping operations (i.e. acquisition,
circulation, cataloguing etc). In order to take care of the growing collection the documents
should be digitized or microfilmed; the new procurement should be made in the form of
electronic journals, e-book, etc. To cope with the increased readership the library should go for
the video terminal and ultimately to the digital or virtual library.
Previously the libraries grew with the collection, but nowadays the digital library, or
virtual library or e-library does not show the characteristics of the growing of a library by
volume. The growth is in the use of sophisticated technologies.
9. Let Us Sum Up: Ranganathan’s five laws of library science consist of five short statements
but they provide guidance and rationale for practice and teaching of library and information
science. With the help of these laws, we can derive postulates, cannons and principles applicable
in different fields of library and information science. The first three laws emphasize the
exploitation of the documents of the library fully by the maximum number of users. The fourth
law gives emphasis on the role of reference librarian and has a great potentiality to bring reforms
in the running of libraries. All laws as a whole will serve as source of inspiration and guidance in
the years to come.
Knowledge Management (KM)
Knowledge Management (KM): There is no universal definition for knowledge management.
At its broadest, KM is the “process through which organizations generate value from intellectual
and knowledge based assets”.
Information management tries to make the right information available to the right person
at the right time though a variety of database driven information applications. Information
management tools try to capture the human experience of knowledge through collecting,
classifying, disseminating, searching, indexing, and archival power of technology. Information
management may well be considered the first wave of KM (and is still often considered
synonymous with KM).
a) Knowledge Assets: Knowledge assets are often described as the intellectual capital of an
organization. There are two types of knowledge assets –
i) Explicit or formal assets like copyrights, patents, templates, publications, reports, archives,
etc.
b) Tacit or informal assets that are rooted in human experience and include personal belief,
perspective, and values.
b) The Value of KM: Knowledge began to be viewed as a competitive asset in the 1980s,
around the same time that information explosion started becoming an issue. The trend was
fueled by the development of IT systems which made it simple to store, display, and archive
classified, indexed information. It is important to manage knowledge assets because –
i) Organizations compete increasingly on the base of knowledge (the only sustainable
competitive advantage, according to some)
ii) Most of our work is information based (and often immersed in a computing environment)
iii) Workforces are increasingly unstable leading to escalating demands for knowledge
replacement / acquisition.
Joint Academic Network (JANET)
Joint Academic Network (JANET): The JANET was inaugurated on 1st April 1984. It uses the
Science and Engineering Research Council Network (SERCNET) as a basis besides integration
of other research council network. It was formed for rationalize the existing U. K. networks and
build a national backbone services. It is now funded by Joint Information System Committee
(JISC) and managed by U. K. Education and Research Networking Association (UKERNA). All
U. K. universities together with other national bodies such as British library are connected to the
network.
The range of activities facilitated by JANET allows individuals and organisations to push
back the traditional boundaries of teaching, learning and research methods. For example,
JANET’s videoconferencing and video streaming capabilities are being used to deliver lectures
to remote groups of students. For researchers, the high capacity of the JANET backbone allows
the linking of large data storage and high performance computing facilities at a national and
international level. The other JANET services are -
a) Catalouging: Upto 1988 many libraries become successful in providing their catalogue to the
user through this network.
b) Database Service: JANET provides database services such as Cambridge Structural Database,
Inorganic Crystal Structures Data File, Crystal Data Identification File, Agricultural Database,
etc.
c) JANET OPAC: Through JANET OPAC one can access JANET catalogue and their database.
d) JANET News: This is a bulleting board service of JANET. Through which details of
informative materials of all libraries linked in the network are provided.
e) Email Service: JANET began its operation with the inauguration of Email.
f) JANET and Internet: JANET was directly linked to the internet via the JANET IP Service
(JIPS). This allows TCP/IP and JANET X 25 data on run over the JANET backbone.
g) Super JANET: It is a continuous up gradation policy of JANET for higher performance
computing. It upgrades the existing network infrastructure, not only the backbone but also the
network links right through to the user desktop.
The other services of JANET includes customer service, network status, network
services, JANET CERT, domain name registration, training, events and conferences, bringing out
publication.
It is found that there are number of networks in UK consisting of two or more universities.
All such networks irrespective of their particular network join in JANET. Sitting in one system
one can log on to another system through JANET.
The JANET network connects UK universities, FE Colleges, Research Councils, Specialist
Colleges and Adult and Community Learning providers. It also provides connections between
the Regional Broadband Consortia to facilitate the DfES initiative for a national schools’
network. Over 18 million end-users are currently served by the JANET network.
Job Description
Job Description: The purpose of job description is to identify a job for an employee. Job
description gives a full understanding of the activities to be performed, duties and
responsibilities. It differentiates the present job from other jobs and sets its outer limits.
For the recruitment of a professional staff, the librarian should clearly give a full
understanding of the activities to be performed, his/her duties and responsibilities. Operations
involved in each job are listed in proper sequence. Relations of various related jobs are indicated.
Mental and physical abilities for performing each operation are listed. The kind of training and
the length of experience required are also indicated. Wages payable along with other fringe
benefits are stated.
a) Guideline for a Job Description: The guideline for a job description are listed in the
following paragraphs-
i) Title of the job
ii) Provides explanation about the justification regarding the service to be provided, operation
involved in each job and they are listed in a proper sequence. The position for the job may be a
vacant or if needed new position should be created.
iii) Requisite materials, equipments, machinery and tools needed for the job are listed;
iv) Provides a clear demarcation of duties and responsibilities.
v) Mention to whom the employee is to be report to.
vi) Mention the subordinate to be supervised.
vii) Mention the relationship between this position and other position at an equal level;
viii) Identify the relationship of each position to the whole organization.
ix) Provide statement of the qualification for the position, physical abilities, kind of training
needed, length of experience needed;
x) Provide condition of work i.e. surrounding, the time of work, etc.
xi) Provide statement of the salary range and other fringe benefits.
b) Merit of Job Description: The following are the benefits obtained by preparing the job
description of each person in the libraries-
i) It satisfies the various administrative and personal needs.
ii) It gives a full understanding of the activities, duties and responsibilities to be performed by an
employee.
iii) It is essential for the purpose of recruitment, training needs and later for performance
appraisal.
c) Limitation of Job Description: The limitation of job description are-
i) Any job description cannot be perfect reflection of the job;
ii) Jobs are dynamic and so a job description can quickly go out of date;
iii) Job description demands constant revision to meet the changing needs.
Job Analysis
Job Analysis: A job is the smallest unit of a planned network of activities. Job is piece of work
or may be pieces of work to be done by an individual which lead to a result and becomes part of
an activity. It is assigned to a particular person to be done at a particular time.
Job analysis is the process of investigating and analyzing the functions in a work
assignment or group of assignment. The resulting facts aids in determining the relation between
the condition and requirement of the work and the individual who must do it. The job analysis is
a technique for investigating general work assignment or jobs.
Job analysis finds out which is to be done and determine the best method of doing it and
the qualification required by a worker to be able to do the job satisfactorily.
The data on the jobs can be collected from the concerned employees, their supervisors
and professional job analysts. The job data are obtained from the employees through
questionnaires, interview, discussion and observation. The data should include the specific
activities, responsibilities, special information needed by the employee, how the work is to be
performed, the required working condition and physical demand.
“Work analysis forms the very foundations on which personnel administration rests and
on which effective selection depends.” In case of a library, job analysis is the special
responsibility of the librarian. Job analysis helps to understand the step-by-step procedure of
each operation, time required for each job, professional skill and experience needed for each job
and the workflow in the library. If there is any bottleneck, it can be identified, located and
rectified. It also helps to understand and fix up the academic qualifications, professional training
and expertise for creation of posts and selection of persons for appointment. Thus with the help
of job analysis, the librarian can help the authority in the recruitment of right person in the right
post.
a) Purpose of Job Analysis: The purpose of job analysis are-
i) To determine the task that comprises the job;
ii) To determine the abilities, skill, knowledge and kind of experience required for carrying out
the job;
iii) To get maximum organizational effectiveness;
b) Advantages of Job Analysis: The advantages of job analysis are –
i) Job analysis helps to understand the step by step procedure of each operation, time required for
each job and thereby helps to know the work flow in an organization.
ii) Job analysis define labour needs in concern term.
iii) Job analysis spells out the types of workers required for each job i.e. academic qualification,
professional skill and experience needed for each job.
iv) It specifies the duties and responsibilities implied in each job;
v) It provides guidelines for providing facilities for education and training of right type of
personnel for each type of business or industry, etc.
vi) It provides a scientific base for fixing wages and salaries of various types of jobs and
employees because it takes into account the mental and physical skill, efforts and risks involved
in each type of job.
vii) It assists in organizational planning and provides coordination.
viii) It helps experimenting modern devices like time and motion studies, Program Evaluation
and Review Technique (PERT) and operation research which are instrumental in increasing
overall efficiency and productivity.
Internet Browsing and Searching
Internet Browsing and Searching: Searching or browsing in Internet environment is nothing
but retrieving of relevant results from the Internet.
a) Browsing: In Internet environment, browsing refers to opening a website through the web
browser that contains hyperlink and with the help of these hyperlinks, jumping to a new web
document in the same or a new window. It is also known as navigating or surfing the web.
i) Working with Address box of the Browser: In the online mode one can use web browser for
arriving at a particular address. In the “Address” box of the browser, typing the web site’s
address (URL) and pressing the “Enter” button of the keyboard or by pressing “Go” button, the
browser will open a particular website. When the web site opens, its home page is displayed. The
keying appropriate URL in the address box of the browser is obligatory. The website or home
page will contain links to other website or hyperlinks. By clicking on the highlighted words or
links one can access other files of the same website or entirely a different website.
ii) Working with Mouse: While we are on a webpage, we can use the vertical or horizontal scroll
bars to move around or through a document.
iii) Working with Keyboard Keys: We can use “Up” ( ) and “Down” ( ) arrow keys to move up
or down one line. Pressing the “Page Up” (PgUp) key moves up one window length, and
pressing “Page Down” (PgDn) moves down one window length. Pressing “Ctrl+Home” takes us
to the beginning of the document and pressing “Ctrl+End” take us to the end of the document.
iv) Working with Hyperlink in the Document: A webpage contains many hyperlinks in the form
of text as well as images. When you move your mouse cursor over the hyperlink it will take the
form of a hand with a pointing index finger (). You can open the hyperlink by just clicking on it.
You can also open a hyperlink by right clicking it and selecting the “Open” option from the
shortcut menu, or by selecting the “Open in a New Window” option to open the link in a new
window.
v) Working with Back, Forward button of the Browser: If you browse through several pages in
a window, you can move backward and forward by clicking the “Back” ( ) and “Forward” ( )
button in the standard toolbar. These two options will only back or forward one page at a time.
But, you can also select from the list of pages by placing the mouse pointer over the “Back”
button and then by clicking on the down arrow ( ) besides the button, and then clicking on any
site from the list of previously visited sites.
Clicking on the “Stop” button stops whatever the browser is doing, and will wait for your
next instruction. It is particularly useful for undoing mistakes.
b) Searching the Internet: Internet is a huge collection of information so it needs the search
query to be specific; otherwise, it will retrieve some irrelevant results. Searching means finding
or locating information through some search engines, directories, databases, etc. Generally all
searching tools provide you an option in the form of search box to conduct a search. The search
over Internet is interactive, provides post co-ordinate search facilities and produces more results
at a higher speed at a reduced cost.
Some of the well known search engines are Google (http://www.google.com), Bing
(http://www.bing.com), and Ask/Aj/Ask Jeeves (http://www.ask.com). Most search tools have a
similar structure. All will include in some form i) form for you to enter your keywords, ii) a
button which will begin your search, iii) links to help pages and advanced search tools, normally
located near the search form, iv) special features and options, and v) subject categories (most).
i) Keyword Search: This is most generally used over the web. In this technique, the document
available in the WWW is generally searched by using keywords in the search box of a search
engine; use of preposition, articles and such other words are avoided in this type of search. E.g.
searching for Mahatma Gandhi, India in Google (http://www.google.co.in). Results from this
method are often mixed and you may have to go through many results to find the site most useful
to you. For keyword based search, the search strategy may include identifying keywords by
breaking down the topic into key concepts.
ii) Phrase Search: When a user is quite aware of all the words that occur in the same sequence
in the relevant digital document, then he/she can use phrase (or proximity) search techniques. In
such cases the search terms were down the search results considerably. Surrounding a group of
words with double quotes tells the search engine to only retrieve documents in which those
words appear side-by-side; e.g. “God of Small Things”, “Five Laws of Library Science”, (Five
Laws of Library Science), etc.
iii) Wild Card / Truncation Search: When a user is aware only of some of the letters that are
contained in the keywords then he / she can use wild card search technique to retrieve all the
documents containing the words which again contain the particular letters stated by the user. In
wild card search techniques the known letters are followed by an asterisk “*” or sometimes by a
“?” mark. The asterisk or question mark may be given in the left, right or in both sides of the
known letters as the case or need may be; e.g. Cata*, to retrieve document containing the word
“cataloguing”, “cataloguer”, “catalogues”, etc. i.e the search engine will find all the words that
contain keying letters as prefix letter of a particular word. Wildcard features allow variations in
spelling or word forms.
iii) Boolean Search: Most of the search engines use and or and not as boolean search
query, some uses * , + and - for the same purpose. Eg: Five laws of library science * S. R.
Ranganathan, to retrieve all documents containing the words Five laws of library science and
 S. R. Ranganathan . In most cases the Boolean operators and or and not are used to
connect the key concepts.
iv) Natural Language Search: Some search engine uses natural language search queries i.e the
user is free to use natural language query to retrieve the relevant result. The system will
automatically ignore the unnecessary words. This is true in http://www.altavista;
http://www.askjeevas.com, etc. Eg.: Who is the Prime Minister of India, to retrieve the name of
the Prime Minister of India or to retrieve thousands of pages not containing the word “Who”.
v) Complex Search: In this type, combinations of the above search techniques are used to
retrieve more relevant results. For example, one can combine phrase searching with implied
Boolean operator. E.g.: “Classified catalogue code” * “S. R. Ranganathan”.
vi) Field Search: A web page is composed of a number of fields, such as title, domain, host,
URL, and link. So, field searching is one of the most effective techniques for narrowing results
and getting the most relevant websites listed at the top of the result page.
vii) Meta Search: The content of search engines, indexes and databases generally vary. So, if the
same search query is typed into several search engines then it is likely to produce different
results. So, a user may often want to know to see the results from various search engines. In such
cases he/she can use the Meta search engine to get single input or query and to retrieve results
from different search engines. Some example of Meta search engines are http://www.search.com,
http://www.albany.net/allinone, etc.
viii) Database Searching: Searching the directory or database is entirely a new experience. One
can search the directory or databases by the specific entry point, which the particular directory or
database is using to search its records. In case of a database of books the access point can be the
title of the article/document/author/editor/accession no, etc. In the database searching, one can
also save his/her result in accordance to his/her requirement. Some common examples of
databases are http://www.sciencedirect.com, http://www.jstor.org, etc.
Internet
Internet: Information technology consists of different components like electronics, computer
hardware, software, and telecommunications. Integration and application of the above
technologies in information handling for efficient and effective information management is
termed as information technology. By using IT we can obtain, process, store, transmit and output
information in the form of voice, picture or text. A part of information technology is the
Internet. If one has heard anything about computers, then he/she would have certainly heard
about the Internet as well, as it is so popular that there is hardly any one who has not come across
the term.
Internet, a computer network, rather a network of networks, makes any information
available at the touch of a button. The importance of internet lies on the fact that it is like a
printing press of the technology era. It is like a huge central warehouse of data that can be
accessed by people from all over the world. The internet represents one of the most successful
examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development
of information infrastructure. The internet today is a widespread information infrastructure, the
initial prototype of what is often called the national (or global or galactic) information
infrastructure comprising more than thousands of regional, national and international networks
which connect people from all over the world.
Internet has brought about drastic changes in social contact and tries to by pass physical
face to face contact. Today, it is used daily by millions of people, who access it for a variety of
purpose. There has been practically no technology being adopted at a rate similar to the internet.
1. Definition: On October 24, 1995 the FNC unanimously passed a resolution defining the term
Internet. This definition was developed in consultation with the members of the internet and
intellectual property right communities. “The Federal Networking Council” (FNC) agrees that
the definition of the term “Internet” is reflect in the following expression: “Internet refers to the
global information system that
a) is logically linked together by a global unique address space based on the Internet Protocol
(IP) or its subsequent extension (follow-ons;
b) is able to support communication using the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) Suits or its subsequent extension / follow-ons and / or other IP compatible protocol
and
c) provides uses or makes accessible either publicly or privately high level services layered on
the communication and related infrastructure, described here in http://www.fnc.got/internet-
res.html.”
In simple term, the internet is an enormous network of millions of computer allowing
constant communication throughout the world. It is a loose connection of related networks or a
network of networks. It is made up of Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN) and huge Wide Area Network (WAN) of the whole world. It is a global information
highway and a universal database of knowledge which itself collectively represents human
society on a virtual life.
2. History: The first recorded description of the social interaction that could be enabled through
networking was a series of memos written by J. C. R. Licklider of MIT, USA in August 1962
discussing his “Galactic network” concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of
computers through which everyone could quickly access data and program from any site. The
internet began to evolve when packet switching network came into operation in the 1960s. In
Europe, when transmitted data is broken up into small packets and sent to its destination then the
reassembled packet can also be compressed for speed and encrypted (converted into code) for
security.
a) ARPANET: In 1968, a similar system as that of packet switching was developed in the USA.
In 1969, Pentagon Commissioned Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)
for research into networking. In the following year Vinton Cerf and others published their first
proposal for protocol that would allow computer to “talk” to each other. Thus, ARPANET began
operating using the Network Control Protocol (NCP). The first host to host protocol, which went
into operation at the US Defence Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in
1969-1982. In 1974, Vinton Cerf joined Bob Kahn to present their “protocol for packet network
interconnection” specifying the detailed design of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), the
basis of the modern internet. In 1978, TCP was split into TCP (now short for Transmission
Control Protocol) an Internet Protocol (IP). When NCP was replaced by the new widespread
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), a number of interconnected US
military computers formed the first sizable internet for defence use (communication in the event
of nuclear attack).
b) National Science Foundation: Internet really took off in the year 1980s when the National
Science Foundation (NSF) used ARPANET to link its five regional super computer centres at
major universities so that many users could share their work. Later on NSF created National
Science Foundation Network (NSFNET), a series of networks for research and education
communication. It was provided free to any US research and educational institution.
c) USENET: Usenet is actually a companion network to electronic mail started at Duke
University and the University of North Carolina, USA and it also offers an unusual service called
“Network News”. Email was developed through ARPANET as did the Bulletin Board System
(Usenet). Usenet, which began in 1979 contributes enormously to the internet’s rapid expansion.
Its spirit of information sharing and discussion was the hallmark of its system and was reflected
in the Internet as a whole.
d) World Wide Web: By the end of 1980s the European Particle Research Laboratory (CERN)
in Geneva was one of the premier internet sites in Europe. CERN desperately needed a better
way of locating all the files, documents and other resources that now threatened to overwhelm it.
Tim Berners Lee, a young British scientist working as a consultant for CERN, had found out an
answer for the above problem. In 1991 his World Wide Web system assigned a common system
of written addresses and hypertext link to all information. In 1991, the first www files were made
available on the internet for downloading using File Transfer Protocol (FTP). In October, 1993
there were around 200 known HTTP servers. In 1993, the National Centre for Supercomputer
Application (NCSA) developed web browser (namely Mosaic) which took the internet by storm.
3. Components of Internet: The Internet consists of the WWW and all the hardware, software,
protocols on which WWW runs. One of the main characteristics of Internet is that it is a
decentralized system i.e there is no single person or organization that owns or control Internet, all
who use Internet or supply material to it, have a role to play. However, there are organizations
such as InterNIC, the National Science Foundation, the Internet Engineering Task Force, ICANN
and the Internet Architecture Board which oversee and standardize what happens on Internet.
a) World Wide Web: The WWW is also called web. The WWW is a set of programs, standards,
and protocols (set of rules) governing the way in which multimedia files (files containing a
combination of text, graphics, photographs, audio, video) are created and displayed on the
Internet. The difference between the Internet and the WWW is similar to the distinction between
a computer and a multimedia program that runs on the computer. The Internet is a decentralized
global network of computers that transfer information and the wiring that makes all these
possible, whereas the web is a collection of documents or websites, that users can access using
the Internet and a web browser.
b) Hardware: It means the computer (supercomputer, web server, and personal computer),
modem (external or internal) and cables or telecommunication lines. The cables with jacks and
rackets connect the modem with the computer and telephone. The users possess the terminal or
the computer, modem, etc. The ISP procures the server that serves up web pages upon request.
i) Modem: Modem is a device that allows computers to communicate over telephone lines, it
converts a digital signal to an analog signal and vice versa.
c) Software: It includes the operating system and web browser.
i) Operating System: In case of Operating System, Windows, Linux or others will do. The higher
versions of the OS are preferable because it has an inbuilt component to support internet
connections.
ii) Web Browser: A web browser is the software program that is used to access the WWW or to
visit web pages and display it in the computer screen, e.g. Internet Explorer, Google Chrome,
Netscape Navigator, etc.
iii) Telecommunication Lines: The telephone companies own the equipment and cables that
carry signals to the service providers.
d) Internet Protocol Suite: The Internet Protocol Suite [also known as Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)] is the set of communication protocols used for the Internet
and other similar networks. It governs the way data travels from one machine to another across a
network. It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which are the first two networking protocols
defined in this standard.
The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, may be viewed as a set of layers.
Each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-
defined service to the upper layer protocols based on using services from some lower layers.
Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower
layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted.
The Internet Protocol Suite consists of four layers. From the lowest to the highest, these
are the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer.
In the application layer, the following are the common types of protocols
i) HTTP: Web pages are transferred between computers using Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.
ii) FTP: Excluding web pages other types of files are transferred between computers by using
FTP. It is a mechanism that allows placing and retrieving of files over the Internet. It allows
anyone to download software, upgrading of downloaded softwares, information and so on. It
provides authorization of persons allowed to copy the files.
iii) Telnet Protocol: It is a simple programme created by National Centre for Supercomputer
Application (NCSA) that uses TCP/IP to provide connection into another computer. Telnet
allows a users’ work station or terminal to behave as though it is directly connected to the
machines where the user is logged in. It means that Telnet helps to operate remote computers
from one’s own desktop. The condition is that the user must have log-in account and passwords
to access the remote computer.
iv) Gopher Protocol: The University of Minnesota Microcomputer work-station centre created
gopher to find information on the internet in a user friendly way. It is a menu-driven programme
that allows one to click with information server or “Gopher Holes” on the Internet to retrieve the
information including text, sound and images. The gopher system is impressive owing to its
simplicity volume and variety of information available. To retrieve information an indexing tool
called Veronica is used that searches all gopher server using a set of keywords.
e) Internet Service Provider (ISP): An Internet service provider is an organization that
provides some crucial portion of the Internet infrastructure to help connecting to the Internet.
Sometimes the Internet Service Provider also responsible for telecommunication link i.e
telephone connection to users’ site, or in today’s context Data Card providers and an internet
account (username and password). The ISP provides the Internet connection to the user.
f) The Website: The Hyper Text Mark Up Language (HTML) is the commonly used language
for creating the web documents or webpage. However it is not the single one. A website is a set
of related (linked through hypertext link) web pages, published by an organization or individual.
Normally it contains a home page along with other additional pages. The home page is the
starting point or doorway to a website providing an overview of what could be found at the
website. Home page is also known as the index page or index.
In Internet environment, the download refers to copying or saving the data, information
from the internet to the local computer. Uploading is just the opposite of downloading. It is the
sending of the data or information from the local computer to the Internet. The Online means
staying connected to the Internet. The offline is just the opposite. Offline means that the user is
no longer connected to a remote computer or the internet.
In Netscape Navigator, Bookmarks is a list of favourite web pages and Internet resources. One
can add items to this menu at any time. Bookmarks are equivalent to favourite in Microsoft
Internet Explorer.
4. Internet Protocol Address: An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is
assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for
communication between its nodes. An IP address serves two principal functions in networking:
host or network interface identification and location addressing. The role of the IP address has
also been characterized as a name that indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A
route indicates how to get there.
The network portion of the IP address is allocated to the Internet Service Providers (ISP)
by the InterNic under authority of the Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA). ISPs then
assign the host portion of the IP address to the machines on the network that they operate.
a) Uniform Resource Locator (URL): The location of a web page on the internet can be
identified by a unique address which is called URL. Every single page of the hundreds of
millions of pages stored on the web has a URL. The URL or the address tells the browser which
document to fetch and exactly where to find it on a particular host computer some where on the
internet.
b) Domain Naming System (DNS): The Internet uses an addressing scheme that employs the
Domain Naming System (DNS). Domain names provided a system, an easy to remember internet
address which can be translated by the Domain Names System (DNS) into the numeric address
(Internet Protocol Number). The internet protocol number is the numeric location of a particular
computer so that it is an identifiable machine to all the other computers connected to the internet.
The IP address is a 32 bit number divided into four octets and these octets are written in dotted
decimal format eg. 11.245.196.212. Each octets numbers lie in between o and 255.
c) Internet Address: The Internet address is needed so that massage can be correctly routed to
and from the machine over the network. Each part of the address goes from general to specific
and consists of letters, numbers, and punctuation. The basic structure of URL is hierarchical. i.e
Protocol:// Server name. Domain name. Top level domain name. port / Directory / File name.
Eg: http://www.liswiki.com/wiki/index
Protocol: The protocol is generally Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
://: It is a kind of separator that tells the browser that the next words will be actual URL.
Server: WWW. It indicates the site as part of the World Wide Web. The web is a subnet of
Internet that uses multimedia objects.
Domain Name: Liswiki is the domain name. This is a unique name which has to be registered
with InterNIC, an organization which has official authority over all domain names.
Top Level Domain Name: It indicates the purpose of the institute / organization associated with
the website. Some of the top level domains are-
Organizational Domain
.com: Commercial entities;
.edu: Educational institutions;
.gov: US government institutions;
.int: International institutions;
.mil: US Military institutions;
.net: Network resource providers;
.org: Non profit organization.
Geographic Domain: Outside the United States a code is included to which country a URL
belongs. Though United States also have a domain code (US) yet in reality it is used in rare
instances on the Internet. It is assumed that if there is no geographic code then the domain is
located within the United States.
For example:
.au: Australia;
.ca: Canada;
.in: India;
.va: Vatican, etc.
Directory: The next is the directory on the host computer that contains the specific website.
5. Types of Internet Connections: The type of internet connection requirement depends on its
uses. If the user wants an Internet mainly for sending e-mail, occasional chats, infrequent
browsing then he should go for a dial-up connection. If the user is using the internet frequently
for research, downloading or uploading a fair amount of data, play multi-player video games or
live audio or video streaming, then he should look into other high speed accesses such as a cable
modem or ISDN. The Internet connection generally can be categorized into the following-
i) Dial-up (analog up to 56k): In a Dial-up, the telephone lines are used to connect to the
Internet. Here to get connected, the user needs to specify a username, a password, and a
telephone number.
ii) Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): DSL operates over normal telephone lines and it can be used
simultaneously with the telephone. It can increase the connection speed by ten times from a
standard dial-up modem.
iii) Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): ISDN involves the digitization of the
telephone network so that voice, graphics, text, and other data can be provided to users from a
single terminal over existing telephone wiring. It is four times faster than a Dial-up network.
iv) Cable Internet: A cable modem connects the user to the Internet through a cable television
line. A cable modem will typically have two connections, one to the television outlet and the
other to the computer. It is 10-100 times faster compared to the dial-up modem and added
interactivity to the television.
v) Leased Line: Leased line facility is provided via fiber optic or copper lines to provide data,
voice and video links between two parties. It provides for a consistent amount of bandwidth. For
example, T-1 Lines, T-3 Lines, etc. It is especially useful for businesses connecting to the
Internet and for Internet Service Providers (ISPs) connecting to the Internet backbone.
vi) Internet over Satellite (IoS): Here the data are transmitted via satellite to a dish antenna at
the users’ house. It allows a user to access the Internet via a satellite that orbits the earth. A
satellite is placed at a static point above the earth's surface in a fixed position. Because of the
enormous distances signals must travel from the earth up to the satellite and back again. IoS is
slightly slower than high-speed terrestrial connections over copper or fiber optic cables.
vii) Wireless Internet Connections: Wireless Internet or wireless broadband is one of the
newest Internet connection types. Instead of using telephone or cable networks for your Internet
connection, one can use radio frequency bands. Wireless Internet provides an always-on
connection which can be accessed from anywhere- as long as one is geographically within a
network coverage area. It is typically more expensive and mainly available in metropolitan areas.
Broadband is often called "high-speed" access to the Internet, because it usually has a
high rate of data transmission. In general, any connection to the customer of 256 kbit/s (0.256
Mbit/s) or greater is more concisely considered broadband Internet access. The standard
broadband technologies in most areas are DSL and cable modems. Newer technologies in use
include pushing optical fiber connections closer to the subscriber in both telephone and cable
plants.
Modems which use mobile phone lines [General packet radio service (GPRS), Universal
Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Wired Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMax), etc.], are known as cellular modems. Cellular modems can be embedded inside a
laptop or an appliance, or they can be external to it to access the Internet. External cellular
modems are datacards and cellular routers. The datacard is a PC card or ExpressCard which
slides into a Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA)/PC
card/ExpressCard slot on a computer.
6. Factors Affecting Speed of Internet Connectivity: The speed of internet connectivity is
influenced by the following factors-
a) Speed of the Modem: The speed of the modem greatly influences the speed of internet
connectivity So, for getting higher speed one must procure a modem with a maximum speed of
56kbps or higher, if possible.
b) Quality of Phone Line: Noise on the phone line, running into the home, can disrupt internet
connection with a modem. So, higher quality phone line should be used. If possible, ISDN
should be implemented to solve the problem.
c) Internet Traffic: While hitting a popular site, one may be competing with the hundreds or
thousands of others for the attention of that site server resulting in slow speed of access. The web
traffic generally tends to expand throughout the day and peaks around the evening. So, for
getting high speed one should try to change the time of the day he/ she is going for online.
d) Personal Computer: There are some other factors which are associated with personal
computer. They are-
i) Processor: For getting higher speed one should procure processors which have 650 MHZ or
higher speed.
ii) RAM: Working with other software application at the time of browsing decreases the RAM
capacity resulting in slow speed of access to the Internet. So, it is better to get higher RAM or
avoid working with other software application while surfing.
iii) Hard Disc: A highly fragmented hard disc can slow down web surfing considerably. So, it is
good to practice to keep the hard drive defragmented and optimized.
iv) Browser’s Cache: Web browser’s cache is a storage area on the computer’s hard disc. As one
surfs the browser stores the web pages that are already visited in the cache up to the disc space
limit that one has set. When anyone tries to retrieve the same page after its first visit the browser
displays the cached WebPages from the hard disc which is very fast and not from the Internet.
So, if cache memory is small it slows down the access to the Internet. The solution is to increase
the browser cache limit.
v) Image Loading: Today many files are very big and rich of data, picture, image, etc. and so it
takes longer time to download the images resulting in slow speed to Internet access. One can
solve the problem by turning off image loading and java in the browser without affecting the
content of a webpage. This can be done by selecting advanced Tab of Internet options in the Tool
menu.
vi) Working with Two or More Browser Windows at a Time: To increase further surfing
speed one can surf with two or more browser tabs or windows at a time. This will enable one to
read the content of one page while allowing another page to load in the second windows. This
may help to cut down the time lag and frustration.
7. Internet Applications: Internet is the network of networks. It provides a base structure for
different applications / services. Such applications may include Email, chat, discussion group,
discussion forum, social network and so on. Almost every protocol type available on the Internet
is accessible on the web. There are many activities that can be preformed online. Some of the
commonly used applications are only listed here in the following paragraphs;
i) World Wide Web: It is a subset of Internet and it presents text, images, animation, video,
sound, and other multimedia in a single interface. The operation of the web relies primarily on
hypertext, as it is a means of information retrieval. Hypertext is a document containing words
that connect to other documents and resources throughout the Internet.
ii) Email: Electronic mail or e-mail is a fast, easy, and inexpensive way to communicate with
other internet users around the world. Email can be defined as the process of exchanging
messages electronically, through a communication network, using the computer. Using email,
one can exchange messages with someone else on the internet. It reaches its addresses within
seconds and the people at large using it. Email overcomes most of the problems and delays of
getting a physical document from one person. It is one of the basic and earliest services of the
Internet and the most used application on the Internet too.
iii) File Transfer Protocol (FTP): It is a system of rules and a software program that enables a
user to log on to another computer and transfer information between it and his/her computer. FTP
can be done using the command prompt, browsers, and various GUI based FTP softwares such as
CuteFTP and WS_FTP.
iv) Telnet: It allows a user to log on to a remote computer in such a way that a person may
interact with another machine as if it is being used locally. The user’s monitor displays what is
taking place on the remote computer during the telnet session.
v) Chat: Chat puts people online in a live conversation with other internet users around the
globe. Chat programs allow the users on the Internet to communicate with each other by typing
in real time. It is sometimes included as a feature of a website.
vi) Internet Telephony: Internet telephony is the use of Internet to exchange spoken or other
telephonic information. The required hardware for Internet telephony generally consists of end
devices (either traditional telephone or audio-equipped personal computers) and gatekeepers that
provide call admission control, bandwidth management, addresses translation, authentication,
and user location. There are many Internet telephony applications available, for example
CoolTalk, NetMetting, etc.
vii) Video Conferencing: It enables direct face-to-face communication across networks using
audio, video, and the data. In video conferencing, web cameras, microphone, and other
communication tools are necessary.
ix) E-Commerce: E-commerce refers to buying and selling goods and services online.
x) Mobile Commerce: M-commerce or mobile commerce refers to transactions through a mobile
phone network and data connection that results in the transfer of value (monetary or otherwise)
in exchange for goods and services.
xi) Mailing List (Listserver): It is a method of sending and receiving discussions via e-mail,
organized around some topics within a large community.
A search page is a web page where a search of the web can be conducted. If some one is
good at framing the search queries, it will help them in finding exactly what they are looking for,
anywhere on the web. The web directories provide direction to the web sites by listing relevant
web pages in some easy to browse categories. Many web directories also provide search facilities
to the user for easy location of the pages. Web directories are especially useful when someone is
new to some topic.
Groups and discussion forums are great ways to keep up with a subject. It broadens one’s
mind by displaying different points of view or perception on a single idea or concept. The social
network is the virtual social life of the people over the web.
Advantages and Disadvantage of Internet: The internet has the following advantages-
i) Central Repository of Information: The Internet is like a huge central warehouse of data that
can be accessed by people from all over the world.
ii) Direct Communication: Through email, chat, internet telephony, video conferencing, etc.
one can directly communicate with others.
iii) Round the Clock Availability: Information on the internet is available to the user 24 hours a
day and 365 days of the year.
iv) Cheapest Medium: Internet is perhaps the cheapest medium for online help, trouble shooting
assistance, for getting specific information, etc.
v) Distance Learning: It provides the facility of learning remotely without physically coming in
contact with the teacher, the school or university.
vi) No Barrier: In the internet environment any one can be author / writer / publisher and users
of the information. There is no barrier in this regard.
The disadvantages of Internet can be as follows-
i) Copyright: Digitization violates the copyright laws as the thought content of one author can
be freely transferred to another without his acknowledgement.
ii) Incompatible Hardware and Software: The hardware and software are modified every day.
So a document that is available in one format may not be accessible in the days to come. So, one
has to upgrade the hardware and software configuration as and when needed.
iii) Artificial Environment: The environment created by Internet is an artificial one.
iv) Volatile Information: The electronic environment though very exciting and stimulating is
also quite volatile.

Let Us Sum Up: Internet is the largest of all other networks connecting a large number of
smaller interconnected networks, so it is a computer based worldwide network connecting other
smaller networks. It is a global network linking millions of computers and people cutting across
all barriers and boundaries of countries, race, class or sex. Internet can also be described as a
collection of government, academic, commercial and individual sites.
The launching of ARPA in 1957 by Sputnik, and European Particle Research Laboratory
(CERN) are at the backend in the development of the Internet. The Internet mainly consists of
the WWW and all the hardware, software, and protocols. To get connected to the internet, the
user will need a computer, a modem (internal / external), and an Internet account with the ISP.
The usefulness of Internet lies in its characteristics of the Worlds Greatest Library where
everybody will find it as a vast pool of information; it is the Wide Area Network, and much
more. Besides, it also provides the latest information on any topic available round the clock and
from a wide distance.

International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD)

International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD): In 1961, at the International
Conference on Cataloguing Principles held in Paris, stress was laid on the need of
standardization in bibliographic description. To solve the problem, International Meeting on
Cataloguing Expert (ICME) was sponsored by IFLA and held in Copenhagen in 1969. The
meeting formed a committee to study the problem of standardization in bibliographic
description. The committee submitted its report at a meeting held in Liverpool in 1971 which is
known as International Standard Bibliographic Description (Monograph) {ISBD (M)}. In course
of its application many ambiguities and lack of details in some areas were discovered. To resolve
the problem, IFLA conference was held in Grenoble in 1973. After the conference two
documents- ISBD (M) and ISBD (S) were published. In 1975, the General International Standard
Bibliographic Description [ISBD (G)] was developed. It serves as a single framework for the
description of all types of publications in all types of media. The ISBD (G) was later on
incorporated into AACR II as a general framework for bibliographic description.
The ISBD (G) acted just as some guiding principles. It was not intended for use as a
working tool for the cataloguer. So, IFLA brought out the following ISBDs on the basis of ISBD
(G) as working tool. Their names are:
ISBD (M): Monograph
ISBD (S): Serial
ISBD (CM): Cartographic Material
ISBD (AV): Audio Visual
ISBD (CF): Computer Files, etc.
As ISBD has so many numbers they are called ISBDs.
A) Elements of ISBD (M)
i) Title and Statement of Responsibility
i) Title proper
ii) Parallel title or alternative title
iii) Statement of authorship
b) Edition
i) Edition statement
ii) Statement of authorship related to edition
c) Imprint
i) Place of publication
ii) Name of publisher
iii) Date of publication
iv) Place of printing
v) Name of printer
d) Collation
i) Number of volumes and / or pages
ii) Illustration matter
 iii) Size and accompanying material
e) Series
f) Notes
g) International Standard Book Number, binding, price
i) ISBD
ii) Binding
iii) Price
B) Punctuation: ISBD also suggested proper punctuation mark for each and every item for
making machine readable format.
[] : If information is not available in the proper place;
() : To denote omission;
/: Before the statement of author;
:: It proceeds the name of publisher / sub title;
=: Parallel title;
-: Place of publication;
,: Year of publication, etc.
C) Capitalization and Abbreviation: The first letter of the first word in each area is given in
capital.
s.l. (Sine Loco), used when place of publication is not known;
s.n.: (Sine Nomina), used when name of publisher is unknown;
ill.: Illustration;
cm.: Centimetre;
D) Information Sources for ISBD: Generally the maximum required information for ISBD is
available in the title page of the document itself.
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
International Nuclear Information System (INIS): INIS is an international co-operative
information system on the peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology. INIS is operated by
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in collaboration with its 116 Member States and
22 co-operating international organizations. The IAEA, based in Vienna, Austria, is an
autonomous organization within the United Nations System.
a) Members: Currently, 116 countries and 22 international organizations participate in INIS.
b) Functions: INIS processes most of the world’s scientific and technical literature that falls
within its subject scope.
i) Bibliographic Database: INIS maintains a bibliographic database which currently contains
over 2.7 million abstracted and indexed records.
ii) Information Reference Service: INIS provides a comprehensive information reference
service for literature on the peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology.
iii) Full Text: The full text INIS NCL collection includes about 650,000 full text documents from
1970 to the present.
iv) Annotated Web Directory: INIS maintains a growing database of annotated links to Web sites
on the Internet that are related to various fields of nuclear science and technology and the IAEA's
work.
Additionally, INIS also maintains a unique collection of full text non-conventional (grey)
literature that would be difficult to obtain elsewhere.

International Library Associations

International Library Associations: Several professional organizations and private foundations
around the world work to promote international cooperation in establishing new libraries and in
improving services at the existing libraries. These organizations provide the librarians with
information about the international forums in which they can exchange ideas, develop networks
for sharing resources, and create compatible standards and protocols for various library
procedures.
Some of the most prominent international library programmes are those sponsored by the
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) <http://www.ifla.org/>;
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
<http://portal.unesco.org/en>; the International Council on Archives (ICA)
<http://www.ica.org/>; the British Council <http://www.britishcouncil.org/new/>; the
International Association of School Librarianship (IASL) <http://www.iasl-online.org/>; the
U.S. Department of State, through its Office of International Information Programs and the
Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP)
<http://www.cilip.org.uk/>.
Organization like the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Publishers Association (IPA), the
International Council of Museums (ICOM), the International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS), the International Committee of the Blue Shield (ICBS) also play important role in
library and information science activities.
International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID)
International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID): FID was founded in 12
September 1895 in Brussels, Belgium, by bibliographers Henri LaFontaine (1854-1943) and Paul
Otlet (1868-1944) as the “Institut International de Bibliographie” (IIB) or International Institute
of Bibliography. It was popularly known as the Brussels Institute. It has gone through a number
of changes in name that reflect changes of conceptualisation of the field in which it operates. In
1931 the IIB became the Institut International de Documentation (IID) or The International
Institute for Documentation. In 1938, it became the Federation Internationale de Documentation
(FID) or the International Federation for Documentation. In 1986, the word “information” was
added to the name but the acronym is retained. Thus it become Fédération Internationale
d'Information et de Documentation (FID) or the International Federation for Information and
Documentation.
FID was one of the world’s oldest and most influential international library organizations. It was
maintaining its headquarters in The Hague, Netherlands after 1934. In 2002, FID dissolved. Over
the years, FID was responsible for creating standards for microfiche reproduction; conducting
research on the theoretical aspects of information; and promoting research on the impact of
information, communications, and knowledge on national economies and society. One of the
publications of FID was FID Communications.
International Coalition of Library Consortia (ICOLC)
International Coalition of Library Consortia (ICOLC): The International Coalition of
Library Consortia (ICOLC) is an informal organization that began meeting in 1997. Comprising
about sixty library consortia in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,
Germany, Israel, and Australia, the Coalition represents over 5,000 member libraries worldwide.
The Coalition serves primarily higher education institutions by facilitating discussion among its
members on issues of common interest.
ICOLC conducts meetings to keep its members informed about new electronic information
resources, pricing practices of electronic providers and vendors, and other issues of importance
to consortium directors and their governing boards. These meetings also provide a forum for
consortial representatives to meet with the information provider community, discuss their
products, and engage in a dialog with Coalition members about issues of mutual concern. The
ICOLC also maintains list serves and web pages for the benefit of its members. Information
about the ICOLC can be found at http://www.library.yale.edu/consortia
International bibliographic Information System for the AGRicultural Sciences
and technology (AGRIS)
International bibliographic Information System for the AGRicultural Sciences and
technology (AGRIS): AGRIS is the International bibliographic Information System for the
AGRicultural Sciences and technology. It was created by the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) in 1974, to facilitate information exchange and to bring together
world literature dealing with all aspects of agriculture. It become operational in 1975 as an
international initiative aiming to build a common information system for science and technology
in agriculture and related subjects, based on a collaborative network of institutions. AGRIS uses
computer configuration and software packages located at the Vienna, the INIS centre.
a) Organization: AGRIS is a cooperative system in which participating countries input
references to the literature produced within their boundaries and, in return, draw on the
information provided by the other participants. The bibliographic references forwarded by
participating countries are collected and processed in the AGRIS Processing Unit Vienna, which
is hosted by the Division of Scientific and Technical Information of the IAEA. AGRIS is
managed centrally by the WAICENT/FAOINFO Dissemination Management Branch of the
Library and Documentation Systems Division (GIL) of FAO, Rome.
b) Members: To date 159 national and 31 international and intergovernmental centers participate
and submit about 14.000 items per month. To date, 240 national, international and
intergovernmental centres participate.
c) India’s participation in AGRIS: The Agricultural Resources Information System (AgRIS) is
the Central Sector Scheme for Strengthening / Promoting Agricultural Information System in the
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
AgRIS is “a Needed Domestic Strategy for Sustainable Agricultural Production and Sustainable
Rural Livelihoods in India”. It is an e-Government Programme for fostering agricultural growth,
poverty reduction and sustainable resource use in India at grassroots level and also “a step
towards establishing a location-specific e-Government model for the poor”. The implementation
of component AgRIS will facilitate development of typology specific agriculture development
plan in the country. This Project is being executed by Agricultural Informatics Division of
National Informatics Centre.
In July, 1974 India formally decided to participate in AGRIS programme on a national
basis through Agricultural Research Information Centre of Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR). After an initial experiment carried out in November, 1974 the Agricultural
Research Centre of ICAR has been participating in the AGRIS programme since 1975. From
May 1975 the Agricultural Research Information Centre (ARIC) began sending bibliographic
data on AGRIS on a regular basis. The database is maintained in Viena. On an average India
passes on about 4000 bibliographic entries to AGRIS every year. Previously the input was sent
on Optical Character Recognition (OCR) sheets but now for economy and speed the input is
being sent on Worksheet only. In return, India receives every month updated AGRIS Magnetic
Tape, and AGRINDEX- a printed monthly service.
i) Objectives of AGRIS: The major objectives of AgRIS will include among others:
* “Development of Decision Support Systems (DSS) on Production Practices and Systems”. It
facilitate farmers in adopting appropriate agricultural production practices;
* “Creation of Metadata” to become the Country’s initiative of “National Spatial Data
Infrastructure (NSDI) on Agriculture”, and
* Preparation of Guidelines on standardized methodology/best practices to be used for building
Agricultural Resource Information System in similar districts of the Country.
ii) Services: The Indian Centre of AGRIS provide the following services
* Training on AGRIS methodology, indexing, abstracting and AGRIS Classification Scheme.
* Provides training for the use of AEROVAC.
* Provides training to information and documentation personnel from developing countries.
* SDI services.
* Retrospective services.
d) Conclusion: The AGRIS network of Centres formally has 201 participating centres. Of these,
over half have contributed material to the central database at some point in the last 6 years, but
only 35 contributed in all of the last 6 years. Some AGRIS centres in developing countries have
already expanded from the original role of centralised “Input Centres” for an entire national
system, to focal points for a more decentralised system. Some are also covering not only the
documentation of scientific and technical literature, but are working in the development of
agricultural information management more generally. More than 60 of the centres participating
in AGRIS already have their own website, and many of them publish their bibliographical
databases on the web.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Like other forms of property, intellectual property is also
an asset which can be bought, sold, exchanged or gratuitously given away. Owners of intellectual
property also have the right to prevent the unauthorized use or sale of their property.
According to The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
<http://www.wipo.int/>, “Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind: inventions,
literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce”.
Intellectual property is divided into two categories: Industrial property, which includes
inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source; and
Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays, films,
musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and
architectural designs. Rights related to copyright include those of performing artists in their
performances, producers of phonograms in their recordings, and those of broadcasters in their
radio and television programmes.
 According to The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
<http://www.wipo.int/> “Copyright and related rights protect the rights of authors, performers,
producers and broadcasters, and contribute to the cultural and economic development of nations.
This protection fulfils a decisive role in articulating the contributions and rights of different
stakeholders and the relation between them and the public. The purpose of copyright and the
related rights is twofold: to encourage a dynamic creative culture, while returning value to
creators so that they can lead a dignified economic existence, and to provide widespread,
affordable access to content for the public.”
Copyright is basically the individual right of an author to dispose of his / her work in
return for remuneration. According to Christopher Scarles, “subject to certain exception, it is
ownership of and right of control over all possible ways of reproducing a work”.
1. International Context
a) Berne Convention: The international convention for protection of literary and artistic works
was first signed at Berne on 9th September, 1886, which later on came to be known as “Berne
Convention”. It guaranteed protection for the life of the author plus fifty years after his death.
The convention was revised and amended more than seven times.
Berne remained essentially European. It could not attract the U. S. A. So, most civilized
states except the U. S. became signatories to it.
b) Universal Copyright Convention (UCC): In the early 1950s UNESCO set about devising a
union that would combine Berne and Montivideo convention and the outcome was the
establishment of Universal Copyright conventions in 1952. U. S. joined it in 1955.
Paris Revision of 1971: In 1971 both Berne and UCC was revised. This is what goes by the
name of Paris revision of 1971. This has made some realistic concession to the developing
countries with regard to reproduction and translation of material having great educational value.
c) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO): The World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It is dedicated to developing
a balanced and accessible international intellectual property (IP) system, which rewards
creativity, stimulates innovation and contributes to economic development while safeguarding
the public interest. WIPO was established by the WIPO Convention in 1967 with a mandate from
its Member States (Till 2009 there were 184 Member States, i.e. over 90 percent of the countries
of the world) to promote the protection of IP throughout the world through cooperation among
states and in collaboration with other international organizations. Its headquarters are in Geneva,
Switzerland.
2. Indian Context: The earliest statutory law in India concerning copyright was the Indian
copyright of 1847 which was passed by the Governor General of India. In 1911 the law of
copyright was codified in England and was made applicable to all Majesty’s dominions including
India. The Governor General of India enacted the Indian Copyright act of 1914 to make some
modification to the provision of the 1911 Act. The copyright of 1914, granted copyright to an
author for the whole of his life and fifty years after his death.
The provision of the copyright act of 1914 were again modified after independence and
the copyright act which is in force even today was passed in the Indian Parliament in 1957 and
known as Copyright Act, 1957. The copyright act of India of 1957 had been amended in August
1983 with the specific purpose of incorporating the provisions of the Paris text of 1971 of the
Berne convention concerning the grant of compulsory licenses for translations and reproduction
of foreign work for educational purposes. The copyright was further amended in 1984 in order to
overcome the problem of wide spread piracy in India. The act was further modified in 1992 and
1994 (No. 38 of 1994). The Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1999 officially published in: The
Gazette of India, 30/12/1999, No. 49. In accordance with the copyright act of 1957, a copyright
office and a copyright board were set up in New Delhi under the auspices of the Government of
India of which the copyright board serves as a civil court with the power of adjudicating disputes
arising out of claims and counter claims. The copyright board serves as a civil court and its
judgment can be challenged only in the high court of the area and in no other lower court.
The legislation covering intellectual property right in India are
i) Communication: Communication Bill, 2000;
ii) Copyright: The Copyright Act of 1957 (last amended in 1994);
iii) Designs: The Design Act 1911;
iv) Information Technology: Information Technology Act 2000;
v) Patent: The Patent Act 1970 (changes bought in 1994);
vi) Trade Mark: The Trade Merchandise Mark Act 1958, etc.
India signed the Berne convention in 1886 when it was part of the British Empire. India
also signed the Universal Copyright convention in 1952 of its own choice as a free country.
3. Intellectual Freedom: According to American Library Association, every individual has the
right to both seek and receive information from all points of view without restriction. It provides
for free access to all expressions of ideas through which any and all sides of a question, cause or
movement may be explored. Intellectual freedom encompasses the freedom to hold, receive, and
disseminate ideas.
According to Canadian Library Association, the fundamental right is to have access to all
expressions of knowledge, creativity and intellectual activity, and to express their thoughts
publicly.
Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN)
Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN): The ISDN is an integrated digital network in
which the same digital switches and digital paths are used to establish different services. Eg.
Telephony, data, etc. It already upgrades today’s telephone network to a digital system.
a) Definition: ISDN “is a network, in general evolving from telephony IDN (Integrated Digital
Network) that provides end to end digital connectivity to support a wide range of services,
including voice and non-voice services to which users have access by a limited set of standard
multipurpose user-network interfaces. The key points of this definition are:
a) It is an infrastructure to support a wide variety of services and is not a network designed for
any specific services.
b) It provides end to end digital connectivity to support a wide range of services and the
digitization process begins right at the user premises.
c) It should be possible to support every conceivable service on ISDN for any such service is
either a voice or non voice service.
d) A small set of carefully chosen interfaces should enable the support of all possible services.
The use of ISDN should not be burden with too many specialized interfaces but at the
same time an expensive universal interface.
b) Factors for Development of ISDN: ISDN truly represents the next generation of the worlds
telephone service for all forms of telecommunication, including voice.
i) Sociological or Societal Need: The society is looking for a telecommunication infrastructure
that can carry voice, data, image, graphic, videos, etc. supported by sophisticated signaling
system.
ii) Economic Necessities: Network providers have to put up separate and independent network
to support different services, which demand separate maintenance staff, building for housing
switching system, etc. All these leads to higher capital cost. The introduction of ISDN is the only
solution to this.
iii) Technological Development: Technology is developed up to the level that now a days a
single network can support integrated digital services.
c) Services of ISDN: ISDN can operate at speed up to 128 kbps which is five or more times
faster than that of todays analog modem. Basic rate ISDN divides the telephone line into 3 digital
channels, 2 “B” channel (Bearer) and one “D” channel (Delta). Each of which can be used
simultaneously. The B channels are used to transmit data at the rate of 64k or 56k. The D channel
does the administrative work such as setting up and tearing down the call and communication
with the telephone network. ISDN will support the following list of services:
i) Email
ii) Database Access
iii) Image and graphic exchange.
iv) Document storage and transfer;
v) Electronic fund transfer;
vi) Audio and video conferencing.
vii) Videotax
viii) Teletax
ix) Digital facsimile
x) Automatic alarm service (Smoke fire, etc).
Institutional Repository Software Packages
Institutional Repository Software Packages: An Institutional Repository (IR) is an online
locus for collecting and preserving in digital form the intellectual output of an institution,
particularly a research institution. For a university, this would include materials such as research
journal articles (before (preprints) and after (postprints) undergoing peer review, and digital
versions of theses and dissertations, but it might also include other digital assets generated by
normal academic life, such as administrative documents, course notes, or learning objects. The
main objectives for having an institutional repository is to provide open access to institutional
research output by self-archiving it and to store and preserve other institutional digital assets,
including the unpublished or otherwise easily lost (grey) literature (e.g., theses or technical
reports).
IRs are partly linked to the notion of a digital library i.e., collecting, housing, classifying,
cataloguing, curating, preserving, and providing access to digital content, analogous with the
library's conventional function of collecting, housing, classifying, curating, preserving and
providing access to analog content.
There are different softwares for building institutional repositories. Some well known
software packages are described bellow
a) Dspace: Dspace was developed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) libraries &
Hewlett-Packard labs. It runs on Unix or Linux machine and Apache web server, Tomcat servlet
engine and the postgre SQL relational database system are required. The software is released
under BSD license. Website: http://www.dspace.org/
b) EPrints: Eprints was developed by University of Southampton and released under GNU
General Public License. It runs on Unix machine and Apache, MySQL database, Perl language is
necessary for its installation and operation. Website: http://www.eprints.org/software/
c) Green Stone Digital Library software (GSDL): The Greenstone Digital Library Software is
a suit of Open Source, multilingual software package for building and distributing Digital
Libraries. It provides a new way of organizing information and publishing it on the Internet or on
CD-ROM. The software has been developed by the New Zealand Digital Library Project at the
University of Waikato, New Zealand. Greenstone is supported by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Human Info NGO, based
in Antwerp, Belgium for spreading the benefits of this software to developing countries. It is
released under GNU General Public License and runs on Windows, Linux / Unix machine that
have Apache web server, MySQL database and Perl language. Website:
http://www.greenstone.org
Information Transfer Cycle
Information Transfer Cycle: Cycle means a series of events that are regularly repeated in the
same order. Transfer of information from its generation to its end user becomes possible through
many processes. These processes are also regularly repeated in the same order. These processes
complete a cycle, which is called Information Transfer Cycle (ITC). The ITC comprises
generation, collection, storage, communication and retrieval.
a) Information Creation / Generation: Information is created with the happening of incidents
and activities of humans. If an activity or an incident does not happen, no information is created.
Information is mostly created by research and development programmes, government activities,
survey and census of population, business and industrial organizations etc. and presented in
format by author, scientist, researcher, editor, writer, poets, novelists, dramatists, etc. Over the
web, information is produced by the general people irrespective of their background and is not
restricted only to academics such as scholars, scientists, etc.
b) Information Production and Dissemination: It is the mass production of knowledge
through publishing companies or others that will help the mass distribution of knowledge in
some physical or electronic form. Previously the information had been disseminated in the form
of book. Many conventional and non conventional, printed and non printed sources of
information are nowadays available which are different in shape, size, type and format. Over the
web, the production is accelerated by posting the information electronically over some kind of
websites. It speeds up the transfer of information globally at a rapid rate instead of taking
months or years to get published on paper.
c) Information Storage, Organization, Retrieval and Communication: The storage is the
process by which the information described and presented in the documents are stored.
Information is collected and stored by libraries, documentation centers, information analysis
centers, data banks, data centres, etc. Computer has been accepted as a boon for storing of
information. It can store a huge amount of information in the form of database. Besides, the
computer, disks and CDROMs are the newly developed and very significant tools of storing
information.
i) Organization is how that representation of knowledge is found among others of its kind. In the
library environment, the classification and catalogue, shelf list, various kinds of guides, etc
facilitate the retrieval function. All these tools are equipped with controlled vocabularly. In the
computer environment, organization is facilitated by databases, search engines, etc. Knowledge
is individual and the users determine its usefulness; so keyword and natural language searching
in computer environment is more attractive.
ii) Retrieval is a process of getting information from the collection of a library, for providing
answer to the queries of the users, etc.
iii) Communication is the process of transmission of information from one place to another,
from the creator of information to its users. It is necessary for the best use of the same. It is the
process of social exchange. In the library environment, communication of information can be
made through telephone, CAS services, SDI services, teleconferencing, e-mail, etc. Sometimes
the publisher also brings different kinds of information sources to the notice of the user
community.
d) Information Diffusion and Utilization: Diffusion is viewed as a more targeted flow of
information to a particular segment of society. The diffusion of information should find its way
to people who actually need it instead of targeting the people who will use it for their own
benefit.
Utilization is the adoption and implementation of the knowledge by the user. Information
is needed by each and every person of modern society for some purpose or the other. When
information is consumed by one person it gives new dimension to his knowledge. This
knowledge when he applied to some other purposes it gives birth to new information. Thus the
information cycle is continuum in nature.
e) Information Preservation and Destruction: The different kinds of libraries, archives are
trying to preserve information in different format. Over web, the Internet archive and the cached
page of search engines are serving some purpose in this regard.
The information that is less frequently accessed or has met its assigned retention periods
may be considered for relocation to an archive. Then from the archive, it needs to be weeded at
some time or other by means of appropriate procedure for the content.
The meaning of information cycle relates to that unit of knowledge from where the
information is generated and then transmitted to the users with the state of various processes.
The whole process of information from its creation to its use is called the information cycle.

Information Technology (IT)

Information Technology (IT): Information Technology (IT) is a generic term that covers the
acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of information. IT is the boon for mankind. It
gives accessibility to information at fingertips. IT has reduced the space and time between the
people, country and continent and ultimately has led to the emerging concept “global society”
and “global village”.
1. Components of Information Technology: Information technology consists of the following
components-
a) Computer: A computer is a device that solves problems by applying prescribed operation on
data entered into it. It is a set of interacting elements, responding to input so as to produce desire
output.
b) Telecommunication: The communication channel is the medium which carries the message /
information / etc. send by the sender and takes it to receiver ends. In computer network the
communication channel is the connecting cables.
c) Modem: Modem is short name for MOdulator – DEModulator. It can be defined as “a device
attached to computer that can convert digital signals to analog signals and vice versa.” The data
signal generated by computer (digital signal) is different from the signal from that can be carried
by telephone lines (analog signal). A digital signal is a discrete signal and an analog signal is a
continuous signal. So, a modem is required to convert the digital signal to analog signal at the
senders side so that telephone cables can carry them. At the receivers end it again needs to
convert back to the analog signal to digital signal to pass it to the computer. The modulation can
convert the digital signal to analog signal and demodulator does the opposite. Modems are of
two types- internal and external. Internal modems are installed inside the computer system.
d) Database: A database is a self describing collection of integrated records. It is self describing
because it contains as part of itself, a directory or dictionary of its contents.
2. New Technologies in Information Technology: The new technologies that are emerging as
part of Information Technology includes E-Commerce, Hyper Media, Data warehouses and Data
Marts, Data Mining, Online Analytical Processing (OLAP), Geographical Information System
(GIS), Video Conferencing / Net Meeting, etc. The Net Meeting helps one to talk face to face
with distance people over the web.
3. Impact of IT on LIS: IT gives us the concept of remote access that brings the concepts of
Global Village. IT connects different parts of the world with high speed; bring more capacity,
and easy retrieval mechanism. If any information is fed into the computer system today then it is
also available to the outsider today itself. There is no time lag in between. Uses of IT avoids
duplication, so the information is becoming less costly.
The impact of new technologies is seen in almost every human activity. The computers
are also transforming the libraries into a paperless atmosphere. Again, it is the use of IT that
gives librarians a wide scope, wide audience, and raise the status.

a) Collection: Information is collected as mashup, tag, bookmark, hyper text.

b) Transportation: Information is transmitted through optical fiber cables.

c) Storage: The computer storage reduces the bulk of the printed materials in the library. The
optical disk, hard disc are very commonly used in all types of libraries.
d) Processing: Different types of computer software and other equipments are used for
information processing.
e) Retrieval: The use of computer for information retrieval gives precise result in fraction of a
second.
The overall impact of IT on library and information science is broadly subdivided into three
major divisions, such as
a) Impact on Technical Services: Automation, in the form of bibliographic utilities and MARC
format has revolutionized the practice of cataloguing. Today’s librarians rely on MARC format
to provide proper cataloguing services to their users. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)
can substantially reduce the cost of maintaining a catalogue. If the OPAC is integrated with
technical service files in a full function automated system, work throughout the department can
be streamlined and reorganized. The impact on staff responsibility and assignment can be
significant. The co-operative collection development and management have become increasingly
important in libraries due to tight budgets, rising prices and the information explosion.
Bibliographic utilities facilitate these efforts through shared holdings, information and
automated inter-library loan sub-systems to speed resource sharing.
b) Impact on Public Services: OPACs which provide speedy online access to the entire library's
holding by means of computer terminals are affecting library operations.
c) Impact on Library Organization Structure: The right type of planning is vital for the
efficient working of a library. Planning of a library organizational structure requires a thorough
understanding of need of the users, objectives and functions of a library or information center.
The emergence of information technology provided greater impetus for information transfer at
both inter and intra-organizational level. Organization of all types become involved with IT and
have implemented, IT based system.
4. Let Us Sum Up: Libraries and information centers has very important role in advancement of
education, scientific research and socio-economic development of any society. These are the
service centers, where very personalized service is extended to the users.
As a result of recent expansion in communication infrastructure, expanding computer
culture, advance in printing technology etc. has created more awareness about information use. It
has resulted in increasing library services. The future libraries may not be recognized by their
size; these will be perhaps recognized by variety of services and approaches, where information
search areas will be outlined.
Information System
Information System: An information system or information grid is a network of information
centre at different levels working in perfect harmony and close co-operation with each other with
the objectives of storing and dissemination of information usually of a specific type or a specific
community . In simple form an information system is a group of components that interact to
produce information for a specific group of users.
The Information providers on the other hand are organization that collect the
information, select appropriate document and convert the materials into machine readable form.
They are the creator and access providers to the databases.
The Information vendors are persons / organization who are the retailer of online
searching services, bibliographic databases, etc. They own the computer and software for
information retrieval. They develop a set of instruction or command for searching the databases
and then obtain a number of machine readable databases through licensing agreement with
various databases producers and load these databases on their computer system and provide
access to information to the end users, i. e libraries, information centres, etc. Information
vendors are on business. Eg. DIALOG.
Types of Information System: Information network are comprised of group of individuals or
organizations that exchange information in various form in a regular and organized basis. Before
establishing information network a formal agreement between members of the network and a
common procedure than need to be followed are established. The information network can be a
decentralized structure where all the members can communicate with each other directly, or it
can be a centralized one where the members communicate through centers. The structure can
also be a mixed one combing the above two where certain communication will take place
directly while some other may take place through the center.
Based on the geographical areas covered, an information system may be an International;
regional, national or local one while based on the subject consideration, an information system
may be of general or sectoral. It can be noted that the sectoral information sytem are generally
the international or regional one, while the general information system are of national and local
one.
a) International Information System: The International information system is also known as
global information system. The Global Information System is the information system that
collects, process and provide access to the information globally.
An International Information System is a network of information centre that covers the
whole world or parts of the whole world i.e when a group of regional and national information
system work in perfect harmony and close co-operation with the object of providing new
services for identified gaps, so coordinated as to reinforced and enhance the activities of the
individual units and thus enable specific categories of user to receive the information relevant to
their needs and abilities then it is called as International Information System. In respect of its
geographical coverage, International Information System is at the top of any information system.
Eg. ENVIS.
b) Regional Information System: A Regional Information System is a network of information
centre within a region or area. The area cover includes two or more nation, whose components of
information system work in perfect harmony and close co-operation with the object of providing
new services for identified gaps, so coordinated as to reinforced and enhance the activities of the
individual units and thus enable specific categories of user to receive the information relevant to
their needs and abilities.. In respect of its geographical coverage it is in between International
Information System and National Information System. Eg. SAARC.
According to International Society for Telemedicine and eHealth
(www.isft.net/cms/index.php) a regional information system is an “information system providing
access to information stored in cf. operational systems of a region”.
When Regional Information System work as part of International Information System its
objectives is to be
i) Maintain Union Catalogue of monograph, serials and non-book materials held in the libraries
and information centres of the region.
ii) Maintain the copies of union catalogue of other region so that union catalogue enquiries
relating to the entire countries holding can be handled at the regional level itself, thereby
reducing the traffic of international information centre, etc.
c) National Information System: A National Information System is basically a network of
existing information resources within a nation together with new services for identified gaps, so
coordinated as to reinforced and enhance the activities of the individual units and thus enable
specific categories of user to receive the information relevant to their needs and abilities. The
national information system exists at national level but accessibility is international eg.
INSDOC.
d) Sectoral Information System: Sectoral Information System is based on subject
specialization. It maintains a rich collection of materials in the specialized areas only to which it
is intended but with international scope. Eg. Agricultural Information System (AGRIS).
Information Society
Information Society: The society has created various institutions. These social institutions
make a person part of the society. Each institution serves one or few needs of the society. A
library is a social institution and it has been created to fulfill all the needs of the society. In the
library, the people are exposed to books or a variety of documents that give knowledge, bring to
surface one’s latent aesthetic talents, stimulate one’s intellect, inculcate values and learning
skills, provide one with recreation and so on. Therefore, of all the institutions formed by society
it is the library and its modern cognates that are the most potent in meeting the multifarious
needs of different users of modern society. A public library provides free service irrespective of
status, age, religion, colour or creed, and sex. It may extend service to the neo literates and even
to the physically handicapped people.
A society is composed of people working together to achieve common ends and to satisfy
common needs. It is a body of individuals that is outlined by the bounds of functional
interdependence, consisting of different characteristics or conditions such as national or cultural
identity, social solidarity, etc. It is characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals
that share a distinctive culture and institutions.
A society is an economic, social or industrial infrastructure, made up of a varied
multitude of individuals who may or may not be from different ethnic groups. Modern society is
heading towards an information society in which the central instrument of change, the force and
direction of change are knowledge and information.
All information societies, ancient, medieval or modern, have functioned and prospered
on the basis of proper utilization of information and knowledge in their various stages of
development. The term information society is said to have been coined in Japan for the first
time. The two Japanese cognates “Joho Shakai” when normally translated into English means
“Information Society”. The American Society for Information Science (ASIS) in 1970 organized
its annual meeting around the theme “The information conscious society”, where the concept of
information society was explicitly used.

Terms

Cognate: Having the same

original form as another in a
different language. E.g. English
Father, German Vater.

1. Definition: William J. Martin defined information society as “a society in which the quality of
life as well as prospects for social change and economic development depends increasingly on
information and its exploitation”. In such a society, living standards, patterns of work and
leisure, the education system and the market place are all influenced markedly by advances in
information and knowledge. This is evidenced by an increasing array of information intensive
products and services that communicate through a wide range of media, many of them being
electronic in nature.
According to Blaise Cronin, “an information society is one in which labour has been
intellectualized, one in which the expression to earn one’s daily bread by the sweat of one’s brow
sounds decidedly anachronistic”. Employment in the information sector of the economy is
growing fast. Soon, terms such as information worker, knowledge engineer, ideas processor will
be as common as weaver, miller, electrician, carpenter, etc.
G. P. Sweeney defined information society as one “in which the creation of economic
wealth is based on information and in which key economic activities are enquiring,
communicating and deciding” for good or ill. Martin is of the view that “the concept of an
information society has now gained a fair degree of acceptance”. As a concept it is certainly
viable.
2. Criteria of an Information Society: William J. Martin has noted the following criteria for
the development of information society.
a) Technological Criteria: Today’s age is the computer age in which computers and
telecommunication are behind every other change in the society. Communication technologies
such as teleeducation, teleconferencing, teleshopping, telecommuting, e-government, e-
commerce have converted the world into a global village and its impact can be felt at every level
of our society.
b) Economic Criteria: This is the age of knowledge in which knowledge capital would
predominate over material capital. The internet is fundamentally changing the way the
companies operate. The internet is turning the business upside down and inside out. The e-
commerce goes far beyond the buying and selling over the internet. The information workers are
replacing productive worker as the biggest sector in the economy. Information is turning out as
the key economic factor as resource, service, commodity, a source of added value and
employment. In the information society most of the information will be cheaper, would occupy
less space and can be communicated with greater speed.
c) Social Criteria: In information society, information is the enhancer of the quality of life. The
information society will be conscious towards the value of information and its use and will
become increasingly centred on information handling, processing, storage and dissemination
using micro electronic based technologies. Globally the society has got divided into two parts,
i.e information rich society and information poor society.
d) Political Criteria: In information society there would be more interaction between the
government and the governed through citizens’ participation by way of electronic polling, their
access to public information under the concept of freedom and equality of access to information.
There will be better interaction with fellow citizens through wired networks, telephone,
teleconferencing, etc. The information superhighway will change the whole world.
e) Cultural Criteria: The information society recognizes the cultural value of information
through the promotion of information values in the interest of national or individual
development.
In an information society, it is said, a majority of the people will spend their time doing
tasks which relate to information, expressing, gathering, storing, retrieving and disseminating it.
People in an information society will manipulate information for the purposes of travel,
entertainment, instruction, control and so on.
Information Need
Information Need: The information needs; demands and wants have been used interchangeably,
although they may not be identical. Information need involves a cognitive process which may
operate on different levels of consciousness and, hence, may not be clear even to the inquirer
himself / herself.
People in different situations require information on a subject in different forms and with
different emphasis and different depth of explanation. Even the same person seeks information
in different ways and forms on various occasions depending on his/her knowledge of the subject
and the reasons for wanting the information. So the information need is very difficult to define
and categorize.
a) Definition: Information need is seen as a subjective, relative concept existing only in the
mind of the experiencing individual. The Librarian’s Thesaurus defined information need as
“that need which library science and material are intended to satisfy”.
 Maurice B. Line has defined information need as “what an individual ought to have for
his works, his research, his education, his recreation, etc”.
According to Brenda Dervin, “an information need is an impediment preventing an
individual from moving forward in cognitive time and space. The person is faced with a gap that
must be brought by “asking question, creating ideas and for obtaining resources. Such gaps do
not occur in the abstract but arise out of a particular critical event and situation”.
Faibisoff and Ely (1976) viewed information need as either shaped by activity such as
problem solving or decision making or manifest through a passive reception of information
which is stored as knowledge.
Krikelas (1983) has defined it as the “recognition of the existence of uncertainty”. While,
N. Ford in 1983 defined it as “recognition of the existence of uncertainty and described it as
something which prevents an individual from making progress in a difficult situation”.
b) Types: Information is a power and so it is needed in virtually every field of human thought
and action and by everyone for some purpose or the other. According to Carol C. Kuhlthou
(1991) in the process of information searching, initially a person first becomes aware of
knowledge or understanding, feeling of uncertainty and apprehension. This is the stage showing
the need for information. Information need generally varies from individual to individual,
according to their working condition, the discipline in which they are working, the time, etc.
Tague has presented the following types of information needs-
i) Social or Pragmative Information Need: Required to cope with day to day life;
ii) Recreational information need;
iii) Professional information need;
iv) Educational information need.
Krikelas on the basis of information seeking behavior, categorized information need as
i) Immediate Need;
ii) Deferred Need.
David Bawden (1986) identifies four kinds of information in particular for aiding the
creative process. They are-
i) Interdisciplinary information;
ii) Peripheral information;
iii) Exceptions and inconsistencies.
Melvin J. Voigt’s (1961) study revealed that the same person could interact with the
information system in different ways at different times depending upon his purpose in relation to
his works, stage of his works, general interest, amount of information already available to him
and so on. According to him, a scientist’s use of information arises from three different needs.
These are -
i) Current Approach: The need to know what other scientists have recently done or are doing. It
keeps up to date with the current progress of a scientist’s field.
ii) Everyday Approach: The needs that come to the scientist in course of his work for some
specific piece of information. This need is directly connected with the research work or the
problem at hand.
iii) Exhaustive Approach: The need to find and check through all the relevant information
existing on a given subject.
Later a fourth type of information need was added to the Voigt’s types of information
need by other workers in the same field.
iv) Catching up or Brushing up Approach: A worker may at times need to have a brief but a
complete picture of the recent development of a related subject in which he was not very much
interested or which did not come within the area of his main interest. In such cases he needs a
catching up approach.
The need of the scientist at different levels makes him adopt different approaches to
gather the requited information.
Information needs also can be categorised as follows:
i) Information for its Own Sake: Information for its own sake are to live in this world in order to
know the world and our surrounding environment. Therefore, no action is necessarily taken on
this type of information.
ii) Professional Need: Information is needed to meet the professional need, to cope up and
compete with other professionals in the subject. Professionals such as doctors, lawyers,
librarians and others need information to pursue their vocations. They cannot afford to ignore
new development in their respective fields. Their ignorance about the latest development in the
field would affect their performance. Engineers, technologists, business executives need
information for solving the problems related to their respective profession.
Information Explosion
Information Explosion: There has been a continuous revolution in the generation, transfer and
communication of information since the invention of printing. Though information generation is
a continuous process yet the two World Wars had a very great impact on the very fast
development of various fields of knowledge. Since the 2nd World War information, in fact, has
been growing at an exponential rate and it is often referred to as “information explosion”.
According to American Educational Association, it had to wait till 1750 since the
beginning of the Christian era for human knowledge to double. The second doubling was
completed 150 years later in 1900. The third doubling of all man’s knowledge took place in the
decade of 1950s, but today it is even growing at a faster speed. Let us now discuss information
explosion in terms of its definition, factors for information explosion, its impact and how it can
be controlled. The following sections deal with these aspects-
a) Definition: The term “information explosion” attempts to describe the exponential increase
and diversification of published data and information. “Exponential” is a technical term meaning
produced or expressed by multiplying a set of quantities by themselves. The exponent is the sign
written above to the right of the number or letter in mathematics to show how many times that
quantity is to be multiplied. For example, in 53, the number 3 is the exponent. In ym the letter
“m” is the exponent. The explosion image conveys the idea of sudden bursting out.
b) Factors that Lead to Information Explosion: There are many factors which directly
contribute to information explosion. Some of them are -
i) Increased Literacy: Creative contributions are born when a man or woman comes in contact
with the light of education. Increased literacy is a prime factor for information explosion because
individuals produce new information as he becomes more and more acquainted with knowledge.
ii) Increased Number of Scholars: The art of creativity is confined relatively to a very small
proportion of the world’s population, who could devise new methods, recognize the existing
ideas and offer improved solutions to familiar problems. They set new standards in science and
technology, literature, fine arts, business, industry and social leadership. When the society
becomes devoid of nature’s gift of talents then it would begin to stagnate and will ultimately
perish. In 1800, there were 1,000 scientists and engineers in the world which increased to 10,000
in 1850 and in 1900, to 100,000. In 1950s, the numbers swelled to one million. It is this ever
increasing number of scientists that accounts for the rapid proliferation of published materials.
iii) Increased Research and Development: The increase in research activities is also one of the
factors of the exponential growth of information. Nowadays the scale and level of research
funding have changed significantly as the research has become mission-oriented,
multidisciplinary and assumed a matrix managed character.
iv) Increased Literature: Literature of a subject is its foundation. It represents a record of
achievements of the human race. Literature is diverse, complex and multilingual in nature. It is
becoming more and more interdisciplinary. It is growing at a fast pace. In science, it is almost
doubling itself in every 5.5 years. In social sciences it is doubling at the rate of every eight to
twelve years and in the documentary media book production more than double in a decade.
According to Rider, American libraries which try to collect everything appearing on a given
subject double their size in every 16 years.
v) Origin of Different Types of Information Sources: Earlier information sources are only
published media and handwritten manuscripts but today the sources of information are
diversified from databases, microforms, online journals, CDROM, DVD, optical disk to
hypermedia and hypertext.
vi) Growth of Technology: Technology has multiplied by 10 times every 50 years for over 2800
years but now a days its growth is very fast. Advancement in the field of communication and
technology network has brought down the distances between the person, states, countries and
continents throughout the world, Computer and telecommunication are converging very rapidly
and its highest impact is felt fall in the information sector. Actually the need for creative
achievement has never been more recognized and designed than it is today.
vii) Development of Society: Information has been stored in people’s mind and it has been
updated and modified through social contact and communication. As society has developed and
become more complex large quantities of information have been generated, published and
disseminated causing an information explosion.
viii) Development of Competition: We will continue to be confronted with competitive forces
leading to creation as long as one person strives to advance, as long as one business attempts to
increase its share of the total industrial output or to improve its profitability as long as one nation
attempts to improve its position in the world. The competitive forces are leading to the demand
for more information. As a result, more and more information is produced.
c) Impact of Information Explosion: The impact of Information Explosion can be summarized
as follows-
Due to the explosion of information
i) It has become difficult to keep pace with the proliferation of published materials.
ii) It creates a great problem in management of information.
iii) It is becoming difficult to locate & pull out specific information.
iv) It is tremendously contributing towards duplication of information generation. In UK, the
estimated cost of unintended duplication in scientific research in the 1960s was Rs. 21.6 million.
v) It creates a great problem in bibliographic control.
d) Controlling Information Explosion: The terrific rate of expanding of knowledge and
information can not be slowed down. So, the control of information explosion does not mean the
controlling of growth and development of information; rather, it means the development and
maintenance of a system of adequate recording, and storing of all forms of information
published and unpublished, printed and non printed that add to the sum of human knowledge.
So, actually, the control of information explosion means the mastery over information
generation.
The need to be aware of different information sources arises from the fact that even a
voracious reader is unable to read all the literature on his/her chosen subject. The
interdisciplinary nature of subject and the wide variety of their characteristics have added to the
confusion. But, for any scholar, it is very essential to keep pace with the all information that is
coming day by day in his/her field of specialization.
The design and development of different information system can be a probable measure
of keeping an eye on the information explosion. It should be equipped with the necessary
databases, indexing and abstracting services. The librarians also have to devise some sort of
information service, which may result in bringing out a product which analyses, consolidates,
evaluates & disseminates all the latest information.
New ideas are generated in each and every branch of human activity from time to time.
Apart from new ideas, we give new interpretation to known ideas; we also borrow ideas from
other disciplines and try to apply them in a new context. As a result, more and more information
is produced in a variety of forms leading to information explosion.
Information as a Resource / Commodity
Information as a Resource / Commodity: The concept of information as commodity is wider
than that of information as resource, as it incorporates the exchanges of information among the
people and related activities as well as its use. The notion of information as a commodity is tied
closely to the concept of value chains. With commoditized information gaining in value as it
progresses through the various steps of creating, processing, storage, distribution, and use.
a) Information is a Resource / Commodity: Information possesses many characteristics that
are the same as those of some other commodities. When we consider such characteristics,
information can be termed as a resource and a commodity in a broad sense and people at large
have accepted this view.
i) Information is a Natural Resource: Many resources were earlier taken for granted as
common for all. For example, clean air and water. Information has also been similarly
understood. Whoever is interested can get enough information for his daily needs through
institutions established for that purpose. But specialized information is made accessible to those
who have special needs and can legitimize its claim by status or by money. Just like the
maintenance of clean air and water, the proper information demands some cost.
ii) Information is a Vital Resource: Information is looked upon as a resource like manpower,
material and money. Information is a resource created by ingenuity of man to be used by man for
the benefit of man; it can be used for the opposite also. According to K. J. McGarry, information
becomes a resource by analogy with the classic resources of labour, capital and material.
Management of these classic resources (man, material and money) now mutates to the
“management of information”. It is easy to see how information can be depicted as a resource as
essential to productive success as are raw materials and skilled staff. But information needs to be
controlled, manipulated and managed.
According to W. L. Saunders, information is that type of resource which is not scarce. It
has also economic value as when company uses the information effectively, the level of trade and
revenue are maximized. Information and knowledge become the principal generators of wealth
in the form of educational institutions of research and development establishment and science
laboratories.
No national development programme can succeed fully without proper information
support. As such, it is regarded as a national resource like energy, coal, water, etc. vital for
national development. It is an important input for nation building. The impact of fast, reliable
and inexpensive information would be as great as that of electricity in national and international
economy. IBM, the giant computer company, says that information is like an inexhaustible and
renewable source of energy.
iii) Information is a Major Criterion: Information is vital for national development. The
backwardness or forwardness of any county nowadays is mainly due to the use of adequate
information, especially in the field of science and technology. Presently the world is divided on
economic consideration into economically developed and economically developing countries.
According to Herbert I. Schiller, in future the division will be based on possession of information
into information rich or data rich nations and information poor or data poor nations.
iv) Information as a Thing: Buckland points out that in order to communicate knowledge it
must be expressed or represented in some physical way as a signal, text or communication. Any
such expression would, therefore, constitute information as a thing. The notion of information as
resource attracts information economics and spreads to such diverse disciplines like
management, transport and communication, consolidation and repackaging, pricing, marketing,
distribution, exchange, etc.
v) Satisfies the Economic Principle: Information satisfies the economic principles of generation
or gathering, processing, storage, dissemination, etc.
* Demand / Market: Information has a wider market. All people need information for some
purpose or the other. There is a heavy demand for information from all around the world, so to
get profit out of it, its production rate must increase.
* Information Generation: Information is generated mainly through research activities and
research activities are highly price consuming business, which is just like other product whose
production or manufacture involves a high cost.
* Protection: Information as a resource has been well established which is evident from the
profusion of national and international laws and policies relating to storage, transmission and
information related services including trans-border data flow. Just as in the case of various
commodities or products, information is also protected by copyright and patent. However, the
property right of information is weaker than the property rights of other goods we possess.
* Consumption: Information does not always flow across market. Within some private sectors
information produced is entirely consumed within the organization itself, which is in the same
line of other goods.
* Different Forms of Products: For the different categories of users, different forms of
information are released into the market. In this regard it is just like any other services provided
in the market place. Information is provided through books, magazines, business, news,
investment, advice, legal advice, medical advice, consulting services, formal education through
school, colleges and universities, etc. So, we do have markets for information and people buy it
depending on its perceived value. In this respect information is like other goods and services.
* Transportation / Communication: High cost is involved when we use the information
technology for communication and transportation of information just like any other product.
* Storage: If information is stored for a long period just like other consumable products it loses
its value because particularly in case of science and technology, historical information is
generally less valuable.
b) Information is not a Resource / Commodity: Judith Jordet complains about the notion that
information is a commodity. According to him, this notion will not only interfere with real
knowledge creation, it will unravel what knowledge we have! When information is seen as a
commodity, the users are seen as customers consuming a commodity identified as information.
Users define usefulness. If it is not used, it is not useful. But in reality, how many users use all
the information that are the product of large research investment, is itself a question. Again,
against the view of information as a resource / commodity, the following arguments can be
offered-
i) Shareable and not Exchangeable (Public Good): Most of the goods and services have the
property that more for you means less for me; but in case of information, more for you does not
mean less for me. Passing of information is not losing it.
ii) Assigning Value: It is very difficult to assign values to ideas because different people need
information in different depth.
iii) Tax: Tax is not levied on information generation or its consumption; so it is not a commodity.
iv) Publicity: Before buying any other product or goods people know ahead of time what they
are going to buy, but in case of information one will not be able to know the whole thing before
buying it. If one knows the whole thing, then they may not feel the need to buy it.
v) Expandable and Compressible: Information increases with use, it can be expanded and
compressed i.e it can be summarized, integrated, etc.
vi) Non Materiality Problem: The non-materiality of information creates several problems in
respect of measurement, appropriateness, ownership, impact, costing, etc.
Information does not possess each and every property of other general resources or
commodities but at the same time we also should not expect it to be. The people at large are
favouring the view that information is a resource and a commodity.
INFormation and LIBrary NETwork (INFLIBNET)
INFormation and LIBrary NETwork (INFLIBNET): In April 1988, the University Grant
Commission (UGC) constituted a committee under the chairmanship of Prof. Yash Pal, to work
out the details of a university information library networking system. The report of this working
group was published in December 1988 containing a project proposal for the establishment and
development of an information and library network. Finally, in April 1991, INFLIBNET was
initiated by the UGC. It can be defined as a computer communication network of libraries and
information centres of universities, institutions of national importance, Research and
Development Institutions, bibliographical information centres, etc, thereby improving the
capability in information handling and services.
a) Objectives: INFLIBNET Centre is an Autonomous Inter-University Centre (IUC) of
University Grants Commission (UGC) involved in creating infrastructure for the sharing of
library and information resources and services among the academic and research institutions.
b) Organization: The organization of INFLIBNET can be viewed from the following angles-
i) National Centre: One national centre at Ahemdabad.
ii) Regional Centre: 4 Regional centre located in four geographical region of the country. They
are -
- North: Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
- South: Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
- East: Jadavpur University, Kolkata.
- West: University of Poona, Pune.
iii) Sectoral Centre: These are means for bibliographic and information services. About 40
Sectoral Information Centre (S.I.C.) will be set up in due course.
iv) Document Resource Centre (DRC): About 100 library / Information centres will be deigned
as Document Resource centre. They will provide Document Delivery Service and they will be
identified based on their collection strength.
Each regional centre will maintain the copies of union catalogue of other regions so that
Union Catalogue enquires relating to the whole country holding can be solved at the regional
centre itself. The terminal of the college / department library is to be connected to the University
library, the terminal of the University library is to be connected to the Regional centre, sectoral
centre and D.R. Centers.
c) Resources: The main resources of INFLIBNET are.
i) University catalogue: The catalogue of document, periodicals, thesis forms major part of
INFLIBNET resources.
ii) Research & Development Library Catalogue: The collection of NISCAIR and NASSDOC.
iii) National Library: The computerized catalogue of the National Library of Kolkata.
iv) Indigenous Databases: The databases of discipline oriented information centre such as
Machine tools, Food technology, Leather technology, Drugs, Aeronautics are considered as input
to the INFLIBNET resources.
d) Functions and Activities: The main functions and activities of INFLIBNET are-
i) SOUL Software: INFLIBNET has developed library management software known as SOUL.
It is associated with its training, installation and up-gradation. Under Prime Minister’s special
package to NE India, SOUL packages are given free of cost to those libraries which are under 2F
or 12B of UGC. Delivery of SOUL package is done through the UGC Regional office. The
SOUL 2.0 was launched in 2009.
ii) Institutional Repository: INFLIBNET Centre develops a digital repository using DSpace
software. It hosts INFLIBNET’s Press and Media related documents, INFLIBNET's Annual
Reports, INFLIBNET's Convention Proceedings, INFLIBNET's Special Seminar, etc.
iii) Electronic Submission of Theses and Dissertations (ETD): It is a joint venture of UGC,
INFLIBNET takes an active role in making it mandatory to submit the electronic copy of a thesis
whenever the research scholars submit their thesis to the respective university or institutions for
the PhD degree.
iv) IndCat: Online Union Catalogue of Indian Universities: It is unified Online Library
Catalogues of books, theses and journals available in major university libraries in India.
v) CCF to MARC Conversion Utility: INFLIBNET launched an open source utility primarily
focused on libraries, where one needs to convert CCF data to MARC21 format. Development of
tool has been done with VB.Net 2005 with Framework 2.0. It can be found in
<http://sourceforge.net/projects/ccftomarcconver/>
vi) Standardization: MARC – II has been accepted as bibliographic standard for data capturing.
vii) Seminars, Conferences, Workshops and Training: INFLIBNET is regularly conducting
Convention on Automation of Libraries in Education and Research Institutions (CALIBER) and
Promotion of Library Automation and Networking in North Eastern Region (PLANNER) every
year. From 2009, the authority of INFLIBNET has decided to hold CALIBER and PLANNER
every alternate year. Besides, it also conducts INFLIBNET Regional Training Programme on
Library Automation (IRTPLA) and Attachment Training Programme for Practicing Librarians
and Computer Professionals of North Eastern Region.
viii) Mailing Lists and Forum: As on November, 2009 INFLIBNET is maintaining four online
mailing lists besides its “INFLIBNET Centre Blog” <http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/blog/> that
provides news and announcement related to the INFLIBNET.
INFLIBNET is a cooperative venture. So its resource strength depends on its participants.
The development of SOUL is likely to give more revenue to INFLIBNET and provide
justification for more and more libraries to join it. As a resource, it is hoped that INFLIBNET
will grow faster as a service based library network in India. The INFLIBNET Library plays a
vital role in the collection development and dissemination of scientific and technical information
to meet the present and future needs of the Centre.
Induction, Orientation and Placement
Induction, Orientation and Placement: Induction means introducing a new worker to his job,
his co-workers and basic objectives and policies of the organization. This kind of initiation is
helpful for an employee in settling himself to his new job. This can be achieved by supplying the
new employee all relevant information about his job and the organization through printed /
written document (staff manual) and verbal explanation by his immediate superior / supervisor.
The induction and orientation programmes are meant for any person at any level while
appointed because the newly appointed persons are not expected to perform the jobs with much
efficiency. They must get acclimatized to new work environment of the library.
a) Purpose of Induction and Orientation Programme: The purpose of induction and
orientation programme is-
i) To be acquainted with the objective, function, general policies and services of the library.
ii) To create a sense of belonging to the institution.
iii) To gain confidence in the particular department in which he /she shall have to work.
iv) To gain acclimatized or confidence in the new work environment.
v) To understand his/her own responsibilities.
vi) To motivate them to give their best.
The above purposes are achieved by a well designed orientation programme. First of all
the new comers have been provided information in general about the library and the parent
institution, the objectives, goals, functions and activities of the library. They should know rules
and regulations of the library, manner of working in the library. They should also know the
organizational chart and hierarchy order of management, their respective duties and
responsibilities and their specific rules in the work situation. The programme should include the
library’s activities, services rendered, past achievement, relationship with other libraries and
plans and programs for future development and the like. A special preference should be given to
the particular department, in which the newly recruited persons shall have to work. They should
also make a tour to the library to be introduced with other staff, to be acquainted with the library
procedures.
b) Placement: After induction and orientation the jobs to be performed by the newly appointed
members are handed over. Placement implies the assigning or a right job to the right person.
Proper placement is instrumental in increasing output. It avoids wastage of human energy which
may occur by absenteeism or accident. On the other hand a misplaced employee is a liability to
the institution. He may cause serous damage to machinery and other equipment.
Indian National Digital Library in Engineering Sciences and Technology
(INDEST) Consortium
Indian National Digital Library in Engineering Sciences and Technology (INDEST)
Consortium: The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) has set-up the "Indian
National Digital Library in Engineering Sciences and Technology (INDEST) Consortium" on the
recommendation made by the Expert Group appointed by the ministry under the chairmanship of
Prof. N. Balakrishnan. The Ministry provides funds required for subscription to electronic
resources for 38 institutions including IISc, IITs, NITs, IIMs and a few other centrally-funded
Government institutions through the consortium headquarters set-up at the IIT Delhi.
a) Organization: Those institutes that have static IP address(es), are configured to access the
resources of the consortium; otherwise the publisher allocates Login ID and password to that
institute for accessing their resources. Some resources, like ACM Digital Library and
MathSciNet can only be accessed through static IPs. Local hosting of resources has only been
considered for a few resources.
b) Membership: The INDEST-AICTE Consortium is an open-ended proposition, which all
AICTE-accredited / UGC-affiliated institutions can join. Membership to the INDEST-AICTE
Consortium is open to any private / Government-funded engineering / technological / educational
institution / University for one or more electronic resources. The new members are required to
sign an agreement with the INDEST-AICTE Consortium as well as with the publishers of
electronic resources that they wish to subscribe. The consortium charges an annual membership
fee of Rs. 1,000.00 (Rs. One thousand only).
Total members of INDEST consortium is 520 including Core Members (38) that include
IITs and IISc (8), NITs, ISM, SLIET and NERIST ( 20), IIIT and IIITM (2), IIMs and NITIE (7);
AICTE - supported Members (64); and Self-supported Institutions (99).
c) Functions and Activities: The INDEST-AICTE consortium subscribes to a number of
electronic resources including full-text and bibliographic databases for various categories of
institutions. All electronic resources subscribed are available from the publisher's Web site.
i) Access to Full text E-Resources: The access is provided to many online journals such as e-
book, including Elsevier's Science Direct <http://www.sciencedirect.com/>, Emerald Full-text
<http://iris.emeraldinsight.com/>, Nature <http://www.nature.com/>, Springer Link
<http://www.springerlink.com/>, etc.
ii) Access to Bibliographic Database: MathSciNet <http://www.ams.org/mathscinet>, SciFinder
Scholar <http://www.cas.org/SCIFINDER/SCHOLAR/index.html>, Web of Science
<http://isiknowledge.com>, etc.
iii) Access to Portal: Provides access to J-Gate Custom Content for Consortia (JCCC)
<http://jccc-indest.informindia.co.in/>.
iv) Access to Open Access Resources: It includes access to Open Access E-Journals, Open
Access Directories, etc.
v) Search and Browsing Facility: The browse and search interface allows to search e-journals
and Backfiles subscribed under the consortium for various categories of institutions. One can
also download the list of journals along with their URLs (in xls format) that may be used for
generating Web pages for a Library's Web site by the subscribing institute.
vi) Training Programmes: The training programmes are organised in a distributed mode
wherein all IITs, IIMs and IISc Bangalore may conduct training programme for the member
institutions with financial support from INDEST-AICTE Consortium. Six such training
programmes have already been conducted by IIM Lucknow, IIT Roorkee (Two), IIT Kharagpur,
IIT Bombay and IISc Bangalore (Two).
vii) Mailing Lists and Forum: The Consortium has an active mailing list and a Web site hosted
at the IIT Delhi.
The INDEST-AICTE Consortium is the most ambitious initiative taken so far in the
country. The consortium offers the best possible price advantage ranging from 22% to 95%
(Average > 80% +) through its pricing agreements with publishers as well as better terms of
agreement for various electronic resources. Moreover, the consortium also provides technical
help and arrange for in-house training for optimal usage of resources subscribed.
Indian Library Association (ILA)
Indian Library Association (ILA): In 1933 some of the government of India Librarians,
especially those in Calcutta, under the leadership of K. M. Asadullah organized the first All India
Library Conference. It was at this conference that the Indian Library Association was founded on
12 September, 1933. The ILA Headquarters is in Delhi.
a) Objectives: ILA was formed with three fold objectives. In 1935 two more objectives were
added. An amendment to the constitution of the ILA in 1970 added another four objectives.
Another amendment in 1987 added three more objectives. Some of the objectives of ILA are:
i) Promoting library movement in the country,
ii) Developing Library and Information Science education,
iii) Training and research, improvement of library personnel,
iv) Cooperation at the national and international levels,
v) Promotion of standards, norms, services and guidelines, and
vi) Providing a forum for professionals and publication of materials.
b) Organization: The Council of the association acts as the governing body. The executive
committee is constituted by the council in its very first meeting.
c) Functions and Activities
i) Act as a Driving Force: ILA takes up with the state governments the issue of enacting library
legislation in order to develop the public library system.
ii) Development of the Profession: ILA has been pursuing with the government, UGC and other
concerned bodies at all levels on matter relating to better salary, grades, service condition and
status of the library professionals.
iii) Undertaking of Projects: ILA undertook compilation of “Union catalogue of Periodicals in
the Libraries of South Asia”. Two other projects were allocated to ILA by the UNESCO. They
are “Rendering of Asian Names” and “Directory of Asian Periodicals”.
iv) Publication: Library Bulleting (1942-46), Journal of Indian Library Association (1955-64),
ILA Bulletin, ILA Newsletter, etc some of the publications of the ILA. ABGILA (1949-52), was
another publication, which was an intionym, a confluence of three journals in one periodical that
is Annals, Bulletin, Granthalaya of ILA.
v) Seminars, Conferences, Workshops and Training: ILA holds All India Library Conference
Annually; in 1995 Regional Conferences were started. Besides, the Association also arranges
lectures, round table discussion etc. mostly in Delhi. Several training programmes in computer
application (in Delhi from 2-7th June 1986), use of CDS/ISIS software etc were also organized
with support of NISSAT.
vi) Fellowships, Funds and Grants: Vedanayaki Fellowship for MLISc students; Dr. Umapati
Fellowship for LIS students; P. V. Verghese Prize for the best article contribution to ILA Bulletin,
etc are some of the fellowship and award programmes of ILA for promoting librarianship.
vii) Cooperation: The ILA has cooperation with international organizations such as IFLA,
UNESCO, COMLA, etc. It has also been playing an important role in the JOCLAI, RRRLF,
Good Office Committee (GOC), National Book Trust (NBC), etc.
Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres (IASLIC)
Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres (IASLIC): Three leading
librarians from Calcutta, J. Saha, A. K. Mukherjee and G. B. Ghosh convened a meeting of
librarians and documentalists on June 25, 1955 at Indian Museum, Calcutta. This meeting
resulted in the formation of IASLIC <http://iaslic1955.org> on 3rd September 1955. Dr. Sunal
Lal Hora was unanimously selected as its first president and Jibananda Saha was the general
secretary. IASLIC headquarters is located at P-291, CIT Scheme No 6M, Kankurgachi, Kolkata –
700 054.
a) Objectives: The objectives of IASLIC are to
i) Promote the quality of Library and Information Services;
ii) Coordinate the activities, and
iii) Foster mutual cooperation and assistance among the special libraries, scientific, technological
and research institutions, learned societies, commercial organizations, industrial research
establishments as well as centres of studies in social sciences and humanities;
iv) Improve the technical efficiency of the professionals;
v) Act as a centre of research and studies in special librarianship and documentation techniques;
vi) Act as a centre of information in scientific, technical and other related fields of LIS in
pursuance of the aforesaid objects.
b) Organization: The general body of the members of IASLIC biennially elects 14 office-
bearers and 20 members of the Council, which is the highest organ to formulate the policies and
programmes of work. The Council appoints from among its members the Executive and Finance
Committee consisting of 8 office-bearers and 4 members to manage the regular activities. Six
Divisions are also constituted by the Council for each term. They are
i) Documentation Services;
ii) Education;
iii) Publication & Publicity;
iv) Library Services;
v) Documentary Reproduction and Translation;
vi) Cooperation and Coordination of Libraries.
c) Membership: IASLIC is composed of four kinds of members, namely Honorary Membership,
Donor Membership, Institutional Membership, Individual Membership (Donor, Ordinary
Membership, and Life Membership).
d) Functions and Activities
i) JOCLAI: To bring about mutual co-operation and unified action on matters of common
interests, IASLIC mooted the idea of forming the Joint Council of Library Associations of India
(JOCLAI) especially of those at national level. The JOCLAI meetings take place during the
national meets of each IASLIC and ILA. It has formulated a Code of Ethics for the library
profession in India.
ii) Documentation, Documentary Reproduction & Translation Services: The IASLIC undertakes
compilation of bibliographies and English translation of documents from Russian, German,
French, Chinese, Japanese, etc. and also undertakes imaging of documents for archiving. All
these services are provided on non-profit basis.
iii) Library Consultancy Service: The Association undertakes consultancy services like creation
of computerized bibliographic databases, retrospective conversion of records, preservation &
conservation of documents, cataloguing, classification and stock verification in public and
private organizations on non-profit basis.
iv) Publication: Its publications include IASLIC Bulletin, IASLIC Newsletter, Different books,
Monographs, Directory, IASLIC Proceedings, IASLIC Annual Report, etc.
v) Seminars, Conferences, Workshops and Training: The Association in its continuing education
programmes conducts short term courses, workshops, round tables, seminars etc. It holds a
biennial seminar and a conference in alternate years.
vi) Mailing Lists and Forum: IASLIC Council created Special Interest Groups (SIG) to bring
together persons of common interests. SIG Group meetings are held during IASLIC Conference
of common interests. The SIG includes SIG on Industrial Information; SIG on Social Science
Information, SIG on Computer Application, SIG on Humanities Information, SIG on
Informetrics, and SIG on Library & Information Science Education.
vii) Others: The IASLIC conducts study circle meetings for discussion on various issues of
interest concerning LIS. It also conduct Ranganathan Memorial Lecture which has been held
since 1993 on any topic of Library, Information and Communication science by leading
personalities of the profession. Besides, it also conducts Annual Special Lecture and celebrates
the Librarian’s Day every year.
Identification of Material for Selection
Identification of Material for Selection: Identification is locating and identifying potentially
worthwhile items to be added to the collection(s) of a library. Identification aids for books are-
i) Bibliographies: Bibliographies are a systematic list of books and other works such as journal
articles.
ii) Best Books Guides: Best Books Guide covers the reviews of current works and important
books from the past.
iii) Publisher’s Catalogues: The systematic listing of the books published by a publishing
company.
iv) Reviews: Scientific and technical periodicals, newspapers, trade journals, having book review
columns are important sources of book selection. The critical and evaluative reviews by subject
experts and specialists are the best means for evaluating books.
v) Citation Analysis Tools: The citation analysis tools compute various impact measures for
scholars based on data from citation indices.
vi) Online Databases: An online database is a database accessible from a network, including
from the Internet.
vii) Electronic Resources: the term “electronic resource” describes all of the information
products that are provided through a computer network. This includes electronic books and
journals, bibliographic databases, and library website pages. Eg. Amazon.com
(http://www.amazon.com/), Google Books (http://books.google.com/), etc.
viii) Syllabus of Courses in the Parent Organization: In case of academic library, the demand and
need can also be ascertained by consulting the syllabus of the courses offered by the parent
organization.
ix) Library Statistics: Statistics relating to books circulated from, and consulted in, the library to
know what types of books are heavily used.
x) Library Users’ Recommendation: Suggestions from readers’ indents from subject experts or
departments.
xi) Library Staff: Suggestions from the library staff working in the service departments.
For each item selected from these tools, a book selection slip should be prepared. The
book selection slip should be grouped on the basis of subject or some other criteria.
Hypotheses
Hypotheses: An investigator cannot enter in any field with a blank mind. Normally he or she
begins the task of investigation with some ideas about the subject matter vaguely formulated.
Having thus entered the field of investigation, he or she proceeds to find out whether these ideas
what he or she has conceived are true or false. They may be totally correct or only partially so, or
may be altogether false but as a guide to understanding the problem on hand, these ideas are very
useful. These primary ideas which guide the investigator in his study may be termed as
hypothesis.
The concept of hypothesis has been defined by various scientists in their own ways. Hypo
means “less than” and thesis means “a generally held view”. Etymologically speaking thus the
word hypothesis connotes “a less than generally held view”. It is an assumption or supposition
whose validity is to be tested.
a) Definition: A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem, expressed in the form of
a clearly stated relation between the independent and the dependent variables. Hypotheses are
tentative answers because they can be verified only after they have been tested empirically.
According to Rumel and Belline “a hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and
thereby verified or rejected”.
According to Goode and Hatt “hypothesis is a shrewd guess that is formulated and
provisionally adopted to explain observed facts, or conditions and to guide in further
investigation”. They further add that “it is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its
validity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect”.
In the words of George Lundberg, “a hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity
of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch,
guess, imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or investigation”.
Barr and Scates define hypothesis as “a hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as
true… when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts, principles or
theories”.
According to Webster, “a hypothesis is a proposition, condition or principle which is
assumed, perhaps without belief in order to draw out its logical consequences and by this method
to test its accord with facts which are known or may be determined”.
Kerlinger states “a hypothesis is a conjectural statement of relation between two or more
variables. Hypothesis are always in declarative sentence form and they relate whether generally
or specifically variables to variables”.
James E. Creighlon defines hypothesis as “a tentative supposition or provisional guess
which seems to explain the situation under observation”.
In the opinion of J. S. Mill “a hypothesis is only an unproved supposition, a weak form of
proposition”.
Hypothesis simply means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or
disproved. It is a preposition or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence
of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to
guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite
often a research hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific
methods that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. It is a statement in a
research, which the study might prove or disprove.
b) Types of Hypothesis: There are different approaches to classify the hypothesis. Some of them
are listed below-
i) Goode and Hatt Classification: According to Goode and Hatt, there are mainly two types of
hypothesis
* Crude Hypothesis: A crude hypothesis is at the low level of abstraction. It indicates the kind
of data to be collected and it does not lead to higher theoretical research.
* Refined Hypothesis: Refined hypothesis are of three types- simple level, complex ideal and
very complex. Simple Level indicates merely the uniformity in social behavior. It does not
involve much verification. Complex Ideal Hypothesis is at higher level of abstraction. This
hypothesis examines the logically derived relations between the empirical uniformities. This type
of hypothesis is useful in developing tools of analysis. It provides constructs for further
hypothesizing. The Very Complex Hypothesis is concerned with the interrelations of multiple
variables.
ii) P. V. Young Classification: Young refers to mainly two types of hypothesis-Working
Hypothesis and Explanatory Hypothesis. Working Hypothesis is a provisional central idea which
becomes the basis for fruitful investigation. The Explanatory Hypothesis refers to the scope of
going into the depth and width with various possibilities so far invisible.
iii) Statistical Analysis: In the context of statistical analysis, a hypothesis may be any one of the
following types-
* Null Hypothesis: Null means Zero. The null hypothesis is a statistical proposition which
states, essentially that, there is no relation between the variable (of the problem). When a
hypothesis is stated negatively, then it is called as a null hypothesis. A null hypothesis is used to
collect additional support for the known hypothesis. The null hypothesis says, “You are wrong,
there is no relation, disprove me if you can”. The objective of the null hypothesis is to avoid
personal bias of the investigator in the matter of data collection.
* Alternative Hypothesis: That which is concluded rejecting the null hypothesis is known as
alternative hypothesis. Alternative hypothesis is formulated embracing a whole range of values
rather than a single point.
For example:
HA = the males visited cinema more than the female.
H0= the males and females do not different in respect of the frequency of seeing cinema.
So, alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null
hypothesis is the one which one wishes to disprove.
iv) Others: Hypothesis may further be classified into Descriptive Hypothesis and Rational
Hypothesis. Descriptive hypothesis are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form,
or distribution of some variables. The Rational hypothesis on the other hand is a statement that
describes the relationship between two variables. Eg. Families with higher income spend more
for recreation.
c) Difficulties in Formulating a Hypothesis: According to Goode and Hatt, the following
difficulties arise in formulating the hypothesis-
i) Lack of Previous Knowledge of the Field of Enquiry: In the absence of knowledge
concerning a subject matter, one can make no well founded judgment of relevance hypothesis.
ii) Lack of Clear Theoretical Background: Hypothesis do not have a clear cut and definitive
theoretical background, partly it is a matter of lifting upon an idea on some problem.
iii) Lack of Logical Background: Formulation of proper hypothesis to a great extent depends on
one’s experience and logical insight.
iv) Lack of Knowledge of Scientific Method: It is not always possible to have complete
information of and acquaintance with the scientific methods for formulating hypothesis. This
lack of scientific knowledge presents difficulty in formulation of hypothesis.
d) Functions of Hypothesis: Cohen and Nagel’s are of the view that we cannot take a single
step forward in any inquiry without a hypothesis. Without hypothesis mere collection of data is
likely to lead the researcher anywhere without aim and produce no result. The main functions of
hypothesis are-
i) Prevent Blind Research: It spells out the difference between precision and haphazard research,
between fruitful and fruitless research. It helps in selecting pertinent factors. It makes the enquiry
more specific and to the point.
ii) Foundation of Research: The hypotheses are the foundation of scientific research. If a proper
hypothesis is formulated then one fourth of the research works comes to an end.
iii) New Experiment and Observation: A hypothesis what we are looking for is a proposition
which can be put to test to determine its validity.
iv) Provide Direction to Research: Hypothesis shows the line, in which way the researcher has
to proceed. Hypothesis is investigator’s eye – a sort of guiding light in the world of research
darkness to identify which is relevant and which is irrelevant
v) Link the Investigation with Theory: Hypothesis is necessary to link between investigation
and theory, which lead to the discovery of additional knowledge.
vi) Serve as a Framework for Drawing Meaningful Conclusion: Direct answer to the
hypothesis being tested.
vii) Lead to Discovery of Laws: Hypothesis leads one to the discovery of laws and theory.
e) Conclusion: A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can be put to an empirical
test to determine its validity. Every worthwhile theory permits the formulation of additional
hypothesis. These, when tested, are either proved or disproved and thus in their own constitute
further tests of the original theory.
Human Resource Management
Human Resource Management: Human resources are acknowledged as the most valuable and
important assets in any organization and recognized as a valued resources with potential. These
are no longer associated with problems and cost. Human resource management is sometimes also
known as personal management.
a) Definition: Personal management implies a process of getting the best out of the employees
of an organization by means of judicious selection, tactful dealing and by seeking their
replacement, if necessary.
A formal definition of personnel management is that it is a function performed in
organizations that facilitates the most effective use of employees to achieve organizational and
individual goals.
According to O. Tead and H.C. Metcaffe personnel management is “the direction and co-
operation of human relations of any organization with a view to getting the maximum necessary
production with a minimum of effort and friction and with a proper regard for the genuine well
being of workers.”
b) Aims of Personnel Management: The aim of personnel management is to develop
capabilities of individual persons towards understanding appreciation and solution of problem.
Each staff member should get a feeling that his works form a vital part of the working of the
organization. In simple, the aims of personnel management are:
i) Optimum output;
ii) Development of workers capabilities by enabling the workers to derive maximum satisfaction
from their work;
iii) Development of team spirit;
iv) Continuous vigilance.
c) Importance of Personnel Management: The rationale behind recognizing the role of human
resources management is that:
i) Human resources who are employed in the organization are human being with some aspiration
and ambition in life.
ii) Though humans are utilized as means to an end in the production process they are ultimate
sharer of profit.
iii) The personnel being a part of the community are also the consumers as well.
iv) The manpower of any organization is responsible to perform the duties and all operational
work and is the one who ran an organization.
v) Human resources are the best resources of any organization in comparison to all other physical
resources. It is they who convert material into suitable commodities.
vi) If the energies of the personnel can be channelised in right direction, they can overcome the
constrains and limitations of other physical resources.
d) Function of Personnel Management: Personnel management is a staff function. It is
advisory in nature. It recommends, cooperates and counsels. The main functions of personnel
management may be grouped under the following broad heading-
i) Manpower planning.
ii) Job analysis
iii) Job description
iv) Staffing
v) Recruitment, selection and test
vi) Induction, orientation and placement
vii) Training and development (continuous education)
viii) Motivation of personnel
ix) Leadership
x) Wage and salary administration
xi) Employer – Employee relationship (supervise, control)
xii) Performance evaluation.
Henry Mintzberg in his “the nature of managerial work” (1973) described the following roles to
be played by the top man in management.
i) Figurehead
ii) Leader
iii) Liaison
iv) Monitor
v) Disseminator
vi) Spokesman
vii) Entrepreneurs
viii) Disturbance handler
ix) Resource allocator
x) Negotiator
e) Problems in Personnel Management: The problems associated with personnel management
are-
i) Increasing government regulation regarding employment practices: The reservation for
schedule caste and tribes, backward classes, government regulation on recruitment, resignation,
dismissal, retirement, etc. creates problem in personnel management.
ii) Pressure and bargaining with union: The pressure from union or bargaining with union for
working condition and benefit creates another problem.
iii) Insufficient budget: Decreasing or stable budget can disturb staffing pattern. It might lead to
vacancies being allowed to remain vacant.
History of a Computer
History of a Computer: It is difficult to identify any one device as the earliest computer, partly
because the term "computer" has been subject to varying interpretations over time. It was the
fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable
computers.
1. The Beginning: Examples of early mechanical calculating devices included the abacus, the
slide rule and arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism (which dates from about
150-100 BC). The end of the middle ages saw a re-invigoration of European mathematics and
engineering. Wilhelm Schickard's 1623 device was the first of a number of mechanical
calculators constructed by European engineers. However, none of those devices fit the modern
definition of a computer because they could not be programmed.

a) Abacus: The concepts of number and counting are believed to have been developed first by
the herdsmen of ancient times, who sought to avoid animal losses. It can be traced back to 3000
BC. The herdsmen (or the Stone Age men) used small round stones (pebbles) for counting cattle.
After counting with pebbles, the successor was a tool known as ABACUS, which is treated as the
first mechanical computing device. The word “Abacus” is derived from the Greek word ‘abakos’
which means a board or calculating tables. Beads are strung on wires or strings held in a frame
and they are slid along the wires counting, adding, etc. It was invented by the Chinese in 3000
BC, which was later improved by the Egyptians and the Greeks.
b) Mechanical Theater: Hero of Alexandria (c. 10 – 70 AD) built a mechanical theater which
performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums
that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed
which actions and when.
c) Joseph Marie Jacquard: In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile
loom that used a series of punched paper cards as a template to allow his loom to weave intricate
patterns automatically. The resulting “Jacquard loom” was an important step in the development
of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an
early form of programmability.
d) Napier’s Bones: John Napier was the inventor of logarithms. He used his data tables and with
the help of a mechanical device could do the necessary computing.
e) Pascal’s Machine Arithmetique: In 1642 Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented a
mechanical adding machine, a prototype of the digital calculating machine. This device was able
to add and subtract directly, whereas multiplication and division were performed through
repeated addition and subtraction respectively.
f) Leibnitz’s Stepped Reckoner: Gottfried Withelm Von Leibnitz, a German mathematician
invented a more advanced calculating machine in 1671, which could not only add but also
multiply, divide and extract square root. As the machine could make a series of repeated
additions, it was called the Stepped Reckoner. The merit of Leibnitz’s contribution is that he
showed the advantage of binary system over decimal system in the operation of mechanical
computer.
g) Punched Card: A French weaver’s son named Joseph Marie-Jacquard made the next
significant contribution in 1804. After observing how his father could make different weaving
patterns on the loom, he thought of storing these patterns for future use. So, he developed a plate
with multiple holes to control the weaving patters, not knowing that only his idea of storing the
weaving patterns would be used to store data and would be called the Punched Card. A Punched
card is a thin rectangular card divided into 80 columns and 12 rows in which the various
characters could be represented by punching holes in different rows and columns. On one card it
is possible to punch 80 characters – one character per column, thus it is possible to store 80
characters of data.
h) Babbage’s Difference and Analytical Engines: Charles Babbage, a professor of
Mathematics, designed a computing machine in 1822 for the purpose of producing ballistic
tables called the “Difference Engine”. Then he conceived the idea of a new computing machine
in 1833 and designed the machine in 1835 called Analytical Engine, which is the forerunner of
the modern computer. It could be called as the first digital computer having the memory and the
calculating units as well as sequential control with provision for automatic printout. Thus,
Charles Babbage is widely regarded as the father of the computer. Due to limited finances, and
an inability to resist thinking with the design, Babbage never actually built his Analytical Engine.
(The Analytical Engine should not be confused with Babbage's Difference Engine which was a
non-programmable mechanical calculator).
i) Lady Ada Lovelace: Lady Ada Lovelace, an amateur mathematician, and a friend of Babbage
produced supporting material for the “Analytical Engine” in the form of programs, and
explanatory documentation. As such, she is considered the first lady computer programmer. ADA
is one of the programming languages named after her.
j) Boole’s Symbolic Logic: George Boole, the famous logician, discussed symbolic logic in
1859 in his work ‘Treatise of differential equation’. The development of symbolic logic and the
application of binary logic operation AND, OR, NOT are his main contribution to modern
computer technology.
k) Hollerith’s Punched Card Machinery: Dr. Herman Hollerith, an American statistician
invented the punched card machinery in 1886. Large-scale automated data processing of punched
cards was performed for the U.S. Census in 1890 by tabulating machines designed by Herman
Hollerith and manufactured by the Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation, which later
became International Business Machine (IBM) Corporation. The punched card invented by
Hollerith is still used as the basic input medium to computers.
l) Aiken and MARK I: This computer is also known as automatic sequence controlled
calculator, which was designed by Howard A. Aiken of Harvard University. It is also known as
Harvard MARK I. It is the first fully electro-mechanical computer.
m) Stibitz’s Machine, MARK II and SSEC: George R. Stibitz developed a large relay
computer at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1946. Aiken built the MARK II, the large relay
computer in 1947. Another machine was also constructed by the people of IBM Corporation. It
was known as the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC).
n) The Atanasoff-Berry Computer: This electronic machine was also known as ABC
(Atanasoff-Berry Computer) as it was named after its founder Dr. John Atanasoff and his
assistant Clifford Berry. The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) used vacuum
tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
o) Colossus Computers: The secret British Colossus computers (1943) (Copeland, 2006), had
limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be
reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime
codes.
p) Z Machines: In 1941, Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines" (Z3) was the first
working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure
of programmability. In 1998, the Z3 was proved to be the world's first operational computer.
q) Bush and Memex: Memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books, records and
communications, which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and
flexibility. Dr. Vannevar Bush visualized the library of the future with mechanized services from
housekeeping to operation.
2. Early Electronic Computer: The early electronic computer can be categorized into the
following-
a) ENIAC: (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator): This computer was built by a
team at the University of Pennsylvania, designed by a team of members from the USA headed by
Professor J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory
ENIAC (1946), which used decimal arithmetic, is sometimes called the first general purpose
electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of
electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required
rewiring to change its programming.
Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible
and elegant design, which came to be known as the stored program architecture or Von Neumann
architecture. This design was first formally described by John Von Neumann in the paper "First
Draft of a Report on the EDVAC", published in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers
based on the stored program architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being
completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-
Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM) or "Baby".
b) BINAC (Binary Automated Computer): Mauchly and Eckert established their own
company and design the BINAC in 1950, which was the first machine to use self checking
devices.
c) EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer): Dr. John Von Neumann and
the ENIAC group designed this computer. The device could store both the instruction and the
data in the binary form, instead of human readable words or decimal numbers.
d) EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator): It was developed by the
Britishers, headed by Professor Maurice V. Wilkes at the Cambridge University Mathematical
Laboratory. It was much faster than EDVAC. EDSAC was one of the first computers to
implement the stored program (Von Neumann) architecture.
The EDSAC which completed a year after SSEM, was perhaps the first practical
implementation of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally
described by von Neumann's paper EDVAC was completed but did not see full-time use for an
additional two years.
e) SEAC (Standard Eastern Automatic Computer): The US National Bureau of Standards
constructed this computer following the design of EDVAC and was completed in 1950. It was
the first stored-program American Computer.
f) Manchester Mark I (1948): This machine was designed by a group of scientists headed by
Professor M. N. A. Newman.
g) UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer): Mauchly and Eckert designed and built
UNIVAC I. It was the first computer to handle both numerical and alphabetical information.
h) MARK III and IV: Aiken built MARK III with magnetic drum storage at Harvard in 1950
and MARK IV, an improved version of MARK III, in 1952.
3. Modern Electronic Computer: Modern electronic computers have a faster speed. A major
breakthrough in the computer technology was made by introducing transistor in place of vacuum
tubes during the early sixties. With the development of transistor it was possible to design printed
circuit, integrated circuit and other miniaturization techniques in the structure of computer.
The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (around
1940 - 1945), although the computer concept and various machines similar to computers existed
earlier. Early electronic computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as
several hundred modern personal computers. Modern computers are based on tiny integrated
circuits and are millions to billions of times more capable while occupying a fraction of the
space. Today, simple computers may be made small enough to fit into a wristwatch and be
powered from a watch battery.
In 1946, ENIAC consumed an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a typical personal
computer may use around 400 W; over four hundred times less (Kempf, 1961). Early computers
such as Colossus and ENIAC were able to process between 5 and 100 operations per second. A
modern "commodity" microprocessor (as of 2007) can process billions of operations per second,
and many of these operations are more complicated and useful than early computer operations.
Generations of Computers
Generations of Computers: Computer generation means step by step changes and each major
change or progress after a period of time. Since inception there are totally five generation of
computers.
a) First Generation Computer (Up to 1950): ENIAC was the first valve based computer and
taken as first computer of first generation of electronic digital computer. It was made by J. P.
Eckert and John W. Mauchly in 1946. EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC are some other examples of
computer of this generation. This generation computer possessed the following characteristics:
i) Used thermionic valves or vacuum tube or electronic valve;
ii) Used Mercury line for storage and paper tapes and punched cards were also used;
iii) Computer programming was mainly done in machine language;
iv) All the computers were of very big size and so required very large space;
v) The computers were very costly;
vi) Limited programming capabilities, memory;
vii) Slow operating speed and restricted computing capacity;
viii) High power consumption (each vacuum tubes consumed about half a watt power);
ix) Vacuum tubes used filament as a source of electron; they have a limited life.
x) Large amount of heat generated from the vacuum tubes and so they needed air-conditioning.
b) Second Generation Computer: The invention of transistor (short names for transfer resistor)
in 1948 led to the development of second generation of computer. Their main disadvantages were
that the commercial productions of transistors were difficult and expensive; again, the manual
assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was required. Examples of second
generation of computer include UNIVAC-1108, IBM 700, 1401, CDC 1604, 3600.
The second generation computers are characterized by the following:
i) Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes completely;
ii) Use of magnetic cores for memory storage. Magnetic drum, magnetic disc, punched card were
also used for storage purpose;
iii) Use of high level language like FORTRAN, COBOL, Algol, SNOBOL etc.;
iv) Due to the use of transistors the sizes turned to be smaller;
v) Less costly in comparison to the first generation of computer;
vi) Memory capacities were about 100 Kilobyte;
v) Reduction in computation time from millisecond to microsecond;
vi) Transistors consume only a tenth of power as required by vacuum tubes;
vii) Transistors have no filament to burn as against the first generation of computer so they were
more reliable;
ix) Less heat was generated due to the use of transistor but still needed air conditioning and
frequent maintenance.
c) Third Generation Computer: The third generation began in 1965 with germanium
transistors being replaced by silicon transistors (=integrated circuit). Integrated circuit is a circuit
consisting of transistors, resistors and capacitors grown on a single chip of silicon eliminating
wired interconnections between components. Highly sophisticated technology was required for
the manufacture of the chips, but still commercial production become easier and not so
expensive. Remote processing and time sharing is also an added advantage of this generation of
computer. Example: IBM 360 Series, ICL 1900 series, IBM 370/168, ICL 2900, Honeywell 6000
series. This generation computer has the following characteristics
i) Use of integrated circuit;
ii) Use of semiconductor memories in addition to, and later instead of, ferrite core memory. The
two main types of semiconductor memory are Read-Only Memory (ROM) and read-and-write
memories called Random Access Memory (RAM);
iii) Extensive use of high level programming languages;
iv) Smaller size and better performance, more flexibility with input/output;
v) Less costly in comparison to the second generation of computer and become popular as mini
computer and are quite portable;
vi) Memories improved to 4 Megabytes;
vii) Reduction in computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds;
viii) Lower heat generation and quite less power requirement;
ix) More reliable in comparison to the second generation of computer;
x) Air conditioning required in many cases;
d) Fourth Generation Computer: The fourth generation of computer may be identified by the
advent of the microprocessor chip. The whole computer CPU except primary memory is placed
on a single chip. This chip is known as microprocessor.
Examples: Intel 4004, Apple series I and II, spectrum 7 etc.

This generation computer has the following characteristics:

i) Use of large scale and very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI) packing about 50,000
transistors in a chip;
ii) Magnetic core memories were replaced by semiconductor memories;
iii) Sophisticated programs and languages for special application. In the area of language “C”
language became popular.
iv) Increasing use of microcomputer;
v) Low cost;
vi) Increased storage;
vii) Considerably faster and smaller;
viii) Heat generated is negligible and even air conditioner is not always required;
ix) Network of computers and distributed computer systems were developed;
x) Modular design, versatility and compatibility.
e) Fifth Generation Computer: The fifth generation of computer is in the process of full
development. This computer is expected to be a new and unique of its kind having the artificial
intelligence i.e. the ability to reason logically and with the real knowledge of the world, behaving
almost like a human being in the sense of talking, seeing, hearing and utilizing human language.
Function of Management
Function of Management: In 1937 L. Gulic and L. Urwick in “papers on the Science of
administration” listed seven functions of management. They coined the acronym POSDCORB
for the same. This stands for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, COordinating, Reporting
and Budgeting.
a) Planning: Plan is regarded as a “projected course of action”. According to Koontz and
O’Donnell, planning is deciding in advance what to do and how to do it, when to do it and who is
to do it. It involves developing objectives, strategies, policies, procedures, programmes, etc.
b) Organizing: Organizing means establishing of a formal structure of authority, which is well
defined and co-ordinated towards the attainment of specific objectives. At this stage the
objectives are set, methods are formulated, process of implementation are fixed, papers are
ready, decision for doing the job is taken and all necessary steps are taken to perform the job.
c) Staffing: Staffing refers to the human resources already existing in the organization and the
new recruitment. The manager should assess the existing man-hour and capabilities of the
existing persons employed. If required their duties may be reorganized for yielding better
service. They should have in service training and continuing education to improve the
capabilities and expertise. The right person should be in the right place with the right job. When
required new person should be recruited having desired academic background and adequate
training with proper aptitude and motivation. Further for getting the best result the working
environment should be congenial.
d) Directing: Directing is defined as the continuous task of taking decisions and incorporating
them in specific and general order and serving these orders. That’s why directing involves overall
administrative control. It is the administrative command over the affairs. In this sense directing is
taking the leadership over all the maters as a whole for the present as well as for the future.
Directing not only means just to issue the order but also to motivate the staff to get the best
result.
e) Coordinating: Coordinating in an organization is balancing and interrelating of the various
parts of organization and keeping together all the staff for getting the best result with the
minimum resources at hand. In any organization the division of work is distributed and at every
stage a person is responsible to somebody for his performance and jobs to be done by him. The
staffs are generally responsible to their immediate superior. There are various work units,
sections and divisions for respective responsibilities but for proper coordination all these
individual units must be interrelated and works should be done in a chain system, one after
another.
f) Reporting: Reporting is the way to keep the authorities and the concerned public informed
about the performance, achievements and shortfall of the organizations. It is a means of keeping
informed to whom executive is responsible as to what is going on, which thus include keeping
himself and his subordinates informed through records, research and inspection. Reporting is the
preparation of factual data of the work done in a unit or section. These unit or section reports are
amalgamated to prepare the full report of the working of the institution for a given period. The
report is then transmitted to the top administrative body. The report contains the work done in
various units, any progress made, constraints felt and the suggestion to overcome these, any
backlog in the work and the reasons thereof, actual work done with statistical figure and the like.
g) Budgeting: Budgeting is defined as “an estimated often itemized or expected income and
expense or operating results for a given period in the future. Budgeting is the preparation of
financial estimate for the next financial year, anticipate allotment for the present financial year
and showing the actual expenditure incurred in the previous financial year. It involves receipts
and expenditure as well as accounting, financial control and financial planning.
In addition to the above mentioned functions the following two functions are considered
essential for an efficient management.
h) Control: The chief of any institution has to control effectively his subordinates. He has to
inspect their work personally. He has to keep an eye upon the methods of performing specific
jobs assigned to individual workers, the end products and overall cost of productions / services.
He has to ensure best quality and maximum quantity of work from his worker.
i) Motivation: The aim of an organization cannot be achieved unless its workers perform their
jobs willingly and conscientiously. So to do the same the worker must be motivated by providing
congenial service conditions and environments. An individual can be motivated by two kinds of
needs – Basic needs and those that is socially determined and that both of these must be satisfied
to allow emotional maturity. The motivation of personnel through promotion, recognition and
incentives create proper environment for employees to put in their best effort.
Formulation of Research Topic / Proposal
Formulation of Research Topic / Proposal: A research proposal is a chosen plan of action to
follow in conjunction with a research work. It is a tool to identify potential research interest. The
objectives of a research proposal are -
i) Research proposal gives direction to the research work;
ii) It is needed to submit to the funding agency / supervisor;
iii) It is the foundation on which the future research work will grow.
The researchers own academic, personal, and professional expertise is the main asset to
choose a relevant topic of interest for research. Before taking any topic for research one should
ask himself / herself two questions - what is the significance of the topic and why is this
particular topic need of being researched?

1. Steps in Formulating a Research Proposal: Though there is no thumb rule for formulating a
research topic, yet the following will throw a light in this direction.
i) Identifying Area of Specialization: In choosing any topic for research the first and foremost
thing is the identification of the areas what one likes most.
ii) Discussion with Peers: In the very second step one should ask or talk with his / her peers
(including seniors and teacher) about the topic and by this way should try to collect some more
information on the topic at hand.
iii) Using Science: The person concerned in the next step should employ science in way of
viewing the topic based on the concept of order, external reality, reliability, parsimony, and
generality.
iv) Literature Search: Literature search is essential in order to be aware of the existing research
and to know what has already come out to the surface. Different form of literature both macro,
micro and web covering all aspect of the topic should be studied at this step itself. Literature
searching tool includes guides to literature; bibliographies, citation analysis (forward search);
library catalogue, indexing and abstracting journals, search engines; Meta search engine; wiki
search engines, etc. During literature search activity one should collect all the relevant
documents. It will be needed to summarize the results of previous research to form a foundation
of the present one and to collect ideas about what methodologies, techniques and tool were used
by previous researchers in case of near topic that one is supposed to choose for and to assess the
success of the previous research work based on the methodologies, techniques and tools
undertaken.
v) Research Method, Tools and Techniques: Based on the literature search, the research scholar
should seek for alternative, judge himself/herself why earlier investigators choose their course of
action, what are their shortcomings, whether other approaches can be used for such type of
investigation and so on.
vi) Key Concepts: In the next step, the research scholar should try to list and define key concepts
and terms and also be alert to the latest happenings on the subject;
vii) Problem Identification: The research scholar now should find out, what is missing in the
existing literature. In doing so he/she should go from general to particular problem, and then
should break the problem.
viii) Judging Yourself: Now after identification of the problem one should judge himself/herself
whether he/she is fitted to take this topic, in regard to his/her expertise, time and skill, if not
he/she must again start from the point number (i) and choose other alternatives;
ix) Research Proposal: In this step the research scholar should prepare the research proposal,
making judgment to make others convinced regarding the value of the research work, map out all
the arguments in the form of research proposal and so on.
x) Communicating the Proposal: The proposal should be communicated with the expected
research supervisor.
2. Contents of a Research Proposal: A research proposal in general consists of the following
parts-
 Sl. No. Contents Page

1 Title Page 1

2 Introduction 1

3 Statement of The Problem 1

4 Aims and Objectives ½

5 Topic Justification 1

6 Scope and Limitation ½

7 Literature Review 5

8 Methodology 2

9 Ethical Consideration: the ethics you adopt 1

10 Risk Analysis 1

11 Schedule* 1

12 References 1

* The Schedule will include time needed for extensive literature search, research design
to conduct the main study, and time needed to write the research findings.

3. Writing Research Proposal: Though it is not mandatory, the following steps are followed in
writing a research proposal-
a) Setting up Template: Template like using of Font = Times New Roman; Font Style =
Regular; Font Size = 12; Alignment = Justify; Line Spacing = 1.5. For heading purpose one can
use Font Style: Bold, rests are same and like that.
b) Avoiding Biasness: For any type of research proposal writing it would be better to restrict
using “I” except in the introduction chapter, in other parts of the report it should be replaced by
“the researcher”, “the author”, and such appropriate words.
c) Table and Graphs Names: In case of table and graph naming, the rule of thump is to naming
the table and graph by using the chapter name followed by table or graph number starting freshly
from the beginning of each chapter.
d) Checking: After writing the research proposal the research scholar need to check for the
following:-
i) Whether all text formatting guidelines are followed or not.
ii) Quotations are complete and followed by in text citation or not.
iii) In text citation are included in the references pages or not.
iv) Is there any jumping in sentences and if it is then it should be made a smooth flow of ideas.
Finance
Financial Management: The sections or parts of the library depend on how big the library is
and what its resources and collections are. Sometimes, they are also based on the type of library
i.e. whether it is a school library or a public library or a college or university library.
The administrative section of a library is the nerve centre to the entire administrative
system of the library. It aims to assist the establishment activities of the library. It is staffed with
skilled and partially-skilled personnel for handling the task of management and finance, which
involves the tasks such as building cleanliness, building maintenance, lift maintenance, central
air conditioning maintenance, vehicle maintenance, staff safety, staff leave and staff matters,
payment processing, revenue collection, etc. This section also ascertains that all circulars, rules
and regulations are upheld and keeps and maintains the records pertaining to various budgetary
provisions of the library like salary, expenditure and other matters pertaining to physical stock
and infrastructure of the library. More long-term issues include the planning of the construction
of new libraries or extensions to the existing ones.

Finance: The word “Finance” means to obtain or provide money for some programme or
activity and budget is a list of all planned expenses and revenues. The word “finance” is used to
express any statement of monetary accounts or comparison of income with expenditure. Broadly
speaking, finance is concerned with obtaining funds and making the optimal use of these funds.
It is the life blood of any institution or firm and is essential for its effective functioning.
Finance plays a very important and significant role in the organization and management
of the libraries. Libraries are not profit making institutions; they are spending institutions. Once a
library has been established then funds would be required on a recurring basis to maintain it in
proper order and shape. It heavily depends on the continuous supply of funds for organizing their
activities, programmes and services. In addition, libraries are growing organizations, larger a
library grows; the more money it might require for its maintenance it. So, for continuous supply
of funds there should be some assured sources of income for each and every library.
a) Sources of Fund for the Library: Different types of libraries receive funds from different
sources, though some of them are common to all types of libraries.
i) Funds from Parent Organization: The university libraries get financial support from their
respective universities out of their own funds; college libraries get financial support from the
college budget. Same is the case for school; which is fully financed by the school management.
Libraries attached to other teaching institutions are also fully financed by the management of the
concerned institution.
ii) Grants from UGC: UGC is the second major source of income to the college and university
library. The UGC grants are mainly plan grant which are mainly of three types:
- Recurring grants;
- Non-recurring grants;
- Adhoc grants.
The recurring grants are given for the purpose of books and periodicals, maintenance of
regular services and for anticipated contingency. The non recurring grants are given for specific
equipment. The adhoc grant is given for specific purposes on the recommendation of the various
visiting UGC groups.
iii) Grants from Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF): RRRLF is an autonomous
organization under Dept of Culture, Govt of India and it provides book assistance (matching and
non matching grants) and financial assistance to different kinds of libraries.
iv) Library Legislation: Library tax / rates form the basis of financial support for public libraries
in the states having library legislation. Library rate is levied by a local authority but the tax is
levied by state or central government.
v) Central Government Grants: The central universities are directly funded by the Central
government (Ministry of Human Resource Development) through UGC.
vi) State Government Grant: The maintenance of state universities depends on the grants of the
State government. The government grants are not directly given to the academic libraries.
Government provides grants for parent organization and then the parent organization allots the
necessary share to the library. The grants given by state government to the libraries of various
universities are mainly non-plan grant.
In case of a school library in some cases the state government, municipal bodies, local
bodies or other organizations give funds occasionally. The government schools get full assistance
from the state government.
vii) Fees and Caution Money: Almost each academic library charges fee from the students who
become their members for the use of the library whether it is a university library or school
library. But, the amount of library fee is usually so meager that it cannot be considered a
dependable source of finance. Many libraries receive caution money from the reader. It is
refundable and is refunded when a reader surrenders his/her library membership. But its interest
may become a source of income for the library.
viii) Fine and Penalties: The libraries can impose fine and penalties for the late return of books
or against losses or misuse of books. But it is not enough to be considered as a source of finance
because its main aim is to compel the users to return the borrowed books in time and not to
damage it.
ix) Research Activities: When research projects are approved by the UGC, the government
departments like DST, CSIR, Planning Commission, etc or other agencies like ICSSR, ICHR,
ICPR, etc, a part of the research grant is kept for books and journals which, after the completion
of the project, are to be deposited in the university or college library.
x) Endowment and Private Donation: Libraries sometimes receive gift both in cash and kind
from various sources. Generally, people with charitable bent of mind and those who love
learning and believe in imparting learning to their fellow-beings donate a good number of books
from their own collection. But these endowments and private donations are not permanent
sources of finance and the libraries cannot depend on them.
xi) Sale of Publication: The library helps a university in publications and some libraries may
have their own publications. The sale proceeds of these publications go to the library. Some big
libraries publish and sell catalogues, bibliographies, etc. and thereby raise their funds.
The income from all these publications should not be considered as a source of revenue
since these publications should be made available to the user on no profit no loss basis so that the
readers may be made interested in using the library resources.
xii) Income from Service: Libraries generally provide reprographic, translation, services and do
charge subsidized rates for such works. These also form a source of income for the libraries.
xiii) Other Sources: Libraries can also generate their funds by sale of waste papers, money
received from rent of the seminar hall of the library, etc. All these also form a small source of
income for the library.
Library tax/rates form the basis of the financial support for public libraries in the states
having library legislation. In college libraries, library fee and grants from the state and Central
Government are the main sources. In a special library, money would come from the parent body.
In case of the Central University libraries, UGC is the source. Gifts and endowment are not very
common.
Environmental Information System (ENVIS)
Realising the importance of Environmental Information, the Government of India, in December,
1982, established an Environmental Information System (ENVIS) as a plan programme. ENVIS
is a decentralised system with a network of distributed subject oriented Centres ensuring
integration of national efforts in environmental information collection, collation, storage,
retrieval and dissemination to all concerned. Presently the ENVIS network consists of Focal
Point at the Ministry of Environment and Forest and ENVIS Centres setup in different
organizations / establishments in the country in selected areas of environment. These Centres
have been set up in the areas of pollution control, toxic chemicals, central and offshore ecology,
environmentally sound and appropriate technology, bio-degradation of wastes and environment
management, etc.
ENVIS India has already established Eighty One partner nodes, which include thirty
government departments, Thirty Six Institutions and Fifteen NGOs. These nodes are supposed to
create websites on specific environment related subject areas.
1. Aims and Objectives: ENVIS focal point ensures integration of national efforts in
environmental information collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination to all
concerned.
1.1 Long-term objectives
a) To build up a repository and dissemination centre in Environmental Science and Engineering;
b) To gear up the modern technologies of acquisition, processing, storage, retrieval and
dissemination of information of environmental nature; and
c) To support and promote research, development and innovation in environmental information
technology.
1.2 Short-term objectives
a) To provide national environmental information service relevant to present needs and capable
of development to meet the future needs of the users, originators, processors and disseminators
of information;
b) To build up storage, retrieval and dissemination capabilities with the ultimate objectives of
disseminating information speedily to the users;
c) To promote, national and international cooperation and liaison for exchange of environment
related information;
d) To promote, support and assist education and personnel training programmes designed to
enhance environmental information processing and utilization capabilities;
e) To promote exchange of information amongst developing countries.
2. Functions:
i) EMCBTAP: ENVIS has started implementing the World Bank assisted Environment
Management Capacity Building Technical Assistance Project (EMCBTAP) since January, 2002
which aims at structuring the ENVIS scheme by extending its reach through involvement of
Institutions / Organizations in State Governments, academia sector, corporate sector, NGO
sector, etc.
ii) ENVIS-Nodes: To strengthen ENVIS in disseminating information pertaining to environment
and sustainable development, ENVIS India establishes different ENVIS Nodes by involving
Organizations, institutions, Universities and Government departments working in diverse areas
of environment.
3. Conclusion: ENVIS due to its comprehensive network has been designed as the National
Focal Point (NFP) for INFOTERRA, a global environmental information network of the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). In order to strengthen the information activities of
the NFP, ENVIS was designated as the Regional Service Centre (RSC) of INFOTERRA of
UNEP in 1985 for the South Asia Sub-Region countries.
Electronic Mail (Email)
Electronic Mail (Email): The Electronic mail often abbreviated as Email, email, e-mail or
simply mail. It enables us in exchanging digital messages. Electronic mail can be termed as the
fastest post office which is the most commonly used service of the internet. The messages can be
sent instantaneously to any individual who has an email address or to many persons at the same
time.
The foundation for today's e-mail service was created in the early ARPANET in extension
to the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). An e-mail sent in the early 1970s looked very similar to one
sent on the Internet today but today it is carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
a) Email Address: The email address has three basic components. The “username”, the “@”
sign and the “users’ location or domain”. Each Email address goes from the specific to the
general. A typical example is “lis-forum@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in”. Here
lis-forum: It is the user id.
@: It is a separator between user id and different organizational level of the institution.
Rest: The rest portions after “@” sign are the level of the domain name. Levels of the domains
are nothing but different organizational levels. In the above example there are four levels to the
domain name.
ncsi: It stands for National Centre for Scientific Information.
iisc: It stands for Indian Institute of Science. The National Centre for Scientific Information is a
part of the Indian Institute of Science.
ernet: It stands for the Education and Research Network. The IISC is covered under ERNET.
in: It stands for India.
 The above one is a very complex example of email address. However, our mostly used
email address has only three to five components. For example, in the rohit@gmail.com email id,
“rohit” is the user id, “@” is the separator, “gmail” stands for Google Mail, which is the email
service provider, and “.com” means Gmail is the commercial organization.
b) Anatomy of Email Message: Messages in an electronic mail consists of three major sections.
The message header, the message body, and attachment. The first two form the email’s content.
i) Header: The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an
originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually, additional information is
added, such as a subject header field structured into fields like summary, sender, receiver, and
other information about the e-mail. The message header generally includes at least the following
fields:
From: It includes the e-mail address and, optionally, the name of the sender who sends the email.
The field is filled up automatically when a message is sent.
To: Here the e-mail address(es) and, optionally, name(s) of the message's recipient(s) is/are
included. It indicates primary recipient (more than one allowed), for secondary recipients Carbon
copy (Cc) and Blind Carbon Copy (Bcc) is used to make the data individual to other recipient.
The "To:" field is similar to the addressing at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered
according to the address on the outer envelope. Many e-mail clients will mark e-mail in the
inbox differently depending on whether the addresses are in the “To:” or “Cc:” list.
Subject: A brief summary of the message.
Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Many email clients fill this in
automatically when sending. The recipient's client may then display the time in the format and
time zone local to her.
Message-ID: It is also an automatically generated field used to prevent multiple deliveries and
for reference in “In-Reply-To”. The In-Reply-To is used to link related messages together.
ii) Body: The e-mail clients generally allow the use of either plain text or HTML for the message
body at the option of the user. HTML e-mail messages often include an automatically-generated
plain text copy as well, for reason of compatibility. The body sometimes contains a signature
block at the end. This is exactly the same as the body of a regular letter. The header is separated
from the body by a blank line.
Advantages of HTML extend to the ability to include inline links and images, to set apart
previous messages in block quotes, wrap naturally on any display, use emphasis such as
underlines and italics, and change font styles. Its disadvantages include- the increased size of the
email, privacy concerns about web bugs, abuse of HTML email as a vector for phishing attacks
and the spread of malicious software. Mailing lists commonly insist that all posts to be made in
plain-text for all the above reasons. Again, a significant number of readers using text-based e-
mail clients. So, avoiding HTML can guarantee delivering the email.
iii) Attachments: The attachments are the files that are sent through the email. Many email
systems does not allow the software or the file that contains “setup.exe” to be sent through email
as attachments.
c) Advantages and Disadvantages of Email: There are numerous ways in which people have
changed the way they communicate. E-mail is certainly one of them, particularly when others
live at a distance. E-mail provides a way to exchange information between two or more people
with no set-up costs and with little or no expense. With real time communication by meetings or
phone calls, participants have to work on the same schedule, and each participant must spend the
same amount of time in the meeting or call. E-mail allows each participant in controlling their
schedule independently.
Most information or business workers today spend from one to two hours of their
working day on e-mail: reading, ordering, sorting, and writing.
The advantages of email over post offices are –
i) Its high speed;
ii) No cost of paper envelop and postal system;
iii) The system provides surety of the delivery of mail because if the mail is not delivered due to
some reason then the undelivered mail bounces back to the sender, mostly within minutes.
iv) The email also allows to attach word processing document, picture, graphic, video etc.

The disadvantages of email are: it is a push technology i.e the sender controls who receives the
information. Convenient availability of mailing lists and use of "copy all" can lead to people
receiving unwanted or irrelevant information of no use to them. The other problems include
Information overload, spamming (unsolicited commercial or bulk e-mail) computer viruses, e-
mail bombardment (the intentional sending of large volumes of messages to a target address),
phishing (the criminally fraudulent process of attempting to acquire sensitive information such as
usernames, passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an
electronic communication), e-mail worms (using e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into
vulnerable computers) and E-mail spoofing (when the header information of an email is altered
to make the message appear to come from a known or trusted source. It is often used as a trick to
collect personal information).

E-documents
E-documents: The term e-document or e-text is a broader term that includes the document in
ASCII text format. It may be content from a website, blog, wiki, discussion forum, discussion
group, online journal and so on.
The salient features of electronic documents are:
i) They can be delivered to the desktop (although the desktop needs a computer)
ii) They can be read by more than one person at a time.
iii) The text can be searched.
iv) They can include multimedia and graphics, in color, at marginal cost.
v) They can be published more quickly than paper publications.
vi) They can be interactive; that is, they can foster an online exchange of ideas by e-mail.
vii) Have the ability to make hyperlinks, both internally and to other publications. This means
that readers can link directly to references cited in an article and also, with additional effort on
the part of publishers and indexers, to later articles that cite the article they are reading.
viii) Articles can be retrieved directly through links from abstracting and indexing databases.
ix) The content can be reproduced, forwarded, modified leading to possible problems with
copyright protection and preserving authenticity.
The main disadvantage is that, unless they are also printed on paper, they require
specialized equipment for reading.
a) E-journal: E-Journal is an all-electronic, peer-reviewed periodical in a specific field or in a
general field of interest. In the E-Journal environment the creation, transmission,
storage, interpretation, alteration and replication of electronic "text" including
"display" takes place in electronic form. Some electronic journals are online-only
journals; some are online versions of printed journals, and some consist of the online
equivalent of a printed journal, but with additional online-only material.
Some journals are subscription-based, or allow pay-per-view access. An increasing
number of journals are now available as open access journals, requiring no subscription. Most
working paper archives and articles on personal homepages are free, as are collections in
Institutional repositories and Subject repositories.
Most electronic journals are published both in HTML and Portable Document Format
(PDF) formats, but some are available in only one of the two. Some e-journals are available
over the internet while some others are distributed on CD-ROMs, or by way of e-mail.
b) E-book: An e-book also called eBook, ebook, electronic book, is an electronic (or digital)
equivalent of a conventional printed book and is a proprietary file formats.
Some e-books are produced simultaneously with the production of a printed book, though
in many instances they may not be put on sale until later. Often, e-books are produced from pre-
existing hard-copy books, generally by document scanning, sometimes with the use of Robotic
Scanners, having the technology to quickly scan books without damaging the original print
edition. Scanning a book produces an image file, which must then be converted into text format
by an Optical Character Recognition (OCR) program. Occasionally, an e-book may also be
produced by re-entering the text from a keyboard. As a newer development, sometimes only the
e-book form is produced by the publisher; it is usually possible technically to convert this to a
printed book by short-run printing.
A writer or publisher has many options when it comes to choosing a format for
production of e-book. Formats available include, but are by no means limited to image file (.png,
.jpg), Microsoft Word or plain text files (.doc or .txt), Rich Text Format (.rtf), Hyper Text
Markup Language (HTML) (.html), Open Electronic Book Package Format (OPF), Portable
Document Format (.pdf), etc.
The hardware device used to read books in digital format is known as an e-book device or
e-book reader. The e-book reader includes FlipViewer®, Haali Reader and FBReader, Plucker,
Acrobat Reader or Adobe Reader, Mobipocket (.prc), Cybook (Bookeen), iRex iLiad (based on
eInk), Sony Reader (based on eInk), eBookwise-1150 (based on former Gemstar technology),
Jinke Hanlin Reader (based on eInk), DNL Reader (http://www.dnaml.com/), eReader (formerly
Palm Digital Media) (.pdb), etc.
Among the first Internet-only publishers of new e-books were Boson Books, Hard Shell
Word Factory and Online Originals, all founded in the mid-1990s. Online Originals was the first
e-book publisher to win mainstream book reviews (in the London Times) and a nomination for a
major literary prize (the Booker Prize). Some of the free notable e-book repositories that are
available over the web are
i) Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/).
ii) Facsimile Books & other digitally enhanced Works from: The University of Georgia Libraries
(http://fax.libs.uga.edu/).
iii) The Internet Public Library Online Texts Collection
(http://www.ipl.org/div/subject/browse/hum60.60.00/)
iv) ManyBooks.net (http://manybooks.net/)
v) Econlib (http://www.econlib.org/)
vi) Higher intellect project (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_intellect_project)
vii) epalm.org (http://www.epalm.org)
viii) Explorion (http://explorion.net/).
vix) PocketPCBooks.net (http://www.pocketpcbooks.net/)
The main advantages of e-books are
i) Searching: Text can be searched, except when represented in the form of images.
ii) Take up Little Space: Hundreds (or thousands) may be carried together on one device,
Approximately 500 average e-books can be stored on one CD (equivalent to several shelves'
worth of print books).
iii) Royalties Generation for Authors: E-books can be offered indefinitely, with no “out of
print” date, allowing authors to continue to earn royalties indefinitely, and allowing readers to
find older works by favorite authors.
iv) Zooming Facility: Type size and type face may be adjusted.
v) Backup Copy: A backup can be kept in a remote place, so cannot be lost by fire, etc.
vi) Low Cost: Can be distributed at low cost since coloring copy also does not cost much.
vii) Speedy Distribution: Distributed instantly, allowing readers to begin reading at once,
without the need to visit a bookstore.
viii) Sharing: Can be simultaneously shared with many readers.
ix) Environmentally Viable: Economically and environmentally viable by cutting down on
paper and lumber production, economically viable by cutting down on ink production
x) Preservation: Does not wear over time, no risk of damage, vandalism, etc. on the pages.
Some of the disadvantages of e-books are:
i) Can be incompatible with the development of new hardware or software.
ii) To avoid damage or loss care must be taken in handling and storage of the books.
iii) Continuous reading can be harmful to the eyes.
iv) Always need some equipment to read the book.
Since the late 1990s, the many newcomers to e-book publishing have included most
major print publishers. At the same time, many established e-publishers started to offer print
versions of some of their titles. Thus the line between the two is fast blurring.
E-books have their own bestseller lists, including those compiled by IDPF and
Fictionwise. They even have two yearly awards for excellence in e-books. The longest-standing
and most inclusive of these is the EPPIE award, given by EPIC since 2000. The other is the
Dream Realm Award, first awarded to speculative fiction e-books in 2002.
Duties and Responsibilities of the Librarian
Duties and Responsibilities of the Librarian: The main duties and responsibilities of the
librarians are as follows
a) Policy Formulation: The librarian is to formulate and administer policies, rules and
regulation for the purpose of securing the most complete use of the library and to participate in
the formulation of educational policies of the parent organization.
b) Ex Officio Member: The librarian acts as an ex officio member of all the academic bodies of
the parent organization.
c) Library Budget: The librarian has the responsibility to prepare and execute the annual budget
of the library.
d) Library Documents: He is responsible for all the professional job related to selection,
acquisition, classification, cataloguing and maintenance of the library documents.
e) Library Service: The librarian is also responsible for providing the various types of services
such as CAS, SDI, Reference and also for creating reading habit.
f) Secretary of Library Committee: He acts as a secretary of the library committee where
he/she is responsible in preparing the agenda for the committee meeting by giving facts of each
item, to issue the library committee meeting notice and to keep the minutes of the library
committee meeting. The librarian is also responsible for keeping the library committee well
informed about the day to dayappening of the library.
vii) Library Representative: The librarian represents the library before the patrons of the library,
the general public etc and act as the chief executive of the library.
Document Delivery Service (DDS)
Document Delivery Service (DDS): The requested material for DDS may be articles from
journals, papers from conference proceedings, any other materials required for academic and
research purposes, depending on the availability. Modern computer and telecommunication
technology made it possible to transfer the electronic text of the document to long distances at
extremely fast speed.
a) Definition: DDS is concerned with the supply of document to the user on demand either in
original or its photocopies irrespective of the location and form of original document. The
Document Delivery Centre (DDC) on demand, deliver the copies of papers from learned
journals, conference proceedings and other material available in their collection. Every DDC will
also make the required effort to procure and supply the paper from other institution.
b) Need: The need for DDS felt due to ever increasing subscription cost of learned journal that
leads to a situation where no library can hold every item required to meet the needs of its user.
c) DDS Providers: The British Library Document Supply Centre, Boston and University
Microfilm International, Ann Arbor provide the DDS at international level.
In national level, INFLIBNET Centre in collaboration with the following universities
provides DDS. The role of INFLIBNET here is mainly to act as a catalyst in promoting this
service.
* Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi: For the region of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh.
* University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad: For the region of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, West Bengal.
* Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore: For Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadeep, Pondicherry,
Tamilnadu.
* Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi: Covers Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan.
* Punjab University, Chandigarh: Covers Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Punjab.
* Tata Institute of Social Science, Mumbai: Includes Diu and Daman, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
d) Placing Request and Delivering the Material: The request, listing the items required with
complete bibliographical information are generally made using Email, normal letter by post, fax,
telephone (in case of urgency) or requests in person. The delivery is also made accordingly.
e) Charging Pattern: Some DDS services are provided on No Profit – No Loss Basis while
others are on profit. Each Document Delivery Centre makes best effort to deliver the requested
materials as early as possible. The fee for the service is charged depending on the type of
members and mode of delivery (electronic copies through email / print out copy of electronic
document / photocopy (Xerox) of printed material by hand scanning the printed page through
electronic / photocopy of printed material by Fax / Courier / speed post). The members and
associated member libraries of DDC can make the payment on supply of requested materials.
However, there is some time bound to settle the account. All non-member, commercial
organizations and individuals will have to pay in advance. To avoid the delay and paper work, in
many case it is suggested that a deposit account with a minimum of amount may be opened. In
today’s era many DDC also have the facility of online transfer of money through credit card or
internet banking while some others are still functioning by taking account of the Demand Draft,
cheque or by cash.
f) Let Us Sum Up: The requesting library / individual for the DDS will have to follow the
copyright regulations and therefore will have to give an undertaking in the request itself that the
requested material will be used only for academic and research purpose and not for any
commercial gains.
Discussion Groups
Discussion Groups: A group is an electronic mailing group that exchanges ideas and thoughts
on a wide variety of topics or on a single topic of mutual interest via email messages on an
Internet site. An individual subscriber can join a discussion group electronically, and all
messages sent to the group are distributed to the members by email. In mailing list the user posts
a query and every member gets a mail and a few would answer replying everyone through the
forum or personally to the user. In the web based group, there will be a space on web for the
users to discuss. Many groups have archives on the Web.
According to NetSetGo Marketing (www.netsetgo.com/glossary.php) a discussion group
is “a Web that supports interactive discussions by users. Users submit topics or responses by
entering text in a form”.
According to Vikont Solutions corp. (www.vikont.com/clients/glossary.htm) it is “a
particular section within the USENET system typically, though not always, dedicated to a
particular subject of interest. Also known as a newsgroup”.
A LIS-Server or mail server is a discussion group created to share ideas and knowledge
on as subject. Lisserver is the most common list server programme. Discussion groups are
usually created and monitored by some one with an interest in that subject and are open to
anyone. One can just join the list simply by sending an appropriate worded email request to the
list. The programme automatically reads your email address and adds one to the circulation list.
A message sent to the list is copied and then forwarded by email to every person who subscribes
to the list.
a) Features of a Discussion Group: A discussion group has the following features-
i) Subscribing to a Group: There are many groups over the web even in some minute topics of
interest. So, you have the choice of choosing the right group that meets your need and
expectation.
Determine the Mode of Subscription: Many of the users of discussion group or e-list now a days
are overwhelmed by the number of discussion group mails they receive demanding more
sophisticated approach to categorize and as a result many groups offer a "Digest" mode, where
one receives just one message a day with postings as attachments.
Message Filters: Most modern mail programs have message filters to direct all discussion group
postings into designated mail subfolders for reading and managing discussion groups much
easier.
ii) Composing and Posting a Quality Message: Before making a new query in the discussion
group please keep in mind the following things-
* Reading Posting Guidelines: Many discussion groups have their own specific guidelines for
what is allowed. Generally, after joining a group it sends the general posting guideline to the new
subscriber of the group and before posting a message to a discussion group all such posting
guidelines should be read carefully.
* Aware of the Aims and Objective of the Group: Only that message should be posted to a group
that meets its aim and objectives. Personal invitation like marriage and others should strictly be
avoided for being considered for posting and all others that are not related to the aim and
objectives of the groups in consideration.
* Avoid Duplication of Post: If you are a new member of a particular mail based discussion
group and the group has a search provision and an online archive, then before posting, it is
advisable to make a query search to find out whether such a posting is made earlier or not.
Duplication in query should be avoided.
* Stop Forwarding Your Subscription: Some people send the email and newsletter that they
received as a subscription from some other sites. Some even go further and copy and paste some
portion of some web sites periodically and post it to the group. Such bad practices must be
avoided.
* Aware of Audience: Think carefully about message’s audience. Before posting a message to a
discussion group keep it in mind that you are addressing millions of potential readers on the web
with different degree of expertise. Many groups have also archives on the Web and if it is then
the posting message may attract millions of reader in the coming days.
* Original Message: Your post or message should say something new and substantial. The
message that you are going to post will represent your profession, organization and yourself in a
wide public. In all cases, your participation in a discussion or contribution is judged by the
quality of your message or query. You can either create a good professional reputation, or
permanently damage your image and credibility by posting just a single message.
* Descriptive Title: Concise and descriptive subject titles should be used.
* Framing the Message: Take much time to phrase the message well, and spell correctly, use any
appropriate references if needed and recheck it before posting.
* Introduce Yourself in the Message: If you are new to the group, then it is better to introduce
yourself in front of the group member before the message or by giving all essential details about
you at the end of the message.
iii) Responding Properly: In posting a query or an answer or participating in a debate others
should be treated with respect; insult and sending an angry message should be avoided. Also as
message does not carry the clues of what is there in face-to-face conversation, so humor and
sarcasm can be easily misunderstood in a message and this should always be kept in mind.
 Activity

1) Register yourself in any one

Google Group that matches
your interest.

b) Concerns: Discussion group creates following concerns-

i) Lots of Email in the Email Inbox: Many subscribers receive a lot of email message a day as a
result of their subscription to some mailing groups, and it is not possible for them to go through
each and every email and even it becomes hard job to give replays to them. So, in many cases
they delete the emails by going through the subject only. So, if you know the expert who may
answer to the question you want to send to a discussion group it is better to send it personally to
the intended audience.
ii) Spamming: One should generally avoid posting the same message to multiple discussions. As
there are many people who subscribe to multiple discussion groups which come under their
purview of subject area this activity can make them offended.
Commercial messages, sexual and the like are considered unwanted content for posting
and these should be avoided.
iii) Auto Responders: At the time of subscribing to a discussion group or e-list it is better not to
configure an automated response to one’s mailbox, such as for vacation notices or other as it may
cause problems with any reflectors or mailing lists one is subscribed to. Or if it is desirable to
configure an automated response for vacation message then the subscription to the mailing list
should be deactivated.
c) Examples: There are many discussion groups on a wide subject area in the public arena. A lot
of free discussion groups are hosted by Google groups (http://groups.google.co.in), Yahoo!
Groups (http:// in.groups.yahoo.com). If you are planning to host your own discussion group, in
determining the hosting service for the group the facility of online archive, subscription option,
speed, etc. should be taken care of. We recommend you to use Google Groups for this purpose.

Discussion Forum
Discussion Forum: An Internet forum, or message board or discussion forum, is a web
application for discussion that manages user-generated contents in a manner that is easy-to-
browse and search. Recent development in some popular implementations of forum software has
brought social network features and functionality. Such features include personal galleries, pages
as well as a social network like chat systems.
The forum consists of a tree like directory structure containing at the lowest end topics
(commonly called threads) and inside them posts. Logically forums are organised into a finite set
of generic topics (usually with one main topic) driven and updated by a group known as
members, and governed by a group known as moderators. By default to be an Internet forum, the
web application needs an ability to submit threads and replies. Forum software may sometimes
allow categories or subforums.
Each forum offers different features, from the most basic, providing text-only postings, to
more advanced packages, offering multimedia support and formatting code (usually known as
BBCode). Many forum packages can be integrated easily into an existing website to allow
visitors to post comments on articles.
Internet forum originated as the modern equivalent of a traditional bulletin board. Early
Internet forums could be described as a web version of a newsgroup or electronic mailing list
(many of which were commonly called Usenet) that were common from the late 1970s to the
1990s allowing people to post messages and comment on other messages.
One significant difference between forums and electronic mailing lists is that mailing lists
automatically deliver new messages to the subscriber, while forums require the member to visit
the website and check for new posts. Because members may miss replies in threads they are
interested in, many modern forums offer an "e-mail notification" feature, whereby members can
choose to be notified of new posts in a thread, and web feeds that allow members to see a
summary of the new posts using aggregator software.
The main difference between newsgroups and forums is that additional software, a
newsreader, is required to participate in newsgroups. Visiting and participating in forums
normally requires no additional software beyond the web browser.
The chronological older-to-newer view is generally associated with forums (the newer to
older being associated more akin to blogs).
Forums differ from chat rooms and instant messaging wherein participants do not have to
be online simultaneously to receive or send messages. Messages posted to a forum or Usenet are
publicly available for some time, which is uncommon in chat rooms that maintain frequent
activity.
The discussion forums are marketed through blog, posting message to online groups and
so on so that the user knows its existence and can arrive at it.
a) Forum Features: A discussion forum has the following features:
i) Registration: In the United States and some parts of Europe, most Internet forums require
registration to post. Registered users of the site are referred to as members and are allowed to
submit or send electronic messages through the web application. The process of registration
involves verification of one's age (typically over 12 as required so as to meet COPPA
requirements of American forum software) followed by a declaration of the terms of service
(other documents may also be present) and a request for agreement to said terms.
In areas such as China and Japan, registration is frequently optional and anonymity is
sometimes even encouraged. On these forums, a tripcode system may be used to allow
verification of an identity without the need for formal registration.
An unregistered user of the site is commonly known as a guest or visitor. A guest can
usually view the contents of the forum or use such features as read marking, but occasionally an
administrator will disallow visitors to read their forum as an incentive to become a registered
member.
ii) Subscription Options: A subscription is a form of automated notification integrated into the
software of most of the forums. It usually notifies either by email or on the site when the member
returns. The option to subscribe is available for every thread while logged in. Subscriptions work
with read marking, namely the property of unread which is given to the content never served to
the user by the software.
To stay with the post or comments many forums generated their RSS feed. RSS and
ATOM feeds allow a means of subscribing to the forum. Common implementations only allow
RSS feeds listing the last few threads updated for the forum index and the last posts in a thread.
iii) Rules and Policies on Forums: Forums are governed by a set of individuals, collectively
referred to as staff, made up of administrators and moderators, which are responsible for the
forums' conception, technical maintenance, and policies (creation and enforcing). Most forums
have a list of rules detailing the wishes, aim and guidelines of the forums’ creators. There is
usually a FAQ section containing basic information for new members and the people not yet
familiar with the use and principles of a forum. Forum rules are maintained and enforced by the
moderation team, but the users are allowed to help out via what is known as a report system.
iv) Thread: A thread (sometimes called a topic) is a collection of posts, usually displayed – by
default – from oldest to latest (options to order threads by other criteria are generally available).
A thread is defined by a title, an additional description that may summarize the intended
discussion and the comments. The members (sometimes even to anonymous users) are presented
with a web form to fill in requesting at the very least: a username (an alias), password, email and
validation of a CAPTCHA code and the post (message) or comments to existing message as
threads. So, a thread consists of the original post (OP) and the discussion or comments on it. A
thread can contain any number of posts, including multiple posts from the same members, even
if they are one after the other.
Post: A post is a user submitted message enclosed into a block containing the user's details and
the date and time it was submitted. Members are usually allowed to edit or delete their own
posts. Posts are contained in threads, where they appear as boxes one after another. The first post
starts the thread; this may be called the original post (OP). Posts that follow in the thread are
meant to continue discussion about that post, or respond to other replies; it is not uncommon for
discussions to be derailed.
Discussion: Forums prefer a premise of open and free discussion and often adopts de facto
standards. Most common topics on forums include questions, comparisons, opinion polls as well
as debates.
Attachment: An attachment can be almost any file. When someone attaches a file to a post they
are uploading the file to the forums' server. Forums usually have very strict limit on what can be
attached and what cannot be (among which the size of the files in question).
v) Invitation: Most forums have an option to send invitation by the members of the forum to
those who are still not members of the particular forum. Sometimes, the forum gives credit
(sometimes rewards are implied) to those who help the community to grow.
vi) Administrator: The administrators manage the technical details required for running the site.
As such, they may promote (and demote) members to moderators, manage the rules, create
sections and sub-sections, as well as perform any database operations (database backup etc).
Administrators also often act as moderators. Administrators may also make forum-wide
announcements, or change the appearance (known as the skin) of a forum.
This level of content manipulation is reserved for moderators or administrators on most
forums.
vii) Moderation Activity: The moderators are the users of the forum who are granted access to the
posts and threads of all members for the purpose of moderating discussion and also for keeping
the forum clean. Moderators also answer the users' concerns about the forum, general questions,
as well as respond to specific complaints. They also can do anything to lend a helping hand to a
user in need. Moderators themselves may have ranks: some may be given mod privileges over
only a particular topic or section, while others (called 'global' or 'super') may be allowed access
anywhere. Common privileges of moderators include: deleting, merging, moving, and splitting
of posts and threads, locking, renaming, stickying of threads, banning, suspending,
unsuspending, unbanning, warning the members, or adding, editing, removing the polls of
threads.
Assigning Privileges to Members: Many forums organise visitors and logged in members into
user groups. Privileges and rights are given based on these groups by the moderators.
Issuing Report about Post: Moderators issue a report when some post are not considered for
posting. It may be due to the fact that the post is against the rules or its offending contents. All
such posts are usually deleted.
Punishments to Members: The moderator sometime also gives punishment when rules are broken
by the users or members. First a warning is usually given; this is commonly in the form of a
private message. Subsequently, if the act is ignored and warnings do not work, the member is –
usually – first exiled from the forum for a number of days. Denying someone access to the site is
called a ban. Bans can mean the person can no longer log in or even view the site anymore. If the
offender, after the warning sentence, repeats the offense, another ban is given, usually this time a
longer one. Continuous harassment of the site eventually leads to a permanent ban. However, in
most cases this simply means the account is locked. In extreme cases where the offender – after
being permanently banned – creates another account and continues to harass the site,
administrators will apply an IP ban (this can also be applied at the server level): if the IP is static,
the machine of the offender is prevented from accessing the site. In some extreme circumstances,
IP range bans or country bans can be applied; however, this is usually for political, licensing or
other reasons.
Topic Locking: Sometimes if the topic is answered, it is locked; often a poster may request a
topic expected to draw problems to be locked as well, although the moderators decide whether to
grant it. In a locked thread, members cannot post anymore.
Deleting Thread: The old and not used topics may be deleted.
viii) Archive: Many discussion forums have online archive feature so that if the discussions are
old and not used at all it goes to the archive. The archive can be retrieved at any time using
search features or browsing through categories and sub-categories.
ix) Statistics Generation: Most forums keep track of a user's postcount. The postcount is a
measurement of how many posts a certain user has made. The users with higher postcounts are
often considered more reputable than the users with lower postcounts. However, some forums
have disabled postcounts in the hopes that doing so will reduce the emphasis on quantity over
quality of information.
A thread's popularity is measured on forums in reply (total posts minus one – the opening
post) counts. Some forums also track page views. Threads meeting a set number of posts or a set
number of views may receive a designation such as "hot thread" and be displayed with a
different icon compared to others threads. This icon may stand out more to emphasize the thread.
b) Concerns: Because of the volatile and random behavior of forum, unsocial behavior is easily
sprouted as people lose temper, especially if the topic is controversial. Poor understanding of
differences in values of the participants is a common problem on forums. Because replies to a
topic are often wording aimed at someone's point of view, discussion will usually go slightly off
into several directions as people question each others validity, sources and so on. Circular
discussion and ambiguity in replies can carry out arguments for several tens of posts of a thread
eventually ending when everyone gives up or another similar debate takes it over. The main
concerns are -
i) Troll: A troll is a user that repeatedly and intentionally breaches netiquette, often posting
derogatory or otherwise inflammatory messages about sensitive topics in an established online
community to bait users into responding, often starting flame wars.
ii) Sock Puppet: It refers to someone who is simultaneously registered under different
pseudonyms on a particular message board or forum.
iii) Forum Spamming: It is a breach of netiquette where users repeat the same word or phrase
over and over, but differs from multiple posting in that spamming is usually a willful act which
sometimes has malicious intent.
iv) Double Posting: It’s the posting the same message twice. Users sometimes post versions of a
message that are only slightly different, especially in forums where they are not allowed to edit
their earlier posts. Multiple posting instead of editing prior posts can artificially inflate a user's
post count. Multiple posting can be unintentional; a user's browser might display an error
message even though the post has been transmitted or a user of a slow forum might become
impatient and repeatedly hit the submit button.
v) Cross posting: A user may also send the same post to several forums, which is termed cross
posting. The term derives from Usenet, where crossposting was an accepted practice; however, it
causes problems in web forums.
vi) Bumping: When a member posts in a thread for no reason but to have it go to the top, it is
referred to as a bump or bumping.
vii) Flame Wars: When the discussion becomes heated and sides do nothing more than complain
and would not accept the differences in each other’s point of view, the discussion degenerates
into what is called a flame war. To flame someone means to go off-topic and attack the person
rather than their opinion. Likely candidates for flame wars are usually religion and socio-political
topics, or topics that discuss pre-existing rivalries outside of the forum.
c) Examples: People participating in an Internet forum may cultivate social bonds. A sense of
virtual community often develops around forums that have regular users.
i) 4chan (http://www.4chan.org/): 4chan is a simple image-based bulletin board where anyone
can post comments and share images. Different boards are dedicated to different topics, from
Japanese anime, manga, and culture to videogames, music, and photography. Users do not need
to register a username before participating in the community.
ii) Gaia Online (http://www.gaiaonline.com/forum/): Gaia Online was founded in 2003. Gaia's
forum is a place where millions of members gather to discuss random stuff, make new friends,
complain about life, argue about nothing, laugh at dumb pictures, discuss serious issues and/or
curse like sailors.
iii) Something Awful (http://forums.somethingawful.com/): Something Awful, often abbreviated
to SA, is a comedy website housing a variety of content, including blog entries, forums, feature
articles, digitally edited pictures, and humorous media reviews. The site is home to a collection
of Internet forums, which charge an initial registration fee of US$9.95 and fees ranging from
US$4.99 to US$29.99 for additional features. If a user is banned by administrators, the fees for
initial registration and all additional features are not reimbursed.
iv) The Student Room (http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/): The Student Room (TSR), known
from 2001 until 2004 as UK Learning, is a United Kingdom-based internet forum for school and
university students. The site currently has over 300,000 members and more than nineteen million
posts.
v) Neowin Forums (http://www.neowin.net/forum/): Neowin.net is a technology news site that
actively focuses on Windows, Mac and Linux. The Neowin forums are Powered by Invision
Power Board forum software. Neowin has an active technology forum consisting of over
236,000 registered users and over 9 million posts.
Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)
Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): DMCA is a United States copyright law that
implements two 1996 treaties of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). Passed on
October 12, 1998 by a unanimous vote in the United States Senate and signed into law by
President Bill Clinton on October 28, 1998, the DMCA extended the reach of copyright, while
limiting the liability of the providers of on-line services for copyright infringement by their
users.
It criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices, or services intended
to circumvent measures (commonly known as digital rights management or DRM) that control
access to copyrighted works. It also criminalizes the act of circumventing an access control,
whether or not there is actual infringement of copyright itself. In addition, the DMCA heightens
the penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet.
Digital Media Preservation and Conservation Techniques
Digital Media Preservation and Conservation Techniques: Digital preservation is defined as a
long-term, error-free storage and management of digital information, with means for retrieval
and interpretation. Digital preservation requires more constant and ongoing attention than
preservation of other media. This constant input of effort, time, and money to handle rapid
technological and organizational advance is considered the main stumbling block for preserving
digital information. Indeed, while we are still able to read our written heritage from several
thousand years ago, the digital information created merely a decade ago is in serious danger of
being lost, creating a digital Dark Age. The following two terminologies are used in conjunction
with digital preservation
a) Digital Curation: Digital curation is the selection, preservation, maintenance, and collection
and archiving of digital assets. It is the process of establishing and developing long term
repositories of digital assets for current and future reference by researchers, scientists, and
historians, and scholars generally.
b) Digital Obsolescence: Digital obsolescence is a situation where a digital resource is no longer
readable because the physical media (modes of digital encoding, data –storage medium,
standards for encoding images and films), the reader required to read the media, the hardware, or
the software (operating systems and general or specialized software) that runs on it is no longer
available.
Digital technology is developing extremely fast, and one retrieval and playback
technology can become obsolete in a matter of years. When faster, more capable and cheaper
storage and processing devices are developed, the older version gets replaced almost
immediately. Even different computer "standards" are only for some time, and in the end are
always replaced by new versions of the software or completely new hardware.

Terms
Obsolescence: The state of
becoming out of fashion and no
longer useful.

Only continual forward-migration of files and information to the latest data-storage

standards can address the issue of digital obsolescence. File formats should be widespread,
backward compatible, often upgraded, and, ideally, open format. The National Initiative for a
Networked Cultural Heritage cites uncompressed Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) and Portable
Document Format (PDF) (for images) and American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) and Rich Text Format (RTF) (for text) as “de facto” formats that are unlikely to be
rendered obsolete in the near future.
The preservation of digital media includes the following techniques-
a) Avoiding Physical Deterioration of Media: The media on which digital contents are stored
are more vulnerable to deterioration and catastrophic loss than some analog media such as paper.
While acid paper is prone to deterioration in terms of brittleness and yellowness, the
deterioration does not become apparent for at least six decades; and when the deterioration
begins, it progresses slowly. It is also highly possible to retrieve all information without loss after
deterioration is spotted. The recording media for digital data deteriorate at a much more rapid
pace, and once the deterioration starts, in most cases there is already data loss. This characteristic
of digital forms leaves a very short time frame for preservation decisions and actions. So it
should be avoided as far as possible by maintaining an appropriate environmental condition.
b) Refreshing: Refreshing is the task of transferring contents between two types of the same
storage medium. Sometimes transferring the data from one long term storage medium to another
is also termed as refreshing. It addresses the issues related to media obsolescence. Examples
include transferring contents from floppy to CD and then to DVD and then to Blue ray and so on.
Transfersing census data from an old preservation CD to a new one is also one example of
refreshing.
The refreshing strategy may need to be combined with migration when the software or
hardware required to read the data is no longer available or is unable to understand the format of
the data. Refreshing will always be necessary due to the deterioration of physical digital media.
c) Replication: Replication is the process of creating multiple copies of the digital document and
keeping them in multiple locations. Sometimes it is the best means of preserving cultural
resources by lowering the risk of loss. Data that exists as a single copy in only one location is
highly vulnerable to software or hardware failure, intentional or accidental alteration, and
environmental catastrophes like fire, flooding, earthquake, etc. Digital data is more likely to
survive if it is replicated in several locations. This goal may be facilitated by following standards
and guidelines that mandate producing a master copy for long-term storage and preservation, and
producing used copies derived from the master copy in the format that best satisfies the users’
needs.
d) Bit-stream Copying (Backing up data): Backing up data refers to the process of making an
exact duplicate of the original digital object and it should be followed by remote storage so that
the original and the copy document does not become victims of the same disastrous event. This
is an essential preservation strategy for data loss due to hardware and media failure, normal
malfunction and decay, malicious destruction or natural disaster.
e) Migration: The biggest problem to the digital media preservation is the storage format
evaluation and its obsolescence. Migration can address this issue. It is the transferring of data to
newer system environments and the process of transferring information from one generation
computer system to the next available computer generation that is advanced in nature. It also
deals with the process of transferring information from one obsolete file format to a new
standard file format. This may include conversion of resources from one file format to another
(e.g. conversion of Microsoft Word to PDF or Open Document), from one operating system to
another (e.g., Windows to Linux) or from one programming language to another (e.g., C to Java)
so that the resources remain fully accessible and functional. Resources that are migrated face the
risk of losing some type of functionality since newer formats may be incapable of capturing all
the functionality of the original format, or the converter itself may be unable to interpret all the
functionality of the original format. The latter is often a concern with proprietary data formats.
f) Emulation: Emulation uses emulator, a special kind of software that translates code and
instructions from one computing environment (original obsolete software) to execute in a new
platform so that the digital form can be viewed and used.
Emulation is the replicating of functionality of an obsolete system. Examples include
emulating an Atari 2600 on a Windows system or emulating WordPerfect 1.0 on a Macintosh.
Emulators may be built for applications, operating systems, or hardware platforms. Emulation
has been a popular strategy for retaining the functionality of old video game systems, such as
with the MAME project.
g) Metadata Attachment: Metadata is data on a digital file that includes information on
creation, access rights, restrictions, preservation history, and rights management. Metadata
attached to digital files may be affected by file format obsolescence. ASCII is considered to be
the most durable format for metadata because it is widespread, backwards compatible when used
with Unicode, and utilizes human-readable character, not numeric codes. It retains information,
but not the structure information it is presented in. For higher functionality, Standard Generalized
Markup Language (SGML) or Extensible Markup Language (XML) should be used. Both
markup languages are stored in ASCII format, but contain tags that denote structured format. The
long term storage of digital information is assisted by the inclusion of preservation metadata.
h) Analogue Backups: It is the process of the conversion of digital objects into analogue format.
It is useful to the document that deserves the highest level of merit and protection from being
lost. The analogue backup of printed document can be created by taking a printout of the
document and then binding it.
i) Technology Preservation (Computer Museum): It deals with the preservation of the
technology in which the digital information was created and maintained. It deals with the issues
of preserving the technology including hardware and software configuration. It is very helpful in
extending access to media obsolescence and file formats.
j) Digital Archaeology: Digital archaeology includes methods and procedures to rescue the
content from damaged media, hardware or software environments.
Digital Library :Digital Library: The IT has almost converted the whole world into a
global village. The revolution in the IT sector is influencing the information industry at its
peak and revolutionized the concept of libraries where it has been used extensively to
record, store, and disseminate the information in the digital form. Each and every library
step by step shifts over to this dimension to meet the demand put on it.
If one considers that the information is for use and for all then why should not
libraries be for all? Why should libraries not become universal for all those who seek
information, considering that a large number of organization in the USA and Europe has
already more or less switched over to digital mode i.e. they are making the digitized images
of periodical which are not available in electronic format and there after no new
procurement are being made on print media. Example of such organization are University of
Micrographic Inc (UMI of USA), National Institute of Scientific and Technical Information
(INIST of France), etc.
A twenty first century library if not at all digitized, has at least a section devoted to
accessing the growing collection of computer readable materials, the subscribed bibliographic
and full text database, E-Journal, etc. for the end user. Along with the access of the subscribed
databases it also provides the Internet browsing and searching, E-Mail, Chat, Video
Conferencing facilities to the user. Sometimes it also provides OPAC terminals. The downloaded
articles can be printed upon request. Back issues of selected journals and newspapers are also
available in some library as microfiche or microfilm, with readers and printers provided for
access. All these collection together constitute the digital library.
A digital library is nothing but a large database of organized collection of multimedia,
data that are globally available directly or indirectly across a network and eventually act as a
portal site providing access to digital collections held elsewhere for the people who are working
on hypertext environment.
Electronic resources accessible on the web for free or for a fee are undeniably major and
important constituent of a digital library. To build a digital library all these resources need to go
through the process of selection, acquisition (by way of linking) and management. The
information contents of a digital library, depending on the media type, may include a
combination of structured / unstructured text, numerical data, scanned images, graphics, audio
and video recordings. Different types of resources need to be handled differently in digital
library environment.
1. Definition: In 1938 H. G. Wells dreamed of a world encyclopedia in which all-human
knowledge would be available elsewhere. Today Internet in collaboration with digital libraries
are moving fast to fulfill the dream of H. G. Wells.
The term "Digital Library" has a variety of potential meanings, ranging from a digitized
collection of material that one might find in a traditional library to the collection of all digital
information along with the services that make that information useful to all possible users. In
simple a DL is a library having all it’s holding in the digital form or in a form that can be stored,
processed by the computer system. It is nothing but a large database for the people who are
working on hypertext environment. It is a system of organized collection of multimedia, data that
are globally available directly or indirectly across a network.
According to Lesk (1997) “Digital libraries are organized collections of digital
information. They combine the structuring and gathering of information, which libraries and
archives have always done, with the digital representation that computers have made possible”.
 According to Arms a digital library is a managed collection of information with
associated services where the information is stored in digital format and accessible over a
network.
The digital library federation in the USA defines the digital library as Digital libraries are
organizations that provide the resources, including the specialized staff, to select, structure, offer
intellectual access to, interpret, distribute, preserve the integrity of, and ensure the persistence
over time of collections of digital works so that they are readily and economically available for
use by a defined community or set of communities.
A digital library is a library in which a significant proportion of the resources are
available in machine-readable format (as opposed to print or microform), accessible by means of
computers. The digital content may be locally held or accessed remotely via computer networks.
It comprises digital collections, services and infrastructure to support lifelong learning, research,
scholarly communication and preservation. It is an environment which supports full life cycle of
creation, storage, preservation, dissemination and use of data, and information. It is a process of
democratization of information.
Project Gutenberg, Google Book Search, Cornell University, The Library of Congress
World Digital Library, The Digital Library at the University of Michigan, and CMU's Universal
Library are considered leaders in the field of digital archive creation and management.
2. Characteristic: A digital library is an organized collection of digitized material or its holding
in the digital form which can be accessible by a computer on the network by using TCP/IP or
other protocol. The main characteristics of digital libraries are as follows
a) The function of acquisition, storage, preservation, retrieval is carried out through the use of
digital technology.
b) Organized collection of information objects may be a digital text or any other.
c) Resources are available in computer readable form.
d) Access to the entire collection is globally available directly or indirectly across network.
e) Support users in dealing with information objects.
3. Need for a Digital Library: Digital libraries are needed to provide quality based service at the
user desktop.
a) Easy to Understand: The visual or graphical information system of digital libraries is more
popular as compared to text based information system.
b) Shifting of the Environment: The new generation user becomes only happy when they will be
able to read from the computer screen. The new generation whose demand for information is
never met demands that traditional libraries should be developed as a well equipped and
interconnected DL.
c) Multiple Function of Same Information: In case of digital libraries by using hypertext it is
possible to structure and organize the same digital information in a variety of ways which serve
multiple functions.
d) Information Explosion: Digital library is expected to be able to handle the problem of
information explosion somehow. It will be able to handle and manage large amount of digital
content by simply providing link, without actually procuring the document.
e) Searching Problem in Traditional Libraries: By using digital library one will be able to
retrieve information specifically for e.g. a particular image, photo, a definition, etc.
f) Distance Learning: Time is a major factor for each modern user of the library which is
otherwise spent in coming and going to the library, but digitization will facilitate learning from
home, office or other places which are convenient to users.
g) To Provide Access to Online Publication: As more and more information are published over
internet, digital library needs to procure and provide link to the online publication and other
important sources of information.
h) Limited Buying Power of Libraries: The collection of every library is limited to only a
fraction of the total. Introduction of digital library will help to enhance the collection
considerably.
i) Storage Problem in Traditional Libraries: Libraries are spending much of its budget by way
of maintaining the collection in a usable form that also demands a huge physical space.
Digitization hopes to overcome this. Digital Medias comes with a huge storage capacity.
j) Low Cost of Technology: The cost of technologies is much more less than that of traditional
libraries.
k) Environmental Factor: The use of digital libraries is one of the cleanest technologies to fulfill
the slogan “Burn a CD-ROM save a tree”.
4. Requirement for Digital Libraries: The internet and World Wide Web provide the impetus
and technological environment for the development and operation of a digital library. The
internet provides the TCP/IP and or its associated protocol for accessing the information and web
provides tools and technique for publishing the information over internet. Still, for introducing
any digital libraries, the following infrastructure will be needed:-
a) Computer Hardware: Server, P.C. with multimedia, U.P.S. Etc
b) Software: Any suitable software from GSDL, DSpace, etc which is interconnected and
suitable for LAN and WAN connection.
c) Network: LAN, MAN, WAN, etc.
d) Printer: Laser printer, Dot matrix, Barcode printer, Digital graphic printer, etc.
e) Scanner: H.P. Scan jet, flatbed, Sheet feeder, Drum scanner, Slide scanner, Microfilming
scanner, Digital camera, Barcode scanner etc
f) Storage Devices: Optical storage device, CD-ROM, juke box, etc. As in the digital
environment it is reasonable to say that a central back up or archive should be created at the
national level which will store information out put of the region as well as information from out
side the country.
g) Other Audio Visual Aid: Color T.V., V.C.R., D.V.D., Sound box, Telephone, etc.
h) Humanware: Well trained manpower for online help.
The use of search engines, Optical Character Recognition and metadata will allow digital
library to operate.
5. Resources of a Digital Library: The resources of a digital library are those, which the
computer can store, organize, transmit and display without any intervening conversion process.
The resources of a digital library mainly consist of e-book, v-book, electronic tax, map, image,
sound, and video. The digital material may be of multimedia types or any other i.e. only digital
audio, video, full text information, photograph, drawing, digitized sound, 3D representation, etc.
The collection may include structured /unstructured text, scanned images, graphic audios, video
recording, etc. In the digital environment any one who has access to the internet can be a
publisher by merely posting messages to an online discussion group or other, so digital libraries
collection should also be enhanced with links to such resources.
a) On line Resources: Local database of traditional books in machine-readable form, E-
book, v-book, electronic tax, map, image, sound, video, and multimedia, E-journal, etc.
b) Off line Resources: C.D-ROM, Juke Box, etc.
6. Advantages of the Digital Library: A digital library is not confined to a particular location or
so called building, it is virtually distributed all over the world. The user can get his/ her
information on his own computer screen by using the internet. Actually it is a network of
multimedia system which provides finger tip access. The spoken words or the graphical display
of a digital library is again having a different impact from the words that are printed. In the new
environment owning a document will not be problem for the library because the user will pay for
its uses.
a) No Physical Boundary: The user of a digital library need not go to the library physically;
people from all over the world could gain access to the same information, as long as an Internet
connection is available.
b) Round the Clock Availability: Digital libraries can be accessed at any time, 24 hours a day
and 365 days of the year
c) Multiple Accesses: The same resources can be used at the same time by a number of users.
d) Structured Approach: Digital library provides access to much richer content in a more
structured manner i.e. we can easily move from the catalog to the particular book then to a
particular chapter and so on.
e) Information Retrieval: The user is able to use any search term bellowing to the word or
phrase of the entire collection. Digital library will provide very user friendly interfaces, giving
clickable access to its resources.
f) Preservation and Conservation: An exact copy of the original can be made any number of
times without any degradation in quality.
g) Space: Whereas traditional libraries are limited by storage space, digital libraries have the
potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little
physical space to contain them. When the library had no space for extension digitization is the
only solution.
h) Networking: A particular digital library can provide the link to any other resources of other
digital library very easily. Thus a seamlessly integrated resource sharing can be achieved.
i) Cost: The cost of maintaining a digital library is much lower than that of a traditional library. A
traditional library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance, rent, and
additional books. Digital libraries do away with these fees.
7. Disadvantages of the Digital Library: The computer viruses, lack of standardization for
digitized information, quick degrading properties of digitized material, different display standard
of digital product and its associated problem, health hazard nature of the radiation from monitor,
etc. makes digital libraries at times a handicap.
a) Copyright: Digitization violates the copy right law as the thought content of one author can
be freely transferred by others without his acknowledgement. One difficulty to overcome for
digital libraries is the way to distribute information. How does a digital library distribute
information at will while protecting the copyright of the author?
b) Speed of Access: As more and more computer are connected to the internet its speed of access
is reasonably decreasing. If new technology will not evolve to solve the problem then in near
future internet will be full of error messages.
c) Initial Cost is High: The infrastructure cost of digital library i.e. the cost of hardware,
software, leasing communication circuit is generally very high.
d) Band width: Digital library will need high bandwidth for transfer of multimedia resources but
the band with is decreasing day by day.
e) Efficiency: With the much larger volume of digital information, finding the right material for
a specific task becomes increasingly difficult.
f) Environment: Digital libraries cannot reproduce the environment of a traditional library. Many
people also find reading printed material to be easier than reading material on a computer screen.
g) Preservation: Due to technological developments, a digital library can rapidly become out-
of-date and its data may become inaccessible.
8. Role of Librarian in Digital Environment: Though the digital environment is built as a
system which can be used by its ultimate end user directly from their desk top PC but the role of
librarian cannot be overlooked. In digital environment also the librarian and information scientist
will be needed for packaging and repackaging of information, for electronic publishing, for
reference purpose, to advice the user about the strategy to identify relevant electronic sources,
etc. Thus the librarian will be more or less a hypertext engineer. In the new environment it will
be very difficult for the librarian to decide what should be organized; how to give citation; how
to organize the collection; etc because the new environment will be really challenging one for the
librarian to decide who the authors are, who the publishers are and who the users are?
9. Conclusion: Digital libraries are not going to replace the physical existence of document
completely but no doubt to meet the present demand, to satisfy the non local user digitization
must be introduced so that at least libraries becomes of hybrid nature. The initial cost of
digitization is high but experiment shows that once digitization is introduced then the cost to
manage this collection will be cheaper than that of any traditional library. Day by day the cost of
digitization is also decreasing, the online publication is increasing, the need of users are shifting
towards a different environment so it is needless to say that after one or two years all library will
shift over to digital mode, if not fully at least to some extent. So it is the pick time to all library
and informational science professional to gear them in building digital library and taking it as a
challenge.
Large scale digitization projects are underway at Google, the Million Book Project,
MSN, and Yahoo!. With continued improvements in book handling and presentation technologies
such as optical character recognition and e-books, digital libraries are rapidly growing in
popularity.
Development of Knowledge
Development of Knowledge: The various stages of growth and development of knowledge are
a) Solo Research (Pattern Research): In the early days of history, there was a great deal of
secrecy about research. So a researcher tries to carry out the research in one part of the world,
individually without knowing about what has been done elsewhere. This stage was characterized
by a large gap of research findings and its practical implication; as a result the growth of
knowledge was too slow as compared to recent times. Different individual carried out research in
different parts of the world simultaneously without communicating among themselves, so there
was a great deal of duplication of results and facts, and sheer wastage of time, resource, and
money.
b) Team Research: Nowadays research is carried out as a team effort, wherein sharing of facts,
experiences, communication, etc. is greatly encouraged.
c) Relay Research: The cross breeding of ideas among scientific investigation lead to carry out
relay research, where the experts of multiple subject work together to achieve a common end.
The relay research produces a continuous cascade of new micro subjects each stimulating
another succession in every area of subjects. This trend gives the universe of knowledge a
continuum.

Developing Library Network (DELNET)

Developing Library Network (DELNET): DELNET <http://www.delnet.nic.in/> stands for
Developing Library Network (formerly Delhi Library Network). It is the first operational library
network in India. It was started as a project of the India International Centre in January 1988
with the initial, financial and technical assistance by National Information System for Science
and Technology (NISSAT), Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Govt. of India. It
was registered as a society in June 1992 under the Societies Registration Act of 1860 and is
currently being promoted by the National Informatics Centre (NIC), Planning Commission,
Govt. of India and India International Centre, New Delhi.
a) Objectives: The main objectives of DELNET are -
a) To promote sharing of resources among the libraries by developing a network of libraries, by
collecting, storing and disseminating information and by offering computerized services to the
users.
b) To offer guidance to the member libraries on cataloguing database services, circulation,
acquisition, serials control, online services, selection of hardware and software, etc.
c) To coordinate efforts for suitable collection development and for reducing unnecessary
duplication wherever possible.
d) To establish a referral centre, to monitor and/or facilitate catalogue search and maintain a
central online union catalogue of books, serials, and non-book materials of all the participating
libraries.
e) To facilitate and promote delivery of documents manually and mechanically.
f) To develop specialist bibliographic database of books, serials and non-book materials.
g) To develop a database of projects, specialists and institutions.
h) To possess and maintain electronic and mechanical equipment for the fast communication of
information and delivery of electronic mail.
i) To coordinate with other regional, national and international networks for exchange of
information and documents.
j) To undertake, facilitate and provide for the publication of newsletters/journals devoted to
networking and sharing of resources.
b) Membership: Till 2001, DELNET had two hundred and forty three libraries as its members,
including both institutional and associate-institutional members which are 235 in India and 8
outside India.
c) Functions and Activities: The main functions and activities of DELNET are -
i) Resource Sharing: DELNET saved foreign exchange worth Rs. 10 million by rationalizing
subscriptions to foreign periodicals during 1991, 1992 and 1993 through resource sharing. This
was mainly achieved in the fields of physical science, medical science and agricultural sciences.
ii) Online Databases: DELNET has around twenty databases available online for their users
which include Union Catalogue of Books (in member libraries), Union List of Current
Periodicals, Union Catalogue of Periodicals, database of Indian Specialist (Who’s who),
multilingual Book Database, etc.
iii) DDS: DELNET members can place their inter-library loan requests through their ILL online
facility, which is available on the union catalogue of books database. In 1991, a courier service
was started on contract basis with a private agency for inter library lending among the
participating libraries but it was not very effective. Later, DELNET introduced its own courier
service with the financial help of NIC. The service is well used.
iv) Development of Software: Earlier DELNET provided CDS/ISIS software for storage and
retrival purpose, developed by UNESCO through NISSAT, but presently it is distributing its own
software DELSIS. It has also created software, viz. DELDOS and DEL-WINDOWS for creating
MARC records.
v) Standardization: A standardization committee of DELNET has been meeting from time to
time. DELNET uses CCF for interlibrary exchange of bibliographic data, accept AACR-II for
cataloguing and LCSH is recommended for thesaurus.
vi) Seminars, Conferences, Workshops and Training: DELNET also organizes national
workshops, seminars and meets on library networking from time to time. DELNET has been
organizing National Annual convention on Library and Information Networking (NACLIN)
regularly.
With the assistance of NISSAT and NIC it regularly conducts training programme on
DELNET services, software, e-mail, subject heading of library of congress, AACR II, Internet,
etc.
vii) Publications: DELNET has been publishing a newsletter since January 1994 in order to
spread the message and to increase awareness about library networking in India. It also publishes
NACLIN Proceedings, Director’s Report, etc. regularly.
viii) Mailing Lists and Forum: DELNET has created a Listserv service called DEL-LISTSERV
to provide the current awareness service to the users and allow the member libraries to receive
the latest daily information from the internet automatically in the form of electronic mail. It also
maintains other Listserv service such as Net-happenings, Med-clips, IFLA, LIBJOBS, etc.
ix) Others: DELNET System for Information Services (DELSIS) is a powerful library
networking software developed by DELNET. DELSEARCH, is again, a database access
mechanism developed by DELNET.
DELNET is the first network which provides Email service in this country that was
started in 1991. It provides this service through National Information Centre (NIC). The future of
DELNET is very promising. Its membership with India and outside India is going to take a
quantum jump. The DELNET databases are growing in number and size and as a variety of
information on South Asia these are becoming available through DELNET. It is expected that all
institutions outside India specializing in South Asian studies will take DELNET membership.
Delegation of Authority
Delegation of Authority: The term authority implies power derived from office or character or
prestige. The person or agency having authority is powerful enough to do something since he has
been authorized by a competent agency to do a certain job. Authority can also be defined as the
sum of the powers and rights entrusted to make possible the performance of the work. Possession
of authority means responsible for action. Some attributes are associated with authority. These
are ability to give reward, inflict, punishment, censor subordinates, use commands and the like.
We may define delegation as the assignment of work to another by giving him formal
authority and responsibility for carrying out specific activities. When the authority hands over
certain power to its lower unit, the higher authority is said to be delegated certain power. The
delegator does not surrender his overall responsibility, but retains the power of control. He can
even revoke his delegation and take back all the authority.
a) Delegation of Authority in Libraries: Every library is a part of a larger organization or a
parent organization. The power and authority of the library are derived from that larger or parent
body. Public libraries derive the power and authority from the government under library act and
related regulation. Academic libraries derive the power and authority from the academic
institution, they are attached to. The university library gets them from the university executive
council under the university act and regulation. A college library gets it from the governing body
of the college. Special libraries get power and authority from the organization they are related
with. More or less the administrative patterns are same in all types of libraries. The power and
authority assign to the library directly comes to the librarian. So by getting authority the librarian
is empowered to take any decision, implement it, assign work to subordinate, review and assess
their performance, take steps if performance does not comes to desires level and to act
accordingly whenever any situation arise.
The librarian himself cannot supervise all the works of the library at all levels. He cannot
make everybody responsible for the work and performance of all the employees in the library.
Therefore he delegates the power and authority he has inherited. The librarian surrenders some of
his power to his immediate subordinates i.e. Deputy Librarian, Assistant Librarian and also to
Section Head for smooth disposal of work with higher sense of responsibility.
b) Significance of Delegation of Authority: The delegation of authority has the following
significance.
i) Democratic setup: Complete centralization is against the very sprit of modern democratic set
up. So to avoid it, delegation is implemented.
ii) Proper coordination: Since by delegation of authority the aims and objectives of the library
can be brought to the lower group so it helps to achieve proper coordination to fulfill the
objectives of the library.
iii) Share the burden: Delegation of authority helps the librarian to share his burden with others.
By delegation of authority he can multiply himself.
iv) Important managerial practice: Delegation of authority is an important managerial practice
of getting things done through others by sharing authority with them.
v) Fixation of responsibility: Delegation of authority helps in the assignment of task or exact
fixation of responsibility for failure or success.
vi) Time saving: The precious time of the executive is saved otherwise wastage will take place in
taking decision on every minute points which can be otherwise effectively handled by his
subordinate.
vii) Better decision making: Delegation of power to the section head helps in better decision
making since the head is professionally qualified in his field.
viii) Increase confidence: Delegation of authority increases the confidence of the person to
whom authority is delegated.
ix) Effective: By delegation of authority unnecessary delay in taking decision, wastage of money,
energy can be avoided.
c) Problems in Delegation of Authority: In the delegation of authority the following problems
may arise
i) Lower the prestige: The person to whom the authority is delegated sometimes takes hasty
decisions which lower the prestige of the actual authority.
ii) Lack of independent decision: The subordinate is easy to approach by his subordinate and so
may be influenced by interested person or parties and thus may not be able to arrive at an
independent decision.
iii) Local feelings: The person may be overwhelmed by the local feelings and so large interest
may be sacrificed.
iv) Lack of suitable person: Sometimes an area may lack a really capable person so in-efficiency
will be the result.
Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre (DESIDOC)
Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre (DESIDOC): DESIDOC started
functioning in 1958 as Scientific Information Bureau (SIB). It was a division of the Defence
Science Laboratory (DSL) which is presently called as Laser Science & Technology Centre
(LASTEC). The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) library which had its
beginning in 1948 became a division of Scientific Information Bureau (SIB) in 1959. In 1967
SIB was reorganised with augmented activities and named Defence Scientific Information and
Documentation Centre (DESIDOC). It still continued to function under the administrative
control of Defence Science Laboratory (DSL). Defence Scientific Information and
Documentation Centre (DESIDOC) became a self-accounting unit and one of the laboratories of
DRDO on 29 July 1970. The Centre was functioning in the main building of Metcalfe House, a
landmark in Delhi and a national monument. In August 1988 it moved to its newly built five-
storied building in the same Metcalfe House complex. Since it became a self-accounting unit,
DESIDOC has been functioning as a central information resource for DRDO. It provides science
& technology information, based on its library and other information resources, to the DRDO
headquarters, and its various laboratories at various places in India.
a) Organization: DESIDOC has been divided into various sections such as Documentation
Section, Translation Section, Reprography Section, Technical Section, Administrative Section,
Library Section, Multicopier Section, Publication Section, etc.
b) Services and Facilities Available: The main services of DESIDOC are -
i) Information Processing & Dissemination: Collection of Science and & Technology
information of DRDO interest, provide current awareness services to DRDO Scientists. This
includes Newspaper Clippings Service, IEE/IEEE contents, Current contents in Military Science
and Technology.
ii) Training: Training in the areas of library automation, database development, online searching,
e-mail and internet use, technical communication, multimedia development and other relevant
aspects of information technology.
iii) Technical Services: Providing reprography (photography, audio, video presentation
materials), translation, communication (e-mail, Internet) and printing services.
d) Internet and E-mail Access: DESIDOC took initiative and started providing e-mail and
Internet access to the DRDO Laboratories spread over the country, through 64kbps leased line
connection from VSNL, Presently about 25 dial up TCP/IP internet connection for top
management are also being managed and monitored.
iv) Multimedia Laboratory: The Laboratory was established to provide multimedia authoring,
designing and presentation facilities to the top management and the Scientific Adviser to the
Defence Minister. Expertise has been established in image processing, CD-writing, audio-video
designing, desktop CD publishing and multimedia CD-ROM production. A few multimedia
products were published and consultancy was provided to establish multimedia laboratories both
within and outside DRDO.
v) Reprographic Facility: This Facility helps DRDO top management and scientists in their
technical presentations. The Facility is equipped with a computer-based 35mm multicolour slide
making system, a digital colour copier, high quality colour printers and video recorders, and
provides high quality presentation materials.
vi) Printing Facility: A full-fledged high quality Printing Facility has been established which
includes designing, layout, typesetting, DTP, processing and printing units for in-house
production of DRDO publications. High quality multicolour printing is carried out with the help
of commercial printing agencies.
e) DRDO Publications: DESIDOC functions as the publication wing of DRDO and brings out a
number of publications, covering current developments in Indian Defence Research &
Development. The periodicals published are
i) Defence Science Journal
ii) Technology Focus
iii) DRDO Newsletter
iv) DRDO Samachar
v) DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology (DBIT)
Decision Making
Decision Making: Decision is the act of determining in one’s own mind upon an opinion or
course of action. It is choosing one alternative among several alternatives given in a particular
situation.
In the words of Terry, it is “the selection of one behaviour alternative from two or more
possible alternatives”. In fact, decision is a conclusion to long deliberation.
Franklin points out that decision making is understood as an act of determining in one’s
own mind a course of action, following more or less deliberate consideration of alternatives and
by decision is understood that which is determined.
On the basis of the different points of view expressed above it can be concluded that a
decision is a chosen course of action(s) selected out of all perceived or available alternatives by
the decision maker based on some criteria and in the light of objectives or purpose to be fulfilled.
Decision is a means; it is not an end itself. Decisions have to be made and re-made in the
light of the ends to be achieved. Decisions have to be responsive to varying situations.
a) Need of Decision Making: Decision making is the most important process and an essential
element in every activity of library management. It is to be done every day, every time, every
point when manager faces problem, when they have to make choices between alternatives, etc.
The success and failure of the individual at the top position as well as efficiency of the
organization depends much upon taking right and wise decisions. In taking decision it should be
remembered that taking no decision is bad but worse is taking a wrong decision.
b) Decision Makers: Decision making in any organization is a cooperative effort. Decisions are
the product of long deliberations or collective activity to which many people and agencies
participate. If the skills, expertise, knowledge and creativity of the staff member are properly
utilized then they can contribute to improve decision making. But at the top of administration is a
person who must have a final say, who must ultimately give the final word. This is because of the
fact that in the final analysis it is he who has to own the burden of responsibility of the
consequences of a particular decision. No doubt as he rises up the ladder, his function will
decrease but his responsibilities will increases. It is he alone who can see the enterprise as a
whole. So, the power of final decision making must rest with him.
c) Model of Decision Making: John Cowley has mentioned five points on the model of decision
making. They are-
i) Own Decision without Detailed Explanation: The manager himself takes the decision without
reference to colleagues and does not make any attempt to explain why he has taken the decision.
ii) Own Decision with Detailed Explanation: Taking decision by the manager himself and
giving reason later to his subordinates.
iii) Prior Consultation with Subordinate: Prior to making decision, discuss with subordinate and
then making decision with or without taking into account the advice offered by subordinate.
iv) Joint Decision Making with Subordinate: Taking joint decision by genuine participation of
other staff.
v) Delegation of Decision to Others: Managers may hand over a problem to a member of team
for decision making. In such cases although the decision may be reported back but the manager
will have little influence in the matter.
d) Factors that Influence Decision Making: Decision making are influenced by the following
factors-
i) Institutional Factor: The aspiration, tradition, attitude, objective of the institution influence
the decision.
ii) Personal Factor: The academic, professional qualification of the person, his conduct,
behaviors, etc influence his own decision. The personal mode of thinking plays a high role in
decision making process.
iii) Knowledge: Decision making depends on the availability of facts and necessary data.
iv) Budget: The budget or other resource of the organization also influences the decision.
In the library system, the aims and objectives of the library and parent organization, five
laws of library science, readers and users, available staff, etc also play important role in decision
making.
e) Process of Decision Making: There are no universally accepted techniques of decision
making. In fact decision making is a practical experience and can be learnt by actually taking it.
In general, the following sequence of steps can be considered in decision making.
i) Identification of Problem: The librarian should be a diagnostician who should look for the
problem underlying apparent symptoms.
ii) General Information: Acquire general background information and different view points
about the problem. Collection of all relevant data regarding the problem.
iii) Development of Alternative Solution: There is not a single problem which cannot be solved
in more than one way. So find out all the possible method of solution.
iv) Evaluation of the Alternative: Against the decision criteria, the alternative solutions are
evaluated.
v) Selection of the Best Alternative: The decision maker has to weigh each alternate in terms of
associated risks and gains and decide how much risk he can take and identify which is optimum
for this view point and select the solution accordingly.
vi) Consult Others: In taking the decision in the above step some important points may be
missed by the decision maker so at this step consult others for knowing certain points which are
missed and for getting an opportunity to clarify the decision makers own thought and feelings.
vii) Flexibility: The decision should not be rigid. It should have the provision to change
according to circumstances.
viii) Implementation of the Decision: Putting the decision into action.
f) Types of Decision: Generally, decision can be classified into three broad categories-
i) Personal and Organisational Decision: The personal decision attempts to achieve personal
goals and generally cannot be delegated to other. The organizational decision attempts to achieve
organizational goals and can often if not always be delegated.
ii) Basic and Routine Decision: Basic decisions are those which are permanent in character and
are taken for long duration and a degree of importance is such that a mistake would seriously
injure the entire organization. Routine decisions are the everyday repetitive management
decision which do not bear any great impact on the organization as a whole but play an important
role in the successful working of an organization.
iii) Programmed and No-programmed Decision: The programmed decision are those where the
problem are of repetitive character and well defined involving tangible consideration to which
the economic model that call for finding the best among a set of pre-established alternative can
be applied rather literally.
The non-programmed decision refers to problem of no-repetitive sort often involving
basic long range question about the whole strategy. The decisions are novel. In structural method
of handling the problem because it has not arisen before or because its precise nature and
structure are elusive or complex or because it is so important that it deserves a custom tailored
treatment.
g) Problems in Decision Making: In general, in the process of taking decision, the following
factors creates problems-
i) Routines take too much time: Routine work in the library takes too much time from the
librarian so they do not get enough time to devote to this aspect.
ii) Confusion: The librarian is always surrounded by problems. Each problem looks more urgent
than the other. The librarian finds it extremely difficult to determine the priority of these
problems which take much of their time and create constant worry in them.
iii) Lengthy procedure: Decision taking is a lengthy procedure, so in case of emergency this is
generally avoided.
iv) Politics: Today’s society is a group oriented society. Each member of the library is generally
the member of some religious or political party. So each person has a different preference and
preference rating. This limits the decision making.
v) Lack of information: Lack of knowledge about the available alternative between which
choice has to be made also creates problem in decision making.
vi) Changing environment (future as anticipates): The surrounding environment of the library
is continuously changing. So a decision taken today may not be relevant tomorrow. This creates
another problem in decision making.
vii) Nature and character of the librarian: The irresponsible, non-punctual, absent-minded
nature of some librarians and non decisive character of the individual (ultra careful, ultra judicial
in his examination of a problem seeing so many aspect of it and so many possible consequences
of a particular action that he cannot make up his own mind) creates another problem in decision
making.
Databases
Databases: Most of the search engine or databases often return thousands of results. So, to use
search engines / databases effectively, it is essential to apply techniques that narrow results and
push the most relevant pages to the top of the results list. Below are a number of strategies for
boosting search engine / database performance. Without these strategies or techniques, finding
what you need will be difficult task and any user by spending a few minutes clarifying his / her
need, can increase the chances of finding relevant information over internet.
a) Search Strategies: To arrive at appropriate target, a user of a database or search engine should
know about the search strategies that need to be followed. In the following paragraphs some such
steps are listed out.
i) Step 1: Framing the need by sentence: Frame your need by appropriate sentences. For
example: One need information on “Digital libraries of India”
ii) Step 2: Identify Keywords: Find out the keywords or main concepts in the statement. In the
above example the keywords will be <digital library> <India>.
iii) Step 3: Select Synonyms and Variant Word Forms: Find out the synonyms / alternate
spellings, and variant word forms of each keyword. In the above example the synonyms of
<digital library> will be <Virtual Library>, <Library without wall>, and <Institutional
Repository>.
iv) Step 4: Combine Synonyms, Keywords, and Variant Word Forms With Boolean
Operators: Now combine synonyms with Boolean OR. Place parentheses around OR
statements. So, in the above example, the search terms will be: ‘Digital Library or virtual library
or Library without wall or Institutional repository’ and India. Please note here that some search
engine consider “OR” as “+”, “AND” as “*” and “NOT” and “-“. You should combine your
words accordingly.
When you are unaware of the complete word you can use the truncation facility with an
asterisk symbol (*). Eg. Librar* to retrieve the document that contain the word library, librarian,
and so on.
v) Step 5: Check Your Spelling: Search engines return websites with words that match your
keywords. If you misspell a keyword, your results will contain websites where that word is also
misspelled. So at the last step check all your spellings.
b) Boolean Operators: Boolean logic is a complete system for logical operations. It was named
after George Boole, an English mathematician at University College Cork who first defined an
algebraic system of logic in the mid 19th century.
i) Boolean AND: Connecting search terms with AND tells the search engine to retrieve web
pages containing ALL the keywords. So, AND considerably limit the search results.
Example: OCLC and Classify
Please note that the star sign (*) is the equivalent of AND in some search engine
(Google).
ii) Boolean OR: Linking search terms with OR tells the search engine to retrieve web pages
containing ANY and ALL keywords. When OR is used, the search engine returns pages with a
single keyword, several keywords, and all keywords. So, OR expand the search results.
Example: Librarian or Library
Please note that in many search engines, the plus symbols can be used as alternatives to
Boolean OR.
iii) Boolean NOT: NOT tells the search engine to retrieve web pages containing one keyword
but not the other.
 Example: OCLC not DDC
The above example instructs the search engine to return web pages about OCLC but not
web pages about the "DDC". One can use NOT when he/she have a keyword that has multiple
meanings. In some search engines, the minus symbols (-) is used as alternatives to Boolean NOT.
The AltaVista's Simple Search requires the use of plus and minus rather than AND, OR,
and AND NOT. However you can use AltaVista's Advanced Search for full Boolean (AND, OR,
and NOT) searches.
iv) Complex Search Using Boolean Logic: Example: Library AND (Acquisition OR
Classification). This expression will search for results matching the document of Library
acquisition or classification.
c) Some Other Search Techniques: Some other popular search techniques that can be used over
the web in many search engines are listed bellow.
i) Phrase Searching: Surrounding a group of words with double quotes tells the search engine
to only retrieve documents in which those words appear side-by-side. Phrase searching is a
powerful search technique for significantly narrowing your search results, and it should be used
as often as possible.
Example: “Five Laws of Library Science”
ii) Phrase Searching With Boolean Operators: You can also combine a phrase search with
additional keywords using Boolean logic.
Example: “Five Laws of Library Science” * Dr. S R Ranganathan
iii) Title Search: Field searching is one of the most effective techniques for narrowing results
and getting the most relevant websites listed at the top of the results page. A web page is
composed of a number of fields, such as title, domain, host, URL, and link. Searching
effectiveness increases as you combine field searches with phrase searches and Boolean logic.
For example, if you wanted to find information about Five Laws of Library Science and Dr. S R
Ranganathan, you could try the following search:
Example: +title:"Five Laws of Library Science" + Dr. S R Ranganathan
Example: title:"Five Laws of Library Science" and Dr. S R Ranganathan
The above title search example instructs the search engine to return web pages where the
phrase Five Laws of Library Science appears in the title and the words Dr. S R Ranganathan
appear somewhere on the page. Please note that like plus and minus, there is no space between
the colon (:) and the keyword.
iv) Domain Search: The domain search allows you to limit results to certain domains such as
websites from the United Kingdom (.uk), educational institutions (.edu), or government sites
(.gov).
Example: +domain:in +title:"Guwahati"
Example: domain:in and title:"Guwahati"

Example: +domain:in +title:"Guwahati" * Dispur

Example: domain:in and title:"Guwahati" * Dispur
v) Host Search: The host search comes in handy when you need to find something located at a
large site that does not have an internal search engine (if the site has an internal search engine
then for the best result you should use it). With the host search technique, you can search all the
pages at a website (contained in the engine's database) for keywords or phrases of interest.
 Example: +host:www.kkhsou.org +"PhD"
Example: host:www.kkhsou.org and "PhD"
vi) URL Search: The URL search limits search results to web pages where the keyword appears
in the URL or website address. A URL search can narrow very broad results to web pages
devoted to the keyword topic.
Example: +url:NET +title:UGC
Example: url:NET and title:UGC
vii) Link Search: Use the link search when you want to know what websites are linked to a
particular site of interest. For example, if you have a home page and you are wondering if
anyone has put a link to your page on their website, use the Link search. Researchers use link
searches for conducting backward citations.
Example: link:http://www.lislinks.com
In conducting a search over any search engine / database please note that they have some
variants. The variants can be viewed from the following angles-
i) Capital Letters: Most search engines interpret lower case letters as either upper or lower case.
Thus, if you want both upper and lower case occurrences returned, type your keywords in all
lower case letters. However, if you want to limit your results to initial capital letters (e.g.,
"George Washington") or all upper case letters, type your keywords that way.
ii) Plural Forms: Most search engines interpret singular keywords as singular or plural. If you
want plural forms only, make your keywords plural, otherwise ignore it.
iii) Alternate Spellings: A few search engines support truncation or wildcard features that allow
variations in spelling or word forms. The asterisk (*) symbol tells the search engine to return
alternate spellings for a word at the point that the asterisk appears. For example, catalog* returns
web pages with catalogue and cataloguer.
d) Practicing with Search Engine: Now let’s explore some popular search engine in terms of
the facilities they provide for searching their databases.
i) Google (http://www.google.com/): Google has the largest database at 1.5 billion pages and is
very adept at returning relevant results. Google uses mathematical formulas to rank a web page
based on the number of "important" pages that link to it.
Google supports OR (in all caps), but does not support full Boolean AND NOT.
However, it does allow the implied Boolean minus sign (-). When multiple keywords are entered,
all keywords are treated as "AND" queries. Because Google automatically returns pages that
include all keywords, the plus sign (+) and the operator AND are not necessary. Also, quotation
marks for phrase searching are not required as Google returns pages with keywords in close
proximity.
Google supports link searching and title, domain, and host searching through its
Advanced Search page. It provides domain searching on .gov and .mil sites with a special "Uncle
Sam" database. Using the Image Search database, News Search database, or Discussion Group
Search database, visitors can search for pictures / graphics, news articles, and newsgroup
postings. Finally, unlike other search engines, Google offers a cached copy of each result. The
cached copy can be especially helpful if the site's server is down or the web page is no longer
available.
ii) Hot Bot (http://www.hotbot.com/): HotBot has an index of about 500 million pages. It
supports implied Boolean logic (+/-), full Boolean logic (and, or, and not), and truncation (*).
HotBot also offers phrase, title, and domain searches as well as several media-type searches such
as audio, video, and images.
iii) Alta Vista (http://www.altavista.com): AltaVista offers both a Simple Search and an
Advanced Search page. Simple Search requires the use of implied Boolean logic (plus and
minus), while Advanced Search requires full Boolean logic (and, or, and not). Both the Simple
and Advanced pages support phrase searching, field searching (title, domain, host, URL, and link
searches), and truncation (*). AltaVista offers several specialty search engines including an
image finder, an MP3/audio finder, a video finder, and a people finder.
AltaVista offers a number of powerful search features not found elsewhere. One very
effective tool available on the Advanced Search page is the NEAR search. A NEAR search limits
results to pages where keywords appear within 10 words of each other. This can be extremely
helpful in situations where an AND search produces too many results and a phrase search (" ")
produces too few results.
Example: "heart disease" near prevent
Example: heart disease near prevent
iv) All The Web (http://www.alltheweb.com/): All the Web/FAST Search supports implied
Boolean logic (+/-) and phrase searching on the Basic Search page. The Advanced Search page
also offers title, domain, host, URL and link searches.
e) Let Us Sum Up: The more care and thought you put into your search strategy, the more
relevant your search results will be. A well designed search strategy will save you time in the
long run, allow you to search for information in many different places, and help you to find a
larger amount of relevant information. Different strategies work better for different people. There
is no need to follow every step listed above. Try a few different techniques to see what works
best for you.

Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom

Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom: Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom are
the products of the mind. The Data, Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom are evaluated in an
ascending scale of values, Data having the least value, Wisdom the greatest.
a) Data: The word “data” is Latin in origin and literally, it means anything that is given. In sum,
the term includes facts, figures, letters, symbols, words, charts and graphs that represent an idea,
object or condition. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary defines data as “something
given or admitted facts or principles granted or presented, that upon which an interference or
argument is based, or from which an ideal system of any sort is constructed.” According to
Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary, Data are “Known facts or things used as a basis for
interference or reckoning." UNESCO defines data as “facts, concepts or instructions in a
formalized manner suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by human or
automatic means”. In simple, Data is a unit of fact and a raw material of information. It is
derived by observation and experiences.
By nature, data are either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are numerical and
qualitative data are descriptive. It is also possible to transform qualitative data into numerical
values. Additionally, in science, data can also be graphic in nature. The data possesses the
following characteristics.
The following are the properties of data:
i) Amenability to Use: Data must be amenable to use. The use may differ with the context.
ii) Clarity: Data should necessarily display clarity.
iii) Accuracy: Accuracy is an essential property of data.
iv) Essence: Data should be compressed and refined. Only the refined data can present the
essence of value.
b) Information: The word “information” is derived from two Latin words “forma” and
“formatio”. Both the words convey the notion of giving shape to something and of forming a
pattern. Information is the processed data, organized and presented by someone. The data
becomes information when these are collected, processed, interpreted, presented or
communicated to some one in an organized or in logical form to facilitate a better comprehension
of the concerned issue. Information is the knowledge concerning some particular fact, subject or
events in any communicable form. It is a structured collection of data i.e. sets of data, relation
between data. It consists of data that have been retrieved, processed or otherwise used for
informative or inference purpose, argument or as a basis for forecasting or decision making. Let
us mention some of the definitions of Information-
According to Harrod’s Librarian’s Glossary and Reference book compiled by Ray
Prytherch, 7th ed, 1990, information is “an assemblage of data in a comprehensible form capable
of communication”.
Mikhailov et.al (1966) has cited Brillounin’s definition. According to them “information
is the raw material and consists of a mere collection of data”.
Hayes (1969) defines information as “result of data, usually formalized in processing”.
Davis (1974) has defined information as “data that has been processed into a form that is
meaningful to the recipient and is of real perceived value in current or prospective decision”.
Stevens (1986) has defined information as “the factual data, ideas and other knowledge
emanating from any segment of society that are identified as being of value sometimes gathered
on a regular basis, organized in some fashion, transmitted to others and used in some meaningful
fashion”.
According to S. C. Blumenthal in “Management Information System” (1969),
“information is data, recorded, classified, organized, related or interpreted within context to
convey meaning”.
According to A. J. Evans et al, information is a “sensible statement, opinion, fact, concept
or idea, or an association of statement, opinions or ideas. It is closely associated with knowledge
in that once information has been assimilated, correlated and understood it becomes knowledge”.
c) Knowledge: The word “knowledge” means an assured belief or that which is known. It is the
information read, heard or seen and understood. It is an organized set of statements of facts or
ideas – presenting a reasoned judgments or an experimental result which is transmitted to others
through some communication medium in some systematic form. When information is stored in
mind, it constitutes knowledge, particularly when relationships are established between items of
information.
The Webster’s New International Dictionary of English language defines knowledge as,
“Familiarity gained by actual experience, practical skill, technical acquaintance”. It has also been
defined by Webster as “Acquaintance with fact; the state of being aware of something or of
possessing information; hence scope of information”.
When man knows the entities (things or concepts), knowledge is established. As man
knew more and more about entities knowledge grew. In order that knowledge already gathered is
not lost from the scope of posterity it must exist in recorded and stored format. Due to the
comparatively larger age of human, living of three generations in a family within society, ability
to reason and analyse and ability to transfer the accumulated knowledge to its posterity increase
his/her stock of knowledge.
Knowledge is the ability of an actor to respond to a body of facts and principles
accumulated over a period of time. The quality of knowledge depends on the properties of the
agent. Knowledge can be viewed in terms of the following
i) Knowledge is the structure or organization of information including the relationship among
items of information.
ii) Knowledge is created and modified by new information.
iii) When information is applied by people it becomes knowledge.
iv) Knowledge is universally regarded as a much wider concept than information, both in the
everyday world and within the specialty theory and practice.

Further, knowledge is individual to each person and does not depend upon humans to exist; when
it exists apart from information it can only be useful if it becomes a commodity or a resource.
Knowledge can only reside in an organic brain. As soon as it is objectified outside of a
biological organism it becomes disembodied information, capable of entering production similar
to a manufactured product or commodity. Some of the characteristics of knowledge are
i) It is dynamic, ever growing and continuing.
ii) It is contained in the subjective realm.
iii) It is structured, coherent and often of enduring significance.
iv) It is a stock, largely resulting from the flow, inputs of information.
v) It is the basis for action.
d) Wisdom: Wisdom is the distilled and integrated knowledge and understanding. It is the most
precious human capital in all developmental processes.
Cleveland, Ohio Association for System Management, 1979 has treated raw data from
“birth” into evaluated form as information, through maturity as knowledge, to “death” and
inclusion in the knowledge base. It may be noted in passing that in common social process, data,
information and knowledge are regarded as mutually sustaining elements at times distinctly
different, on occasions overlapping, and interchangeable. Both data and information have
intrinsic properties. While information is shareable, knowledge is individual to each person.
Again, information depends upon humans to exist but knowledge does not depend upon only
humans to exist.
Information is the aggregation and assemblage of data in a comprehensible form recorded
on paper or in some other medium and is capable of communication. Knowledge is the potential
for action on information. The information, knowledge and wisdom in their totality constitute
valuable human intellectual assets.
Data Warehouses
Data Warehouses: Data warehousing is defined as a process of centralized data management
and retrieval. A data warehouse is a place where data is stored for archival, analysis and security
purposes. A data warehouse is a central repository for all or significant parts of the data that an
enterprise's various business systems collect. The term was coined by W. H. Inmon. IBM
sometimes uses the term "information warehouse."
Usually a data warehouse is either a single computer or many computers (servers) tied
together to create one giant computer system. Typically, a data warehouse is housed on an
enterprise mainframe server. Data from various online transaction processing (OLTP)
applications and other sources is selectively extracted and organized on the data warehouse
database for use by analytical applications and user queries. Data warehousing emphasizes the
capture of data from diverse sources for useful analysis and access. Applications of data
warehouses include data mining, Web Mining, and decision support systems (DSS).
Data marts are smaller and less integrated data housings. They might be just a database
on human resources records or sales data on just one division.
a) Characteristics of Data Warehousing: Data warehouse includes the following
characteristics-
i) Subject Oriented: Subject oriented means that data is linked together and is organized by
relationships.
ii) Time Variant: Time variant means that any data that is changed in the data warehouse can be
tracked. Usually all changes to data are stamped with a time-date and with a before and after
value, so that you can show the changes throughout a period of time.
iii) Non Volatile: Non volatile means that the data is never deleted or erased. This is a great way
to protect your most crucial data. Because this data is retained, you can continue to use it in a
later analysis.
iv) Integrated: The data is integrated, which means that a data warehouse uses data that is
organizational wide instead of from just one department.
b) Advantages: The data warehouse helps the employees or end users to access and use the data
for reports, analysis and decision making. Using the data in a warehouse one can locate trends,
focus on relationships and understand more about the environment on which the business
operates.
Data warehouses also increase the consistency of the data and allow it to be checked over
and over to determine how relevant it is. Because most data warehouses are integrated, one can
pull data from many different areas of the business, for instance human resources, finance, IT,
accounting, etc.
c) Disadvantages: Data warehouse is time consuming to create and to keep operating. Many
time the current systems become incompatible with the data. So, the hardware and software
continuously need to be upgraded. Finally, security might be a huge concern, especially when the
data is accessible over an open network such as the internet. In such cases the data can be viewed
by the competitor or worse hacked and destroyed.
Data Mining
Data Mining: Data mining means the extraction of hidden predictive information from large
databases. It is the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into
useful information - information that can be used to increase revenue, cuts costs, or both. It is
"the nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information
from data". Technically, data mining is the process of finding correlations or patterns among
dozens of fields in large relational databases. Data Mining is also called as data or knowledge
discovery.
Data mining software is one of a number of analytical tools for analyzing data. It allows
users to analyze data from many different dimensions or angles, categorize it, and summarize the
relationships identified. It uses machine learning, statistical and visualization techniques to
discovery and present knowledge in a form which is easily comprehensible to humans. Data
mining tools predict future trends and behaviors, allowing businesses to make proactive,
knowledge-driven decisions. It enhances the value of existing information resources.

Critical Path Method (CPM)

Critical Path Method (CPM): Critical Path Method (CPM) charts are similar to PERT charts
and are sometimes known as PERT/CPM. In a CPM chart, the critical path is indicated. A critical
path consists of a set of dependent tasks (each depedent on the preceding one) which together
take the longest time to complete. Although it is not normally done, a CPM chart can define
multiple, equally critical paths. Tasks which fall on the critical path should be noted in some way,
so that they may be given special attention. One way to do this is to draw critical path tasks with
a double line instead of a single line.
Tasks which fall on the critical path should receive special attention by both the project
manager and the personnel assigned to them. The critical path for any given method may shift as
the project progresses; this can happen when tasks are completed either behind or ahead of
schedule, causing other tasks which may still be on schedule to fall on the new critical path.
Criteria for Selection and Evaluation of Library Software Packages
Criteria for Selection and Evaluation of Library Software Packages: In any endeavour in
which we make a substantial investment of money, energy, and time or other resources, we like
to know what kind of return we are getting. The ability to evaluate the return on our investment
gives us the basis on which to choose between alternatives. So an evaluation is basically a
judgment of worth, it is a matter of comparison of actual result with external standard, in the
light of existing institutional realities which may be relevant to evaluating the future trajectory of
the programme or services and provide an objective basis for decision making. Like any
evaluative process, library software evaluation is also quite a difficult task. It mainly involves
four basic aspects i.e.
a) Whether software will be commercial;
b) In-house developed software packages;
c) Freeware
d) Open Source Software
In case of commercial software, it will cost a huge investment. In case of In-house
developed software packages, it will consume much of the library budget, time from the library
staff (in the form of constant evaluation and modification to the library software packages to
become stable) and create problem in retrospective conversion. In case of freeware, there is a
problem with technical support. But the Open Source Software has not any major disadvantages,
if it has a online community for technical support. But in all cases, we have to consider the
following procedure, features and aids to evaluate the software package.
A) Preliminary Steps
a) Consulting Others: No one wants chosen software to stop unexpectedly, slow down on large
network, report error message. So, before making a choice, it will be better to consult a person
who has already used the software in the same way or consult people who have already gained
experience on that software package.
b) Reputation of the Referrer: The reputation of a person or the institution, his/her/its
experience on that particular software is the next point to be considered. The relation between the
evaluator and the referrer should also be justified at this point.
c) Existing Literature: It is better to go for the software after carefully examining the existing
literature and documentation on the particular software packages.
B) Manufacturers and Vendor
a) Reputation of the Manufacturer and Vendor: What is the reputation of the software vendor
or manufacturer in the market or for how long they are working in the field is the next important
thing to consider.
b) Training: Does the company or authority of the particular software provide training? Where
and how the training is conducted, whether it is online, onsite? It is another point to be
considered.
c) Documentation / Manual: Is training accompanied by easy-to-follow supporting print
material or manual. How good the manual is? It is also an important point to consider.
d) Updating: Does the library automation system company from their own website help to
install, upgrade (web based updates), and patches or simply help one with a particular function.
How is the new modification / new version of the software to be obtained by the librarian?
e) Post Installation Support: Post installation support from the vendor.
C) General Features of the Software Package
a) Multiple Platforms: The software package chosen should run on various computer platforms
i.e. server, mainframe to simple PCs. The software should also be able to run in multiple
platforms such as windows XP, windows 2000, windows N.T., etc.
b) Existing Standard: Software should support internationally known standards such as MARC
21, CCF, AACR2, LCSH and data export/import in ISO 2709 (MARC/ CCF). If possible, the
software chosen should also comply with UNICODE.
c) Integrated: The software should permit collaborative working and all modules should be
integrated in nature.
d) Flexibility: The software should make it easy to switch between the OPAC and writing station
because there are times when one would want the public OPAC station to function as writing
station and at other times when would like the writing station to function as OPAC. The software
package chosen should also be so flexible as to handle the records of variable sizes.
e) Capacity: The restriction in total number of database / information / records in a database
enable the software to be handled effectively.
f) Speed: Speed of operation in different environment.
g) Standardize Data Format for Import and Export: The software should use standardized
data format for importing and exporting of data from and to the software.
h) De-Bugging Facility: De-bugging facility and scope of proper error message while executing
the software are to be ensured.
i) User Friendliness: The software should build on GUI based environment. It should provide
expert advice and assistance in performing any task. It should empower the experienced user
with short cut and inexperienced user with menu driven icon, dialogue box, etc. giving clickable
access to the software. The software that is built on other platform should have the mnemonic
based command.
j) Object Linking and Embedding (OLE): The Object Linking and Embedding feature helps to
create objects in one application and then to embed it in a record of the software package running
on the computer. If the software package chosen has this feature then it is good.
k) Effectiveness: Does the system meet the specification?
l) Reliability: Does the search in the software give consistent result?
m) Customization and Expandability: The system should permit addition of new feature to
meet the local need and use.
D) Services
a) Acquisition: Does the system carry out duplicate checking while entering the data. Does it
have the capacity to print accession register? How effective the system is for data entry? Does
the software provide an easy way for editing records? Are insertion and deletion of records easy?
b) Cataloguing: Cataloguing through retrospective conversion facility, provision of catalogue
card printing, etc.
c) Circulation: Provision for issue, return, renewal, grace period, overdue alert, computation of
fines, reservation of document, etc.
d) Serial Control: Provision of monitoring multiple issue of a serial, provision of grace period
for receiving the serial, provision of renewal, overdue alert, entering the abstract of a serial.
e) OPAC: Provision of reservation through OPAC, provision of searching OPAC from outside
the library, provision of searching the OPAC and web simultaneously (Meta search) using a
single word search.
f) Library Administration: The software should allow generation of different kinds of reports
i.e. collection statistics, circulation statistics and also should be helpful to create one’s own
specialized report to meet the specialized need. It should also have the facility to assign different
right to the software for different categories of library staff.
E) New Technologies: The library software package should keep pace with global technology,
web enhancement, online information, virtual services, provision of barcode facility, handling
un-catalogued item, etc.
a) Network Capabilities: Provision of LAN connectivity, scope of integration of the software
package with other school department, provision of accessing the software from computer
outside the school walls via a web browser.
b) Web Enabling: Provision of web enabling through link to the Application Service Provider
(ASP) or to the school web server, provision of internet connectivity, Email connectivity, etc.
This is an advantage, where the cataloguer can work from remote location and OPAC can be
accessed from both home and school, 24 hours a day.
c) Enhanced MARC Data: Many softwares allow to catalogue website, E-Books, AV resources
in addition to the library resources. The websites are added by the library media specialist
manually.
d) Open Standard Technologies: Is the database built on open standard technologies such as
SQL, cold fusion, or XML that allows different types of software to talk to each other? That
means, different modules of the software can easily and automatically share and update any
information is common e.g. students name, address, etc.
F) Securities
a) Log on/off: The software should provide the students and staff members the user id and
passwords to log on/off facilities on their own. The system must also allow the administrator to
provide access restriction to certain records/ fields of importance.
b) Power out Feature: Is any power out feature included? The system should be with a manual
hand scanner available to check the material in and out in the event of power failure that can later
on easily be connected to the computer system.
G) Cost Factor of the Software Package
a) Total Cost of the Software Package: If the system comes in different modules (available in
only circulation module, circulation plus cataloguing module) then the total cost of the system. Is
to be considered whether the total cost is affordable or justified.
b) Cost of Support: Cost of training, on site support, etc.
c) Cost of Upgrade: Cost of future upgrades.
d) Future Exist Cost: In near future, if one wants to switch over to another package then the
cost involved in such cases should also be considered.
e) Warranty: The software should come with performance and service warranty.
The technologies are shifting the horizon of library software packages every day, so, in
choosing any software for library automation, if possible, we should look for the software
package that has also the facility for federated search, and comply with the Open URL and
Barcode and RFID technologies.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Consortium
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Consortium: The Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR) in India has 40 scientific laboratories involved in basic and
applied research in various disciplines. Many of the laboratories have well equipped libraries,
and some of them act as the main information centers in different subjects functioning as
consultant libraries at the national level. Access to electronic journals through the use of state-of-
the art technology is possible in many of the libraries belonging to these laboratories. Each of the
laboratories have a well established library or documentation centre that is also backed up with
strategic information support from the National Institute of Science Communication and
Information Resource (NISCAIR), a constituent establishment of CSIR formed with the merger
of INSDOC and (NISCOM).
To augment CSIR research and development activities, NISCAIR implemented agency for the
process of providing access to globally available Electronic Journals to entire S & T staff of
CSIR and its constituent units through a consortia approach. As a first step, in recent past
NISCAIR on behalf of CSIR has entered into an agreement with M/s. Elsevier Science to access
its odd 1,500 e-journals and further intends to strengthen its information resource base by
subscribing e-access of more and more journals published globally. CSIR consortium extended
its access by creating appropriate agreements on consortium basis with the other providers of E-
journals.
Content Management System (CMS)
Content Management System (CMS): A Content Management System (CMS) is a computer
application used to create, edit, manage, search and publish various kinds of digital media and
electronic text. CMSs are frequently used for storing, controlling, versioning, and publishing
industry-specific documentation such as news articles, operators' manuals, technical manuals,
sales guides, and marketing brochures. A CMS may support the following features-
a) Identification of all key users and their content management roles;
b) Ability to assign roles and responsibilities to different content categories or types;
c) Definition of workflow tasks for collaborative creation, often coupled with event messaging
so that content managers are alerted to changes in content (for example, a content creator
submits a story, which is published only after the copy editor revises it and the editor-in-chief
approves it.);
d) Ability to track and manage multiple versions of a single instance of content;
e) Ability to capture the content (e.g. scanning);
f) Ability to publish the content to a repository to support access to the content through different
search and retrieval techniques;
Besides the above, a CMS may also have the following provisions:
g) Communication application such as video conferencing;
h) Administration components such as whiteboards for brainstorming, appointment scheduling,
project management, etc.
A CMS has the following advantages over other paper based information sources
a) Reduction of paper handling and error-prone manual processes;
b) Reduction of paper storage;
c) Reduction of lost documents;
d) Faster access to information;
e) Online access to information that was formerly available only on paper, microfilm, or
microfiche;
f) Improved control over documents and document-oriented processes;
f) Streamlining of time-consuming business processes;
g) Security over document access and modification;
h) Providing reliable and accurate audit trail;
i) Improved tracking and monitoring, with the ability to identify bottlenecks and modifying the
system to improve efficiency.
In the following paragraphs a few widely used CMS are discussed in brief.
a) Drupal: Drupal is a free and open source content management system (CMS) written in PHP
and distributed under the GNU General Public License. The Drupal contains basic features
common to most CMSs. These include user account registration and maintenance, menu
management, RSS-feeds, page layout customization, and system administration. The Drupal core
installation can be used as a brochureware website, a single- or multi-user blog, an Internet
forum, or a community website providing for user-generated content. Website: http://drupal.org/
b) Joomla: Joomla is a free and open source content management system for publishing content
on the World Wide Web and intranets. It includes features such as page caching, RSS feeds,
printable versions of pages, news flashes, blogs, polls, search, and support for language
internationalization. Website: http://www.joomla.org/
c) MediaWiki: MediaWiki is a popular free web-based wiki software application developed by
and used on all projects of the Wikimedia Foundation, as well as on many other wiki websites
worldwide. The first version of the software was deployed to serve the needs of the free content
Wikipedia encyclopedia in 2002. Now it is deployed by many companies as a content
management system for internal knowledge management. Website:
http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/MediaWiki
d) Zope: Z Object Publishing Environment (Zope) is a free and open-source, object-oriented
web application server written in the Python programming language. Zope is used for building
web applications, content management systems, and dynamic websites of all kinds. Website:
http://www.zope.org/

Concepts Related to Software Packages

Concepts Related to Software Packages: Open-source software is computer software whose
source code is available under a licence that permits the users to study, change, and improve the
software, and to redistribute it in modified or unmodified form.
When we talk about the software packages especially Open Sources Software, we will
come across some concepts or terminologies or term. Some of such popular concept or
terminologies are discussed below-
a) Open Archives Initiative (OAI): The Open Archives Initiative (OAI) is an attempt to build a
low-barrier interoperability framework for archives or institutional repositories containing digital
content. It allows service providers to harvest metadata from the data providers. The collected
metadata thus obtained is used to provide "value-added services". More:
http://www.openarchives.org/
b) Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH): It is a protocol
developed by the Open Archives Initiative. It is used to harvest (or collect) the metadata
descriptions of the records in an archive so that services can be built using metadata from many
archives. A number of software systems support the OAI-PMH, including GNU EPrints from the
University of Southampton and DSpace from MIT. The OAI Protocol has been widely adopted
by many digital libraries, institutional repositories, and digital archives. Commercial search
engines have started using OAI-PMH to acquire more resources. Google has started to accept
OAI-PMH as part of their Sitemap Protocol, and they are using OAI-PMH to harvest
information from the National Library of Australia Digital Object Repository. In 2004, Yahoo!
acquired content from OAIster (University of Michigan) that was obtained through metadata
harvesting with OAI-PMH. The mod_oai project is using OAI-PMH to expose content to web
crawlers that is accessible from Apache Web servers. A number of large archives support the
protocol including arXiv and the CERN Document Server.
c) Directory of Open Access Repositories (OpenDOAR): OpenDOAR is an authoritative
directory of academic open access repositories. It provides the facility to “search for
repositories” or “search repository contents”. It also provides tools and support to both
repository administrators and service providers in sharing the best practice and improving the
quality of the repository infrastructure. Website: http://www.opendoar.org/
d) Richard Matthew Stallman: Richard Matthew Stallman often abbreviated as “rms”
(http://stallman.org/) is an American software freedom activist and computer programmer. In
September 1983, he launched the GNU Project (http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-
announcement.html) to create a free Unix-like operating system. In October 1985 he founded the
Free Software Foundation (FSF). Stallman pioneered the concept of copyleft and he is the main
author of several copyleft licences including the GNU General Public Licence, the most widely
used free software licence.
e) Application Programming Interface (API): An Application Programming Interface (API) is
an interface implemented by a software programme which enables it to interact with other
software. It facilitates interaction between different software programmes similar to the way the
user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. An API is implemented by
applications, libraries, and operating systems to determine their vocabularies and calling
conventions, and is used to access their services.
f) The Digital Library Federation (DLF): The Digital Library Federation (DLF) is an
international consortium of libraries and related agencies that are pioneering the use of
electronic-information technologies to extend collections and services. Since its formation in
1995, DLF has made a number of significant contributions to the academic library and library
services vendor communities. Website: http://www.diglib.org/
g) The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative: The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, or "DCMI", is
an open organization engaged in the development of interoperable metadata standards that
support a broad range of purposes and business models. The Dublin Core set of metadata
elements provide a small and fundamental group of text elements through which most resources
can be described and catalogued. It can describe physical resources such as books, digital
materials such as video, sound, image, or text files, and composite media like web pages.
Metadata records based on Dublin Core are intended to be used for cross-domain information
resource description and have become standard in the fields of library science and computer
science. Implementations of Dublin Core typically make use of XML and are Resource
Description Framework based. Website: http://dublincore.org/

h) Search / Retrieval via URL (SRU): SRU is a standard XML-focussed search protocol for
Internet search queries, utilizing Contextual Query Language (CQL), a standard syntax for
representing queries. Website: http://www.loc.gov/standards/ or
http://www.loc.gov/standards/sru/
i) Free Software Foundation (FSF): The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a non-profit
corporation founded by Richard Stallman in October 1985 to support the free software
movement, a copyleft-based movement which aims to promote the universal freedom to create,
distribute and modify computer software. Website: http://www.fsf.org/
j) Open Source Software (OSS): The Open source software (OSS) is defined at the website
www.opensource.org as Open source promotes software reliability and quality by supporting
independent peer review and rapid evaluation of source code. To be certified as open source, the
license of a program must guarantee the right to read, redistribute, modify, and use it freely.
Open source software is normally created and maintained by developers crossing institutional
and national boundaries, collaborating by using internet-based communications and
development tools. In case of OSS, the developers take personal pride in seeing their working
solutions adopted but not gaining profit drive.
k) Copyleft Licenses: Copyleft is a general method for making a program (or other work) free,
and requiring all modified and extended versions of the program to be free as well. It means
releasing the content giving with permission for anyone to use, copy, and distribute, either
verbatim or with modifications, either gratis or for a fee. The GNU General Public Licence,
originally written by Richard Stallman, was the first copyleft licence to see extensive use, and
continues to dominate the licencing of copylefted software. Creative Commons, a non-profit
organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides a similar licence called ShareAlike.
Computer Storage
Computer Storage: The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are Input
Unit, Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Output Unit. The CPU consists of Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and Memory. If memory is removed, the device we had would
be a simple digital signal processing device (e.g. calculator, media player) instead of a computer.
Computer storage, computer memory, and often casually memory refer to computer
components, devices and recording media that retain digital data, to be used for computing at
some interval of time. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and
coupled with a CPU. Some of the commonly associated terminologies related to computer
storage are discussed below
a) Memory Unit: Memory is the work space area of a computer system where data and
instructions are stored. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information
can be converted into a binary digits i.e. ‘1’ or ‘0’ and a digital computer can understand
information only in terms of ‘0’s and ‘1’s.
i) Bit: A binary digit i.e. ‘0’s and ‘1’s is called a bit and it can be define as an electronic signal,
which is either On ‘1’ or Off ‘0’. It is also the smallest unit of information the computer uses.
ii) Byte: A group of 8 bits is called a byte. There can be 256 different combinations possible in
Byte (8 bit) and each character typed consumes one byte. The most common unit of storage is
the byte.
Bit = “0” and “1”.
1 Byte = 8 bits = 1 character.
1024 Byte= 1 Kilo Byte
1024 Kilo Byte= 1 Mega Byte.
1024 Mega Byte= 1 Giga Byte, and so on.
b) Storage Capacity: It is the total amount of stored information that a storage device or
medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or bytes (e.g. 750 megabytes).
c) Storage Density: It refers to the compactness of stored information. It is the storage capacity
of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes per square
centimeter).
d) Latency: It is the time needed to access a particular location in storage. The relevant unit of
measurement is typically nanosecond for primary storage, millisecond for secondary storage,
and second for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and write latency, and
in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and average latency.
e) Throughput: It is the rate at which information can read from or written to the storage. In
computer storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second or MB/s,
though bit rate may also be used. As in the case of latency, read rate and write rate may also be
differ in throughput.
f) Word length: The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called its
word length. It is nothing but the measure of the computing power of a computer. Commonly
used word lengths are 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.

1. Storage Media: Various forms of storage, based on various natural phenomena, have been
invented. So far, no practical universal storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have
some drawbacks. Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each
with an individual need and purpose.
A) Types of Storage Media Based on Memory Hierarchy and Distance from CPU: Based on
memory hierarchy, or distance from the central processing unit the memory or computer storage
can be categorize as primary, secondary, tertiary and network storage.
a) Primary Storage: Primary storage or internal memory is directly connected to the central
processing unit of the computer. It is used to store data that is likely to be in active use and is
typically very fast, as in the case of RAM. It is present for the CPU to function correctly.
Primary storage can be accessed randomly, that is, accessing any location in storage at any
moment takes the same amount of time. A particular location in storage is selected by its
physical memory address. That address remains the same, no matter how the particular value
stored there changes. The primary storage sometimes also refers as memory (main storage /
primary storage).
Today, primary storage is typically random access memory, a type of semiconductor
memory. The primary storage typically consists of three kinds of storage:
The processor registers is internal to the central processing unit. Registers contain
information that the arithmetic and logic unit needs to carry out the current instruction. They are
technically the fastest of all forms of computer storage, being switching transistors integrated on
the CPU's silicon chip, and functioning as electronic "flip-flops".
The other two types are Cache Memory and Main Memory.
b) Secondary and Off-Line Storage: Secondary storage, or external memory supplements the
main memory and it requires the computer to use its input / output channels to access the
information. Secondary storage is used for long-term storage of persistent information.
Secondary storage is also known as “mass storage devices” or “auxiliary memory” and is much
slower then primary memory.
The need of secondary storage devices are felt due to the following reasons-
i) Limited storage capacity in primary storage devices: The capacity of primary storage devices
is limited so to store data and programs that are too large to fit into the random-access memory
at one time, we require the auxiliary storage devices.
ii) To make blank spaces in primary storage devices: If the capacity of the primary storage
devices becomes full of information then we will be unable to use it for our day to day activities.
iii) For easy transportation: Primary memories are not portable in nature, so for easy
transportation we require auxiliary storage devices.
iv) Security against physical calamities: If primary memory is destroyed due to some physical
calamities or by some accident computer crashes and the data in it cannot be recovered then the
data in the secondary storage devices can be used for backup utility.
v) Multiple copies: To obtain multiplied copy of our information we require secondary storage
devices.
Some of the characteristics of secondary storage devices are-
i) Storage medium can be easily removed from the computer system.
ii) It uses input / output channel of the computer system to access the information.
iii) Mainly used for data transfer and archival purposes.
iv) The cost of secondary memory is very less as compared to primary memory.
v) The secondary storage is more permanent in nature, non volatile and secures method for
storing programs and data compared to RAM memory.
vi) The Secondary or mass storage is typically of much greater capacity than primary storage
(main memory).
In modern computers, Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, memory cards, flash memory devices
including "USB drives", Zip disks and magnetic tapes are commonly used for off-line mass
storage purposes. "Hot-pluggable" USB hard disks are also available. Off-line storage devices
used in the past include punched cards, microforms, and removable Winchester disk drums.
i) Hard Disks: A hard disk is a fixed unit placed within the cabinet of the computer system and
it can not be removed like a CD. It consists of rigid circular platters of magnetizable material
sealed in a metal box with associated read/write heads. In modern computers, hard disks are
usually used for mass storage and it is no removable magnetic media as it is usually internal to
the computer. The time taken to access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is
typically a few thousandths of a second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a
given byte of information stored in random access memory is measured in thousand-millionths
of a second, or nanoseconds. So, hard disks are typically about a million times slower than
memory. This also illustrates the very significant speed difference which distinguishes solid-state
memory from rotating magnetic storage devices. In today’s context 160 GB is of hard disk
storage is minimal for personnel computer; one can also go for even 1 terabytes.
ii) Optical Storage Devices: The computer storage devices in which data is placed and / or
retrieved by means of a focused optical beam is called as optical storage device. Optical
technology involves the use of lasers (i.e. by burning microscopic “pits” to represent 1s and 0s)
to enable or recode the data from an optical laser disk. In case of optical disk nothing touches the
encoded portion and so not worm out by the playing process and last long. Rotating optical
storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, are typically even slower than hard disks, although
their access speeds are likely to improve with advances in technology. The term Worm drives/
device, optical disk libraries, jukebox / optical jukebox, write once read only device/ drives etc.
are synonymous with optical storage devices.
- Optical Disk: The laser optical disks are hard metal disk ranging in size from 4.72 inches to 14
inches. They were originally developed as a compact disk for audio and video application. Most
optical disks are read only storage devices. Eg. of optical disk includes Jukebox, DVD, CD, etc.
- Jukebox: A jukebox is an optical disk device that can automatically load and unload optical
disk and provide as much as 500 GB of near line information. The device is often called as
optical disk – libraries, Robotic drives or autochangers.
- DVD: DVD (commonly known as "Digital Versatile Disc" or "Digital Video Disc") is an
optical disc storage media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high
video and sound quality. DVDs resemble Compact Discs as their diameter is the same (120 mm
(4.72 inches) or occasionally 80 mm (3.15 inches) in diameter), but they are encoded in a
different format and at a much higher density. A DVD typically may contain at least 4.4 GiB of
data, nearly 7 times the amount of a CD-ROM and about 20 times faster than a CD-ROM. There
are several possible successors to DVD being developed by different consortiums:
Sony/Panasonic's Blu-ray Disc (BD), Toshiba's HD DVD and Maxell's Holographic Versatile
Disc (HVD). However, as reported in a mid 2005 issue of Popular Mechanics, it is not yet clear
which technology will win the format war over DVD. HD DVD discs have a lower capacity than
Blu-ray Discs (15 GB vs. 25 GB for single layer, 30 GB vs. 50 GB for dual layer). Other
speculations as to which format will win include Blu-ray Disc's larger hardware vendor and
movie studio support, and HD-DVD's faster read times.
- CD-ROM: CD-ROM is an abbreviation for "Compact Disc Read-only memory. It is a small
plastic disk used to store information digitally. The disk is covered with a transparent plastic
coating and is played on machine that uses laser to read the pattern of pitted and unpitted areas
on the disk’s surface. Since nothing touches the encoded portion the CD’s is not worn out by the
playing process. It is possible to produce composite CDs containing both data and audio with the
latter capable of being played on a CD player, whilst data or perhaps video can be viewed on a
computer. These are called Enhanced CDs. The standard CD-ROM holds 650 or 700 MiB of
data. The CD-ROM is popular for distribution of software, especially multimedia applications,
and large databases. A CD weighs less than 30 grams.
- Optical Tape: The optical tape is similar in appearance to a magnetic tape, but data are stored
by optical laser technique. Like other optical media the optical tape is also read only data storage
device.
- Optical Card: Optical cards are also called as laser card. It is in the size of a credit card and
has an optical laser encoded strip that can store approximately 2 MB of data.
- USB Pen Drive: USB Pen Drive is a small keyring-sized device that can be used to easily
transfer files between USB-compatible systems. It comes with a very different size and
capacities.
c) Tertiary and Database Storage: Database storage is a system where information in
computers is stored in large databases, data banks, data warehouses, or data vaults. It involves
packing and storing large amounts of storage devices throughout a series of shelves in a room,
usually an office, all linked together. The information in database storage systems can be
accessed by a supercomputer, mainframe computer, or personal computer. Databases, data
banks, and data warehouses, etc, can only be accessed by authorized users. In Tertiary or
database storage a robotic arm will "mount" (connect) or "dismount" off-line mass storage media
according to the computer operating system's demands. Tertiary storage is used in the realms of
enterprise storage and scientific computing on large computer systems and business computer
networks, and is something a typical personal computer user never sees firsthand.
d) Network Storage: Network storage is any type of computer storage that involves accessing
information over a computer network. Network storage arguably allows to centralize the
information management in an organization, and to reduce the duplication of information.
Network storage includes:
i) Network-Attached Storage: It is secondary or tertiary storage attached to a computer which
another computer can access at file level over a local-area network, a private wide-area network,
or in the case of online file storage, over the Internet.
ii) Storage Area Network: It provides other computers with storage capacity over a network,
the crucial difference between Network-Attached Storage (NAS) and Storage Area Networks
(SAN) is the former presents and manages file systems to client computers, whilst a SAN
provides access to disks at block addressing level, leaving it to attaching systems to manage data
or file systems within the provided capacity.
iii) Network Computers: Network computers are computers that do not contain internal
secondary storage devices. Instead, documents and other data are stored on a network-attached
storage.
Confusingly sometimes primary storage can be used to refer to local random-access disk
storage, which should properly be called secondary storage. If this type of storage is called
primary storage, then the term secondary storage would refer to offline, sequential-access
storage like tape media.
B) Based on Volatility of Information: Based on volatile and non volatile nature of information
stored in the memory, memory can be of the following types-
a) Volatile Memory: It requires constant power to maintain the stored information. It is
typically used only for primary storage, but at the same time primary storage is not necessarily
volatile, even though today's most cost-effective primary storage technologies are volatile. Non-
volatile technologies have been widely used for primary storage in the past and may again be in
the future.
b) Dynamic Memory: It is volatile memory that demands to be periodically refreshed, or read
and rewritten to store information without modifications.
c) Non-volatile Memory: The Non volatile memory retains the stored information even if it is
not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information,
and therefore used for secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage.
C) Based on Access: Based on the access provision, memory can be divided into the following
categories-
a) Random Access: In Random access one can access any point at random i.e. without passing
through intervening points. It means that any location in storage can be accessed at any moment
without wasting much time. This makes random access memory well suited for primary
storage.Example: Magnetic disk, Optical disk, Zip disks
b) Sequential Access: In sequential access the data stored in the media can only be read in
sequence and to get to a particular point on the media one has to go through all the preceding
points. It means to access a piece of information takes a varying amount of time, depending on
which piece of information was accessed last. The device may need to seek (e.g. to position the
read/write head correctly), or cycle (e.g. to wait for the correct location in a revolving medium to
appear below the read/write head). Example includes magnetic tapes and such other media.
D) Based on Ability to Change Information: Based on the provision of modifying the
information, computer memory can be of the following types-
a) Read / Write Storage, or Mutable Storage: It allows information to be overwritten at any
time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes
would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for
secondary storage. Slow write, fast read storage is read/write storage which allows information
to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read
operation. Examples include CD-RW.
b) Read Only Storage: It retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write
once storage (WORM) allows the information to be written only once at some point after
manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-
line storage. Examples include CD-R.
E) Addressability of Information: Based on the provision of addressability of information,
computer memory can be of the following types-
a) Location-addressable Storage: Here, each individually accessible unit of information in
storage is selected with its numerical memory address. In modern computers, location-
addressable storage usually limits to primary storage, accessed internally by computer programs,
since location-addressability is very efficient, but burdensome for humans.
b) Content-addressable Storage: Here, each individually accessible unit of information is
selected with a hash value or a short identifier with number? Pertaining to the memory address
the information is stored on. Content-addressable storage can be implemented using software
(computer program) or hardware (computer device), with hardware being faster but more
expensive option.
c) File System Storage: Here, information is divided into files of variable length, and a
particular file is selected with human-readable directory and file names. The underlying device is
still location-addressable, but the operating system of a computer provides the file system
abstraction to make the operation more understandable. In modern computers, secondary, tertiary
and off-line storage use file systems.
F) Based on Technologies, Devices and Media: Previously paper tape and punch cards have
been used to store information for automatic processing since the 1890s, long before general-
purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or
cardboard medium, and was read by electrically (or, later, optically) sensing whether a particular
location on the medium was solid or contained a hole. Williams’s tube used a cathode ray tube,
and Selectron tube used a large vacuum tube to store information. These primary storage devices
were short-lived in the market, since Williams tube was unreliable and Selectron tube was
expensive. Delay line memory used sound waves in a substance such as mercury to store
information. Delay line memory was dynamic volatile, cycle sequential read/write storage, and
was used for primary storage. In modern times the following types of devices are widely used.
a) Magnetic Storage: Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a
magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The
information is accessed using one or more read/write heads. Since the read/write head only
covers a part of the surface, magnetic storage is sequential access and must seek, cycle or both.
In modern computers, the magnetic surface takes the forms of Magnetic disk, Floppy disk (used
for off-line storage), Hard disk (used for secondary storage), Magnetic tape data storage (used
for tertiary and off-line storage; In early computers, magnetic storage was also used for primary
storage in a form of magnetic drum, or core memory, core rope memory, thin film memory,
twistor memory or bubble memory. Also unlike today, magnetic tape was often used for
secondary storage.)
b) Semiconductor Storage: Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated
circuits to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny
transistors or capacitors. Both volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist. In
modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile
semiconductor memory or dynamic random access memory. Since the turn of the century, a type
of non-volatile semiconductor memory known as flash memory has steadily gained share as off-
line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary
storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers.
c) Optical Disc Storage: Optical disks are non-magnetic auxiliary storage devices that resemble
audio compact disks. Optical disc storage uses tiny pits etched on the surface of a circular disc to
store information, and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and
observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non-volatile and sequential access. It takes the
forms of CD, CD-ROM (or compact disk, read-only memory), DVD (Read only storage, used
for mass distribution of digital information such as music, video, computer programs etc), CD-R,
DVD-R, DVD+R (Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage), CD-RW, DVD-RW,
DVD+RW, DVD-RAM (Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage),
Blu-ray Disc (BD), HD DVD, Ultra Density Optical (UDO), Professional Disc for DATA (PDD
or ProDATA). Among the list Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD), Phase-change Dual is also can
be proposed. Recordable CD-ROM disks, called WORM (write-once/read-many) are becoming
an affordable alternative to tapes and hard disk, primarily for archival storage purposes. A single,
small CD-ROM disk can hold more information than 1,000 floppy disks.
i) Magneto-optical Disc Storage: Magneto-optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the
magnetic state on a ferromagnetic surface stores information. The information is read optically
and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is non-
volatile, sequential access, slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
ii) Ultra Density Optical Disc Storage: An Ultra Density Optical disc or UDO is a 5.25" ISO
cartridge optical disc encased in a dust-proof caddy which can store up to 30 GB of data.
Utilizing a design based on a magneto-optical disc, but utilizing phase change technology
combined with a blue violet laser, a UDO disc can store substantially more data than a magneto-
optical disc or MO, because of the shorter wavelength (405 nm) of the blue-violet laser
employed. MOs use a 650-nm-wavelength red laser. Because its beam width is shorter when
burning to a disc than a red-laser for MO, a blue-violet laser allows more information to be
stored digitally in the same amount of space. Current generations of UDO store up to 120 GB,
though up to 500 GB has been speculated as a possibility for UDO.
iii) Optical Jukebox Storage: Optical jukebox storage is a robotic storage device that utilizes
optical disk device and can automatically load and unload optical disks and provide terabytes of
near-line information. The devices are often called optical disk libraries, robotic drives, or auto
changers. Jukebox devices may have up to 1,000 slots for disks, and usually have a picking
device that traverses the slots and drives. The arrangement of the slots and picking devices
affects performance, depending on the space between a disk and the picking device. Seek times
and transfer rates vary depending upon the optical technology. Jukeboxes are used in high-
capacity archive storage environments. HSM is a strategy that moves little-used or unused files
from fast magnetic storage to optical jukebox devices in a process called migration. If the files
are needed, they are migrated back to magnetic disk.
Computer
Computer: The industrial machine eliminates muscular effort from production; just like that the
computing machine eliminates clerical and computational effort from administration, research,
etc. The word “computer” is derived from the word “compute”, which means to calculate. It is an
electronic device that can perform a variety of operations according to a set of instructions called
program. It is “a device that receives, processes and presents information” (McGraw Hill, 1997,
p. 270). A computer is a device that solves problems by applying prescribed operation on data
entered into it. (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1991, p. 638). A computer can also be defined as a set
of interacting elements, responding to input so as to produce desire output.
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions. The first use of
the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out calculations, or
computations, and the word continued to be used in that sense until the middle of the 20th
century. From the end of the 19th century onwards though, the word began to take on its more
familiar meaning, describing a machine that carries out computations.
Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored program architecture,
making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now defined. By this standard, many
earlier devices would no longer be called computers by today's definition, but are usually
referred to as such in their historical context. The technologies used in computers have changed
dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, but most still use
the Von Neumann architecture. The design made the universal computer a practical reality.
Vacuum tube-based computers were in use throughout the 1950s. Vacuum tubes were
largely replaced in the 1960s by transistor-based computers. When compared with tubes,
transistors are smaller, faster, cheaper, use less power, and are more reliable. In the 1970s,
integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors, such as the Intel
4004, caused another generation of decreased size and cost, and another generation of increased
speed and reliability. By the 1980s, computers became sufficiently small and cheap to replace
simple mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The 1980s also
witnessed home computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. With the evolution of the
Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the
household.
Experts don’t agree on computer classification because computer technology is changing so fast
that within the span of a month, when a new system comes out, it is faced with two potential
factors- one costs the same and has a much higher performance and the other has the same
performance but costs much less. Thus, a recently introduced smaller system can outcome
(outperform) the large model of a few years ago and a new PC can do the work of an earlier mini
at a much lower cost.
 This is the Computer Age and these machines are beginning to affect our lives in many
ways. There are so many applications of computers. The computer era appears before us with the
promise of new and improved ways of thinking, living and working. Computers are all around us
and avoiding them is virtually impossible. We have been exposed to the world of computer hype,
computer advertisements and computer headlines. We interact with computers in our daily lives -
whether we are at the cinemas, the school, or the public library.
Components of Information System
Components of Information System: Information System consists of a number of organs or
components. These organs or components work in harmony to achieve the define purposes. The
main components of Information Systems are
i) Libraries
ii) Documentation Centres
iii) Information Centres
iv) Data Banks
v) Data Centres
vi) Information Analysis Centres
vii) Referral Centres
viii) Clearing Houses
ix) Translation Centres, etc.
1. Libraries: Libraries are by far the oldest institutions charged with the responsibility of
collecting, storing and disseminating of information. Library is a collection of books or other
written or printed materials, as well as the facility in which they are housed and served the reader
within an institution that is responsible for their maintenance. According to Ranganathan, the
father of library science in India “a library is a public institution or establishment charged with
the care of collection of books, the duty of making them accessible to those who require the use
of them and the task of converting every person in its neighborhood into a habitual library goers
and reader of books.”
Libraries are established by the government, academic institutions or by some other
special organizations. Libraries can be grouped into three major divisions i.e Public (State
Central Library, District Library, Sub divisional Library, Rural Library), Academic (University
Library, College Library), School and Special (Libraries attached to industries, Doordarshan
Kendra, All India Radio, etc).
a) Collections: In ancient day libraries gathered huge collection of manuscripts and preserved
them most efficiently for the posterity. Modern libraries may contain a wide range of materials,
including manuscripts and pamphlets, posters, photographs, motion pictures, and videotapes,
sound recordings, and computer databases in various forms.
b) Services: Libraries are the carriers of information from one generation to the next generation.
Most of the new technology based information businesses are still largely dependent on the
library for their survival which includes information broker, consultants, referral centre. In the
days of IT also libraries continue to serve millions of grateful users in new and improved ways
and it is hoped that in neat future also it will be the only affordable source of information.
The change in structure of libraries comes as an information system that consists of a
number of organs or components. These organs or components work in harmony to achieve the
define purposes. It is advantageous to discuss the changing role of library and information
centers on the basis of such information unit or change in structure of the libraries.
2. Documentation Centres: ASLIB adopted the definition of the term documentation for the
Journal of Documentation in 1945 as “recording, organization and dissemination of specialized
knowledge”. Late Dr. S. C. Bradford defines it as “the art of documentation is the art of
collecting, classifying and making readily accessible the records of all kinds of intellectual
activities”.
a) Origin of Documentation Centres: Books were not able to communicate latest scientific
thought as a result importance of scientific periodicals had increased. With the acceleration of
research scientific periodicals gained further importance. Along with the scientific periodicals
new kind of literature like conference proceedings, annual reviews, patents, standards and
specification, theses, secondary periodicals like indexing and abstracting journals, directories,
research reports, etc. started appearing in big way. Further these paper based information sources
are supplemented by CD, DVD, etc. As a result libraries started acquiring all these materials
along with books. To have a comprehensive term for all these media of communication
“Documentation” was brought into vogue. The reader for this kind of new literature steadily
increases but the nature of complexity of information sources led to the demand of services that
are outside the domain of traditional libraries and the traditional library techniques were found to
be unsuitable hence, a new breed of organization known as documentation centres paved the
way.
b) Services: Documentation centres find out new vistas in serving the need of the user. It gives
emphasis towards provision of information contained in document rather than serving the
document themselves. It analyses the content of the documentation in finer details, provide
indexing, abstracting, union catalogue, translation, etc. services to meet the need of the specialist
users. Another basic function of any documentation centres is that it brings to the notice of
specialist user, current and recent literature of value to them. Services of documentation centres
are designed to satisfy the existing and anticipated needs of its users. The main purposes served
by these units are
- To answer the queries;
- To help in finding the primary document;
- To identify as accurately as possible all information of potential interest to users;
- To see that the user receive the information.
3. Information Centres: An information centre can be defined as “an organization that
a) Select, acquire stores and retrieve specific information in response to requests.
b) Announces, abstract, extract and indexes information and
c) Disseminate information in response to requests from documents or in anticipation”.
Meltzer defines the information centre as “The Special library with added functions of
analyzing and synthesizing information needed by management, staff and the technical personnel
of the organization”. Thus information centres gives emphasis towards the provision of
information contained in the document rather than document themselves which is the main
consideration of traditional libraries.
A library handles and provides address of a document containing information but an
information centre gives information that is inside the document and also processes and
disseminates it. The information centre differs from the library in following main areas
i) Degree of delegation by the user i.e. the task of searching and evaluating information is dome
by the staff
ii) Exercise of judgment and evaluation as to the importance of the retrieved material in relation
to the client’s request
iii) The giving of information itself rather than document.
iv) The processing of search input into a variety of search products
v) Provides information to not only user of parent organization but also outside the organization
too.
vi) Not only acquire, process, store and retrieve information (the library function) but also reduce
analyse and present information / data.
4. Data Banks: Data Banks are usually concerned with a broader field. They are very precise
grids to extract the raw data from data collection and the relevant literature which they arrange in
structured files so as to be ready for subsequent processing to answer user queries. The essential
characteristic of data bank is storing information in a form (so data should be in a machine
readable files i.e. for storing and retrieving of data computer should be used) which will allow
continuous updating, augmentation and approach from different points of view and which has the
capacity of supporting simultaneously a number of user at remote locations. To use the analogy
of a bank, a user can deposit or withdraw from several branches.
Satmana defines a data bank as an open information system with sets of data known as
files. It is composed of the following elements
i) The basic files known as data base.
ii) A filing system that makes to integrate data from different files, relative to the same entities
iii) A data processing system that allows users to extract relevant information from the files
adopted to their needs and in a form suited to their decision pattern.
Data centre and data banks are dissimilar only regarding the subjects they deals and type
of data they handle. Simply stated data centres handle only numerical data and mostly for science
and technology. Data banks are multidisciplinary and deal with all types of data particularly
administrative, statistical, techno-economics, census and survey, and similar other that are
produced by several institutions. Data banks handle data only while data centres handle data
themselves or literature about data.
5. Data Centres: According to UNESCO a data centre “constitutes an organization handling
quantitative numerical data” Such centers take the primary function of collecting, organizing,
and disseminating data (mainly numerical) and also provide a measurement service and are in a
position to advance relevant measurement techniques. They store data on a narrow field of
specification. Data centres try to collect arrange and store numerical data pertaining to a specific
subject field or to answer specific queries. Data centre activities are anticipatory operations
planned keeping in view the requirements of its user. It also checks systematically all available
data and organizes them into a number of categories for the purpose of showing the current state
of knowledge together with comments on the precision or reliability of the data in regard to the
various aspects of a product or phenomena. It may be stated here that the activities of a data
centre may comprise of the following
i) Data Collection
ii) Data Control
iii) Data Codification
iv) Data Organization ans structuring into a database
v) Data Retrieval
Example of data centre include National Data Centre for Crystallography, University of
Madras, India.
6. Information Analysis Centres: The COSATI standing panel wrote the following
comprehensive definition of Information Analysis Centre (IAC) “An information analysis centre
is a formally structured organizational unit, specifically (but not necessarily exclusively)
established for the purpose of acquiring, selecting, storing, retrieving, evaluating, analyzing an
synthesizing a body of information and / or data in a clearly defined specialized field or
pertaining to a specified mission with intent of compiling, digesting, repackaging or otherwise
organizing and presenting pertinent information and / or data in a form most authoritative, timely
and useful to a society of peers and management”.
The key activities of IAC s are analysis, interpretation, synthesis, evaluation and
repackaging of information carried out by subject specialists, resulting in the production of new,
evaluated information in the form of critical reviews, state of art, monographs or data
compilation as well as substantive, evaluated responses to queries for the purpose of assisting a
community of users more broadly representative than the staff of the parent institutes of
laboratories.
These centres have to closely monitor the literature produced in the field, evaluate the
utility of each piece of information so gathered and the information are communicate to the users
in a directly usable form. The results of analysis are communicated either through a regular
publication or by way of sporadic reports. It is very much essential that these centres should
verify the information so gathered with regard to the validity, reliability and accuracy before
dissemination.
7. Referral Centres: These do not provide the user with the documents. Instead it refers or
directs them to the source from where they can get the data or the documents. Mostly to
secondary publication, information centres, professional organizations, research institutions,
clearing houses and individual scientist, etc. They maintain files of sources, directories, etc. The
referral centre may even bring out such documents. So, in simple referral centre provide
switching mechanism among different types of information institutions. The referral service may
be one of the activities of a documentation centre and it is difficult to find units performing this
function exclusively. To achieve its objectives a referral centre has to perform certain basic
operations. These includes
i) A referral centre possesses an inventory of all significant information resources in different
disciplines.
ii) It compiles and publishes directories of scientific and technical information resources.
iii) It analyzes the operating relationships that exist in the scientific information.
The function of referral centres includes
i) Collect information about information sources within the range of scope of either the subject
or activity of the referral centre.
ii) Prepares comprehensive inventory of types of information services available from these
sources with a detailed subject index to facilitate access.
iii) Functions as an intermediary between inquirers and the organization or individuals who
possess specialized information of the subject of enquiry;
iv) Guides users to appropriate sources where from the required information may be obtaining.
The Examples of referral center includes
a) British Library Lending Division (BLLD), UK.
b) National Referral Centre, Library of Congress.
8. Clearing Houses: A clearing house is a central agency for collection, classification and
distribution of information. It may include specialized information centres as well as
conventional libraries. It represents a depository for document with the additional objectives of
servicing as a central agency engaged in the distribution of information. It also includes such
functions as collecting and maintaining records of research and development.
Clearing houses provide a single point of access to documents originating from a number
of sources from different places, in different languages. The producers of the documents inform
the clearing house about the bibliographical details of the document and usually send them a
copy. The clearing houses circulate the description of the documents to the organization that are
interested in the field and to the participating organizations. They may provide a copy of these
documents as well on request if available. These units are organized either on a cooperative basis
or by an international or national agency.
Most of the clearing houses have specialized as well as they developed collections. They
have information gathering network to acquire documents in their subject areas. They also
provide specialized information services in some selected areas. They answer specific and
general type of questions and may act as central searching places for enquiry especially for
research and development areas.
The difference between a documentation center and a clearing house is that the
documentation centre deals with conventional documents, whereas the clearing house deals with
the non-conventional documents like conference proceedings, scientific reports, document of
limited circulation, etc.
9. Translation Centres: In modern times in any discipline literature are published in many
languages as a result, scientist in need of particular information find it difficult to be able to
understand the contents of the documents. To solve the problem, some national and international
level organization comes forward to help the scientist in this regard. They translate the content of
the documents from one language to another to meet the needs of the user. In the field of science
and technology following centre provides translation services.
a) National Translation Centre, Chicago, America
b) International Translation Centre, Delft, Netherlands
c) British Library Lending Division, Boston
10. Data Consolidation and Evaluation Centre: It is an advance form of information units
which check systematically all available data and organize them into a number of categories for
the purpose of showing the current state of knowledge together with comments on the precision
or reliability of the data in regard to the various aspects of a product or phenomenon.
11. Let Us Sum Up: In practical life each of the information unit performs more or less the same
function, at least to a certain extent making it difficult to make a distinction between different
components of information system. So it will not be correct to go by the name of the information
unit. However Claire Guinchat and Michel Menou say that the most important criterion for
distinguishing the information unit is the kind of information activity (or the primary function)
they perform.
Communication
Communication: The term “communication” comes from Latin word “communis” meaning
common. When we communicate with someone we try to establish a certain degree of
commonness with the communicate. Eg. By sharing some information, an idea or an attitude.
Communication therefore refers to transmission or exchange of information, message, etc.
Communication takes place when people send or receive message of various kind. So
information and communication are two interlinked term in the sense that without information
communication is not possible.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as “the imparting, conveying or
exchange of ideas and knowledge whether by speech, writing or signs”.
The Columbia Encyclopaedia of Communication defines it as “the transfer of thought and
message as contrasted with transportation of goods and person”.
In ordinary usage the verb “to communicate” means
i) To exchange thoughts, feelings, information;
ii) To make known;
iii) To make common;
iv) To have a sympathetic relationship.
In the noun form “communication” refers to
i) The exchange of symbols, common message, information;
ii) The process of exchange between individual through a common system of symbols;
iii) The art of expressing ideas and
iv) The science of transmitting information.
In the popularly understood sense of the term communication refers to anything from a
face to face conversion between two persons, conversion over the telephone, and correspondence
between friends. The transmission of programmes on live television are broadcast via
communication satellite i.e received by millions of people.
1. Elements of Communication: The communication process requires at least three elements.
a) Source: The source is a point at which message originates. It can be an individual or an
organization, a human being or a machine.
b) Channel: The message may be in audible, visual, or tactile form as any signal capable of
meaningful interpretation.
c) Destination: The destination or recipient, which again can be a person or a group of person, is
in the final link of the communication chain. Destination is the interceded target of the message.
2. Media and Forms of Communication of Information: There is a distinct difference between
communication of information and communication of commodities, energy, heat, etc. i.e one’s
own stock of information or knowledge is not going to diminish by communicating to others.
Thus the ownership of information may multiply but not change hands like a physical
commodity. Further one can communicate information which he does not have, eg. about one’s
own behaviour.
Quite often two or more channels may be used together for effective communication and
the channels of dissemination may form a series of alternative routes, through the total
communication system.
Communication is a process of transferring message from one point to another. The four
element of any communication process are the reader, the medium, the receiver and the
feedback. In Library and Information Science several models of communication are used in the
dissemination of information through e-mail, post, telephone line, through oral verbal
communication, videoconferencing etc.
Components of a Computer
Components of a Computer: The computer unit is frequently called as the computer system
because of its numerous parts, machinery units and complicated sequential operation. A
computer system has three main parts i.e Hardware, Software and Humanware. A general
purpose computer has two main parts Hardware and Software.

1. Hardware: The physical or mechanical parts of the computer system that can be seen and
touched are known as hardware. It consists of a combination and collection of electro-
mechanical and electronic components and devices, electronic circuits and microelectronic
equipment assembled in metal boxes in the form of modules and cabinet. All these equipment
and elements are interconnected by wiring and switching communication components like
transistors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, printed circuits, integrated circuits, main and auxiliary
storage systems, various types of magnetic media, communication media for carrying and
transformation of data, coded instruction, etc. The different hardware parts are interconnected by
busses, often made of groups of wires.
Any computer system has three important hardware parts. They are input device, central
processing unit and the output device. The central processing unit itself has three parts, namely
memory unit, control unit and arithmetic and logic unit. These three units along with the input
and output devices form the five important components of any computer system. In addition to
the above five parts mentioned, computers also have secondary storage devices, which are used
for storing data or instruction on a long term basis.
A) Input Unit: The input devices are used to transfer the information into the memory unit of a
computer. In simplest term, they bring information into the computer from the user’s hand, i.e.
input unit feeds data into the computer. It is thus a communication medium between the user and
the machine. The input devices are of the following types.
i) Keyboard: Keyboards are the most commonly used input devices usually having 83-84 keys
and enhanced with 101 keys or even more. The enhanced keyboards are more popular.
ii) Mouse: It is a hand-held pointing device that allows controlling the computer without having
to type the instruction through keyboard. The Scrolling mouse is a small unit with a round ball at
the bottom and with two depression switches at the upper top portion having again a scroll
button. Nowadays cord less as well as without scroll ball-type of mouse is also used.
iii) Scanners: Scanners are used to store or feed an entire image / data or page of other
information into the computer system. Image scanner is a general-purpose device which digitizes
a two-dimensional image.
iv) Track Ball: A trackball is just like a mouse lying on its back. It is stationary and does not
need to move on any surface. To move the pointer only the ball should be rotated with the thumb
/ finger or with the palm. The buttons next to the ball are used just like mouse button.
v) Joystick: A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports
its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video
games and they usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the
computer.

Fig. 2: Elements of a joystick Fig. 3: A 6×8 Wacom Intuos3 Fig. 4: Front and back of a
elements: 1. Stick 2. Base 3. graphics tablet with DuoSwitch Canon PowerShot A95.
trigger 4. Extra buttons 5. erasing Grip Pen stylus and 5-
Autofire switch 6. Throttle 7. button scrollwheel puck.
Hat Switch (POV Hat) 8.
Suction Cup
vi) Digitizing Tablet: A graphics tablet (or digitizing tablet, graphics pad, drawing tablet, pen
pad or digitizer) is a computer input device that allows one to hand-draw images and graphics,
similar to the way one draws images with a pencil and paper. These tablets may also be used to
capture data or handwritten signatures.
vii) Digital Camera: A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that takes video or still
photographs, or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor.
viii) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): It allows the computer to recognize
character printed using magnetic ink. MICR is widely used in banks to read the cheque number
written on the bottom of the cheque. It is also used in the back of credit cards and bank debit
cards and ID cards.
ix) Optical Character Recognition (OCR): An optical character reader is used to read character
of special type fonts printed on conventional paper with conventional ink i.e. it involves reading
text from paper, book or from a magazine articles but they still have difficulty with handwritten
text.
x) Bar Code Reader: Bar code readers are photoelectric scanner that reads the bar codes or
vertical zebra striped marks printed on the product container and the computer automatically tells
the prices of the product at the terminals.
xi) Speech Recognition and Voice Response Devices: In this type of device the user speaks into
a microphone which is attached to a digitizer. The dizitizer converts the analog sounds waves to
“0” and “1”s which can be easily understood by the computer. Speech recognition devices are
necessary because spoken commands are much quicker than typing. It helps to give command to
a remote computer over telephone. It helps the computer usable to the blind people. In computer
assisted learning environment it helps in the interaction between the man and machine.
xii) Touchscreen: A touchscreen is a display that can detect the presence and location of a touch
within the display area. The touchscreen has two main attributes. Firstly, it enables one to
interact with what is displayed directly on the screen, where it is displayed, rather than indirectly
with a mouse or touchpad. Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring any intermediate device
such as a stylus that needs to be held in the hand. Such displays can be attached to computers or,
as terminals, to networks.
xiii) Touchpad: A touchpad (also trackpad) is a pointing device consisting of specialized surface
that can translate the motion and position of a user's fingers to a relative position on screen. They
are a common feature of laptop computers and are also used as a substitute for a computer mouse
where desk space is scarce.
xiv) 14 Light Pen: A light pen is similar to a mouse except that with a light pen one can move
the pointer and select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the object with the
help of the pen.
xv) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) is also called mark
sensing. It is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark such
as pencil mark. OMR is used in test such as aptitude test.
B) Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of any computer system; all major
calculations and comparisons are made inside the CPU and it is also responsible for activating
and controlling the operations of other units of a computer system. It guides, directs and controls
a computer performance. It also executes the instruction given to it. The CPU consists of the
ALU, control unit, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these).
Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have
typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
a) Arithematic and Logic Unit (ALU): The input devices are used to transfer the information
into the memory unit of a computer. Information from the memory can be transferred to the ALU
where comparison and calculation are done and the results are sent back to the memory unit. The
set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and
subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc)
and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating
point to represent real numbers with limited precision. An ALU may also compare numbers and
return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or
less than the other. Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, and NOT. These can be
useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing Boolean logic.
b) Control Unit: It acts as a manager which controls all activities being carried out within the
computer. The control unit strictly obeys the instruction given by us, follows the instruction in
the same sequence and executes them one after another until the entire set of instruction is
exhausted. CU brings one instruction at a time from the memory, interprets it and obeys it by
coordinating the working of all other units. The CU tells the input unit what is to be read and
addresses the memory as to where it is to be stored. The CU ensures that according to the stored
instruction the right operation is done on the right data at the right time. It manages and
coordinates the entire computer system. The simplified descriptions of the steps that are
performed by the Control unit are given below. Some of these steps may be performed
concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU
* Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter (program
counter is conceptually just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done
in the ALU);
* Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the
other systems;
* Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction;
* Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input
device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code;
* Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register;
* If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to
perform the requested operation;
* Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output
device
* Jump back to step one.
c) Memory Unit: It is the workspace area within the computer where the data and instructions
are stored. It holds all data, instruction and results temporarily. It stores the data to be processed,
the intermediate results and the final results until they are displayed. It contains the programs that
are currently being run and the data the programs are operating on. In modern computers, the
main memory is the electronic solid-state Random Access Memory (RAM). It is directly
connected to the CPU via a "memory bus" and a "data bus". The arithmetic and logic unit can
very quickly transfer information between a processor register and locations in main storage, also
known as a "memory addresses". The memory bus is also called an address bus or front side bus
and both buses are high-speed digital "superhighways". Access methods and speed are two of the
fundamental technical differences between memory and mass storage devices. Main memories
are of the following types
i) Random Access Memory (RAM): It is the key working area of the memory. It is possible to
select randomly and use any location of this memory. It is also called the read/write memory
because information can be read from RAM chip and can also be written into it. It is a volatile
storage medium i.e. the contents of the memory are lost when power is switched off/cut, as it
requires a steady flow of electricity to maintain its content. RAM is also quite expensive. RAM
may be of VRAM, WRAM, NVRAM.
ii) Read Only Memory (ROM): It holds permanent data or instruction that can only be read. That
information is permanently recorded and cannot be changed by the programmer. It is non volatile
in nature i.e. the contents of ROM are not lost when the computer is switched off. It contains
instruction to get the computer started when the switch is on, holds instruction and data that
control the various peripheral units of the computer such as graphic display, disk drives, etc.
Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical programmes, as it is
expensive to produce. Typically, ROM must also be completely erased before it can be rewritten,
making large scale use impractical, if not impossible. ROM may be of the following types-
* Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): A PROM is a memory chip on which set of
instructions or information can be stored, but it cannot be modified or wiped out later on. Like
ROM its memory is also non volatile. To write data on a PROM one will need a special device
called a PROM programmer or PROM burner. The difference between a PROM and ROM is that
PROM is manufactured as blank memory where ROM is programmed during the manufacturing
process.
* Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): EPROM is used widely in personal
computers to enable the manufacturer to change the contents of PROM before the computer is
actually skipped so that the bugs can be removed and new versions can be installed shortly
before delivery. The EPROM is of two types - Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM), where
high voltage electric pulses are used to erase the previous data or instruction and after that the
disk can be reused and Ultra Violet Erasable PROM (UVEPROM), which retains its data or
instruction until it is exposed to Ultra Violet light. The UV light clears its contents making it
possible to reprogramme the memory. The difference between an EPROM and PROM is that
while in PROM the data or instruction can be written only once and cannot be erased, in EPROM
the content can be erased and reprogramming can be done.
iii) Flash Memory: Many modern PCs have their Basic Input Output System (BIOS) stored on
flash memory chip so that it can easily be updated if necessary. Such type of BIOS is sometimes
called flash BIOS. Flash memory is also important for modem as it enables the modem
manufacturer to support new protocols as they become standardized. EEPROM is similar to flash
memory (sometimes called flash EEPROM). The principal difference between the two is that
EEPROM requires data to be written or erased in byte at a time whereas flash memory allows
data to be written or erased in blocks. This makes flash memory faster.
iv) Cache Memory: It is a special type of internal memory used by many central processing units
to increase their performance or "throughput". Some of the information in the main memory is
duplicated in the cache memory, which is slightly slower but of much greater capacity than the
processor registers, and faster but much smaller than main memory. Multi-level cache memory is
also commonly used—"primary cache" being smallest, fastest and closest to the processing
device; "secondary cache" being larger and slower, but still faster and much smaller than main
memory.
C) Output Unit: An output device is any product or machine that is capable of bringing
information for user view. It presents the processed data or information to the user. It can be a
printed page, a picture in monitor, and so on. Anything which comes out of a computer system is
the output of it. The common output devices are-
a) Monitor [Video Display Unit (VDU) / Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)]: It looks like a television.
The advantage of having a video display unit is that as we write we can see what is being fed into
the computer and by this way we can spot the mistakes and make the necessary correction. It also
helps to display the stored information inside the computer system.
b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): CRT screens are relatively heavy and bulky, therefore
unsuitable for small portable computer like note book. Considering this the screen of a portable
computer is effectively replaced by a flat panel LCD screen which is smaller in size and lighter
in weight.
c) Printer: A computer printer, or more commonly called the printer, is a device that produces a
hard copy (permanent human-readable text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic
form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are
primarily used as computer peripherals, and are permanently attached by a printer cable to a
computer which serves as a document source. The latest technology is combining printers with a
scanner and/or fax machine in a single unit. The world's first computer printer was a 19th-
century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his Difference Engine.
d) Plotter: A plotter is a vector graphics printing device which operates by moving a pen over
the surface of paper. Plotters are used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they
are being replaced with wide-format conventional printers.
e) Speaker: Speaker output the music or speech from the programme. A speaker or loudspeaker
converts an electrical signal to sound. The speaker pushes a medium in accord with the
pulsations of an electrical signal, thus causing sound waves to propagate to where they can then
be received by the ear.
f) Computer Output on Microfilm and Microfiche (COM): The output from the computer,
instead of being printed is displayed on a high resolution cathode ray tube, and the output is
obtained in microfilm or microfiche from which it is often used to store massive data in compact
form. Then, when needed, with the help of a special microfilm reader it is used to read the
output.
g) Speech Output Unit: A speech output unit is one which reads string of character stored in a
computer memory and converts it into spoken sentence. This type of speech output is very useful
in many areas.
Examples: A telephone where a message is given to the caller when the number dialed does not
exist, railway and airlines enquires.
D) Auxiliary Storage Devices: Auxiliary memory / storage devices or secondary storage
supplements the main memory and it requires the computer to use its input/output channels to
access the information. Secondary storage is also known as “mass storage devices”. It functions
as back up device even if by some accident the computer is crashed and the data in it is
unrecoverable. One can restore it from the backups. It acts both as input and output devices. The
secondary storage devices are also used as a transport medium to transfer data or information
from one computer system to another computer system. If we use keyboard as an input device
we will waste a lot of valuable computer times because manual input is always slow. Secondary
storage is also used for long-term storage of persistent information. Secondary storage device
includes Magnetic tapes, Floppy disc, CD / DVD, Pen drive, External Hard Disc etc. The Floppy
and Magnetic Tapes are now obsolete as secondary storage devices.
i) CD-ROM: CD-ROM is an abbreviation for Compact Disc Read-only memory. The standard
CD-ROM holds 650 or 700 MiB of data. A "700 MB" CD has a nominal capacity of about 700
MiB. The CD-ROM is popular for distribution of software, especially multimedia applications,
and large databases.
ii) DVD: It typically may contain at least 4.4 GiB of data, nearly 7 times the amount of a CD-
ROM. DVD capacities are given in decimal units: A "4.7 GB" DVD has a nominal capacity of
about 4.38 GiB.
iii) Pen Drive: A USB flash drive consists of a NAND-type flash memory data storage device
integrated with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable
and rewritable, much smaller than a floppy disk, and most weigh less than an ounce (30 g).
Storage capacities can range from 64 MB to 256 GB with steady improvements in size and price
per capacity. Some allow 1 million write or erase cycles and have 10-year data retention,
connected by USB 1.1 or USB 2.0.

2. Software: A computer cannot perform on its own. It needs to be exclusively instructed on

what it has to do, the programmes written for a computer to perform different operation are
called software and it can be defined as ‘the set of computer programme, procedures and
associated documentation or complete set of instruction which enable the computer to obtain
solution of a problem that resides in the memory or storage device of a computer’. (The
programme is a set of instructions written in computer language). Software is a general term that
is used to describe only single programme or group of programme and makes the hardware run.
It acts as an interface between the user and the computer. Computer softwares are generally
classified into two broad categories:
A) System Software: It is a set of one or more programs, designed to control the operation of a
computer system. Generally, the system software supports the running of the other software,
communicates with other peripherals devices, supports the development of other types of
software and supervises the user of various hardware resources. System software is of the
following types-
a) Operating System: An operating system (OS) is an integrated set of computer programmes
that manage the hardware and software resources and the overall operation of a computer
system. The operating system is designed to support the activities of computer installation. It acts
as an interface between a user and the hardware i.e. all computer resources. It forms a platform
for other system software and for application software. Its prime objectives are to improve the
performance and efficiency of a computer system, increase the facility and the ease with which a
system can be used. Most operating systems have a command line interpreter as a basic user
interface, but they may also provide a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for ease of operation.
Operating systems are mainly of two types-
i) Command / Character User Interface (CUI): In this type of OS the user has to type the
commands at the command prompt mode, which will act as an input to execute and program.
E.g. UNIX, MS DOS.
ii) Graphic User Interface (GUI): In this type the user is able to select files, programmes or
commands by pointing to graphical representations on the screen and thereby it avoids the typing
of lengthy complex commands. E.g. Windows XP.
b) Language Processor: Men use their own language (High Level Language) to write their
programmes because it is much easier to code in such languages. However, the computer is
unable to understand such a High Level Language; it only understands its own language i.e.
Machine Language (Binary Language). Therefore, it becomes necessary to process a HLL to
LLL. The computer programme that performs this job is the language processor. The language
processors are of the following types-
i) Assembler: In the 1950s to reduce programming complexity in Machine Language and to
provide some standardization, assembly languages were developed. Assembly language is also
known as Symbolic Language. Assembly language uses abbreviation or mnemonic code to
replace the earlier 0s and 1s of machine language. i.e. it substitutes letters and symbols for the
numbers in the machine language program. The function of an assembler is to translate an
assembly code into the computer machine code / language.
ii) Interpreter: This language processor converts a HLL program into machine language by
converting and executing it line by line. If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same
time and the programme execution cannot resume until the error is rectified. For error debugging
the interpreter is very useful as it reports the errors at the same time, but, once errors are removed
then also interpreter is present in the memory. So, unnecessary usage of memory takes place in
this case.
iii) Compiler: It converts the entire HLL program at one go and reports all the errors of the
programme along with the line numbers. After all the errors are removed, the programme is
recompiled and after that the compiler is not needed in the memory as the object programme is
available.
B) Application Software: These are the programmes written by the programmers to enable the
computer to perform a specific task such as processing words, inventory control, handling
calculation and figures, medical accounting, financial accounting, result preparation, railway
reservation, billing, etc. It can be defined as “a set of programmes necessary to carry out
operation for a specified application”. Application software can further be subdivided into three
categories-
a) Packages: The application softwares that are designed for the individual user, so that they can
be used in a manner that suits their needs and requirements are known as packages. Actually it is
a bundle of essential features for carrying out a particular task. There are different packages
available in the market. Some of the most common categories are given bellow-
i) Word Processing Software: It is the software that processes textual matter and creates
organized and flawless documents. It provides a general set of tools for entering, editing and
formatting text. A word processor has everything that a conventional type writer has; in addition,
it also removes various barriers of the conventional type writers. eg. M.S. Word, Wordstar,
WordPerfect, Softword, etc.
ii) Spreadsheet: An electronic spreadsheet is a programme that accepts data values in tabular
form and allows the users to manipulate / calculate / analyze data in the desired manner. It can
also generate graphs and charts to show the relationship among numbers. Eg. MS Excel,
Quattropro, etc.
iii) Database Management System: A DBMS is a software that can effectively store,
manipulate and handle bulk of data. Eg. Foxpro, MS Access, Oracle, etc.
iv) Desktop Publishing Software: Desktop publishing packages handle page layout by
combining the function of a traditional typesetter and a layout artist.
v) Graphics: The application software that manipulates images is known as graphics software.
vi) Multimedia: The software that incorporates images, text, sounds, animation, video sequences
is known as multimedia software.
vii) Presentation Software: The application software that concentrates on professional looking
visual aids is called presentation graphics software. Eg. Corel Draw, Macro Media, Director, MS.
Power Point, etc.
b) Utilities Software: Utility software (also known as service program, service routine, tool, or
utility routine) is a computer software designed to help, manage and tune the computer hardware,
operating system or application software by performing a single task or a small range of tasks.
Some utility softwares have been integrated into most major operating systems.
i) Text Editors: Text and Hex / Editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could
be data or an actual programme.
ii) Backup Utility: Backup utilities can make a copy of all the information stored on a disk, and
restore either the entire disk (e.g. in the event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in the event of
accidental deletion).
iii) Compression Utility: Disk compression utilities can transparently compress / uncompress the
contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
iv) Disk Defragmenter: Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are stored
on the hard disk in disjointed fragments, and move the fragments together to increase efficiency.
v) Antivirus Software: Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
c) Customized Software: Customized software (also known as Bespoke software) is a type of
software that is developed either for a specific organization or function that differs from or is
opposite of other already available softwares (also called off-the-shelf or COTSsoftware). It is
generally not targeted to the mass market, but is usually created for companies, business entities,
and organizations.
The trained computer professionals who, by their knowledge are able to run the computer
and can perform different operations are known as Humanware. They are the persons who
programme, design and operate a computer installation such as System Analyst, Programmer and
computer operator.
Common Communication Format (CCF)
Common Communication Format (CCF): CCF is a structure format for creating
bibliographical records and for exchanging records between groups of information agency and
libraries. An international symposium in Taormina, Sicily conducted by UNESCO was held in
April, 1978. On the recommendations of the symposium UNESCO / PGI formed the adhoc
group on the establishment of a Common Communication Format (CCF). The first edition of
CCF was published in 1984 under the editorship of Peter Simmons and Alan Hopkins and its
second edition was published in 1988 in two volumes called CCF/B and CCF/F. Several
countries have adopted this standard for exchange and creation of bibliographic records at
national level.
A) Structure of CCF: The structure of CCF is the implementation of ISO-2709. It consists of
the following-
a) Record Labels: Each CCF record begins with a fixed record label of 24 characters and
consists of data element which contains the record. Each data element is identified by its relative
character positioning the label.
b) Directory: The directory is a table containing a variable number of 14 characters entries i.e
the length of each directory entry is of 14 characters terminated by a fixed separator character.
Each directory entry corresponds to a specific variable. Data fields in the record are divided into
four sub sections or parts, containing data for the following data element-
i) Tab
ii) Length of the data field
iii) Starting character position
iv) Implementation defined section
c) Data Fields: In the CCF a data field is defined as consisting of-
i) Indicator
ii) Sub Fields: A sub field consists of a subfield identifier followed by a data string which is
terminated by either another sub field identifier or a field separator.
iii) Field Separator: The field separator is that character which constitutes the final character of
every data field except for the final data field in the record.
iv) Record Separator: The record separator is that character which makes the end of the final data
field in the record and constitutes the final character of the record.
B) Limitation of the CCF: CCF is not designed to meet the requirement of all types of libraries
and information organizations for local implementation. It is also not expected that institutes will
use CCF record format for internal storage and processing purpose. The major limitations of
CCF are-
a) It is not sufficiently detailed in its definition and coverage of all data elements necessary for
creating a bibliographical database for an individual library.
b) It does not include its cataloguing rules nor does it align itself with any particular cataloguing
code or set of rules oriented towards a specific or fixed type of information output form.
c) Except for standard CCF fields CCF recommends the use of alphanumeric code for tags but it
may not be possible to use alphanumeric code for tags in all cases (eg when library system uses
CDS/ISIS, this recommendation cannot be implemented).
d) Though in CCF further addition of the new data elements and their respective content
designator is possible, the unrestricted interpolation by different users can create complication
for exchanging data among libraries. In such cases, the content designators of newly added data
elements are likely to vary which may cause inconvenience for exchanging data from one
database to another.
Collection Development
Collection Development: The Library housekeeping operation or Technical works of a library
handle those tasks associated with bringing materials into the library and making them ready for
use for the general public or for the service population and thus include the job of identification,
selection, acquisition, organization of the collection (classification and cataloguing) and
preparation (labeling and others), covering, security processing, and/or distribution of materials.
Within the purview of technical service also come such things as serials, binding / repair, copy
cataloguing, original cataloguing, and gifts and exchange.
A library, however large it may be, cannot store all the materials and all the users of a
library will not be interested in all the materials kept in it. All the materials will not be used by
all the users in a library. So, here arises the need of selection of library materials.
The library collection development is the process of planning and acquiring a balanced
collection of library materials of many formats, including books, periodicals, online resources,
and other media. It is sometimes considered as synonymous to “Collection building”, which
means that there are already nuclei of collection in the library and the librarian is going to build
up the collection. But collection development is a term different from collection building, since
the word “development” implies qualitative improvement of the collection, whereas building a
collection is likely to mean the planned and systematic development of an already existing
collection. It occasionally involves the selection and acquisition of materials, as said by
Shipman. Harrod’s Librarian Glossary (6th edition) defines “collection development” as “the
process of planning a stock acquisition programme not simply to cater for immediate needs but
to build a coherent and reliable collection over a number of years, to meet the objective of the
service”.

The proliferation of publications in various physical formats made the exponential

growth of literature and all these materials are the record of intellectual endeavours on one hand
and on the other hand these are the vehicle of communication for transmission of information
and knowledge. Since the basic purpose of the library is to facilitate the process of
communication so all the above materials should be collected to help grow the library holding
and to meet the ever increasing need and requirement of the users as far as possible. This
continuous process of acquiring the reading material is known as collection development.
Collection development is an expansion of book selection by enlarging the kinds of materials to
which selection principles have been applied, making the collection a total holding at any
particular point. It is also a process of maintaining a balanced, consistent and user responsive
collection in the library.
The process of collection development includes selection of current as well as
retrospective material, weeding out of obsolete, irrelevant, unused and not-to-be-used materials.
Evaluation of existing holding should be made for the identification of adequacy and gaps. The
gaps should be filled according to the user’s need.
Paul Mosher explains collection development as “a process that should constitute a
rational documented programme guided by written policies and protocols and should reflect in
sense a contrast between library users and library staff as to what will be acquired, for whom and
at what level”.
Collections are developed by librarians and library staff by buying or otherwise acquiring
materials over a period of time, based on the assessment of the information needs of the library's
users. In addition to ongoing materials acquisition, library collection development includes:
i) The creation of policies to guide material selection.
ii) Replacement of worn or lost materials.
iii) Removal (weeding) of materials no longer needed in the collection.
iv) Planning for new collections or collection areas.
v) Cooperative decision-making with other libraries or within library consortia.
a) Collection Development and Book Selection: The librarian knows that collection
development begins with book selection. Some assume that they are same and the terms are
interchangeable; others assume that collection development is a broader term for the same old
job, namely, acquisition, but actually collection development is very much different from the
term “book selection” both conceptually and operationally.
The library collection and its development determine the nature and the characteristics of
the library not only in the holding but in service pattern also. So the librarians should be
acquainted with the user needs and requirements and the users should be requested to advise the
librarian about their needs. In this way it is a two way job.
b) Objectives of Collection Development: The main objectives of collection development are-
i) A library should acquire and provide all the relevant reading materials to its clientele so that
the basic function of the library are fulfilled from the vast amount of literature, which are also
increasing day by day.
ii) A library should acquire all other books on the related topics;
iii) A library should contain all the reading materials pertaining to the history and culture of a
particular country, city, place or institution as the case may be.
c) Need of Book Selection: The need of book selection arises due to the following reasons-
i) The world of book is so large that a library, however large and resourceful, cannot procure all
the materials published and available in the market;
ii) The library collection is meant for the user of a particular library so that library collection
should commensurate with the need and requirement of the users;
iii) The physical limitation of storage naturally imposes the necessity for selection.
d) Factors that Influence Book Selection: Selection of the library materials is of prime
importance in a library. The librarians with the concern of library staff and with the help of
various user groups should perform the job of selection of the library material. In selection
process the following factors should be considered:-
i) The Library: The kind, objectives, size and goals of the library, specialization areas of the
library;
ii) Users: Need and demand, requirement and intellectual level of the users, the number of users;
iii) Existing Holding: The number of books, its nature and characteristics which are already
present in the collection; the merits of the books which are going to be selected;
iv) Fund: The amount allotted for acquisition of books/journals.
Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing: In the traditional model of computing, both software and data are fully
contained on the user’s computer, whereas in the cloud computing, the user’s computer may
contain almost no software or data. They only need a minimal operating system and web browser
to serve as a display terminal for processes occurring on a network of computers far away. So,
the cloud computing refers to the provision of computational resources on demand via a
computer network. The resources may be a application, database, file service, email etc.
In case of cloud computing, the data are stored in the cloud instead of a local computer so
multiple users can access and contribute to the projects simultaneously without worrying about
using the same operating system, software, or browser. For example, instead of collaborating on
a document by sending back and forth revision after revision as attachments, documents can be
better stored in the cloud with Google Apps. Coworkers can access the web-based document
simultaneously in their browsers, and even make changes that other authorized users can see in
real-time. Eliminating attachment round-trips by storing data in the cloud saves time and reduces
frustrations for teams who need to work together efficiently.
Citation Analysis
Citation Analysis: When one author cites another author, a relationship is established. Citation
analysis uses citations in scholarly works to establish that relationship (links). Many different
links can be ascertained, such as links between authors, between scholarly works, between
journals, between fields, or even between countries. Citations both from and to a certain
document may be studied. The Science Citation Index began publication in 1961.
One very common use of citation analysis is to determine the impact of a single author on
a given field by counting the number of times the author has been cited by others. Citation
indices, such as Institute for Scientific Information's Web of Science, allow users to search
forward in time from a known article to more recent publications which cite the known item.
Information scientists also use citation analysis to quantitatively assess the core journal.
Google's PageRank is based on the principle of citation analysis. Other bibliometrics
applications include: creating thesauri; measuring term frequencies; exploring grammatical and
syntactical structures of texts.
Data from citation indexes can be analyzed to determine the popularity and impact of
specific articles, authors, and publications. However the limitation of citation analysis is that they
are often incomplete or biased; data has been largely collected by hand (which is expensive),
though citation indexes can also be used; incorrect citing of sources occurs continually; thus,
further investigation is required to truly understand the rationale behind citing to allow it to be
confidently applied.
a) Co-citation Coupling: If papers A and B are both cited by paper C, they may be said to be
related to one another, even though they don't directly cite each other. If papers A and B are both
cited by many other papers, they have a stronger relationship. The more papers they are cited by,
the stronger their relationship is. Co-citation coupling is a method used to establish a subject
similarity between two documents.
b) Bibliographic Coupling: Bibliographic coupling is the mirror image of co-citation coupling.
Bibliographic coupling links two papers that cite the same articles, so that if papers A and B both
cite paper C, they may be said to be related, even though they don't directly cite each other. The
more papers they both cite, the stronger their relationship is.
Circulating Library
Circulating Library: The establishment of circulating libraries by booksellers and publishers
provided a means of gaining profit and of creating social centres within the community. The
circulating libraries not only provided a place to sell books, but also a place to lend books for a
price. These circulating libraries provided a variety of materials including the increasingly
popular novels. Although the circulating libraries played an important role in society, members
of the middle and upper classes often used to look down upon these libraries that regularly sold
material from their collections and provided materials that were less sophisticated. Circulating
libraries also charged a subscription fee. However, the fees were set to entice their patrons,
providing subscriptions on a yearly, quarterly or monthly basis, without expecting the subscribers
to purchase a share in the circulating library.
Circulating libraries were not exclusively lending institutions and often provided a place
for other forms of commercial activity, which may or may not be related to print. This was
necessary because the circulating libraries did not generate enough funds through subscription
fees collected from its borrowers. As a commercial venture, it was important to consider the
contributing factors such as other goods or services available to the subscribers.
Budgeting
Budgeting: Budget is defined as “an estimated often itemized or expected income and expense
or operating results for a given period in the future”. Thus, a library budget is an estimate of the
expected income and expenditure of the library for the coming year. As a budget is an estimate, it
can be altered if and when the circumstances change. It needs to be flexible enough to meet the
changing needs. In a budget, the diversion of funds should not be done for some unnecessary
events or causes and it is actually not permitted.
a) Need and Purpose of Library Budget: Since a library is a non-profit organization, the
financial responsibility on its part is much more important. The need and purpose of library
budget can be looked at from the following points
i) Through budgeting a library is able to limit its expenditure to its income;
ii) A budget helps to spend the finance in a systematic way;
iii) Budgeting is the primary means by which formulated plans can be carried out;
iv) It serves as an effective management tool.
v) It gives overall direction to the library services;
vi) It coordinates all administrative functions by guaranteeing exchange of information on
policies, program and finance;
vii) It is a most important control device to measure the programmes of a library and their
effectiveness;
viii) It reflects the goals and objectives of the library.
b) Budgeting Method: The following methods are generally used in budgeting-
i) Line Item: Here the expenditure is divided into broad categories such as salary and wages,
books and periodicals, equipment, binding, stationary, miscellaneous, etc. However, this brings
inflexibility, whereby money from one item cannot be shifted to another one easily.
ii) Lump Sum: In this approach a certain amount of money is allocated to the library, the libraries
decide as to how that amount is going to be allocated to different categories.
iii) Formula Budget: Here predetermined standards are applied for the allocation of money. The
formula is mechanical and easy to prepare.
iv) Performance Budget: It is based on the expenditure for the performance of activities of a
library. It gives justification for and description of services to be achieved by the proposed
programme.
v) Programme Budgeting: It is concerned with activities of organization but individual items or
expenditures are ignored.
vi) Per Capita Method: In this case a minimum amount per head of the population is fixed and
financial estimates are prepared accordingly.
In case of university and college libraries, the UGC Library Committee way back in 1957
suggested for a provision of Rs. 16 per student and Rs. 200 per teacher. Kothari Commission in
1966 suggested for allocation of Rs. 25 per student and Rs. 300 per teacher.
vii) Proportion Method: In this method a certain proportion of the general budget of a parent
organization / state is recommended for providing library services.
Dr. S. R. Ranganathan suggested that 6% of the education budget of a local /state /
federal government, as the case may be, should be earmarked for public library purposes. UGC
Parry Committee (UK) suggested that 6% of the total budget of a university may be provided to
university library. Education Commission recommended that 6.5-10 percent of the total
university budget should be spent for the university library.
viii) Method of Details: In this method all the items of expenditure of a library under various
heads and subheads in detail are calculated. The expenditure should be estimated under non
recurring expenditure and recurring expenditure. It is generally done by projecting current
expenditure to the next year adding the increase of cost.
The UGC Library Committee (1957) staff formula can be used to determine the number
of staff and their pay scale. The cost of books and other reading materials can be based on the
number of students and teachers. 5% of the total cost of books is allocated to stacking, storing,
and serving of books.
ix) Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS): PPBS is a technique which combines the
best of programme budgeting and performance budgeting. In this method the emphasis is given
on the planning of the total system, the different parts of the system and their expected level of
performance. All these are considered for assigning the cost of the whole system.
x) Zero Based Budget: It was developed by Peter Phyor to achieve greater effective planning and
fiscal control. The term “zero based” is derived from the first step in the process- the
development of a hierarchy of functions based on the assumption that the unit or agency is
starting operation for the first time (i.e point zero). Thus, the focus of budgeting is on the
purpose(s) of the unit and on the function which it should perform so that it meets the reason for
its existence. Basically, it is not concerned with what happened previously but rather with what is
required to be done in future.
c) Expenditure: While estimated expenditure is planned three factors are kept in mind-
i) Comparison with past expenditure;
ii) Budgeting in accordance with the work programme and
iii) Using arbitrary stands and norms.
Depending upon the size of the library, the types of library expenditure headings vary.
The general forms of expenditure which can be applied to all types of libraries are given below.

Sl. No. Item Percentage of Total

Budget

Initial Recurring

1) Salaries 20% 65%

a) Basic Salary
b) DA
c) PF
2) Equipment and furniture 30% 5%

3) Books 15% 10%

a) Reference collection
b) New books
c) Others
4) Periodicals 20% 10%
a) Back volumes
b) Annual subscription
5) Binding and repairing of documents 2 ½% 2 ½%

6) Microfilming and digitization 7 ½% 2 ½%

7) AMC -as needed- -as needed-

 8) Contingency 2 ½% 2 ½%
(stationary item, printing, Photostat,
postage, telephone, electricity bills,
etc)
9) Miscellaneous (overtime 2 ½% 2 ½%
allowances, insurance premium)

10) Imprest Money (Sundry

expenditure or the money which is
kept for unforeseen events)
In the above table, expenditure with regards to gift and exchange are excluded as they
cannot be foreseen with any possible precision.
In case of a new library, the initial costs as well as the operating budget require some
special consideration. But in case of an existing library only the operating budget items need to
be considered. As the library does not usually have all its functions at the start, the total staff is
not required at the initial state; consequently, the recurring expenditure on salary will be about
three times of that obtaining at the beginning.
The cost of the library building and its maintenance usually form part of the budget of the
organization as a whole and, therefore, this has been excluded from the library budget. If,
however, the library has its separate existence, a sizable initial cost and a proportionate cost of
maintaining will have to be provided in the budget. Any good architect will be able to give these
estimates.
The expenditure in a special library is higher than that in a general library as it involves
more amenities and the use of many costly machineries and gadgets.
d) Accounting and Reporting: Accurate records regarding the amount paid out, encumbered
and unspent are maintained by the accounts section. To ensure proper utilization of grants, an
Account Register should be maintained to watch the expenditure. A Ledger should be maintained
with double entry system. Receipts and expenditure items should be entered regularly in the said
ledger. In addition to this ledger, a Cash Book in which daily transactions are to be entered and a
Budget Allotment Register, department wise and objective wise, should be maintained so as to
know easily and with accuracy as to how much amount has been spent and how much remains in
balance. Monthly reports should be prepared regarding this. The reporting should be done to the
users, library staff and higher authorities. This may appear an annual report of newspaper article
or radio talk or in some other form.

Let Us Sum Up: Budget statement or record is a definite financial record which speaks of the
back history, present position and future development of the library. It is also a statement for
comparing the position and the trend of development between the past, present and future.
Budgetary statement generally depends on the sources of income and expenditure of the library.
Library budget may be divided into two parts- Income and expenditure.
British Library’s Automated Information SErvice (BLAISE)
British Library’s Automated Information SErvice (BLAISE): Blaise is an online information
retrieval service that includes access via a new graphical interface on the World Wide Web. It is a
library network which was introduced in April 1977 and now it is the world largest commercial
service. It is an online interactive computerized information retrieval and cataloguing system and
the individual databases are stored on an IBM-370 computer located at Harlow. Teletype
compatible terminals are used together with the ordinary public telecommunication system to
access BLAISE. Thus BLAISE can be called up from anywhere in the UK and Europe. The
system is available from 9-5 on Monday to Thursday and 9-4.30 on Friday. To access BLAISE,
subscribers are given individual identity numbers and passwords.
The following services are available through BLAISE-
a) BLAISE Line: It is operated from the existing computer installation at Harlow, Essex. It host
British library bibliographic database. Telnet access is also available. The Web version of
BLAISE-LINE is called BLAISE Web.
b) BLAISE Link: It is the official host providing full access to all US National Library of
Medicine MEDLARS databases, in the UK and Ireland, via the British Library. It is also
involved in processing UK / Irish contributions to the MEDLINE database. The BALISE Link
provide access to the following
i) MEDLINE: The MEDLARs databases are available through online in the form of Medline.
ii) SDI-Line: It contains the latest month’s reference to be used primarily for current awareness.
iii) Chem-Line: It is an online dictionary files which enables the user of Toxline to describe
chemical substances before beginning the search.
iv) Mesh: It is a controlled indexing structure of MEDical Subject Heading.
c) Catalogue: The catalogue production is made through Local Catalogue Service (LOCAS)
which is an integral part of BLAISE.
d) Database: BLAISE provide access to 21 databases containing 18.5 million bibliographic
records.
e) Editors Software: It was developed by British Library. The editor system of BLAISE allows
records to be transferred from MARC files and edited. The new records can also be created and
added to the main database.
Blaise gives access to a wide range of bibliographic information that includes not only British
Library catalogues but also complementary bibliographic databases, some of which are produced
outside the British Library. Blaise has other value-added features, such as its link to the British
Library Document Supply Centre for ordering loans and photocopies and its ability to supply
fully formatted catalogue records for use in local automated catalogues. Blaise has traditionally
been used by trained librarians in other libraries. Recently, Blaise has added a World Wide Web
option that makes it much easier to use by untrained and inexperienced searchers.
According to Allen Kent "the success and survival of libraries will much depend on how much
and to what extent the libraries cooperate with each other in future". Further, tremendous
explosion of information, financial constraints, information in different forms, etc., compelling
the libraries to form network and consortia is an essential facet of modern library practices.
In library network the particular focus is forming online networks by using computers
and linking members to the computer resources by means of telecommunication connections.
When a group of libraries using computers decide to exchange information, a network is
developed.
The library network deals with the development of software for library automation,
automation of the member libraries, retro-conversion of records, cooperative acquisition,
creating union catalogue, development of database of the holdings in member libraries,
conducting training, workshops and seminar, providing DDS, Email, CD-ROM, internet access
facilities. It also provides reference service, referral service, and provides technical support to
member institutions in the selection of hardware, software, and technical problem faced by the
member libraries. But till now except DELNET and INFLIBNET, most of the other library
networks have yet to develop databases of library holdings in a significant way. Even these two
networks have to go a long way to cover in their databases the entire holdings of all the
participating libraries. Unless this is achieved, the networks would not be able to achieve
significant resource sharing as well as rationalization in library acquisitions.
Book Selection Theories
Book Selection Theories: There are some principles of selection of documents which guide the
librarian in making a judicious choice of a document and thus help to develop a meaningful
collection of documents in the libraries.

i) L. R. McColvin: Theory of Book Selection (1925): According to L. R. McColvin books in

themselves are nothing. They have no meaning until they are made serviceable by demand. So he
gives much stress on demand and gives stress on the selection of only those documents which are
demanded by the users for their information needs.
ii) Drury: Book Selection (1930): It states that the right book will be provided to the right reader
at the right time. In this principle the reader is the central theme. A document is right or
otherwise is to be provided when the user needs it for use. The selector should know the users
and their requirements. He should select only that material which caters to the informational
educational and recreational needs of the users.
iii) Haines: Living with book (2nd ed, 1950): The first edition of Living with Books appeared in
1935. It was one of the first true textbooks aimed at training librarians in the art of book
selection. Although Haines died in 1961, her legacy continues to be felt. Through the 1970s,
Living with Books remained the standard text on book selection, and it is still referenced on many
collection development course syllabi.
iv) Ranganathan: Library book selection (1952, reprint 1990): The first three laws of library
science enunciated by Ranganathan are also helpful in formulating the principles of selection of
the documents for libraries.
v) Dewey’s Principle: According to Dewey, the library should select the best documents within
the finance available, which may satisfy the information need of the maximum number of users.
Besides the above, we may mention Rovert Broadus’ Selecting Materials for Libraries,
2nd ed. New York: H.W. Wilson Co, 1981 and Building Library Collections: 6th Ed. By: Arthur
Curley, Dorothy M. Broderick, and Published: January 1985 as important books on book
selection.
Book Order
Book Order: Once a book has been selected for purchase, then an order has to be placed to
acquire it by typing from the book selection slip in a sheet or two. In case the book being ordered
is an additional copy or a new edition of an available book, the staff would put down the call
number in the book order slip. The ordering procedure relates to three stages-
i) Pre-ordering Work: Pre-order work includes the various jobs connected with the invitation of
tenders or quotations, tabulating the quotations, fixing the suppliers, signing the contracts, and so
on.
ii) Order Placing Work: Order placing work consists of tallying, scrutiny and elimination.
iii) Intimation to the Indenters: The library should inform the indenter(s)/user(s) about the action
taken by the library for their demanded books.
 The library generally tries to possess every type of information sources based upon the
demand of the user which includes books, journals, books on tape, videocassettes, CDs, CD-
ROMs, DVDs, electronic journals, online databases, etc.
The book selection section is responsible for the identification of potentially useful materials by
consulting publishers' catalogues and flyers for the final selection to be made by the appropriate
decision maker. Sometimes the acquisition unit is the primary collection development unit for the
library. Activities centring acquisition also focus on securing items wanted by the library's end-
users and handling financial transactions that are associated with the purchase or leasing of the
item(s). It is a process that involves which materials the library should acquire by purchase or
otherwise and getting the materials.
Blog
Blog: The term "weblog" was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997. Then Peter Merholz,
jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme.com
in 1999, from where it becomes popular as "blog". Thus Blog is derived from Weblog. Blog or
weblog is a web-based publication consisting primarily of periodic articles normally in reverse
chronological order with reflections, comments, and often hyperlinks provided by the writer.
1. Definition: Blogs have different meaning to different people, ranging from “online journal” to
“easily updated personal website”. A weblog is a journal (or newsletter) that is frequently
updated and intended for general public consumption. Blogs generally represent the personality
of the author or the Web site.
According to Concept Websites Ltd (http://www.conceptwebsites.com/SEO/common-
terms.htm), “a blog is basically a journal that is available on the web. The activity of updating a
blog is "blogging" and someone who keeps a blog is a "blogger." Blogs are typically updated
daily using software that allows people with little or no technical background to update and
maintain the blog”.
In simple, it can be said that it is a web based website where articles posted will
automatically be arranged in reverse chronological fashion or in a chronological fashion. The
owner/member will post message which are sometimes rich with graph, audio, video and
hyperlink periodically enabling others to view and comment. Topics often include the
owner's/member’s daily life or views on a particular subject or topic of important to the group.
The original post with its associated comments and discussion provide a very insight to the topic
at hand.
Many blogs are frequently updated and publicly accessible i.e they allow anybody to sign
up at any time; some others are private where entry to the group is restricted. Some advanced
users have server-side software, and often implement membership management and password
protected areas. Others have created a mix of a blog and wiki, called a bliki.
2. History: At the initial stage of internet development, Usenet, e-mail lists, Bulletin Board
Systems (BBS), chronicles, commonplaces, diaries, and perzines were used as a form of Citizen
Media. Bulletin Board is a service whereby messages and points of interest can be posted to be
read and replied to unlike list server. The news group provides access to thousands of topic based
discussion group services which are open to all. The news reader software allows one to post an
article to any group for others to read. A comment to the message (original) can be added to the
thread of the article. In recent times these are effectively replaced by the “blog”.
During recent days, blog has evolved into a tool that offers some of the most insightful
information on the Web. It provides self-publishing phenomenon represented by blogging and
becoming much more common in LIS, as librarians, libraries and library associations have begun
to blog as a way of communicating with their patrons and constituents. Many librarians world
wide also publish their personal blogs that offer a wealth of information about librarianship, their
parent institution and sometimes to their personal lives as well.
The emergence of blogging provides a medium to give readers of the library new
perspectives on the realities, as well as often offering different viewpoints from those of its
official news sources. Many bloggers began to provide nearly-instant commentary on televised
events, creating a secondary meaning of the word "blogging": to simultaneously transcribe and
editorialize speeches and events shown on television (liveblogging).
3. Anatomy of a Blog Entry: Blog uses web interfaces that allow anyone over the
Internet, to create blogs by their own. It usually does not demand the maintenance of server
software by the users themselves. It also does not demand to go for the HTML. A blog entry
typically consists of the following:
a) Title: The main title, or headline, of the post;
b) Body: Main content of the post;
c) Permalink: The URL of the full, individual article;
d) Post Date: Date and time the post published.
A blog entry optionally also includes the comments or feedback. Comments are a way to
provide discussion on blog entries. Readers can leave a comment on a post (a way of correcting
one’s error) or they can also leave their personal opinion on the previous post(s).
4. Types: There are various types of blogs, and each differs in the way content is delivered or
written. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, web pages, and other
media related to its topic, the ability to quote another user's post with special formatting in ones
post is also a special feature of many blogs. Generally, blog can be categorized as follows:
a) Linklog: A blog comprising links;
b) Moblog: A blog written by a mobile phone or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA);
c) Photoblog: A blog comprising photos;
d) Podcasting: Blog containing audio;
e) Vlog: A blog comprising videos.
Blog can also be categorized based on a particular subject, such as political blogs, travel
blogs, legal blogs (often referred to as a blawg), Library blogs, Academic Library blogs,
Librarian’s blogs and so on.
5. Importance: Blogging combined the site with tools to make linking to other pages easier
specifically permalinks, blogrolls and TrackBacks. This, together with blog search engines
enabled bloggers to track the threads that connected them to others with similar interests.
a) Blog as a Forum: The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format and the
scope for adding more than one author in a blog, can be used to create discussion forum.
Wordpress comments at the bottom of a blog post allow for a single-threaded discussion of any
given blog post. Slashcode, on the other hand, is far more complicated, allowing fully threaded
discussions and incorporating a robust moderation and meta-moderation system as well as many
of the profile features available to forum users.
b) Blog as a Group: The Blog’s RSS Feed or Atom by burning with some feed burning services
can be used to provide email subscription option (some blog hosting service even produce it by
default). This feature can be used as a group to notify the intended users or reader or subscribers
about some announcement.
 Blog also have blogrolls (i.e. links to other blogs which the owner reads or admires), and
indicate the social relationship of a particular blog to those of other bloggers. Pingback (links to
other sites that refer to the entry) and trackback (one of three types of Linkbacks, methods for
Web authors to request notification when somebody links to one of their documents) allow one
blog to notify another blog, creating an inter-blog conversation. In summary, blogs engage
readers and build a virtual community around a particular person or interest, which have
immense implication in library and information science.
c) A Major Part of the Internet: Blogs are easy to create and maintain as compared to websites.
As a result, people are turning towards blog as a publication medium. Day by day, its volume as
well as quality increases and now we are in a position where we can say that if one is unable to
locate any information over internet by searching in the traditional general purpose search engine
then it must be in blog.
d) Latest Information: The literature search forms the backbone of any research activities. In
recent times, a part of this business relies on internet and for a comprehensive list of resources
over internet, the search should extend to blog also, as it contains the latest, up to the minute
information on a given topic.
e) Substitute of Mainstream Media: Blog increasingly considered as a substitute of the
mainstream media for news services, consultants, etc. As blog becomes a standard part of the
publicity arsenal, it is used extensively as a tool for outreach and opinion forming and as means
of applying pressure upon concern authority and like other. It can also be used to push the
messages directly to the public by avoiding the filtering process of the mainstream media (the
editorial board of which often cut down the massage as a means to avoid the legal liabilities, to
present credible news or at times to justify their presence!).
6. Finding a Blog / Blog Search Engine: The general purpose search engines generally avoid
displaying results from blogosphere. So, for searching the blog over internet, reliance must be
placed on the specially designed blog search engines. Several blog search engines are used to
search blog contents (also known as the blogosphere), such as blogdigger, Feedster, and
Technorati, which helps one to find out what people are saying on any subject of his/her interest.
In the following paragraph an attempt is made to list and discuss some of the most popular blog
search engines.
a) Blogdigger (http://www.blogdigger.com/index.html): Blogdigger is a blog and media search
engine founded in March 2003 by Greg Gershman. Blogdigger began as an experiment with RSS
and search technologies, developing into a search engine that provides fast, up-to-the-minute
search results of the latest posts collected from blogs and syndicated content feeds, such as RSS
and Atom.
b) Bloglines (http://www.bloglines.com): Bloglines is a web-based news aggregator for
browsing weblogs and other news feeds. Mark Fletcher founded the site in 2003 and sold it in
February 2005 to Ask.com. Bloglines uses an interface with the blogs names in one frame and
their most recently updated content in another pane.
c) Feedster (http://www.feedster.com): Feedster was founded in March 2003 by Scott Johnson.
In June 2003, it merged with RSS-Search founded by François Schiettecatte. Feedster began as a
weblog search tool, indexing and archiving individual blog posts based on a site's RSS feed.
Feedster gained popularity with blog enthusiasts because it indexed new information fast, let
users sort search results chronologically, and made it possible to subscribe to search results as an
RSS feed. It has now expanded to offer a wide range of related services, including "Feed of the
Day".
d) IceRocket (http://www.icerocket.com): IceRocket is an Internet search engine specialized in
searching blogs. IceRocket is backed by Mark Cuban and headquartered in Dallas, Texas. In
2005, CNet reported that it may be re launched as Blogscour.
e) PubSub: PubSub is an Internet search engine for searching blogs which was founded in 2002
by Bob Wyman and Salim Ismail. The site operates by storing a user's search term, making it a
subscription, and checking it against posts on blogs which ping the search engine. When a new
match is found, the user is notified, even if it occurs months after the initial search. This feature
has led PubSub to call itself a matching engine. Results can be read on the service's website or on
an optional sidebar, available for both Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. PubSub is currently
having problem as noted in by Bob Wyman.
f) Sphere (http://www.sphere.com): The Sphere search engine delivers blog posts based on
algorithms that combine semantic matching with authority factors to deliver results relevant to
the search query. Sphere also organizes bloggers by topic. The company produces an application
called Sphere It! allowing users to seek blog posts related to news articles based on the contents
of a particular web page they're viewing. The function is accessed from a browser navigation bar
plug-in. Upon clicking the plug-in button, a semantic analysis is performed on the text within the
page and blog posts related to the text of the article are returned.
g) Technorati (http://www.technorati.com): Technorati is an Internet search engine for
searching blogs, competing with Google, Yahoo, PubSub and IceRocket. As of November 2006,
Technorati indexes over 60 million weblogs. The site won the SXSW 2006 awards for Best
Technical Achievement and also Best of Show. It has also been nominated for a 2006 Webby
award for Best Practices. Technorati provides current information on both popular searches and
tags used to categorize blog postings. Blogs are also given rankings by Technorati based on the
amount of incoming links and Alexa Internet based on the web hits of Alexa Toolbar users.
h) Google Blog Search (http://www.google.co.in/blogsearch?hl=en): Google Blog Search is a
search engine focused on blogs, with a continuously updated search index. Results include all
blogs, not just those published through Blogger. Results can be viewed and filtered by date.
Google provides following option to search for blog
i) Google-style interface (blogsearch.google.com)
ii) Blogger-style interface) (search.blogger.com)
iii) The Blogger Dashboard
iv) The Navbar on any Blog
All of the above provide same search, no matter where one searches. The Navbar,
however, provides two buttons: one to search the blog that one currently viewing, and one to
search all blogs. It also provides “Advanced Search” features where one can specify titles,
authors, languages and more. After getting the search results, it also provides an additional link
that allows to switch between displaying the results with either the most relevant or recent results
at the top.
7. Blog Hosting Services: Blogs are generally hosted by dedicated blog hosting services or on
regular web hosting services. Most of the free blog hosting services are ad-supported but
generally have unlimited posting bandwidth and storage space. Generally, a small advertisement
square banner is placed on the user blog, which does not affect the overall make up the said blog.
Many blog hosting services also notified the blogger when someone adds some comments on
his/her blog. Examples include the following
i) Blogger (https://www.blogger.com/start): Blogger was started by Evan Williams and Meg
Hourihan (Pyra Labs of San Francisco) in August 1999 and was purchased by Google in
February 2003.
ii) coComment (http://www.cocomment.com/): coComment is a Swiss startup company
funded by Swisscom Innovations and focused on providing high quality services to internet users
worldwide. The company is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
iii) LiveJournal (http://www.livejournal.com/): Brad Fitzpatrick started LiveJournal in March
1999. The LiveJournal can be used as a private journal, a blog, a discussion forum, a social
network, and like other.
iv) Open Diary (http://www.opendiary.com/): Launched in October 1998, soon growing to
thousands of online diaries. Open Diary becomes the first blog community where readers could
add comments to other writers' blog entries.
v) Pitas.com (http://www.pitas.com/): Andrew Smales created Pitas.com in July 1999 as an
easier alternative to maintaining a "news page" on a website, followed by Diaryland in
September 1999, focusing more on a personal diary community.
vi) Xanga (http://www.xanga.com/): Launched in 1996, had only 100 diaries by 1997, but over
20 million as of December 2005.
Other blog hosting service includes Blog (http://www.blog.com/), DreamHost
(http://www.dreamhost.com/), Salon.com (http://www.salon.com), Tripod
(http://www.tripod.lycos.com/), Vox (http://www.vox.com/), WordPress
(http://www.worldpress.org/), etc.
Bibliographic Control
According to UNESCO / Library of Congress Survey, bibliographic control means “the mastery
over written and published records which is provided by and for the purpose of bibliography”.
Effective bibliographic control should be made at subject and national level.
A) National Bibliographic Control: The national library ensures the bibliographic control of all
the books or book-like documents published in that particular country. It has the provision of
legal deposit by a host of different programs such as a cataloguing in publication service or
similar mandatory practices. By cataloguing in publication service, the Library of Congress gives
a complete catalogue entry of a book to any publisher who sends a final draft or some form of
galley proof of a book currently in production.
B) International Bibliographic Control: One of the main goals of a national library is fulfilling
their nation's part of the common international goal of universal bibliographic control. The
International bibliographic control is done by the exchanges and also by fostering the creation of
standard conceptual tools such as library classification systems and cataloguing rules. The most
commonly used of these tools is the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD). It
applies to books and periodicals, but also has variants for other book-like material such as the
ISBD (ER) for Electronic Resources or digital documents or the ISBD (A) for Antiquarian
documents.
C) Conclusion: New ideas are generated in each and every branch of human activity from time
to time. Apart from new ideas we give new interpretation to old ideas, at times we also borrow
ideas from other discipline and try to apply them in a new content. As a result more and more
information are produced in a variety of forms leading to information explosion. There is a need
to keep track of this information explosion by way of bibliographic control.

Basic Principles of Library Building Design

Basic Principles of Library Building Design: Some of the basic principles of library building
design are mentioned below-
a) Functional Design: A library building should have functional design rather than a
monumental one. There should be provision for documents, users, staff, and service areas. There
should be areas for senior professional’s rooms, library staff, seminar room, binding section,
reprographic section, digital library section with additional areas for acquisition section,
technical section, reference section, reading room, room for stack book, circulation section, etc.
b) Open Access: The availability of the number of library staff, the user demand and the type of
collection are the deciding factors for a library to go for open access or closed access system. In
a closed access library the users are prohibited to enter the library, they should write their
demands in some slips. The building design for open access is also considered useful for closed
access system. However, vice versa is not true. But, in both the closed and the open access
systems, library property counter and some such a thing are a must, because the users are free to
enter the reading room and the periodical section in both the cases. Both the systems require that
the library building should have a single entrance and one exit point for keeping a proper control
on incoming and outgoing users. The whole building should be accessible from the entrance to
different parts of the building by means of simple and easy to understand plan requiring only a
few directions or guides. Doors and windows should be protected by means of wire fabric to
avoid any loss of books.
c) Future Growth: A library building should be planned for at least next 20 years, keeping in
view the rate of collection development, number of readers, technology enhancements, etc. The
building should be extendable to allow for future growth with minimum of disruption. There
should also be adequate provision for future expansion, both horizontally and vertically.
d) Flexible: There should be the means of interchangeability of all major stack areas, service
areas, reading room, and staff areas. The whole design should be such that if any change in
library function takes place in future it will be possible to adjust the layout without carrying out
major structural operations. There should be no interior load bearing walls but the building
should be able to bear the stack load anywhere.
e) Air-conditioning, Lighting and Noise: Uniform standards of lighting, heating, cooling,
ventilation, noise prevention, communications, fumigation and flooring are necessary to meet the
criteria of interchangeability. The natural light should come inside the whole building throughout
the day time. Outside or background noises generally cannot be controlled except by double
glazing which involves air conditioning. The inside noise of human voice, equipment and
mechanical device, impact of footsteps, banging of doors should be reduced by using insulating
materials and devices, use of acoustical material for walls and ceilings in corridors, reading
rooms and work rooms. Use of proper floor coverings is also essential.
f) Modular Design: A building on modular system is the one which is supported by columns
placed at regular interval. The basic dimensions of library building should be in multiples or
submultiples of some module/column. Even while only the columns are load bearing inside the
building, outside walls may also bear the load. Columns, stairways, lifts, hearing facilities,
plumbing and ducts are all fixed and everything else is movable. Thus, the modular system leads
to flexibility.
g) Economic: The design should be such that the operation of the library can be carried out with
the minimum of staff and finance. The windows should be covered with net.
h) Secure: The building should be free from dust, dirt, and cobwebs. To deal with other vermin
the best remedy would be to have a rat proof building. The water may not enter the stack room
either through ventilators and windows or due to leakage of roof. The stacking material should
be fire proof. Sufficient number of fire extinguishers and fire buckets should be fixed at various
strategic places in the building. The library building should also be designed to guard against
some detrimental habits of the readers, visitors and outsiders.
Association for Information Management (ASLIB)
Association for Information Management (ASLIB): An exploratory conference held at
Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire in 1924 resulted in a decision to form the Association of special
Libraries and Information Bureau (ASLIB). In 1983, name of the Association was changed to
“Association for information Management”, but as the association is well know as ASLIB, its
acronym retained.
a) Aim and Objectives
i) To facilitating the co-ordination and systemic use of sources of knowledge and information in
all public affair and in industry and commerce and in all the arts and sciences.
ii) To increase the contribution of information to the economy, social and cultural life of
community management.
b) Membership: The membership of ASLIB is largely composed of bodies including industrial
and business organizations, profession and learned societies, public, academic and national
libraries publishers and database providers.
c) Activities: The main activities of ASLIB are discussed bellow
i) Conference and Seminars: Each Annual Conference of ASLIB takes up a specific theme for
deliberations. Besides, ASLIB and its various specialist group regularly organize conference
seminars and professionals meetings to discuss issues confronting the library and information
specialists.
ii) Training: ASLIB organize short term courses and training programmes for both members and
non members.
iii) Information Service: ASLIB through its outline information centre provide enquiry service
concerning the availability of databases on specific subjects, coverage of data, search strategy
and equipment and telecommunication.
iv) Library: There are more than 30,000 volumes in the ASLIB library. Most of the books are
related to Information Science and Documentation.
d) Publication: Some of the publications of ASLIB are
i) ASLIB Newsletter (Monthly)
ii) ASLIB Proceeding (Monthly)
iii) ASLIB Booklist (Monthly)
iv) ASLIB Directory
v) Journal of Documentation (quarterly)
vi) Program : News of computers in libraries (Quarterly)
vii) Forthcoming International scientific and technical conference (Quarterly)
viii) The hand book of special librarianship
ix) Index to theses.
Areas of Computer Application in Library
Areas of Computer Application in Library: A modern library cannot be imagined without the
application of computers. In the library and information centres computers can be used for
performing efficiently all sorts of jobs from the procurement of the reading materials to their
organization and use. So, it can serve as a remedy for all the existing problems of libraries and
information centres. But, till now computers have been used successfully in the following areas
of library activities.
A) Library House Keeping Operation: In case of library house keeping operation, the
computer is used for acquisition of books and other reading materials, their classification,
cataloguing, circulation and serial control.
a) Acquisition: The selection of materials can be made by the computer. Any library which is a
part of online computerized library system has access to catalogue entries and bibliographic data
of all the libraries in the system. These databases can be used as a selection tools to purchase new
documents for the particular library in question. Other offline databases can also be used as
selection tools for non current documents and sometimes out of print books. For other
documents, conventional book selection methods may be used. The MARC bibliographic record
service has opened up a new vista in both cataloguing and bibliographic database that can be
used as a book selection tool.
The ordering and acquisition are the routine jobs in the library and for a single time
ordering it requires repetitive operation by different sections. These repetitive operations and the
requisite checking can very well be done by the application of the computer system. Both offline
and online acquisition can be performed by the use of computers.
b) Classification: A computer based classification system is being experimented at the
Documentation Research and Training Centre, Bangalore. It is based on Colon Classification
System.
c) Cataloguing: The computerized cataloguing system operates with high speed for performing
routine and repetitive jobs. Besides, in the cataloguing unit, computer can also be used in various
other ways such as producing book plates, book pockets, book cards, spine labels, etc. It can also
produce a variety of records, card catalogues in the book form, printed catalogue, etc. as
byproducts. The following uses of computer in cataloguing have already been able to draw the
attention of the librarians.
The MARC project was started in November, 1965 by the Library of Congress, USA. The
latest development in the system includes the CoMARC (Co-Operative Machine Readable
Cataloguing). Computer Output Microfilm (COM) was developed in the USA by Stromberg
Carlson Company. The Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), previously known as the Ohio
College Library Centre was started in August 1970. All these have successfully used computers
for cataloguing of documents.
d) Serial Control: Serials are continuing publication having reasonably permanent titles and
appearing usually at regular intervals. Their contents usually vary from issue to issue. An article
as a single bibliographic unit may be published in more than one issue and even in more than one
volume. Obviously, the users may be interested in an issue of a serial as a bibliographic unit, or
an article spread over a number of issues as a bibliographic unit. So, serial control comprises
complex operations of library activities because of the vary nature and characteristics of Serial as
library material. Again, the conflict between the physical unit and the bibliographic unit makes
Serial control a complex task.
In case of Serial, the current issues, the retrospective or immediate back issues and bound
volumes under every year of publication is an ongoing process. In this case, the library should
encounter the search problem because of the conflict between the title and the corporate body,
the old titles and the changed titles, nature of irregularity in publication (more than one issue in a
single publication and the like). These situations pose the problem of listing, acquisition,
accessioning, cataloguing and creation of records in the desired format.
e) Circulation: The circulation activities are the life-stream of the library services. The library
documents are for use and are intended for the users. At various points, documents are to be
trapped for the users who have recorded their priority in using such documents. The circulation is
a flow of document, but the flow should be controlled by library operations so as to serve the
users in the best possible way with the available materials in the library.
B) Library Administrations: In case of library administration, the library automation helps in
a) Providing Access Right to Staff Members
b) Providing Access Right to Library Users
c) Exception Reporting
d) Generation of Library Statistics / Report
C) Information Retrieval: Today, Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) or sometimes Web
OPAC facility provided by the library and information centres helps in easy retrieval of
information. Computers are also used for searching Library Database: eg. International Nuclear
Information System.
D) Building Digital / Virtual Libraries Collection: Computers can also be used to build digital
or virtual collection or for institutional repository of the library.
E) Resource Sharing: In order to facilitate the provision of material request on inter library loan
basis, the use of computers and other latest telecommunication devices is being put to use in
almost all the countries of the world. The Online Union catalogue is also a product of computer
application in library.
F) Library Network: INFLIBNET, Developing Library Network (DELNET) is the example of
taking library automation as its first step or base structure.
G) Information System: World Science Information System (UNISIST), Medical Literature
Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS), illustrate the advanced stage of library automation.
H) User Services: The library automation also helps to provide Current Awareness Service
(CAS), Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) Services, Indexing and Abstracting
Service, Web Based Translation Services, Computer Based Indexing and Abstracting Services,
and so on.
Archives
Archives: In general, archives consist of records which have been selected for permanent or
long-term preservation on the ground of their enduring cultural, historical or evidentiary value.
Archival records are normally unpublished and almost always unique, unlike books or magazines
for which many identical copies exist. This means that archives (the places) are quite distinct
from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can
often be found within library buildings.
a) Definition: The word “archive” is derived from the Greek “arkhē” meaning government or
order (compare an-archy, mon-archy). The word originally developed from the Greek “arkheion”
which refers to the home or dwelling of the Archon, in which important official state documents
were filed and interpreted under the authority of the Archon. Since “archive”, as a noun or a
verb, has acquired meanings related to computer science, Archivists tend to prefer the term
“archives” (with an S) as the correct terminology to serve as both the singular and plural.
A person who works in archives is called an archivist. The study and practice of
organizing, preserving, and providing access to information and materials in archives is called
archival science.
b) Objectives
i) Safe storage and preservation of the document in a climate control facility;
ii) Classification and Cataloguing of the document;
iii) Retrieval and safe handling of the document.
c) Collections: It contains records (primary source documents) which have accumulated over the
course of an individual or organization's lifetime. The collection refers to all historical records
(not just documents and manuscripts but videos, disks, and other tangible forms as well) held and
preserved by an institution. Archival materials are not published; these are always famous
documents, or even necessarily old.
The archives of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain
records, such as administrative files, business records, memos, official correspondences and
meeting minutes. The archives of an individual may include letters, papers, photographs,
computer files, scrapbooks, financial records or diaries created or collected by the individual –
regardless of media or format.
d) Services: Professor and author Bruce Dearstyne identified the eight roles of the archivist-
- The role of an agent to the past and the future. This means that archivists must always bear in
mind its historical significance and its importance to posterity.
- They must work in conjunction with related information fields. For example, many archivists
work closely with librarians and records managers to determine the value of records and their
place in the repository.
- They act as organizers. This requires the archivists to manage, coordinate, and allocate
resources in a manner that allows an easy access and use by staff and patrons.
- Archivists should act as evaluators of program materials by continually assessing records.
- They should assert control and order. This includes systematic filing and storing of items.
- They ensure physical survival of records through security, storage, and disaster planning.
- Archivists foster access to valuable records and so they must also encourage patrons and
researchers to make use of their collections. They can do this through various promotional
campaigns (articles or exhibits).
- Archivists act as public relations coordinators for their repository. This means that they attempt
to reach out to the community via conferences and presentations that demonstrate the importance
and richness of their resources.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers
Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers: Computers have some strength, which makes
them immensely useful and popular and also adorable for all. Some of its main characteristics are
given below-
a) Accuracy: Computers can perform all the calculation and comparison accurately provided the
hardware does not malfunction.
b) Automaticity: Computers are capable of doing certain level of automation provided they are
programmed in that order. In the computer, once a task is initiated, it can perform on its own till
its completion. It will execute the program in the correct sequence i.e. it will switch on/off the
machine at the appropriate time, monitor the operational parameter, send warning signals or take
corrective actions if the parameters exceed the control level and so on.
c) Diligence / Reliability: The human being suffers from weaknesses like tiredness, lack of
concentration etc. being constant and earnest in efforts and application. Humans also have
feelings, so they become sad, depressed, bored and negligent and virtually it is reflected in the
work they do. But the computers can perform the task repetitively for n numbers of times
without any degradation in quality. So computers are more reliable than human beings.
d) Speed: Computers can calculate at a very high speed. A modern computer can execute
millions of instructions in one second.
e) Storage: Computers can store a large amount of information in a very small space. The
storage capacity of a computer is virtually unlimited.
f) Versatility: The computer can perform activities ranging from simple calculation to
performing complex tasks in any field of knowledge and in different environment conditions, i.e.
they can do hazardous jobs even in hospital environment.
Being an electronic device the computers have certain limitations also, which can be
summarized as follows.
a) Lack of Decision Making Power: Computers cannot decide on their own; they are dependent
on human instruction. Computers can only do what they are told to do.
b) Zero IQ: Computers are dumb machines with zero IQ. They need to be told in each and every
step, however minute it may be.
c) No Heuristic: Heuristic refers broadly to learning from past experiences. If a computer
commits an error once and the similar situation / event occurs again, the computer will commit
the same error again. i.e. it can not learn from the past experiences.
Administration Vs Management
There are many factors according to which administration can be distinguished from
management. These are as follows:
i) Meaning
Administration: It is concerned with formulation of broad objectives, plans & policies.
Management: Management is an art of getting things done through others by directing their
efforts towards achievement of pre-determined goals. It puts into action the policies and plans
laid down by the administration.
ii) Nature
Administration: Administration is a decision-making function.
Management: Management is an executing function.
iii) Scope
Administration: It takes major decisions of an enterprise as a whole.
Management: It takes decisions within the framework set by the administration.
iv) Process
Administration: Administration decides what is to be done & when it is to be done.
Management: Management decides who should as it & how should he dot it.
v) Function
Administration: Planning and organizing functions are involved in it.
Management: Motivating and controlling functions are involved in it.
vi) Skills
Administration: It needs administrative rather than technical abilities. Administration handles
the business aspects such as finance.
Management: It requires technical activities. Management handles the employers.
vii) Level
Administration: It is a top-level activity.
Management: It is a middle level activity.
viii) Influence
Administration: The administration is influenced by public opinion, govt. policies, religious
organizations, customs etc.
Management: The management decisions are influenced by the values, opinions, beliefs &
decisions of the managers.
ix) Status
Administration: Administration represents owners of the enterprise who earn return on their
capital invested & profits in the form of dividend.
Management: Management constitutes the employees of the organization who are paid
remuneration (in the form of salaries & wages).
Accessioning Work
Accessioning Work: The accessioning work includes the following activities
a) Receiving the Books and Bills: From the vendors books are received along with bills.
b) Checking the Books: After receiving the books they should be checked for page missing,
damaged binding, and for such other issues.
c) Arranging the Bills and the Books in Parallel Sequence: The books should be arranged in
the sequence in which these have been entered in the order placed to the vendor.
d) Verification: Then the bill should be verified in regard to the order in terms of books received
and the amount to be paid. The order slip with the bill and books should be submitted at the
accession corner. If books are not received in time then reminder letters should be sent to the
vendor.
e) Accessioning: The accessioning involves the following activities-
i) Entering details in the accession register: In the accessioning process, the details of the books
are entered in the accession register. Documents are entered date-wise according to their receipt
in the library. All purchased books are entered in the order of their bills.
ii) Entering accession number in the document: Accession number is recorded at the back of title
page and on the conventional clue place of the volume.
iii) Certifying the bills: Accession number is also written against the respective item in the bill
for purchased book. After entering all the items covered by one bill a certificate must be
furnished on the bill which should be like the following. A rubber stamp for this purpose may be
usefull
Certified that all the books as per the bill have been duly entered in the accession
register vide numbers from ------ to ----.

f) Transmitting Books: Then the books are sent to the technical department for classification
and cataloguing (processing). At this step each book should also be provided with a process slip
(7.5 cm X 12.5 cm) as well as earlier order slip.
g) Transmitting Bills: Then bills are passed for payment.
h) Books – In-Process: The cards belonging to them, after noting the date of accessioning and
the accession numbers, are filed in a tray labelled as “Books – In-Process”.

Terms

i) Accession Register: Accession register is the

official stock record in the library about each
document forming part of its collection; it is a
bound register consisting of essential field in
regards to a description of a reading material.
This record gives a complete history of each
book / periodical acquired by the library. The
general practice in libraries is to have a single
register in which all types of document whether
purchased or received as gift or on exchange or
as deposit is entered. But some libraries have the
practice of using separate accession registers for
gifts. When a book is withdrawn, then the
corresponding accession slip is withdrawn or the
note regarding withdrawal is given in the
accession register. In case, a user loses a book,
then with the help of details given in the
accession register, the user may be asked either
to make payment or to replace the copy.

ii) Accession Number: Every volume added to

the library receives a serial number in the order
of acquisition to the library collection. This
includes book purchased or received in exchange
or as gift. This number is called accession
number. Cumulated volumes of periodicals,
which are to be bound and preserved in the
library, are also accessioned.

Academic Status of a Librarian

Academic Status of a Librarian: Status means the social position or rank in relation to others and
its relative importance. The status of the profession depends upon the rules that reflect the entry
qualification for the new aspirants that want to join the profession, their future career prospects,
the level of training needed, amount of experience required. After getting a job it also depends
upon the position held in the administrative hierarchy of the institution, level of responsibility
vested, amount of salary drawn, tenure, voting privileges within or outside the institution,
vacation, sabbatical leave, sick leave, retirement benefit, social privilege and so on.
At present in India the status of the librarian is somewhat confused and uncertain.
However, some academic librarians in colleges and universities are considered as faculty, and
they hold similar academic ranks as professors. The following points will throw some light on
the overall position of the librarian as an academician in different academic institutions.
a) Entry Qualification: At present the entry qualification for the post of librarian at college is on
par with that of the lecturer i.e. Master degree with minimum of 55% marks in Library Studies,
Library Science, Library and information Science and, in some cases, a Master's degree in
another field, SLET/SET/NET and at university level, it is similar with that of the head of
different departments.
b) Rank in the Administrative Hierarchy: He works at the top level of administrative
hierarchy, next to the principal and vice principal at college level and alone with the top
administrator such as Vice Chancellor, Registrar, Controller of Examinations in the University
level. In case of universities, the librarian is directly responsible to the vice chancellor of the
university or in colleges to the principal. The librarian is also a member of a University’s
Academic Council.
c) Responsibilities: He/she acts as a boss or chief executive and is responsible for all the
administrative functions of the library. He helps not only the students but also the teaching staff.
Besides, he / she can be termed as the teacher of the self-education practice, who complements
and supplements the classroom teaching.
d) Salary and Grade: The salary and grade of a qualified librarian is at par with the teaching
staff of the respective institution. In college, lecturer grade is given to the librarian, in
Universities the grade of the librarian is equivalent to professors.
e) Condition at Foreign Countries: In the United States and Canada, generally, the trend is to
provide academic status to the librarians working in colleges and universities.

In India, in Karnataka, the Karnataka Government passed a resolution for the librarian to be
treated on par with a teacher on 21st July 2006. Of course this is due to the efforts of the
Karnataka State College Librarians’ Association and fde credit goes to the Minister for Primary
and Secondary Education Shri. Basavaraj Horatti and Shri D H. Shankarmurthy respectively.
Further, each individual working in an organization wants a feeling of group
belongingness, as the public librarian are group among government officer, the librarian in
research laboratories are group among scientist so the academic librarian wants to grouped alone
with the faculty member of the institution.
So in conclusion if we count the academic and professional qualifications of librarian,
they are same as that of teaching staff, so the status should also be the same.
Academic Library
Academic Library: Libraries in the educational institutions are concerned with the teaching and
learning process experienced by specific communities.
a) Definition: A library which is an integral part of a college, university, or other post-secondary
educational institution (higher education), administered to meet the needs of its students, faculty,
and staff for scholarly information and research services is the academic library. Large college or
university libraries often have separate libraries within individual academic departments or
schools which have a collection devoted to their subject or discipline such as chemistry,
mathematics etc.
i) College Library: The college library meets the legitimate needs and demand of all their users
from senior teachers engaged in research to fresh students just entering. The library serves the
reading, reference and research needs of the members of the college community.
ii) University Library: According to Donald Davinson library is the “soul” of a university, the
sun around which all teaching revolves. The Radhakrishnan Commission in its report hailed the
library as the very “heart of a university”, the “workshop of the scholar” and “the laboratory of
the learned”.
b) Objectives: The general objectives of the academic libraries are:-
i) To serve the curricular, cultural and general education requirement of the academic
community;
ii) To provide reference material at appropriate levels;
iii) To provide study areas of users;
iv) To provide a lending service appropriate to different types of users;
v) To provide an active information service.
These libraries are located on the campuses of colleges and universities and serve
primarily the students and faculty of that institution and other academic institutions. Some
academic libraries are also accessible to the general public in whole or in part, although
borrowing privileges are often limited for users affiliated with the college or university only.
i) College Library: The college library aims to help young students in proper understanding of
various disciplines, in preparing them for advanced studies, and for shouldering the higher
responsibilities in future life. It also helps the students in getting acquainted with the library
practices such as consulting catalogues, bibliographies, indexes, locating books, and other
materials, etc.
ii) University Library: Its primary aim is to support the instructional and research programmes
of the university and conservation of knowledge and ideas, teaching, research, publication,
extension service and interpretation. The objective is to ultimately help produce leaders in the
community in different fields of human activity- the inventors, discoverers and pioneers.
c) Collections: The collections of academic libraries reflect the courses offered and research
undertaken within the institution. In recent times most of the academic libraries tend to use new
computers, telecommunications equipment for access to the Internet, and online databases, E-
Journal etc. Also as in the age of information explosion no college or university library can
procure all published documents therefore the academic libraries can form a network on
cooperative basis that would enable them to share the scarce and little-used materials required for
advanced research.
i) College Library: The college libraries build up a balanced collection consisting of a wide
variety of learning and teaching materials to satisfy varied curricular and extra-curricular
activities of both students and teachers. The collections are selected and developed on the basis
of educational philosophy and objectives of the institution, size and nature of the student body,
size of the faculty and their needs for research materials. The collection includes text books and
recommended books, books of advanced nature for teacher, a wide range of reference books,
travelogues, biographies, learned periodicals.
ii) University Library: The collection of the university library includes materials to meet the
needs of post-graduate students as well as resources of sufficient breadth and depth to support
serious scholarship in all areas. The collection, in fact, embraces a wide variety of subjects for
learning, teaching, research and publishing. It provides a general collection, rare materials,
newspapers and periodicals, government publications, special materials such as theses,
dissertations, archives, clipping, visual and audio-visual materials, digital objects, and so on.
d) Services: The academic library plays a central role in the academic work of students and
faculty at colleges and universities and is often considered the most important resource of the
institution of higher education. As students and faculty at colleges and universities may wish to
conduct research within any conceivable academic discipline, the collections of academic
libraries usually reflect a vast range of interests and formats. It has both a comprehensive
collection to support formal or class room teaching as well as bears a representative collection of
different research activities. Some of the universities maintain the largest libraries in the world.
Because of the complexity, range, and diversity of formats and information in academic
libraries, they frequently offer orientation, library tour programs to introduce incoming students
and faculty to the institution’s library services. These programs are designed to teach new users
the effective ways to make use of a variety of reference tools and library search mechanisms.
Even in some parts of the United States, college accreditation agencies require institutions to
offer library-sponsored courses on information retrieval and evaluation.
i) College Library: The basic function of the college library is to assist its parent institution to
carry out its programmes. It must serve the needs and requirements of teachers and students
towards reading, study and research. Its educative function includes- providing materials to the
college community, making materials easily accessible, arranging orientation programmes in the
use of the library, providing bibliographical information to the faculty, arranging inter-library
loan, and similar others.
ii) University Library: The university libraries provide ready access to materials and facilities
such as translation, typing, photocopying. In an effort to provide more efficient service the
university library often participates in co-operative undertaking in networking, consortia,
interlibrary lending, co-operative and centralized cataloguing and compilation of bibliographies.
By accumulating and organizing materials, the library serves as an invaluable aid in the
conservation of knowledge and as an active force in teaching, research and extension programme
of the university. It also provides a variety of library documentation and information services
necessary for the success of the formal programmes of instruction. It also participates in the
interpretative function of the university through assistance to the faculty and research staff.

Abstracting Periodicals
1. Abstracting Periodicals: According to Allent Kent “an abstract is a summary of a publication
or articles accompanied by an adequate bibliographical description to enable the publication or
article to be traced.
H. M. Weisman defines “the abstract is an announcement medium whose objectives is to
provide knowledge of and an ordered and logical access to new primary literature”.
Thus an abstract can be defined as an abbreviated, accurate representation of the
significant content of a document consisting scope, purpose, method used, kinds of treatment
results and findings, interpretation of the result by the author, argument, etc which is usually
accompanied by an adequate bibliographical description to enable to trace the original document.
An abstracting periodical is “a regularly issued compilation of concise summaries of
i) Significant articles (often in a very limited subject field) that appear in current primary source
journal and
ii) of important new research monographs, reports, patent and other primary source publication
in that field”.
Example: Library and Information Science Abstract, London, Library Association, 1950-,
Bimonthly. Indian Science Abstract, Delhi, Insdoc, Vol. 1-, 1965-.
Besides the above sources, list of periodicals, list of theses, dissertations, location and
finding list etc also serves as bibliographical sources.
Development in Libraries (United Kingdom)
1st Library act ant National Level in the world- 14 August 1850
Public Library and Museum Act-1964
UGC-UK (Parry Committee Report)-1964
Various Reports
1) Adams Report-1915
2) Mitchell & Kenyon Report-1924
3) McColvin Report-1942
4) Robert Report-1959

Development in Libraries (United States of America)

Pioneer of Social Libraries- Benjamin Franklin
Boston Public Library Act-1848
1st General library Law-1956
Library of Congress-1800
Library of Congress Shared Cataloguing service-1901

National Libraries of the worlds

State Lenin Library, Moscow 1862
National Library of India- 1835
Bibliothec Nationale, Pris (National Library, France) 1440
National Diet Library, Japan 1948
National Library, Germany 1912
Library of Congress, USA 1800

Library Associations World and India

Library Association (UK)-1877 now Known as
Chartered institute of Library and Information
Professionals (From 2002)
1877 (now name
changed in 2002 as
CILIP)
American Library Association- 1876
Association of Special Libraries and Information
Beureaux -ASLIB
1926
IFLA-1929 1929
UBC-1974, UAP-1976
Special Library Association(SLA) 1909
FID 1982
UNESCO 1945
India Library Association 1933
IASLIC 1955
RRRLF 1972

UNESCO Contributions (Library Networks)

Asia and Pacific Information Network (APIN)
Information Society program for Latin America and The Caribbean
(INFOLAC)
1986
Global Network for Education in Journalism 1999
Orbicom 1994
UNESCO Network for Associated Library (UNAL)
UNISIST Programme 1971

Libraries & LIS Training in India

National Library of India
Delhi Public Library 1951
DRTC, Bangalore 1962
Raja Ram Mohan Roy Library Foundation 1972
Connemara Public Library 1890
Khuda Baksha Oriental Public Library 1891
Asiatic Society Library, Mumbai
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune 1917
Rampur Raza Library, Uttar Pradesh 1774
Sarasvati Mahal Library 1918 (Became public Library)
National Medical Library, New Delhi 1947 (became NML on 1st April
1966.)

COMMITTEES ON LIS EDUCATION IN INDIA

Sr. No. Committee Year

1. Ranganathan Committee on University and College Libraries 1957
2. Ranganathan Committee on LIS Education 1961
3. Kaula Committee on Curriculum Development in LIS 1990
Education
4. Subject Panel on Lib. &Inf. Sc. 1997
5. Karisiddappa Committee on Curriculum Development in LIS 1997
J- THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT AND EXPOUNDERS

Sr. No. Theories Expounders

1. Principles of Scientific Management / Father of F.W. Taylor
Scientific Management 1856-1915

2. Functional Management (Command and control)/ Henri Fayol

Classical Theory, Father of Administration 1841–1925

3. Sociological Perspective / Father of Human Relation Elton Mayo

School

5. Theory X and Theory Y D.M. Mc Gregor

6. Motivation –Hygiene Approach / Father of Corporate F. Herzberg
Strategy

7. Hierarchy of Needs Theory/ Motivational theory Abraham Maslow

1908–1970
8. Bureaucratic organization Max Weber-
1864-1920
9. Management as a discipline Peter Drucker
A. 1928

POSDCORB Luther Gulick

Theory Z Ouchi

Demand & Supply Theory of Books Mc Colvin

MBO (Management by Objective) Peter Ducker

Zero Base Budgeting Peter Phyr

 John Cotton Dana
New York Changing System

K. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND ESTABLISHMENT

YEAR

Sr. No. Institute/Organisation Year

8 CSIR – Council of Scientific And Industrial Research 1942
1 FAO- Food And Agriculture Organisation 1945
2 UNESCO- United Nations Educational Scientific 1946
Cultural Organization
3 UGC-University Grand Commission 1956
4 IAEA- International Automic Energy Agency 1964
5 ICSSR- Indian Council For Science Research 1969
6 WIPO- World Intellectual Property Organization 1970
7 UNISIST- United Nations International Scientific Information System 1971

L- BOOKS AND AUTHORS

Sr. No. Title Author

1. Elements of Library Classification S.R. Ranganathan
2. Library Administration Theory And Practice R.L. Mithal
3. Cataloguing Theory and Practice C.G. Viswanathan
4. Rules for Dictionary Catalogue C.A. Cutter
5. Little Science Big Science D.J. Desolla Price
6. Documentation S.C.Bradford
7. Subject Approach to Information D.J. Fosket
8. Manual of Library Economy N.R. Look
9. Documentation and its facets S.R. Ranganathan
10. Manual of Cataloguing Practice C.G. Viswanatham

A. LIBRARY LEGISLATION AND YEAR OF ENACTING

SR.NO. LIBRARY YEAR

1 Madras (Tamil Nadu) Public Library Act (First) 1948
2 Andhara Pradesh Public Library Act (Second) 1960
3 Karnataka (Mysore) Public Library Act (Third) 1965
4 Maharashtra Public Library Act (Fourth) 1967
5 West Bengal Public Library Act 1979
6 Manipur Public Library Act 1988
7 Haryana Public Library Act 1989
8 Kerala Public Library Act 1989
9 Goa Public Library Act 1993
10 Mizorum Public Library Act 1993
11 Gujrat Public Library Act 2000
12 Orrissa Public Library Act 2002
14 Uttrakhand Public Library Act 2005
13 Uttar Pradesh Public Library Act 2006
15 Rajasthan Public Library Act 2006
17 Chattisgarh Public Library Act 2007
18 Pondichery Public Library Act 2007
16 Bihar Public Library Act 2008
19 Arunchal Pradesh Public Library Act 2009

Indian States Library Acts

No. State Name Nature of Law Year
1. Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (formerly Madras)
Public Libraries Act.
library cess (10%) on property
tax.
1948
2. Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh Public Libraries
Act.
library cess (8%) on lands and
buildings;
1960
3. Karnataka Karnataka Public Library Act
library cess (6%) on lands,
buildings, vehicles and
profession.
1965
4. Maharashtra Maharashtra Public Libraries Act No library cess 1967
5. West Bengal West Bengal Public Libraries Act No library cess 1979
6. Manipur Manipur Public Libraries Act No library cess 1988
7. Kerala Kerala Public Libraries Act
library cess (5%) on property tax
and not less than 1% of State
expenditure on education.
1989
8. Haryana Haryana Public Libraries Act Local bodies to levy cess 1989
9. Mizoram Mizoram Public Libraries Act No library cess 1993
10. Goa Goa Public Libraries Act
Surcharge on IFML @ 0.50 ps.
Per ltr. And 0.50
1993
11. Gujarat Gujarat Public Libraries Act No library cess 2002
12 Orissa Orissa Public Library Act No library cess 2002
13 Rajasthan 2005
14 Uttar Pradesh 2005
15 Uttrakhand 2005
16 Pondichery 2007/2008

B. LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS/ HEAD OFFICE AND YEARS

SR.NO. ASSOCIATIONS CITY/COUNTRY YEAR

1 American Library Association Chicago 1929
2 Library Association (UK) London 1877
3 Indian Library Association Calcutta 1933
4 International Federation of Library Netherlands 1927
Association (IFLA) Founded in
Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1927, IFLA
was registered in the Netherlands in
 1971
5 Special Libraries Association New York 1876
6 Commonwelath Library Association Lagos 1972
(COMLA)
7 Indian Association of Special Calcutta 1955
Libraries and Information Centers
(IASLIC)
8 Association for Special Libraries London 1926
and Information Buraux (ASLIB)
9 Government of India Libraries New Delhi 1933
Association (GILA)
10 Special Libraries Association New York 1909
11 Library Association (UK) UK 1877
12 American Library Association America 1876
(ALA)
13 Indian Library Association (ILA) India 1933
14 Association for Special Libraries UK 1924
and Information Buraux (ASLIB)
15 Andhra Pradesh Library Association Andhra Pradesh 1914
16 Madras Library Association Madras 1928
17 Bengal Library Association Bengal 1929
18 Hyderabad Library Association 1953
19 Bihar Library Association Bihar 1936
20 Kerala Pradesh Library Association Kerala 1942
21 Delhi Pradesh Library Association Delhi 1953
22 Madhya Pradesh Library Association 1957
23 Bombay Pradesh Library Association 1944

C. CLASSIFICATION / CATALOGUING SCHEMES

Sr. Classification / Cataloguing Schemes Inventor Year

No.
1 Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) Melvil Dewey 1876
6 Expansive Classification (EC) Cutter C.A. 1879/1891
4 Library of Congress Classification Library of Congress 1902/1904
(LC)
3 Universal Decimal Classification FID 1905
(UDC)
5 Subject Classification (SC) J.D. Brown 1906
2 Colon Classification (CC) S.R. Rangnathan 1933
7 Bibliographic Classification (BC) Bliss H.E. 1935
9 Library Bibliographic Classification Lenin Library 1959
(LBK) Moscow
8 International Classification (IC) F.Rider 1961
10 Broad System of Ordering (BSO) FID/Unesco 1978

E. CATALOGUING SCHEMES

Sr. Cataloguing Schemes Inventor Year

No.
4 British Museum Code The British Museum 1841
Research Board
5 Rules For Dictionary Catalogues Cutter C.A. 1876
2 Anglo American Code ALA 1908
1 Vetican Code 1927
6 Classified Catalogue Code (CCC) Dr. S.R. 1934
Ranganathan
3 ALA Code ALA 1949
7 American Library Association ALA 1949
8 Anglo American Cataloguing Rules –I ALA 1967
9 Anglo American Cataloguing Rules – ALA 1978
II
10 Anglo – American Cataloging Rules II ALA 1988

Cataloguing and Bibliographic Description Standards, Subject

Headings
Library of Congress Subject Headings 1898
Sears List of Subject Headings (SLSH) 1923
AACR first published 1908
MARC 1966
AACR-I 1967
CCF 1972
ISBD 1974
UNIMARC 1977
AACR-II 1978
F.INDEXING SYSTEMS/ ORIGINATORS AND YERS

Sr. Indexing System Inventor Year

No.
5 Citation Indexing A. Garfield
6 Subject Indexing M.E. Sears
8 Automated Indexing H. Ohlman
9 SLIC Indexing J.R. Sharma
10 Thesaurus Indexing P.M. Rogget
Systematic indexing Kaiser, J. 1911
2 Chain Indexing Dr. S.R. 1934
Rangnathan
4 Uniterm Indexing M. Taube 1953
7 Key Word Indexing H.P. Luhn 1959
1 PREserved Context Indexing System Derik Austin 1968
3 Postulate Based Permuted Subject G. Bhattacharya 1979
Indexing (POPSI)
COMPASS BNB 1991

Indexing
Pre-Coordinate Indexing
1 Kaisers systematic Indexing 1911
2 Chain Indexing
3 Relational Indexing- J.E.L.Farradane 1950
4 Coats Subject Indexing- E.J. Coats 1963
5 PRECIS-Derek Austin 1974
6 POPSI- G. Bhattacharya 1964
Post-Coordinate Indexing
1 UNITERM- Martimer Taube 1953
Year of Pub.
Science Citation Index 1974
Social Science Citation Index 1973
Arts & Humanities Citation Index 1978
Thesaurus
1 Roget’s Thesaurus 1852

G.INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND ORGANISATIONS

Sr. Organization Place Year

No.
1 International Federation for Documentation (FID) Hague 1895
5 International Federation of Library Association Scotland 1927
and Institutions (IFLA)
3 International Council of Scientific Union (ICSU) Brussels 1931
8 University Grand Commission (UGC) New Delhi 1953
2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Viena 1957
9 Defenece Research & Development Organization New Delhi 1958
7 Documentation Research & Training Center (DRTC) Bangalore 1962
4 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Jeeneva 1967
6 Bhabha Automic Research Center (BARC) Mumbai 1967
11 International Nuclear Information System (INIS) Viena 1969
12 Agricultural Information System of FAO (AGRIS) Rom 1975
10 Patent Information System (PIS) Nagpur 1980

G.NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL

Sr. Organization Place Year

No.
7 Indian National Scientific Documentation Center New Delhi 1952
(INSDOC)
8 Defence Science Documentation Center (DESIDOC) New Delhi 1958
1 Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) Dublin 1967
 (Ohio)
9 National Social Science Documentation Center New Delhi 1970
(NASDOC)
10 Small Scale Enterprise National Documental Center Hyderabad 1971
(SENDOC)
11 National Information Center (NIC) New Delhi 1975
6 National Information Center Network (NICNET) New Delhi 1977
(NIC)
3 Research Libraries Information Network (RLIN) 1978
2 Joint Academic Network (JANET) UK 1984
5 Education and Research Network (ERNET) 1986
4 Information And Library Network (INFLIBNET) Ahmadabad 1991

H.LIBRARIES SOFTWARE

Sr. Software Developed By

No.
1 CSD/ISIS UNESCO
2 Sanjay DESIDOC
3 Minisis IDRC
4 Grathalaya INSDOC
5 Libsys Infotech
6 TULIPS Tata Unisis
7 OASIS Soft Link
8 LIBRIES Frontier Info Technology
9 SLIIM Algorthics

Library Related Software

Library Management Software and Digital Library Software
Operating Systems
CDS/ISIS 1985
WINISIS Distributed in 1995, Version 1.31 launched in November 1998.
SOUL 2000
GREENSTONE 1997
DSPACE 2002
KOHA 2000
NEWGENLIB 2007
EPRINTS 2000

Operating Systems
UNIX 1969
LINUX 1991
MS-DOS 1982
WINDOWS 1985

Programming Languages
FORTRAN 1957
PASCAL
COBOL
JAVA 1994
VB 1991
C 1972
C++ 1983
VB .NET
JAVA SCRIPT 1995
AJAX
PHP 1995
HTML
XML
MS-SQL
MySQL
PostGreSQL

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The UNIVAC and ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) computers are
examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer
delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

OSI model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection effort
at the International Organization for Standardization. It is a prescription of characterizing and
standardizing the functions of a communications system in terms of abstraction layers.

History: Work on a layered model of network architecture was started and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) began to develop its OSI framework architecture. OSI had two
major components: an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer
model, and a set of specific protocols.

The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman, Honeywell
Information Services. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda.

HOST LAYERS:

Data 7. Application :Network process to application.

6. Presentation :Data representation, encryption and decryption, convert machine

dependent data to machine independent data.

5. Session: Interhost communication, managing sessions between applications.

Segments

4. Transport :End-to-end connections, reliability and flow control.

MEDIA LAYERS

Packet/Datagram

3. Network :Path determination and logical addressing.

Frame

2. Data link :Physical addressing.

Bit

1. Physical: Media, signal and binary transmission.

 PDNTSPA

Scopus Abstract and citation database of research literature

J-Store (1995) Journal Storage
Emeralds Full text Journal Publishers
Science Direct full-text scientific database
ERIC Education Resources Information Center, is the world's largest digital
library of education literature
J-Gate (2001) J-Gate is an electronic gateway to global e-journal literature
Project MUSE (1993) Online database of more than 200 journals from nonprofit publishers
EBSCO Reference Databases
Pubmed citations for biomedical articles from MEDLINE
IndMed A Bibliographic Database of Indian Biomedical Literature is an
indexing of medical and other biomedical journals from India not
cover in Medline
INIS The INIS Database, contains over 3 million bibliographic records
LISA Library and Information Science Abstracts is an international
abstracting and indexing tool designed for library professionals and
other information specialists
Genamics JournalSeek Genamics JournalSeek is the largest completely categorized database
of freely available journal information available on the internet. The
database presently contains 95320 titles. Journal information includes
the description (aims and scope), journal abbreviation, journal
homepage link, subject category and ISSN.
Econlit The American Economic Association’s electronic bibliography,
EconLit, indexes more than thirty years of economics literature from
around the world. Compiled and abstracted in an easily searchable
format, EconLit is a comprehensive index of journal articles, books,
book reviews, collective volume articles, working papers and
dissertations
REPEC Research Papers in economics. Collaborative volunteer effort to
enhance the dissemination of research in economics. The database
contains information on more than 585,000 items
OCLC Worldcat A global catalog of library collections.

COMMUNICATION MODELS:

Classical Communication Models

Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric

Aristotle’s model of proof

Bitzer’s Rhetorical Situation

 Early Linear Models

The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model, 1949

Berlo’s S-M-C-R, 1960

Schramm’s Interactive Model, 1954

Non-linear Models

Dance’s Helical Spiral, 1967

Westley and MacLean’s Conceptual Model, 1957

Becker’s Mosaic Model, 1968

Multidimensional Models

Ruesch and Bateson, Functional Model, 1951

Barnlund’s Transactional Model, 1970

Suggestions for Communication Models

Systemic Model of Communication, 1972

Brown’s Holographic Model, 1987

SR.NO. LIBRARY LOCATION

1 Asiatic Society Library Bombay
2 British Museum UK
3 Conamora Public Library Chennai
4 Khudabaksha Oriental Library PATNA
5 Library of Congress USA
6 National Science Library Delhi
7 National Library Calcutta
8 National Manuscripts Library Tanjore
9 National Library for Blinds and Handicaps Dehradun
10 National Library of Oriental Literature and Culture Patna
11 National Diet Library Japan
12 Raja Rammoha Roay Library Calcutta
13 Sarswati Mahal Library Tanjore
14 State Lenin Library Russia
S.R. Ranganathan: 9th August th Birth A i ersary of Dr. S. R. Ra ga atha a d th August
Li raria s

BORN: Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan

9 August 1892
Sirkali, Tamil Nadu

Died: 27 September 1972 (aged 80)

Bangalore, India

Notable work(s

Prolegomena to Library Classification1957

The Five Laws of Library Science1931

Colon Classification1933

Ramanujan: the Man and the Mathematician1967

Classified Catalogue Code: With Additional Rules for Dictionary Catalogue Code1934

Library Administration

Indian Library Manifesto

Library Manual for Library Authorities, Librarians, and Library Workers

Classification and Communication

Headings and Canons;

Comparative Study of Five Catalogue Codes

Prolegomena to Library Classification (1937)

Theory of the Library Catalogue (1938)

Elements of Library Classification (1945)

Classification and International Documentation (1948)

Classification and Communication (1951)

Headi gs a d Ca o s 9 .•

Five Laws of Library Science, 1931.

• Ne Edu atio a d S hool Li rary, 9 .

• Philosophy of Li rary Classifi atio , 9 .•

Prolegomena to Library Classification, 3rd ed., 1967.

• Classifi atio a d Co u i atio , 9 .

• Do u e tatio : Ge esis a d De elop e t, 9 .

• Do u e tatio a d Its Fa ets, 9 .

• Li rary Book Sele tio , d ed., 9

• Refere e Ser i e, d ed., 9 .

Besides Colon Classification and the Five Laws of Library Science, other important works written by him,
include Classified Catalogue Code (1934), Prolegomena to Library Classification (1937), Theory of the
Library Catalogue (1938), Elements of Library Classification (1945), Classification and International
Documentation (1948), Classification and Communication (1951) and Headings and Canons (1955),
Development in Libraries (United Kingdom)
Parish libraries was Dr. Thomas Bray (1656-1730).
1st Library act ant National Level in the world- 14 August 1850(red letter day)
Public Library and Museum Act-1964
Various Reports
1) Adams Report-1915
2) Mitchell:1924 & Kenyon Report-1924
3)Kenyon report 1927-Public libraries
4) McColvin Report-1942- Public libraries.
5) Robert Report-1959

6)UGC-UK (Parry Committee Report)-1964

7) University Grants Committee on Libraries (the Parry (1904-1985) Report) published in 1967

National Libraries Committee under the Chairmanship of the late Lord Dainton issued in 1969.

1972 The British Library Act was passed by Parliament, bringing the Library into operation with effect from 1 July
1973.

Development in Libraries (United States of America)

Pioneer of Social Libraries- Benjamin Franklin
Library of Congress-1800
Boston Public Library Act-1848
Library of Congress Shared Cataloguing service-1901

1st General library Law-1956

COPYRIGHT ACTS

1.Berne Convention:1886 (as modified at Paris in 1971)

2.British Copyright Act:1911
3.Copyright Law in India (Pre-Ind):1914
4.Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948

5.Universal Copyright convention:1951

6.Copyright Act of the United Kingdom:1956
7.Indian Copyright Act:1957
8.Rome convention :1961
9.WIPO(1967,GENEVA) Copyright Act: WIPO Copyright Treaty or WCT:1996,20 DEC

10.Digital Millennium Copyright Act:1998

11.Information Technology Act (India):2000

12.Right to Information Act. (India):2005

National Libraries of the worlds

Bibliothec Nationale, Pris (National Library, France) 1480

Library of Congress, USA 1800

National Library of India- 1948/1835(cpl:1835, ipl:1891/1902-ipl act,1903-public)

State Lenin Library, Moscow 1862

National Library, Germany 1912

National Library of India:1948
National Diet Library, Japan 1948

Library Associations World and India

American Library Association- 1876

Library Association (UK)-1877 now Known as

Chartered institute of Library and Information
Professionals (From 2002)
1877 (now name
changed in 2002 as
CILIP:LA+ISI)
Special Library Association(SLA) 1909

Association of Special Libraries and Information Beureaux –ASLIB 1924 (The Association for Information
Management)
India Library Association 1933

IFLA-1929
UBC-1974, UAP-1976
IFLA Universal Bibliographic Control and International MARC Core Activity (UBCIM) which has been hosted by Die
st
Deutsche Bibliothek since 1990, is closed as per 1 March 2003.

UNESCO 1945
IASLIC 1955
RRRLF 1972

FID: 1988: IIB:1895, IID:1931,International Federation for Information and Documentation(FID).(Dissolved in

2002)

UNESCO Contributions (Library Networks)

Asia and Pacific Information Network (APIN): Bangkok:2002

Regional Network for the Exchange of Information and Experiences (ASTINFO)
Regional Informatics Network for Southeast Asia and the Pacific (RINSEAP)
Regional Informatics Network for South and Central Asia (RINSCA)

Information Society program for Latin America and The Caribbean

(INFOLAC)1986
Global Network for Education in Journalism 1999
Orbicom 1994
UNESCO Network for Associated Library (UNAL)
UNISIST Programme 1971
UNESCO's Information for All Programme (IFAP),

Libraries & LIS Training in India

National Library of India
Delhi Public Library 1951
DRTC, Bangalore 1962
Raja Ram Mohan Roy Library Foundation 1972
Connemara Public Library 1890
Khuda Baksha Oriental Public Library 1891
Asiatic Society Library, Mumbai
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune 1917
Rampur Raza Library, Uttar Pradesh 1774
Sarasvati Mahal Library 1918 (Became public Library)
National Medical Library, New Delhi 1947 (became NML on 1st April
1966.)

Global Infmn systems

INIS:IAEA: 1970

AGRIS:FAO:1974-75(AGROVOC: agricultural thesaurus)

INFOTERRA:UN(Nairobi, Kenya): 1972,1992(ENVOC Multilingual Thesaurus of Environmental Terms)

PIPS: Policies Information Exchange Programme :UNESCO:1984

ASTINFO: Regional Network for Exchange of Information and

Experience in Science and Technology in Asia and Pacific: 1983

APINESS:1986

MEDLARS: NLM: 1964

Chemical Abstracts Service CAS:1907

INSPEC: IEE:1967

BIOSIS: Thompson Scientific:

INDIAN INFMN SYSTEMS

NISSAT:DSIR: September 1977

National Informatics Centre (NIC):1975

Biotechnology Information System (BTIS): 1987 by DBT

ENVIS in 1982

INFLIBNET:1991:caliber: Convention for Automation of Libraries in Education and Research

Institutes) was introduced in1994.
DELNET :1988:National Convention on Library and Information Networking:
NISCAIR: October 1, 2002(Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL): National Science Digital Library
(NSDL)

INFMN SYSTEMS IN SS

ICSSR:MHRD:1969

NASSDOC:1969

HUMANITIES INFN SYSTEMS

Indira Ganthi National Centre for Arts (IGNCA):1985(The Centre comprises five divisions viz. i) Kala
Nidhi, ii) Kala Kosa, iii) Janpada Sampada, iv) Kala Darsana, and v) Sutra Dhara.)
National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM): Feb. 2003
Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR):1950
Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR):1972
Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR): March 1977
National Archives of India (NAI): March 1891 in Calcutta.

Conf/seminars on Cataloguing

1. ICCP Paries 1961

2. Intl Meeting of Cataloguing experts 1969

3. Intl symposium of Bibliographic Exchange format 1978

4. International Conference on the Principles and Future Development of AACR, 1997 Toronto

5. First CCF users meet 1990

SubjectHeadings
Library of Congress Subject Headings 1898
Sears List of Subject Headings (SLSH) 1923/ M. Sears

Bibliographic Description Standards

MARC 1966/1968-LC
ISBD 1971/1974:IFLA
UNIMARC 1977 (2nd ed:1980):IFLA
CCF 1984 (UNESCO)
MARC21 1999 (US+CANADIAN+UNIMARC) LC
FRBR sta ds for Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records. FRBR was developed by an IFLA
Study Group (1992-1997), i liographi e tities: work , expressio , a ifestatio , a d ite )FRBR
user tasks (Find, Identify, Select, Obtain)

RDA was published in the RDA Toolkit in June 2010.(JSC:ALAN DANSKIN)

SRU/SRW: Search/Retrieve via URL / -/Search/Retrieve Web service

 Z39.50 protocol. LC

"Z39.50" refers to the International Standard, ISO 23950: "Information Retrieval (Z39.50):
Application Service Definition and Protocol Specification", and to ANSI/NISO Z39.50.

GREENSTONE 1997
EPRINTS 2000

DSPACE 2002

Operating Systems
UNIX 1969
MS-DOS 1982
WINDOWS 1985

LINUX 1991

LIBRARY LOCATION
Asiatic Society Library Bombay
British Museum UK
Conamora Public Library Chennai
Khudabaksha Oriental Library PATNA
Library of Congress USA
National Science Library Delhi
National Library Calcutta
National Manuscripts Library Tanjore
National Library for Blinds Dehradun
and Handicaps
National Library of Oriental Patna
Literature and Culture
National Diet Library Japan
Raja Rammoha Roay Library Calcutta
Sarswati Mahal Library Tanjore
State Lenin Library Russia
Committee Year
Hunter commission 1882
Indian uty cmmisn (Lord Curzn) 1902 Title Author
Sadller cmn 1917 Elements of Library Classification S.R. Ranganathan
Radakrishnan cmn 1948 Library Administration Theory And R.L. Mithal
UGC 1953 Practice
Ranganathan Committee on University 1957 Cataloguing Theory and Practice C.G. Viswanathan
and College Libraries Rules for Dictionary Catalogue C.A. Cutter
Advisory committee/ sinha kp 1958 Little Science Big Science D.J. Desolla Price
Ranganathan Committee on LIS 1961 Documentation S.C.Bradford
Education
Subject Approach to Information D.J. Fosket
Kothari cmn 1964 Manual of Library Economy N.R. Look
Kaula Committee on Curriculum 1990 Documentation and its facets S.R. Ranganathan
Development in LIS Education
Manual of Cataloguing Practice C.G. Viswanatham
Subject Panel on Lib. &Inf. Sc. 1997
Karisiddappa Committee on Curriculum 1997
Development in LIS
Legislation YEAR
TN 1948
Theories Expounders AP 1960
Principles of Scientific F.W. Taylor KK 1965
Management / Father of 1856-1915
Scientific Management MH 1967
WB 1979
Functional Management Henri Fayol MPR 1988
(Command and control)/ 1841–1925
Classical Theory, Father of Haryana 1989
Administration Kerala 1989
Goa 1993
Sociological Perspective / Elton Mayo
Father of Human Relation
Mizorum 1993
School Gujrat 2000
Orrissa 2002
Theory X and Theory Y D.M. Mc Gregor Uttrakhand Public 2005
Motivation –Hygiene f.Herzberg
Approach / Father of Uttar Pradesh 2005
Corporate Strategy Rajasthan 2006
Chattisgarh 2007
Hierarchy of Needs Theory/ Abraham Maslow
Motivational theory
Pondichery 2007
1908–1970
Bureaucratic organization Max Weber- Bihar 2008
1864-1920 Arunchal Pradesh 2009
Management as a discipline Peter Drucker
A. 1928

POSDCORB Luther Gulick

Theory Z Ouchi

Demand & Supply Theory of Mc Colvin

Books

MBO (Management by Peter Ducker

Objective)

Zero Base Budgeting Peter Phyr

John Cotton Dana

New York Changing
System
ASSOCIATIONS CITY/COUNTRY YEAR Cataloguing Schemes Inventor Year
ALA Chicago 1876 British Museum British 1841
LA(UK)clip-2002 London 1877 Code/Pa izzi’s 91 rules Museum
SLA New York 1909
Rules For Dictionary Cutter C.A. 1876
ASLI) London 1924
Catalogues
IFLA Founded in Netherlands 1927
Edinburgh, Scotland, in A A C/ALA a d BLA’s ALA 1908
1927, IFLA was Hague catalogue rules: author and
registered in the title entries
Netherlands in 1971 VC 1927
ILA Calcutta 1933 CCC S.R. R 1934
GILA) New Delhi 1933 ALA Code /Rules for ALA 1949
IASLIC) Calcutta 1955
descriptive cataloguing in
IATLIS Calcutta 1969
COMLA Lagos 1972
the Library of Congress
APLA Andhra 1914 A ACR–I /(North American ALA 1967
Pradesh and British Text)
MLA Madras 1928 AACR II ALA 1978
BLA Bengal 1929 AACRIIR ALA 1988
Bih LA Bihar 1936
KLA Kerala 1942
Bombay PLA 1944
HydBD LA 1953 Indexing System Inventor Year
Delhi PLA Delhi 1953 Citation Indexing E.Garfield 1960
MPLA 1957 Automated Indexing H. Ohlman
SLIC Indexing J.R. Sharma
Roget’s Thesaurus 1852

Systematic indexing Kaiser, J. 1911

Subject Indexing M.E. Sears 1923
Classification Inventor Year Chain Indexing Dr. S.R.Rangnathan 1934
Schemes Relational Indexing J.E.L.Farradane 1950
DDC Melvil Dewey 1876
EC Cutter C.A. 1891 Uniterm Indexing M Taube 1953
LC Library of Congress 1901 Key Word Indexing H.P. Luhn 1959
UDC FID 1905 Coats Subject E.J. Coats 1963
SC J.D. Brown 1906 Indexing
CC S.R. Rangnathan 1933 PRECIS Derik Austin 1968
BC Bliss H.E. 1935 SSCI ISI 1973
LBK Lenin Library Moscow 1959
IC F.Rider 1961 SCI E GARFIELD/ISI 1974
BSO FID/Unesco 1978 A& HCI ISI 1978

POPSI G. Bhattacharya 1979

COMPASS BNB 1991
H-Index (Jorge E. Hirsch) 2005
g-Index(publicatn Leo Egghe 2006
record)
Organization Place Year
FID Hague 1895
IFLA Scotland 1927
ICSU Brussels 1931
H.LIBRARIES SOFTWARE
FAO Rome 1945
UNESCO Paris 1946 Software Developed By
UGC New Delhi 1953 CSD/ISIS 1985 WINISIS UNESCO
IAEA Viena 1957 1995
DRDO New Delhi 1958 Sanjay DESIDOC
DRTC Bangalore 1962 Minisis IDRC
WIPO Geneva 1967 Grathalaya INSDOC
BARC Mumbai 1967 Libsys Infotech
INIS Viena 1969 TULIPS Tata Unisis
UNISIST 1971 OASIS Soft Link
AGRIS Rom 1975 LIBRIES FrontierInfo Tec.
PIS Nagpur 1980 SLIIM Algorthics
LIBSYS
SOUL 2000
G.NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL
KOHA 2000
Organization Place Year NEWGENLIB 2007
INSDOC New Delhi 1952
DESIDOC New Delhi 1958
OCLC Dublin (Ohio) 1967
NASSDOC New Delhi 1970
SENDOC Hyderabad 1971
NIC New Delhi 1975
NICNET) (NIC) New Delhi 1977
RLIN 1978
JANET UK 1984
ERNET INDIA 1986
INFLIBNET Ahmadabad 1991
 First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The UNIVAC and ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) computers are
examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer
delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Scopus
J-Store (1995)
Emeralds
Science Direct
ERIC
J-Gate (2001)
Project MUSE (1993)
EBSCO
Pubmed
IndMed
INIS
LISA
Genamics JournalSeek
Econlit
REPEC

Library Networks in India: DESINET (DESIDOC),

NICNET (Planning Commission): ERNET: Education and Research Network, Dept.

National Informatics Centre
Network , Planning Commission,
Govt. of India INDONET : CMC ,
1996
INDONET (CMC): IT-enabled services
(ITES):1980
I-NET (DOT)
CALIBNET: Calcutta Library Network, 1998
BONET, : Bombay Library Network, 1992
DELNET: Developing Library Network, New
Delhi, 1998-99
ADINET: Ahmedabad Library Network.
Ahmedabad, 1993
MYLIBNET: Mysore Library Network
Storage Devices
Punch Card: 04/19/1725
of Electronics,govt. of India
SIRNET (CSIR): Scientific and Industrial
Research Network. Connects Major National
Research Laboratories Under CSIR/INSDOC
(NISCAIR)
VIDYANET (TIFR),
BTISNET (DOBiotech),
INFLIBNET (UGC): Information & Library
Network, Ahmedabad, 1988
BALNET: Bangalore Library Network, 1995
MALIBNET: Madras Library Network, INSDOC,
1993
PUNENET : Poona, 1992
Hard Drive Disk: 04/19/1956
Floppy disk: 04/01/1971

Punch tape: 04/19/1846 CD-RW: 04/20/1982

Magnetic tape: 04/19/1951 CD-R: 04/20/1985

Flash Drives: 04/20/1998 SQL: 1970

Blu-Ray disks / HD-DVD: 04/20/2006 C: 1972

HVD: 04/20/2008 C++: 1983

JAVA; 1995
Programming Language
Timeline Visual Basic: 1998

FORTRAN: 1950 C#:2000

COBOL: 1959

BASIC: 1964

PASCAL; 1970

Digital Technology & Preservation

1924:Hollerith's "Computer Tabulating Recording Company" is renamed "International Business

Machines Corporation" (IBM).

1938: First use of the term digital

1945: Vannevar Bush's article "As We May Think" predicts the evolution of hypertext.

1952: Grace Hopper develops the first compiler, laying the foundations for programming languages.

1964: Beginner's All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) is developed at Dartmouth College.

1965: Moore's Law established.

1969: Generalized Markup Language (GML) is introduced.

1972: The programming languages C and FORTRAN 66 are created.

1975: Ohio State University introduces one of the first online catalogs.

1976: Queen Elizabeth II becomes the first world leader to send an e-mail.

Bill Gates drops out of Harvard to devote his full attention to Microsoft.

1978: Dallas Public Library introduces one of the first online public catalogs (OPACs).

1986: The National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) becomes the first supercomputer
center in the US.

1988: United States agrees to the terms of the Berne Convention.

1990: "Guidelines for the Encoding and Interchange of Machine Readable Texts" are published.

1993: The HTML 1.0 standard is published.

CERN releases the World Wide Web into the public domain.

1994: Fewer than 75 peer-reviewed electronic journals are online.

1995: Dublin Core Metadata Initiative originates.

1999:Google

2000: and are launched as digital archives of life sciences, biological,

and medical journal literature.

2002: 75% of journals are online in Science Citation Index.

2006: Twitter is founded, bringing forth a new social networking tool based on brief updates, or tweets.

Protocols & FORMATS

1968:MARC,LC

1969:GML

1971:FTP

1974:TCP

1982: ARPANET shifts to TCP/IP.

archival description standards

1986: Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) standard is published.

Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) is developed by Aldus.

1987: GIF graphics image format is introduced by CompuServe.

1988: Z39.50 becomes the international standard defining a protocol for computer-to-computer
information retrieval.

1990: TEI P1 "Guidelines for the Encoding and Interchange of Machine Readable Texts".

1991: Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) protocol is introduced, allowing collections of indexed

data to be retrieved by searches.

 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) initial draft.

Gopher, a distributed document search and retrieval network protocol, is released.

JPEG still picture compression standard introduced.

1992: Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) protocol proposed.

MPEG 1 standard is published.

1993: HTML 1.0 standard is published.

1994: World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is established to develop common WWW protocols.

1995: Dublin Core.

1998: Extensible Markup Language (XML).

Encoded Archival Description (EAD).

1999: Resource Description Framework (RDF) is introduced. RDF is intended to provide metadata
interoperability across different communities.

2001: METS 1.1 schema is introduced as an XML standard for encoding descriptive, administrative, and
structural metadata within a digital library.

2002:National Information Standards Organization (NISO) Technical Metadata for Digital Still Images
standards released.

2004: International Organization for Standardization publishes: ISO 15836:2003, Information and
Documentation, the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set.

2006: Australian Partnership for Sustainable Repositories develop AONS, a system which

automatically monitors the file formats of digital resources in a repository.

Harvard University Library and OCLC join forces to open the GDFR, providing distributed services

to store, discover, and deliver representation information about digital formats.

2008: PREMIS Data Dictionary v.2 (PDF) is released and maintained by the Library of Congress.

2009: The UDFR, a format registry that will eventually merge PRONOM and the Global Digital Format
Registry, is announced.

Scopus on November 3, 2004

Google Scholar on November 18, 2004

ibid means the same place, i.e. the previously cited source.
loc.cit is used when the reference is not only the same source (i.e. ibid) but also the same page.
UGC Quiz-1

1. DRTC was established in the year ___ 1962

2. Dr. S. R. Ranganathan's autobiography is titled as ____A Librarian looks back

3. One place theory is associated with ____ J. D. Brown

4. Management is an example of _______ (mode of formation of subject) Distillation

5. Dr. S. R. Ranganathan was honoured with the title ___ in the year 1965. National
research professor

6. ___ brought out Dictionary catalogue in the year 1876. Charles Ammi Cutter

7. Dr. S. R. Ranganathan initially had a post graduate degree in ___ Mathematics

8. OSI model has _________ layers. 7

9. Gandhiana is a result of ______________(mode of formation of subject) Clustering

10. RRRLF was formed in the year _____________ 1972

UGC Quiz-2

1. Edition _______ of DDC was published in the year 2011. 23

2. You can find a reference to Library hand in _________(book written by Dr. S. R.

Ranganathan).ccc

3. Institute of Scientific Information was established by ____ Eugene Garfield

4. Dr. S. R. Ranganathan was awarded _______ in the year 1957. Padma Shri

5. POPSI was devised by __________ G. Bhattacharya

6. DOI stands for ____________ Digital Object Identifier

7. ILA was formed in the year _______ 1933

8. The sectoral centre NICDAP of NISSAT is in __________ Lucknow

9. Bibliography of bibliographies is a ________ source of information. Tertiary

10. eGyanKosh is associated with ______(institution) IGNOU

Information is … Organized data

2) ‘Fair use’ is a term most relevant to : Copy right

(3) WIPO stands for : World Intellectual Property Organisation
(4) Handling of Information in the sense of production is called :
Information Industry
5) BERN CONVENTION (1886) is concerned with : Copyright
6) Informal communication among knowledgeable person is known as
:
Invisible College
7) The invisible web refers to- that part of the internet, which is
hidden from the search engines
8) Who was the chairman of National Library Committee of India.
B.S. Jha
9)Which organisation applied Library and Information Policy in India
at national level. RRRLF

10) Where is the head quarter of Patent Information System in India.

Nagpur
11)The act enacted in India in 1856 on Intellectual Property Right was
based on . British Patent Law 1852

1. Operational approach is an Integrated approach.

2. The model public library established in India with the UNESCO assistance was Delhi
Public Library
3. Facts on File is a weekly digest of World Events
4. The theory X and theory Y was conceived by D.Mc Gregor
5. PGI is framed out of merging UNISIST and NATIS
6. Tree of porphyry is a systematic representation of Diachotomy
7. 7th edition of CC was published in the year 1987
8. Empty digit means A digit with ordinal value and without semantic value
 9. The core idea of subject is represented by Personality
10. Method of residue is useful to find out Personality
11. Enumerative classification means classification scheme providing readymade number
for all subjects of past , present and anticipated future
12. Principle of osmosis concerned with Re-classification
13. Analytico synthetic classification means Freely faceted
14. Wall picture Principle helps in Facet sequence
15. Who invented the Retroactive ordinal notation E J Coates
16. Card form cataloguing was originated by France
17. British Museum first introduced the printed catalogue
18. Canon of recall value is the another name of canon of sought headings
19. Panizzi code was first published in the year 1841
20. Books of unknown or doubtful authorship is known as Apocryphal books

1. Objective of DP Raychoudhwary Committee is to improve Academic library

2. Mudaliar commission is related with School library

3. Kabat Committee is related with Metropolitan area

4. University Education Commission chairman (1948-1949) was S.

Radhakrishnan

5. Perry committee in UK reports on University libraries

6. Hawnt committee deals with the public library service in north Ireland

7. The word “Library “originates from the Latin word Liber

8. A small book is technically called Biblot

9. Carnegie medal is awarded to an author of an outstanding book for

children

10. A publication whose title page is missing is technically called Anepigraphon

UGC Quiz - 7

Prepared by PM Raina

1. The INFLIBNET centre which provides a platform for research students to

deposit their Ph. D. theses and make it available
to the entire scholarly community through open access is
______________.
2. __________ layer of OSI establishes, manages and ends connections
between applications and manages the interaction
between end systems.
3. Sinology is a result of ____________(mode of formation of subject)
4. The headquarters of IASLIC is in ____________.
5. UNESCO's database of book translations is called _____________.
6. If two works cite a common work in its bibliography then it is known as
_____________.
7. ___________ created by Alan Emtage is called the grandfather of
all search engines.
8. ____________ developed SWOT analysis.
9. The agency of United Nations having its headquarters at Geneva, which is
dedicated for the use of intellectual property as a means
of stimulating innovation and creativity is _________________.
10. Dr. S. R. Ranganathan was conferred the title _____________ in 1935 for
his contribution in the field of Librarianship.

Answers:
1. Shodhganga
2. Session
3. Clustering
4. Kolkata
5. Index translationum
6. Bibliographic coupling
7. Archie
8. Albert Humphrey
9. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
10.Rao Sahib
1.Flow Chart used In :
a.system analysis b.Computing c.Information retrieval d.Programming

2.What is Sco-Zenix ?
a.Database b.System software c.Digital library software d.Multiuser
operating Systems

3.What is ''Lipi" ?
a.Word Processor b.Spreadsheet c.Presentation software d.Statistical
Package

4.What Type of Trabsmission in Cell phones ?

a.Fiber optics b.TCP/IP c.Infrared b.Microwave .
 5.What is DPI ?
a.Digital programme b.Disc per in charge c.Disc per inch d.Department
Intercom

6.Another name of Floppy disc is :

a.Magnetic tap b.Maganetic disc c.Cassette tap d.Diskette

7.OS-2 operating systems is designed by:

a.ET&T b.AT&T c.IBM d.Microsoft Co.

8. What is NAN?
a. New area network b. Neighborhood area network c.North area
network d.None of these

9.What is IRC ?
a.Internet reconnect b.Internet refrence chart c.Internet relay chat
d.Internet rechating

10.What is ESS?
a.E-State services b.E-Serial Systema c.E-State Softawre Services
d.Electronic spread sheet.
1. Hypothesis is a :
a.Law
b.Postulate
c.Theory
d.Speculation

2. Providing latest information to research scholars and others on their

research work is through:
a.CAS
b.Classification
c.Both A &B
d.None of these

3.MEDLINE on CD-ROM is published by:

a.UMI
 b.Silverplatter
c.Cambridge
d.NLM (USA)

4 .The concept “Term Truncation” is used in

a. Thesaurus construction
b. Subject heading list
c. Search formulation
d. Citation analysis

5. In research paper, to refer to the immediate previous reference the

following term is used:

A.Op cit
b.ibid
C.Ioc cit
D.None of the above

6.”Half line” of information implies:

a. Information is useful only that halt the time

b. As information ages, it is useless
c. The life of information is reduced
d. Dead information in not used.

7. In research paper to refer to an earlier but not immediately preceding

reference, to the following term is used:

A.Op cit
b.ibid
C.Ioc cit
D.None of the above

8. What is Delphi method?

a. It is a programming language
b.It is a method of research
c. It is software
d. It is used for cost-benefit analysis

9. Arrange the following steps in research in the sequence of their

occurrence:
 (I) Report writing
(II) Research design
(III) Collection of data
(IV) Analysis of data

Codes:

a. (III), (IV), (II), (I)

b. (I), (III), (IV), (II)
c.(II), (III), (IV), (I)
d.(IV), (II), (III), (I)

10. The spiral of scientific method involves the following steps in correct
sequence:

(I) Zenith
(II) Ascendant
(III) Nadir
(IV) Descendant

Codes:

a. (I), (III), (II), (IV)

b. (II), (III), (I), (IV)
c .(III), (II), (I), (IV)
d. (I), (IV), (III), (II)

1. Research libraries and information retrieval system (RLIN) situated

at Scand ford, California in the year 1978.

2. Scientific and Industrial Research Network (SIRNET) project was

launched by NISCAIR in the year 1989.

3. LYCOS is Search Engine.

4. LOCAS means Local Catalogue Service.

5. CPM (Critical Path Method) techniques is developed by DUPONT.

6. CHECKMAT software is made for serial control in a library.

7. DELMS (Defence library management system) project was lanched by DESIDOC.

8. CARIS ( Current Agricultural Research Information System) project

is started by AGRIS.
 9. Star Network is a type of computer network needs maximum networking cable.

10. ADONIS (Article Delivery Over Network Information System) is a

first electronic document delivery system.
2. UGC Quiz -11
3.
4. Prepared by
Thirunavukkarau Chandran
tcnt@in.com

1. SQL __________________________

2.DBMS_________________________

3.Oracle is a

i). database software

ii) data manipulation software
iii) RDBMS software
iv) none of the above

4.ALU is capable of

i) performing calculations
ii) monitoring system
iii) controlling operation
iv) storage of data

5. PASCAL is language used in

i) business
ii) commercial
iii) graphics
iv) research

6. Artificial intelligence is

i) Natural Brain
ii) Brain without capabilities of thinking
iii) understanding more than human brain
iv) Computer Program

7. Expert system is

i) computer program
ii) computer expert
iii)knowledge expert
iv) user interface

8. Computer performs calculations

i) accurately
ii) inaccurately
iii)1 million decimals
iv) 2 decimals

9.DOS is a

i) document operation system

ii)disk operation system
iii) deserted operation system
iv) dual operation system

10. Neural network is a

i) program
ii) picture
iii) voice
d) none of the above

Answers

*********
*
*
*
*
*********
*
*
*
*
*********

SMART LIBRARIANS
1.Structured Query Language
2.Database management system
3.database software
4.performing calculations
5.research
6.understanding more than human brain
 7.computer program
8.accurately
9.Disk Operating System
10.program
5. UGC Quiz -12
6. 1). Opaque paper is

a. Ultra-white paper
b.Ultra-white thin paper
c.Transparent paper
d.Non-Transparent paper

2). The Journal published in UK is

a. Library Quarterly
b.Program
c.Libri
d. Herald of Library Science

3. The best is the enemy of good

a. Drury
b.Urquart
c.Foskett
d.Shera

4. DESIDOC documentation center for

a.Indigeneous Knowledge
b.Defence Science
c.Rural Development
d. Khadi & village industries

5.Mean, median and mode are

a. Measures of deviation
b.Way of sampling
c. Measures of central tendency
d.None of the above
7. Prepared by PM Raina
8.
9. 1. ___________ is called the grandmother of search engines.
10.
11. 2. Institute of Information Scientists(IIS) and Library Association
12. UK (LA) merged in 2002 to form _________.
13.
14. 3. The term Gazette is associated with official/governmental
15. Documents and the term gazetteer is basically a ___________ .
16.
17. 4. Words with same spelling and pronunciation but different
18. Meaning is called __________ [Eg. Mercury(planet),
19. Mercury (element)].
20.
21. 5. A classification and subject index, for cataloguing and
22. arranging the books and pamphlets of a library written by
23. Melvil Dewey in 1876 is the ______ edition of DDC.
24.
25. 6. Words with different spelling and meaning but with identical
26. Pronunciations are called __________ (Eg. Birth, Berth).
27.
28. 7. The full form of DOAJ is __________________.
29.
30. 8. UDC was first published between 1904-1907 in ______
31. (language).
32.
33. 9. Dr. S. R. Ranganathan was awarded honorary D. Litt.
34. by ________(1948) and ___________(1964).
35.
36. 10. Anesthesiology is a result of ___________(mode of
37. formation of subject).
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45. Answers
46.
47. 1. VERONICA
48.
49. 2. CILIP
50.
51. 3. geographical information source
52.
53. 4. Homonyms(same name)
54.
55. 5. First
56.
57. 6. Homophones(same sound)
58.
59. 7. Directory of Open Access Journals
60.
61. 8. French
62.
 63. 9. University of Delhi(1948) and University of Pittsburgh(1964)
64.
65. 10.Distillation

UGC Quiz-14

1. Berne Convention adopted in the year

a.1911
b.1886
c.1900
d.1947

2.FID was dissolved in the year

a.2002
b.2005
c.2000
d.2003

3. ZBB was developed by

a. R.D.Stuart
b. S.R.Ranganathan
c. Peter A.Pyhrr
d. C.V. Good

4. PERT was developed by

a. The Navy's Special Projects Office

b.Booz-Allen Hamelton
c.Both (A) and (B)
d.None of the above

5.The 12 rules for relational database were given by

a.Larry Page
b.Linus Tolward
c.J. Bill Gates
d.Edgar F. Codd

UGC Quiz-15

Quiz about Encyclopedia Britannica

By N.Suresh
1.First edition of Encyclopedia Britannica Published in the year
1768-1771 of 3 Volumes.

2.Encyclopedia Britannica 9th edition was Scholar edition.

3. Encyclopedia Britannica published from

Encyclopedia Britannica in corporation America.

4.New Encyclopedia Britannica has been divided 3 parts.

5. Encyclopedia Britannica part one is Propeadia .

6. Encyclopedia Britannica part two is Micropaedia it has 10 Volumes.

7. Encyclopedia Britannica part three is Macropedia.

UGC Quiz -16

NOTE
If you are copying or posting our posts in another website you should give
link our website.

1.The Science Citation Index began publication in 1961

2.The impact factor was devised by Eugine Garfield

3. The first automated citation indexing was done by CiteSeer in 1997

4.Eugine Garfield was the founder of the Institute for Scientific Information
(ISI), which was located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

5.The h-index was suggested by Jorge E. Hirsch

6.The Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), now part of Thomson

Reuters.

7. In a given year, the impact factor of a journal is the average number of

citations received per paper published in that journal during the two
preceding years

8. The ISI Web of Knowledge indexes more than 11,000 science and social
science journals.
9.The g-index is an index for quantifying scientific productivity based on
publication record

10.The g-index was suggested in 2006 by Leo Egghe

Michael Panzer Appointed New DDC Editor in Chief

Life has been a little topsy-turvy of late in Dewey editorial land. After almost 20 years at the helm as Editor in Chief
of the DDC, Joan Mitchell retired at the end of last week. This week has seen the appointment of a new Editor in
Chief. Quoting from the press release put out by OCLC:http://lislinks.com

Michael Panzer, formerly Assistant Editor, has been named the 10th Editor-in-Chief of the Dewey Decimal
Classification (DDC) system.

Mr. Panzer . . . becomes the first DDC Editor-in-Chief from outside the United States.

Mr. Panzer joined OCLC in May 2007 as Global Product Manager of Taxonomy Services, and was appointed
Assistant Editor of the DDC in March 2009. From 2002 to 2005, he headed the technical team that translated Dewey
into German. He was the first member of a Dewey translation team to be appointed Assistant Editor.

“Michael Panzer is well known and widely respected in the worldwide Dewey and Semantic Web communities,”
said Jay Jordan, President and CEO, OCLC. “We look forward to his making the DDC ever more useful, to
paraphrase Melvil Dewey, in new and imaginative ways.”

Mr. Panzer served on the W3C Library Linked Data Incubator Group, and is currently a member of the W3C
Provenance Working Group.

Prior to joining OCLC, Mr. Panzer worked at Cologne University of Applied Sciences, where he was team leader of
CrissCross, a research project funded by the German Research Foundation focused on mapping SWD, DDC,
RAMEAU, and LCSH. He has an MA from Heinrich Heine University (Düsseldorf) in German Literature with a
minor in Information Science. He also attended the University of California, Davis, on a four-month research
UGC-NET Objective Question, Practice Set - F

51) The Press and Registration of books Act was enacted in

(A) 1847
(B) 1850
(C) 1867
(D) 1840

52) First B.Lib. Science Course was introduced in

(A) Aligarh Muslim University
(B) University of Calcutta
(C) University of Delhi
(D) University of Madras

53) J. C. M. Hanson related to

(A) Sears List of Subject Heading
(B) Library of Congress Classification System
(C) UDC
(D) Dictionary Catalogue

54) Third generation computer uses

(A) Microprocessor
(B) Transistors
(C) Integrated circuits
(D) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or electronic valves

55) Fourth generation computer uses

(A) Microprocessor
(B) Thermionic valves or vacuum tube or electronic valves
(C) Transistors
(D) Integrated circuits

56) UNIMARC was developed by

(A) UNESCO
(B) IFLA
(C) FID
(D) Library of Congress

57) Universal Copyright conventions was in

(A) 1949
(B) 1952
(C) 1971
(D) 1931

58) The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto first issued in

(A) 1949
(B) 1952
(C) 1971
(D) 1931

59) Which of the following is not a web browser?

(A) Firefox
(B) Internet Explorer
(C) Google Chrome
(D) DMOZ

60) Haines related to

(A) Ranganathan formulated his first law of library from his casual hint.
(B) Library legislation
(C) Living with book
(D) Zero Based Budget

61) Which of the following is not a Learning Management System (LMS)

(A) Moodle
(B) Claroline
(C) Drupal
(D) ATutor

62) DSpace was developed at

(A) Katipo Communications Ltd, New Zealand
(B) University of Waikato, New Zealand.
(C) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs
(D) Wikimedia Foundation

63) Melvin J. Voigt

(A) Categorized information need into current approach, everyday approach, and exhaustive
approach.
(B) Divides documentary sources of information into primary and secondary.
(C) Divides documentary sources of information into primary, secondary and tertiary.
(D) Classified documentary sources of information into Conventional, Neo Conventional, Non
Conventional and meta document.

64) GSDL was developed at

(A) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) libraries & Hewlett-Packard labs
(B) Katipo Communications Ltd, New Zealand
(C) University of Waikato, New Zealand.
(D) Wikimedia Foundation

65) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan

(A) Categorized information need into current approach, everyday approach, and exhaustive
approach.
(B) Divides documentary sources of information into primary and secondary.
(C) Divides documentary sources of information into primary, secondary and tertiary.
(D) Classified documentary sources of information into Conventional, Neo Conventional, Non
Conventional and meta document.

66) The head office of Good Offices Committee is at

(A) Kolkata
(B) New Delhi
(C) Bangalore
(D) Chennai

67) The first university to establish a full-fledged Department of Library Science

(A) University of Delhi
(B) Calcutta University
(C) Aligarh Muslim University
(D) University of Madras

68) An Invisible college is a typical example of:

(A) Informal channels of communication
(B) Formal channels of communication
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above

69) Berne convention was adopted in the year :

(A) 1911
(B) 1886
(C) 1900
(D) 1947

70) FID was dissolved in the year :

A) 2002
(B) 2005
(C) 2000
(D) 2003

71) Who had given the Minimal, Middling and Maximum theories of reference service?
(A) C. M. Winchell
(B) S. R. Ranganathan
(C) James I Wyer
(D) Samuel Rothstein

72) PERT was developed by :

(A) The Navy special project office
(B) Booz Allen Hamelton
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above
73) The term hyper text was coined by :
(A) Ted Nelson
(B) Charles Babbage
(C) Tim Berner Lee
(D) Tay Vaughan

74) The 12 rules for relational database were given by:

(A) Larvy Page
(B) Linus Tolward
(C) J. Bill Gates
(D) Edgar. F. Codd

75) Bibliographic coupling was first advocated by :

(A) B. K. Sen
(B) M. M. Kessler
(C) S. C. Bradford
(D) S. R. Ranganathan

76) Granthana is an official publication of :

(A) ILA
(B) IASLIC
(C) RRRLF
(D) APLA

77) Million Book Project was initiated by:

(A) Pittsburg University
(B) Carnegie Mellon University
(C) MIT, USA
(D) Michigan University

78) The quotation “Where is the Wisdom, We Lost in Knowledge...” is by

(A) John Keats
(B) M. P. Carter
(C) T. S. Eliot
(D) Marshall McLuhan

79) CONPOLIS (India) was set up in the year

(A) 1985
(B) 1986
(C) 1987
(D) 1988

80) First time efforts for the development of libraries in India were made
(A) S. R. Ranganathan
(B) S. Radhakrishnan
(C) Sayaji Rao Gaekwad I
(D) Sayaji Rao Gaekwad III

81) Emerald full text Database is published from

(A) USA
(B) Germany
(C) France
(D) U.K.

82) Who propounded “Conservative, moderate and liberal theories of reference service”?
(A) William A Katz
(B) S. R. Ranganathan
(C) James I. Wyer
(D) R. Emery

83) Which national agency in India is assigning the ISBN?

(A) Raja Ram Mohan Roy National Education Resource Centre
(B) Delhi Public Library
(C) Federation of Publishers in India
(D) National Library of India

84) The term ‘Cyberspace’ was first used by

(A) Andrew Pollock
(B) William Gibson
(C) John Postal
(D) Joe Flower

85) The simple Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) consists of
(A) 10 elements
(B) 15 elements
(C) 14 elements
(D) 18 elements

86) “Libraries as Gateways to Knowledge” is the title of the document of

(A) National Information Policy, 1986
(B) Information Technology Act, 2000
(C) National Knowledge Commission on Libraries, 2007
(D) None of the above

87) The Library Association (UK) is now the component of

(A) ASLIB
(B) CILIP
(C) ALA
(D) None of the above

88) Real Time Access refers to

(A) Access in advance
(B) Access after some time
(C) Access when searched for
(D) None of the above

89) Theory X and Theory Y relate to

(A) Planning
(B) Motivation
(C) Innovation
(D) None of the above

90) INSDOC has been merged with NISCOM and is now known as
(A) DELNET
(B) NISCAIR
(C) DESIDOC
(D) NASSDOC

91) ISBN consists of

(A) 6 digits
(B) 8 digits
(C) 13 digits
(D) 15 digits

92) Bibliographical coupling is related to

(A) Bibliometric studies
(B) Bibliography compilation
(C) Modes of subject formation
(D) Vocabulary control

93) ISBN changed from 10 digits to 13 from

(A) January, 2007
(B) January, 2008
(C) January, 2006
(D) January, 2005

94) IASLIC was founded in the year

(A) 1955
(B) 1965
(C) 1975
(D) 1985

95) WorldCat is maintained by

(A) Library of Congress
(B) Online Library Center
(C) American Library Association
(D) None of the above

96) Number of States in India which have enacted Public Library Legislation till date is
(A) Eighteen
(B) Fourteen
(C) Thirteen
(D) Sixteen

97) Which publication was not authored by S.R. Ranaganathan?

(A) Prolegomena to library classification
(B) Reference Service
(C) Ramanujan : The man and the Mathematician
(D) Living with Books

98) JSTOR is an online system for archiving and accessing academic journals. It is located in
(A) Germany
(B) UK
(C) USA
(D) Budapest
99) ‘Five Laws of Library Science’ was first published in
(A) 1925
(B) 1930
(C) 1931
(D) 1933

100) What is Dublin Core?

(A) Content management tool
(B) E- Library software
(C) Metadata standard
(D) Internet Protocol

ANSWER:-

51) Answer: (C)

52) Answer: (A)
53) Answer: (B)
54) Answer: (C)
55) Answer: (A)
56) Answer: (B)
57) Answer: (B)
58) Answer: (A)
59) Answer: (D)
60) Answer: (C)
61) Answer: (C)
62) Answer: (C)
63) Answer: (A)
64) Answer: (C)
65) Answer: (D)
66) Answer: (B)
67) Answer: (A)
68) Answer: (A)
69) Answer: (B)
70) Answer: (A)
71) Answer: (D)
72) Answer: (A)
73) Answer: (A)
74) Answer: (D)
75) Answer: (B)
76) Answer: (C)
77) Answer: (B)
78) Answer: (C)
79) Answer: (A)
81) Answer: (D)
82) Answer: (C)
83) Answer: (A)
84) Answer: (B)
85) Answer: (B)
86) Answer: (C)
87) Answer: (B)
88) Answer: (C)
89) Answer: (B)
90) Answer: (B)
91) Answer: (C)
92) Answer: (A)
93) Answer: (A)
94) Answer: (A)
95) Answer: (D)
96) Answer: (A)
97) Answer: (D)
98) Answer: (C)
99) Answer: (C)
100) Answer: (C)
1. Bibliophile means "book Lover"http://lislinks.com

2.EPISTEMOLOGY Means Theory of Knowledge

3. International Patent Classification is a- Name of Patent

4. CYBERNATICS Means -Study of Control

5. HISTOGRAPHY Means- Art of Writing History

6. What was Foot Note Called in the earliest time - Scholia

7. To Know the Name of Vice-Canceller of Karachi University -The world of Learning

8. University Bibliographic control is a Programme of FID (IFLA-?)

9. A Postulate is - A self evident statement about Possibility of thing

10. The title occurring in tow or more language on title page is known as- Polyglot Title

11. The name given Ranganathan for work relating to reservation of book in Issue/return section -
Bespeaking work

12. The Term "grace weeks” is used in - Periodical Section

13. Incunabula Means- The Book Printed before 1501 A.D.

14. Who is known as "Biblioclast"- A Destroyer of Book.

15. What is an Exhausted Edition - An edition has become out of Print

16. Diazo Process is used for making copies of - Micro Document

17.Size to Size Reproduction of Documents called -Facsimile

18. Redundancy of Publication means - Unnecessary and should be eliminated

19. Larges Gazetteer of the world- The time Index

20. Which Source to answer the quotation "Recent articles on Ethnic Problem in SriLanka -
Sociological Abstract

21. A subject of small extension and great intention is called- Micro Subject

Important for UGC NET Exam

1. What is the another name of canon of sought heading - canon of recall value
2. Three kind of analytical entries-Author analytical, Title analytical, Subject analytical
3. Who started the cataloging in source- Library of congress
4. White elephant is the another name of - Catalogue card
5. The term used by Ranganathan "prenatal catalogue in year 1948
6. Work of Unknown Authorship- anonymous work
7. LOCAS - one type of Cataloging service
8. According to CCC the name of an author is taken from out side the book ,then how it will be
shown in the main entry- whiten square bracket
9. A title disclosed the subject of document is - Binders Title
10. What is the indicator sign for the omission of a long title according to AACR2 - (...)
11. Books of unknown or doubtful Authorship is Known as - A Apocryphal Book
12. MUMS is a one type of MARC system
13. RAK is a cataloging code
14. Periodical are entered under which of the following according AACR 2- Title of Periodical
15. What is EMCO index- The computer produced expert medica index
16. Study of coordinate indexing- Mortimer Taube
17. The Elementary categories of POPSI- DEAPM
18. The indexing system KWOC is a revised form of -KWICK
19. LUCI is the another name of -Chain Indexing
20. What is the alternative name of "Telegraphic abstract" - Standardized abstract
21. Alternative Name of Post coordinate index- Manipulative Index
22. When an index system contains current as well as past year information then it is called -
Retrospective Index