Energies 11 01860

energies
Article
Impact of Partial Shading on the P-V Characteristics
and the Maximum Power of a Photovoltaic String
J. C. Teo 1 , Rodney H. G. Tan 1, * ID
, V. H. Mok 1 , Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy 2 ID
and
ChiaKwang Tan 3
1 Faculty of Engineering, Technology & Built Environment, UCSI University No. 1, Jalan Menara Gading,
Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia; 1001129004@student.ucsiuniversity.edu.my (J.C.T.);
jimmymok@ucsiuniversity.edu.my (V.H.M.)
2 Institute of Power Engineering, Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional,
43000 Kajang, Malaysia; vigna@uniten.edu.my
3 UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre, University of Malaya, Jalan Pantai Baharu,
Kuala Lumpur 59990, Malaysia; cktan@um.edu.my
* Correspondence: rodneyt@ucsiuniversity.edu.my; Tel.: +60-17-3078955

Received: 1 June 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 17 July 2018
Abstract: A photovoltaic system is highly susceptible to partial shading. Based on the functionality
of a photovoltaic system that relies on solar irradiance to generate electrical power, it is tacitly
assumed that the maximum power of a partially shaded photovoltaic system always decreases as
the shading heaviness increases. However, the literature has reported that this might not be the case.
The maximum power of a partially shaded photovoltaic system under a fixed configuration and
partial shading pattern can be highly insusceptible to shading heaviness when a certain critical point
is met. This paper presents an investigation of the impact of partial shading and the critical point
that reduce the susceptibility of shading heaviness. Photovoltaic string formed by series-connected
photovoltaic modules is used in this research. The investigation of the P-V characteristic curve under
different numbers of shaded modules and shading heaviness suggests that the photovoltaic string
becomes insusceptible to shading heaviness when the shaded modules irradiance reaches a certain
critical point. The critical point can vary based on the number of the shaded modules. The formulated
equation in this research contributes to determining the critical point for different photovoltaic string
sizes and numbers of shaded modules in the photovoltaic string.
Keywords: photovoltaic; partial shading; P-V characteristics; solar energy
1. Introduction
Conventional electrical power generation based on coal-fired power plants introduces carbon
emissions which cause air pollution to be released into the Earth’s atmosphere. To tackle this problem,
renewable energy is employed as an alternative mode of electrical power generation. Among the
renewable energy options, photovoltaic solar power is getting more and more popular nowadays due
to its abundantly available and inexhaustible nature [1–5]. The non-involvement of mechanical or
moving parts in a photovoltaic power system also makes it more preferable than other renewable
energy options [6]. In 2016, around 75 GW of solar photovoltaic capacity was installed worldwide,
which is almost a 50% growth from about 50 GW in 2015 [7,8]. The significant growth in photovoltaic
power systems promotes the popularity of photovoltaic power system research among renewable
energy researchers.
Photovoltaic modules or solar panels are the most fundamental components in a photovoltaic
power system which is used to convert solar energy to electrical power [9–13]. When a photovoltaic
Energies 2018, 11, 1860; doi:10.3390/en11071860 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 1860 2 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 2 of 22
module
Energiesis2018,
connected
11, x to a piece of measurement equipment, P-V characteristics will be obtained 2 of 22as
illustrated in Figure 1 [14]. The P-V characteristics demonstrate the electrical power delivered by the
illustrated in Figure 1 [14]. The P-V characteristics demonstrate the electrical power delivered by the
photovoltaic
illustratedmodule
in Figure at1different
[14]. The voltages.
P-V characteristics demonstrate the electrical power delivered by the
photovoltaic module at different voltages.
In the presence
photovoltaic moduleof the P-V characteristics,
voltages. thethe maximum power of the photovoltaic module can
In the presence ofatthe
different
P-V characteristics, maximum power of the photovoltaic module
be tracked. For
In the presenceinstance, the marked
of the P-Vthe point
characteristics, in
theFigure
maximum 1 shows of thethehighest point module
of the canP-V
can be tracked. For instance, marked point in Figure 1power
shows the photovoltaic
highest point of the P-V
characteristics,
be tracked. For which represents
instance, the maximum
the marked power
point in delivered
Figure by the
1 showsbythe photovoltaic module [15]. The
characteristics, which represents the maximum power delivered thehighest point of
photovoltaic the P-V
module [15].
maximum power of
characteristics, the represents
which photovoltaic the module
maximum is always
power harvested
delivered by from
the the photovoltaic
photovoltaic modulemodule
[15]. for
The
The maximum power of the photovoltaic module is always harvested from the photovoltaic module
electricity
maximum generation
power ofpurposes [16]. Therefore,
the photovoltaic module it
is is important
always to determine
harvested from the the P-V characteristics
photovoltaic module forof
for electricity generation purposes [16]. Therefore, it is important to determine the P-V characteristics
a photovoltaic module purposes
electricity generation so that [16].
the Therefore,
maximumitpower can be
is important tracked and
to determine harvested
the P-V from of
characteristics the
of a photovoltaic module so that the maximum power can be tracked and harvested from the
photovoltaic
a photovoltaicmodule. module so that the maximum power can be tracked and harvested from the
photovoltaic module.
Figure 1. P-V
Figure characteristics
1. P-V characteristicsofofaaphotovoltaic
module.
Figure 1. P-V characteristics of a photovoltaic module.
In aInphotovoltaic
a photovoltaic system,
system, multiple
multiplephotovoltaic
photovoltaicmodules
modules are are connected
connected in in series
series totoform
forma a
photovoltaic
photovoltaic string
string
In a photovoltaic to system,
achieve
to achieve amultiple
required
a required voltage
voltage andpower
and
photovoltaic power output.
output.
modules areToconnected
To achieve an
aneven
even
in higher
higher
series topower,
power,
form a
these
these photovoltaic
photovoltaic
photovoltaic string to strings
strings
achieve can be
cana requiredconnected
be connected
voltage in
inand parallel
parallel to form
powertooutput. a photovoltaic
form aTophotovoltaic
achieve an evenarray
array [17,18],
[17,18],
higher asas
power,
illustrated
illustrated
these in Figure
in Figure
photovoltaic 2. general,
2. In
strings In
cangeneral, more
more
be connected than
than 1000photovoltaic
in 1000
parallel photovoltaic modules are
modules
to form a photovoltaic employed
[17,18],in
employed
array asaaillustrated
in megawatt-
megawatt- in
scale
scale
Figure 2. photovoltaic
photovoltaic
In general,system system
more to to
than provide
provide
1000 megawatts
megawatts
photovoltaic ofofelectrical
modules electrical power production.
power
are employed production. These
Thesephotovoltaic
in a megawatt-scale photovoltaic
photovoltaic
modules
modules
system cannot
tocannot
provide only only
be be
megawatts connected
connected inin series
series
of electrical asasthis
power this willintroduce
will
production. introduce
Thesean an extremely high
extremely
photovoltaic highoutput
modules output voltage
voltage
cannot only
which
which
be connectedmakes
makes in it
it unfitunfit
seriesfor for grid-connected
grid-connected
as this will introduce inverters
inverters and energy
and energy
an extremely storage purposes.
storagevoltage
high output purposes.
which Therefore,
Therefore, parallel
parallel
makes it unfit for
connection
connection
grid-connected isinverters
employed,
is employed, as as well
well
and asas series
series
energy connection,
connection,
storage purposes. totoconnect
connectthese
Therefore, these photovoltaic
photovoltaic
parallel modules.
connectionmodules. Usually,
Usually,
is employed, as
multiple photovoltaic strings are formed by connecting multiple photovoltaic modules in series.
multiple photovoltaic
well as series connection, strings are formed
to connect by connecting
these photovoltaic multiple
modules. photovoltaic
Usually, modules in series.
multiple photovoltaic strings
These photovoltaic strings are then connected in parallel to form the photovoltaic array in the
These photovoltaic
are formed by connectingstrings are then
multiple connectedmodules
photovoltaic in parallel to form
in series. These thephotovoltaic
photovoltaicstrings
arrayare in then
the
megawatts scale photovoltaic plant. Similar to the photovoltaic module, the P-V characteristics of a
megawatts
connected inscale photovoltaic
parallel to form the plant. Similar to
photovoltaic thein
array photovoltaic
the megawatts module, the P-V characteristics
scale photovoltaic plant. Similar of toa
photovoltaic string/array need to be determined in order to track and harvest the maximum power
photovoltaic
the photovoltaic string/array
module, the need
P-V tocharacteristics
be determined of in order to track
a photovoltaic and harvest
string/array thetomaximum
need be determined power in
from the photovoltaic string/array.
from
orderthe photovoltaic
to track and harvest string/array.
the maximum power from the photovoltaic string/array.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Photovoltaic system: (a) Photovoltaic string; (b) Photovoltaic array.
Figure
Figure2.2.Photovoltaic
Photovoltaicsystem:
system:(a)
(a)Photovoltaic
Photovoltaicstring;
string;(b)
(b)Photovoltaic
Photovoltaicarray.
array.
During a uniform irradiance condition, the P-V characteristics of a photovoltaic string exhibit
one
During athat
peak resembles
uniform the P-Vcondition,
irradiance characteristics in Figure
the P-V 1. The peak
characteristics ofacts as the globalstring
a photovoltaic peak which
exhibit
one peak that resembles the P-V characteristics in Figure 1. The peak acts as the global peak which
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 3 of 22
During a uniform irradiance condition, the P-V characteristics of a photovoltaic string exhibit
Energies 2018, 11, x 3 of 22
one peak that resembles the P-V characteristics in Figure 1. The peak acts as the global peak which
represents
representsthe themaximum
maximumpower
powerof ofthe
thephotovoltaic
photovoltaicstring
string[19,20].
[19,20]. When
When partial
partial shading
shading takes
takes place,
place,
multiple
multiple peaks appear on the P-V characteristics due to the use of a bypass diode [21–23]. Figure
peaks appear on the P-V characteristics due to the use of a bypass diode [21–23]. Figure33
shows
showsthe theP-V
P-Vcharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofaaphotovoltaic
photovoltaicstring
stringduring
duringaapartial
partialshading
shadingcondition.
condition.The
Thehighest
highest
peak
peakisisthe
theglobal
globalpeak
peakwhich
whichrepresents
representsthe
themaximum
maximumpower powerofofthe
thephotovoltaic
photovoltaicstring,
string,while
whilethe
the
others
othersarearethe
thelocal
localpeaks
peaks[24,25].
[24,25].
Figure 3. P-V characteristics of photovoltaic string under partial shading.

Figure 3. P-V characteristics of photovoltaic string under partial shading.
Apparently,
Apparently,a aphotovoltaic
photovoltaic system
systemis highly
is highlysusceptible to partial
susceptible shading
to partial [26–39].[26–39].
shading During During
partial
shading, the maximum power of a photovoltaic system can
partial shading, the maximum power of a photovoltaic system can drop drastically, which drop drastically, which significantly
reduces the energy
significantly reduces yield of energy
the the photovoltaic
yield of system. However,system.
the photovoltaic the susceptibility
However,ofthe partial shading to of
susceptibility a
photovoltaic
partial shading systemto aisphotovoltaic
not constant.systemThe susceptibility
is not constant. of partial
The shading to a photovoltaic
susceptibility system can
of partial shading to a
be varied due to the partial shading pattern and the connection employed
photovoltaic system can be varied due to the partial shading pattern and the connection employed to connect the photovoltaic
modules
to connect in the
the photovoltaic
photovoltaic modules
system [26–29,32–38].
in the photovoltaic system [26–29,32–38].
The experimental results in [26]
The experimental results in [26] suggested suggestedthat thatunder
underanan identical
identical partial
partial shading
shading pattern,
pattern, the
the maximum power of a photovoltaic system should drop at a constant
maximum power of a photovoltaic system should drop at a constant rate as the shading heaviness rate as the shading heaviness
increases,
increases,asasillustrated
illustrated in Figure
in Figure 4a. It
4a.means
It meansthat under an identical
that under partial shading
an identical pattern, apattern,
partial shading partiallya
shaded photovoltaic system is always susceptible to the shading heaviness.
partially shaded photovoltaic system is always susceptible to the shading heaviness. This makes This makes sense as the
photovoltaic system relies on the solar irradiance to generate electrical
sense as the photovoltaic system relies on the solar irradiance to generate electrical power, and the power, and the maximum
power
maximum of a partially
power ofshaded photovoltaic
a partially system should
shaded photovoltaic be lower
system should andbelower
loweras andthelower
shading heaviness
as the shading
isheaviness
getting heavier and heavier.
is getting heavier and heavier.
However,
However, another
another phenomenon
phenomenon has has been
been observed
observed by by S. S. Silvestre
Silvestre et al. [39].
et al. [39]. S.S. Silvestre
Silvestre etet al.
al.
discovered that a partially shaded photovoltaic system is not necessarily
discovered that a partially shaded photovoltaic system is not necessarily susceptible to the shading susceptible to the
shading
heaviness.heaviness. They discovered
They discovered that the that the maximum
maximum power of power of a partially
a partially shadedshaded photovoltaic
photovoltaic system
system
decreasesdecreases as the shading
as the shading heaviness heaviness
increases,increases,
as presented as presented by the researchers
by the researchers in [26–38].inHowever,
[26–38].
However, when theheaviness
when the shading shading heaviness reachescritical
reaches a certain a certain critical
point, point, the power
the maximum maximum power
remains remains
unchanged
unchanged even if the shading heaviness is getting heavier and heavier
even if the shading heaviness is getting heavier and heavier from that critical point, as illustrated from that critical point,in
as illustrated
Figure in Figure
4b. It means 4b.partially
that the It means that the
shaded partially system
photovoltaic shadedcan photovoltaic system cantobecome
become insusceptible shading
insusceptible
heaviness when to shading
the shading heaviness whenreaches
heaviness the shading
a certain heaviness
critical reaches
point. Thisa certain
finding critical point.
is inspiring
This finding
because is inspiring
a partially shaded because a partially
photovoltaic system shaded photovoltaic
is commonly system
believed is commonly
to always believed
be susceptible to
to the
always be susceptible
shading heaviness. to the shading heaviness.
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 4 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 4 of 22
(a) (b)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Maximum
Maximumpower
powerofof a partially
a partially shaded
shaded photovoltaic
photovoltaic systemsystem
underunder
a fixedapartial
fixed partial
shadingshading
pattern
pattern
(a) (a) as suggested
as suggested by the experimental
by the experimental results
results in [26]; (b) asinsuggested
[26]; (b) by
as the
suggested by theresults
experimental experimental
in [39].
results in [39].
It is obvious that lots of research has been conducted on the impact of partial shading on the
It is obvious
photovoltaic systemthat lots of research
throughout the yearshas [26–38].
been conducted
However, onnone
the impact
of it hasofprecisely
partial shading
presented on the
the
photovoltaic system throughout the years [26–38]. However, none of
finding proposed in [39], which stated that the maximum power of a partially shaded photovoltaic it has precisely presented the
findingcan
system proposed
becomeininsusceptible
[39], which stated that the
to shading maximum
heaviness when power of a partially
the shading heavinessshaded photovoltaic
reaches a certain
system point.
critical can become insusceptible
Therefore, it is a good to area
shading heaviness
to further when the shading heaviness reaches a certain
explore.
critical
The point. Therefore,
finding it is a good
proposed by [39]area toregarding
further explore.
the critical point is definitely inspiring.
However, the experiment setup used in their research is apoint
The finding proposed by [39] regarding the critical is definitely
photovoltaic systeminspiring. However,
that consists the
of nine
experiment setup used in their research is a photovoltaic system that
photovoltaic modules only. They did not consider cases where a photovoltaic system consists of consists of nine photovoltaic
amodules
greater only.
number Theyofdid not consider
photovoltaic cases where
modules. a photovoltaic
Besides system
that, the partial consistspattern
shading of a greater number
and shading
of photovoltaic
heaviness applied modules. Besides that,are
in their experiment thelimited,
partialwhich
shading pattern andtoshading
is insufficient heaviness
really conclude applied
their in
finding.
their experiment are limited, which is insufficient to really conclude their
According to their result, the critical point can vary based on the number of shaded modules in the finding. According to their
result, the critical
photovoltaic point
system. can vary an
Therefore, based on theto
equation number of shaded
determine modules
the critical point in for
the different
photovoltaic system.
numbers of
Therefore,
shaded an equation
modules is highly to expected.
determineHowever,
the critical point
they didfornotdifferent
formulate numbers
an equationof shaded modulesthe
to determine is
highly expected. However, they did not formulate an equation to determine
critical point. Furthermore, they did not verify whether the critical point is also applicable to different the critical point.
Furthermore,
sized photovoltaictheysystems.
did not verify whether the critical point is also applicable to different sized
photovoltaic systems.
The aim of this research is to investigate the susceptibility of the shading heaviness to a partially
shaded The aim of this research
photovoltaic system and is totheinvestigate
critical pointthethat
susceptibility
decreases the of the shading heaviness
susceptibility of shadingto aheaviness
partially
shadeda photovoltaic
using photovoltaic systemsystemwith and athe criticalnumber
multiple point that decreases the
of photovoltaic susceptibility
modules and various of shading
partial
shading conditions. Besides that, an equation to calculate the critical point is formulatedvarious
heaviness using a photovoltaic system with a multiple number of photovoltaic modules and in this
partial shading conditions. Besides that, an equation to calculate the
research as well. Furthermore, the critical point equation is also verified with different sized critical point is formulated in
this researchsystems.
photovoltaic as well. Furthermore, the critical point equation is also verified with different sized
photovoltaic systems.
2. Methodology
2. Methodology
A photovoltaic string consists of 20 photovoltaic modules and is used to conduct the experiment
in thisAresearch.
photovoltaicThe string consistsmodules
photovoltaic of 20 photovoltaic
have an open modules
circuitand is used
voltage to conduct
of 21.6 V, shortthe experiment
circuit current
in this
of 7.34research.
A, idealityThe photovoltaic
factor of 1.5, and modules
series have an open
resistance of circuit
0 ohm.voltage of 21.6 V,
Temperature, T short
= 25 ◦circuit
C is usedcurrent
for
of 7.34 A, ideality factor of 1.5, and series resistance of 0 ohm. Temperature,
all the case studies in the experiment. Each photovoltaic module in the photovoltaic string has one T = 25 °C is used for all
the case
bypass diode.studies in the experiment. Each photovoltaic module in the photovoltaic string has one
bypass diode.
There are four experiment setups developed using the photovoltaic string, including 4 modules
There are four experiment
shaded, 8 modules shaded, 12 setupsmodules developed
shaded, using
and 16 themodules
photovoltaic
shaded string, including
setups, 4 modules
as illustrated in
shaded,5.8 modules shaded, 12 modules shaded, and 16 modules shaded setups, as illustrated in Figure
Figure
5.
x
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 5 of 22
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5. Experiment setups: (a) Four modules shaded setup; (b) eight modules shaded setup; (c) 12
modules shaded setup; (d) 16 modules shaded setup.
Table
Table 11shows
showsallall
thethe conditions
conditions that applied
that applied to experimental
to every every experimental setup 5.
setup in Figure inIn
Figure 5. In the
the experiment,
experiment,
the P-V characteristics of every experimental setup under all the applied conditions are determined. are
the P-V characteristics of every experimental setup under all the applied conditions
determined.
Table 1. Conditions applied to the experimental setups.
Table 1. Conditions applied to the experimental setups.
Conditions Unshaded Modules Irradiance (w/m2 ) Shaded Modules Irradiance (w/m2 )
Conditions Unshaded Modules Irradiance (w/m2) Shaded Modules Irradiance (w/m2)
Condition 1 1000 900
Condition
Condition 32 1000
1000 800
700
Condition
Condition 43 1000
1000 700
600
Condition 54
Condition 1000
1000 500
600
Condition 6
Condition 5 1000
1000 400
500
Condition
Condition 8 6 1000
1000 400
200
Condition
Condition 97 1000
1000 300
100
Condition
Condition 108 1000
1000 200
0
Condition
A 10 array that consists of
photovoltaic 1000
parallel connected photovoltaic strings0and is not used in this
research. This is because a photovoltaic system with a higher degree of parallelism is less susceptible
A photovoltaic
to partial shading [32]. array that statements
Similar consists of parallel connected in
are also suggested photovoltaic
[33–40], whichstrings and is
address thenot used
fact thatina
this
higherresearch.
degree of This is because
parallelism in aa photovoltaic
photovoltaicsystem
systemcanwith a higher
reduce degree of parallelism
the susceptibility is less
of partial shading.
susceptible to partial shading [32]. Similar statements are also suggested in [33–40],
Therefore, a photovoltaic array that consists of parallelism is not used in this research. Photovoltaic which address
the factthat
string thatis ainhigher degree
a series of parallelism
connected in a photovoltaic
configuration is used in thissystem can reduce the susceptibility of
research.
partial
Theshading.
randomTherefore, a photovoltaic
partial shading arraymultiple
patterns with that consists of parallelism
shading heaviness are is not
not used
used in this
in this
research. Photovoltaic string that is in a series connected configuration is used in this
research. These partial shading patterns occur due to an uneven cloud distribution. It is more likely to research.
The random
be experienced by partial shading
a megawatts patterns
scale with multiple
photovoltaic plant. Theshading heaviness
area of the coverage areofnot used in this
the photovoltaic
research. These partial shading patterns occur due to an uneven cloud distribution.
string is not as big as a megawatts scale photovoltaic system. Therefore, the random partial It is more likely
shading
to be experienced by a megawatts scale photovoltaic plant.
patterns with multiple shading heaviness are not considered in this research. The area of the coverage of the
photovoltaic
There is string is not as big
not a standard ruleasfora choosing
megawattsthe scale photovoltaic
photovoltaic system.
system sizeTherefore,
to conductthe therandom
partial
partial shading patterns with multiple shading heaviness are not considered
shading experiment. The size can be chosen based on the designer and researcher preferences. in this research.
Energies 2018, 11, x 6 of 22
There is not a standard rule for choosing the photovoltaic system size to conduct the partial
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 6 of 22
shading experiment. The size can be chosen based on the designer and researcher preferences. For
instance, Hiren Patel and Vivek Agarwal [26] chose photovoltaic arrays that consist of 300, 900, and
1000instance,
For photovoltaic
Hiren modules;
Patel and R. Ahmad et al. [29][26]
Vivek Agarwal chose photovoltaic
chose photovoltaicarrays that consist
arrays of 20 of
that consist and300,
25
photovoltaic
900, and 1000modules;
photovoltaic S. Silvestre
modules;et al. R.
[39] chose aet
Ahmad photovoltaic
al. [29] chosearray consisting of
photovoltaic nine photovoltaic
arrays that consist
modules, and so on. Regardless of the chosen size of the photovoltaic system,
of 20 and 25 photovoltaic modules; S. Silvestre et al. [39] chose a photovoltaic array consisting of the experimental
outcome
nine should be
photovoltaic applicable
modules, andinsocertain ways to aof
on. Regardless megawatts
the chosenscalesizephotovoltaic plant assystem,
of the photovoltaic tacitly
assumed
the among the
experimental researchers
outcome should [26–39].
be applicable in certain ways to a megawatts scale photovoltaic
A photovoltaic string model
plant as tacitly assumed among the researchersis developed[26–39].
to carry out the experiment. A solar cell block from
the SimElectronics block set is used to
A photovoltaic string model is developed to carry develop theout
photovoltaic stringA model.
the experiment. solar cellThis method
block from the of
modelling has block
SimElectronics been usedset is by J. C.
used to Teo et al.the
develop to photovoltaic
develop a photovoltaic
string model.string
Thismodel
method [11].
of They have
modelling
conducted practical measurements to validate the photovoltaic string model
has been used by J. C. Teo et al. to develop a photovoltaic string model [11]. They have conducted in their research. Hence,
it makes measurements
practical sense to use thistomethod validatetothedevelop the photovoltaic
photovoltaic string modelstring
in model for the experiment.
their research. Hence, it makes
sense to use this method to develop the photovoltaic string model for the experiment.in Equations (1)
The solar cell block is set to a five-parameter configurationm which is defined
and The
(2), where I isblock
solar cell the output current,
is set to IPH is the photo-generated
a five-parameter configurationm current,
which isIOdefined
is the diode saturation
in Equations (1)
current,
and V is theI output
(2), where voltage,
is the output RS is the
current, IPHseries
is theresistance, NS is thecurrent,
photo-generated numberI ofiscells,
the VT is the
diode junction
saturation
O
thermal V voltage, A is the idealityRfactor, k is the Boltzman constant (1.3806503 × 10−23 J/K), T is the cell
current, is the output voltage, S is the series resistance, NS is the number of cells, VT is the junction
temperature,
thermal andAq is
voltage, is the
the ideality
electronfactor,
chargek (1.6021765 × 10−19constant
is the Boltzman C). (1.3806503 × 10−23 J/K), T is the
cell temperature, and q is the electron charge (1.6021765 × 10−19 C).
 V + IRS 

I = I PH − I O exp − 1 (1)
I = IPH − IO exp 
V+ N SIR
VTS − 1  (1)
NS VT
AkT
VT = AkT (2)
VT = q (2)
q
The short circuit current, open circuit voltage, series resistance,
The short circuit current, open circuit voltage, series resistance, andand ideality
ideality factor
factor of solar
of the the solar
cell
cell block are set according to the experiment requirements. To implement the bypass
block are set according to the experiment requirements. To implement the bypass diode, the diode diode, the
diode from
block blockthe
from the Simscape
Simscape blockblock
set isset is connected
connected in antiparallel
in antiparallel with
with thethe solarcell
solar cellblock,
block,asasshown
shown
in Figure 6.
in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Solar
Figure 6. Solar cell
cell block
block with
with bypass
bypass diode.
diode.
The architecture
The architecturein in Figure
Figure 6 represents
6 represents a photovoltaic
a photovoltaic module module with diode.
with a bypass a bypass diode. The
The architecture
architecture
is duplicatedistoduplicated to 20these
20 sets, and sets, 20
andsets
these
of 20 sets of architecture
architecture are then connected
are then connected in series in
toseries
form toa
form a photovoltaic string model which consists of 20 photovoltaic modules that are required
photovoltaic string model which consists of 20 photovoltaic modules that are required for the experiment. for the
experiment.
The The string
photovoltaic photovoltaic
model isstring
mademodel
into a is made
single into known
block a singleasblock known
PV string, asas PV string,
shown as shown
in Figure 7.
in Figure 7.
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 7 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 7 of 22
Figure 7. Photovoltaic string model.

Figure 7. Photovoltaic string model.
Figure 7 shows the entire photovoltaic string model that was developed to carry out the
experiment. 7The
Figure shows the entire
PV string blockphotovoltaic
is the modelstring for the model that wasstring.
photovoltaic developed
It has to 20 carry
inputsout the
which
experiment. The PV string
control the irradiance of every block is the photovoltaic
particular model for themodule photovoltaic string. It has
in the photovoltaic 20 inputs
string. which
The Control
control
Unit block the irradiance of every particular
sets the unshaded photovoltaic
modules irradiance, module
shaded in the photovoltaic
modules irradiance, and string. The Control
number of the
Unit block sets the unshaded modules irradiance, shaded modules
shaded modules in the PV string based on the parameter in the Unshaded Irr, Shaded Irr, and Shade irradiance, and number of the
shaded
Modulemodules in the PV string based on the parameter in the Unshaded Irr, Shaded Irr, and Shade
block, respectively.
Module Duringblock, therespectively.
simulations, the Controlled Current Source block sweeps the output current of the
During the
photovoltaic simulations,
string. The Voltage theSensor
ControlledblockCurrent
measures Source block voltage
the output sweeps of thetheoutput current string.
photovoltaic of the
photovoltaic
The Product string. The Voltagethe
block multiplies Sensor
output block measures
voltage the output
and output voltage
current of theof the photovoltaic
photovoltaic string.
string to
The Product block multiplies the output voltage and output current of
obtain the output power of the photovoltaic string. The To Workspace block sends the output power the photovoltaic string to obtain
the
andoutput
outputpower voltage of of
thethe
photovoltaic
stringTheto To
theWorkspace
MATLAB (R2014a, block sends the outputNatick,
MathWorks, power MA,and
output voltage ofto
USA) workspace the photovoltaic
plot string to thecurve.
the P-V characteristics MATLAB (R2014a, MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA)
workspace
Basically,to plot
the the P-V characteristics
developed photovoltaic curve.
string model shown in Figure 7 is developed by cascading
Basically, the
and extending thedeveloped
photovoltaic photovoltaic
string model string model shown
proposed by J. C.inTeo Figure
et al.7 [11].
is developed
It is common by cascading
practice
and extending
to develop the photovoltaic
a larger string model
scale photovoltaic systemproposed
model byby J. C. Teoand
cascading et al.extending
[11]. It is the
common practice
validated small-to
develop a larger scale photovoltaic system model by cascading and
scale photovoltaic system model [26]. The larger scale model that is developed by cascading andextending the validated small-scale
photovoltaic
extending thesystem model
validated [26]. The model
small-scale larger scale
shouldmodelgivethat is developed
appropriate resultsby for
cascading
analysis and extending
purposes, as
the validated small-scale model should give appropriate results for analysis
suggested by [26,39]. The method in [26] has also been applied by another researcher [29] to conduct purposes, as suggested
by [26,39].
a partial The method
shading in [26] has also been applied by another researcher [29] to conduct a partial
experiment.
shadingTheexperiment.
experiment can be conducted using the photovoltaic string model shown in Figure 7. To
The the
conduct experiment
experiment canforbetheconducted
4 modulesusing shadedthesetup,
photovoltaic
the Unshade stringIrrmodel
block shown
is set toin1000
Figure
while 7.
To
theconduct
Shaded Module the experiment fortothe
block is set 4 modules
4. These settingsshaded
configuresetup, thethe Unshade string
photovoltaic Irr block to a is
foursetmodules
to 1000
while
shaded the Shaded
setup withModule block ismodules
the unshaded set to 4. irradiance
These settings fixedconfigure
at 1000 w/m the2.photovoltaic
The Shade Irrstring blocktoisaset
fourto
modules shaded setup with the unshaded modules irradiance fixed at 1000 w/m 2 . The Shade Irr block
900 to apply the condition 1 in Table 1 to the 4 modules shaded setup. Simulation performed under
is set to
these 900 togenerates
setting apply thethe condition 1 in Table 1 to
P-V characteristics of the
the 44modules
modulesshaded shadedsetup.
setup Simulation
under condition performed
1. To
under these setting generates the P-V characteristics of the 4 modules shaded
obtain the P-V characteristics of the 4 modules shaded setup under all the conditions in Table 1, 10 setup under condition 1.
To obtain theare
simulations P-V characteristics
performed with theof the
Shade4 modules
Irr blockshaded
set to 0,setup under
100, 200, 300,all400,
the 500,
conditions
600, 700, in800,
Tableand 1,
10
900,simulations
respectively. are performed with the Shade Irr block set to 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800,
and 900, respectively.
Similar procedures are applied to conduct the experiment for the 8 modules shaded, 12 modules
Similar
shaded, and procedures
16 modulesare applied
shaded to conduct
setup. the experiment
For instance, for the 8shaded
for the 8 modules modules shaded,
setup, 12 modules
the Unshade Irr
shaded,
block is setandto161000 modules
while shaded
the Shade setup.
ModuleFor instance,
block is set fortothe
8. 8These
modules shaded
settings setup,the
configure thephotovoltaic
Unshade Irr
block
stringistoset theto81000 whileshaded
modules the Shade Module
setup with block is set to 8.module
the unshaded These settings
irradiance configure
fixed atthe photovoltaic
1000 w/m2. To
string 2.
obtain to thetheP-V 8 characteristics
modules shaded setup
of the with theshaded
8 modules unshaded setup module
under irradiance fixed atin1000
all the conditions Table w/m
1, 10
To obtain theare
simulations P-V characteristics
performed with theof the
Shade8 modules
Irr blockshaded
set to 0,setup under
100, 200, 300,all400,
the 500,
conditions
600, 700, in800,
Tableand 1,
10
900,simulations
respectively. are performed with the Shade Irr block set to 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800,
and 900, respectively.
To conduct the experiment for the 12 modules shaded setup, the Unshade Irr block is set to 1000
while the Shade Modules block is set to 12. The simulations are performed with the Shade Irr block
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 8 of 22
while the Shade Modules block is set to 12. The simulations are performed with the Shade Irr block set
to 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, and 900, respectively, to obtain the P-V characteristics of the
12 modules shaded setup under the conditions in Table 1.
while the Shade Modules block is set to 16. The simulations are performed with the Shade Irr block set
to 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, and 900, respectively, to obtain the P-V characteristics of the
16 modules shaded setup under the conditions in Table 1. Tables 2–5 show the parameters set in the
model in Figure 7 to conduct the experiment for the 4 modules shaded, 8 modules shaded, 12 modules
shaded, and 16 modules shaded setups.
Table 2. Parameters set in the model shown in Figure 7 to conduct the experiment for the 4 modules
shaded setup.
Condition Applied to the Parameter Set in Shade Parameter Set in Unshade Parameter Set in
Experiment Setup Module Block Irr Block Shade Irr Block
Condition 1 4 1000 900
shaded setup.
shaded setup.
Condition 1 12 1000 900
Condition 2 12 1000 800
Condition 3 12 1000 700
Condition 4 12 1000 600
Condition 5 12 1000 500
Condition 6 12 1000 400
Condition 7 12 1000 300
Condition 8 12 1000 200
Condition 9 12 1000 100
Energies 2018, 11, x 9 of 22
Table 5. Parameters set in the model shown in Figure 7 to conduct the experiment for the 16 modules9 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, 1860
shaded setup.
Condition Applied to the Parameter Set in Shade Parameter Set in Parameter Set in
Experiment Setup Module Block Unshade Irr Block Shade Irr Block
shaded setup.
Condition 1 16 1000 900
Condition 2 16 1000 800
Condition
Experiment Setup3 Module Block 16 1000
Irr Block 700Block
Shade Irr
Condition 4 16 1000 600
Condition 1 16 1000 900
Condition
Condition 2 5 16 16 10001000 500
800
Condition
Condition 3 6 16 16 10001000 400
700
Condition 4 7
Condition 16 16 10001000 600
300
Condition 5 16 1000 500
Condition 8 16 1000 200
Condition 6 16 1000 400
Condition
Condition 7 9 16 16 10001000 100
300
Condition
Condition 8 10 16 16 10001000 2000
Condition 9 16 1000 100
The experiment considers lots of partial shading conditions, including lightly shaded, heavily
shaded, a small number of modules shaded, a big number of modules shaded, and lots of shading
The experiment
heaviness considers
conditions. lots of partial
These partial shadingshading conditions,
conditions including
pretty lightlyall
much cover shaded, heavily shaded,
the possible partial
a
shading conditions that might be experienced by a photovoltaic string at the site. Hence,heaviness
small number of modules shaded, a big number of modules shaded, and lots of shading the data
conditions.
collected inThese partial shading
the experiment shouldconditions pretty
be sufficient tomuch coverthe
conclude allcritical
the possible
pointspartial shading conditions
of a photovoltaic string,
that
as well as to formulate the equation to determine the critical points of a photovoltaic in
might be experienced by a photovoltaic string at the site. Hence, the data collected the experiment
string. However,
should be sufficient
more simulation to conclude
work is requiredthetocritical
conduct points of a photovoltaic
the experiment string, asa well
as it involves hugeasnumber
to formulate the
of partial
equation to determine
shading conditions. the critical points of a photovoltaic string. However, more simulation work is
required to conduct the experiment as it involves a huge number of partial shading conditions.
3. Results
3. Results
Figure 8 shows the P-V characteristics of the four modules shaded setup. Figure 8a represents
Figure 8 shows the P-V characteristics of the four modules shaded setup. Figure 8a represents the P-V
the P-V characteristics when the shaded modules irradiance is between 500 and2 900 w/m2. Figure 8b
characteristics when the shaded modules irradiance is between 500 and 900 w/m . Figure 8b illustrates
illustrates the P-V characteristics when the shaded modules irradiance is between 0 and 400 w/m2.
the P-V characteristics when the shaded modules irradiance is between 0 and 400 w/m2 . Considering the
Considering the 4 modules shaded setup in Figure 8a, the higher voltage peak of the P-V
4 modules shaded setup in Figure 8a, the higher voltage peak of the P-V characteristics is higher than the
characteristics is higher than the lower voltage peak when the shaded module irradiance is between
lower voltage peak when the shaded module irradiance is between 800 and 900 w/m2 .
800 and 900 w/m2.
(a) (b)
Figure 8.8. P-V
P-Vcharacteristics
characteristics of of
thethe 4 modules
4 modules shaded
shaded setups:
setups: (a) shaded
(a) shaded modules
modules irradiance
irradiance is
is between
between
500 500w/m
and 900 2 ; (b)
and 900 w/m modules irradiance is between 0 and 400 w/m2 . w/m2.
2; (b) shaded modules irradiance is between 0 and 400
shaded
Figure 99 shows
Figure shows the
the P-V
P-V characteristics
characteristics of
of the
the 88 modules
modules shaded
shaded setup.
setup. Figure
Figure 9a represents the
9a represents the
P-V characteristics
P-V characteristics when
when the
the shaded
shaded modules
modules irradiance
irradiance isis between
between 500
500and and900
900w/m
w/m2 .. Figure
2 9b
Figure 9b
illustrates the P-V characteristics when the shaded modules irradiance is between 0
illustrates the P-V characteristics when the shaded modules irradiance is between 0 and 400 w/m2..and 400 w/m 2
Similar situations
Similar situations are
are observed
observed inin the
the 8 modules shaded
8 modules shaded setup
setup shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 9, where the
9, where the higher
higher
voltage peak acts as the global peak when the shaded modules irradiance is above a certain
voltage peak acts as the global peak when the shaded modules irradiance is above a certain level. level. The
higher voltage peak reduces as the shaded modules irradiance decreases.
The higher voltage peak reduces as the shaded modules irradiance decreases.
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 10 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 22

Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 22
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure (a) of theof8 modules
9. P-V9.characteristics
P-V characteristics the 8 modules
shadedshaded
setups:setups: (a) shaded
(a) shaded (b)
modulesmodules irradiance
irradiance is
is between
2
(a) 2 (b)
2
between
500 and 900 9.
Figure 500
w/m and 900 w/m ; (b)
P-V ;characteristics shaded
(b) shaded modules modules irradiance
of the 8irradiance is between
modules shaded is between
0 and
setups: (a)4000 and 400 w/m
w/mmodules
shaded . 2.
irradiance is
Figure 9.500
between P-V
andcharacteristics
900 w/m2; (b) of the 8modules
shaded modulesirradiance
shaded setups: (a) 0shaded
is between modules
and 400 w/m2. irradiance is
Figure
between10 shows
500 thew/m
and 900 P-V2; characteristics of the
(b) shaded modules 12 modules
irradiance shaded
is between setup.
0 and Figure
400 w/m 2. 11 shows the P-
Figure 10 showsofthe
V characteristics theP-Vmodules
characteristics of theThe12 modules shadedthatsetup. Figurein 11the
shows the
Figure 10 shows the16P-V shaded setup.
characteristics similar situation
of the 12 modules shaded setup. isFigure
observed
11 shows 4 and
the P-
P-V characteristics
Figureshaded of the
10 shows 16 ismodules shadedof setup. The16 similar situation that shown
is11observed inP-the
8 modules
V characteristics thethe
16 P-V
of setups characteristics
also
modules observed
shaded in the
setup.the
1212
and
The modules shaded
module
similar setup.
shaded
situation is Figure
that setups
observed shows
in in 4the
theFigures
and
4 and10
V 8characteristics
modules
and 11. Theshaded
of
higherthe setups
16
voltage is also
modules
peak observed
shaded
acts as setup.
the in
The
global the 12when
similar
peak and 16 module
situation
the that
shaded is shaded irradiance
observed
modules setups
in the 4shown
andis
8 modules shaded setups is also observed in the 12 and 16 module shaded setups shown in Figures
in Figures
8
above
10 10
modules
anda11. and 11.
shaded
certain The
setupshigher
is alsovoltage
observed peak
in acts
the 12 as
and the
16 global
module peak
shadedwhen
setups
level. voltage peak acts as the global peak when the shaded modules irradiance is
The higher the shaded
shown in modules
Figures
10 andis
irradiance
above a 11. The level.
above
certain ahigher
certainvoltage
level.peak acts as the global peak when the shaded modules irradiance is
above a certain level.
(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 10. P-V characteristics of the 12 modules shaded setups: (a) shaded (b)modules irradiance is
(a) 2 (b)
between
Figure
Figure 10.500
10. P-V and
P-V 900 w/m ; (b)
characteristics
characteristics shaded
of of
the modules
modulesirradiance
1212modules
the shaded is between
shaded setups:
setups: 0shaded
and 400
(a) shaded
(a) w/m2. irradiance
modules
modules irradiance
is is
Figure 10.
500P-V
between
between 500 and 900characteristics
and 900
w/m w/m2 ; (b) of the 12
2; (b) shaded
shaded modules
modules
modules shaded is
irradiance
irradiance setups:
isbetween(a) 0shaded
between 0and
and400modules
400w/m2.
w/m 2irradiance
. is
between 500 and 900 w/m2; (b) shaded modules irradiance is between 0 and 400 w/m2.
(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 11. P-V characteristics of the 16 modules shaded setups: (a) shaded (b)modules irradiance is
(a) 2 (b)
between
Figure 11.500 and
P-V 900 w/m ; (b)of
characteristics shaded
the 16modules
modulesirradiance is between
shaded setups: 0 and 400
(a) shaded w/m2. irradiance is
modules
Figure 11. P-V
Figure
between 11. characteristics
500P-V
andcharacteristics
of the 16 16
of the
900 w/m2; (b) shaded
modules
modules
modules
shaded
shadedsetups:
irradiance setups:
is
(a) shaded
between 0shaded
modules
and 400modules
irradiance is
w/m2. irradiance is
between 500 and 2 ; (b) 2. 2 .
between 500 900
and w/m
900 w/m shaded
2; (b) shadedmodules
modulesirradiance between00and
irradiance is between and400
400w/m
w/m
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 11 of 22
Tables 6–9 are tabulated based on the data on the P-V characteristics of Figures 8–11 which show
the maximum power and maximum power delivery voltage of all the experimental setups under the
applied conditions.
Table 6. Maximum powers of the 4 modules shaded setup.
Unshaded Modules Shaded Modules Maximum Power

Maximum Power (W)
Irradiance (w/m2 ) Irradiance (w/m2 ) Delivery Voltage (V)
1000 900 2346.7 364.39
1000 800 2158.3 374.70
1000 700 1924 283.3
1000 600 1920.4 282.82
1000 500 1914.4 281.94
1000 400 1908.4 281.47
1000 300 1902.4 280.59
1000 200 1896.4 279.29
1000 100 1890.4 278.41
1000 0 1884.5 277.94

Maximum Power (W)
1000 900 2295.1 362.57
1000 800 2083.6 367.48
1000 700 1845.2 370.51
1000 600 1593 373.07
1000 500 1384 204.73
1000 400 1372.1 203.58
1000 300 1360.3 201.82
1000 200 1348.4 200.06
1000 100 1336.5 198.59
1000 0 1324.7 197.13

Maximum Power (W)
1000 900 2252.8 359.87
1000 800 2022.6 361.83
1000 700 1777.2 362.69
1000 600 1524.3 362.06
1000 500 1267.4 361.09
1000 400 1008.8 360.27
1000 300 820.40 124.11
1000 200 802.96 121.84
1000 100 785.56 119.39
1000 0 768.20 117.10
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 12 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 12 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x Table 9. Maximum

Table powers
9. Maximum of of
powers thethe
1616modules
modulesshaded
shaded setup.
setup. 12 of 22
Unshaded
Unshaded Modules
Modules Table Shaded Modules
9. Maximum
Shaded MaximumPower
powers of the 16 modules shaded setup.
Modules Maximum Power
2 ) 2)
Maximum Power (W)
2 ) 2) Maximum Power (W)
Irradiance
Irradiance (w/m
(w/m Irradiance
Irradiance (w/m
(w/m DeliveryVoltage
Delivery Voltage(V)
(V)
1000
1000 900
900 Maximum Power (W)
2216
2216 358
Irradiance (w/m2) Irradiance (w/m2) Delivery358 Voltage (V)
1000
1000 800
800 1969.8
1969.8 357.49
357.49
1000
1000
900
700
2216
1717.8
358
355.66
1000 700 1717.8 355.66
1000
1000 800
600 1969.8
1463.8 357.49
353.58
1000 600 1463.8 353.58
1000
1000 700
500 1717.8
1209.6 355.66
350.62
1000 500 1209.6 350.62
1000
1000 400
600 956.54
1463.8 346.57
353.58
1000
1000 400
300 956.54
705.80 346.57
340.97
1000 500 1209.6 350.62
1000
1000 300
200 705.80
459.07 340.97
332.66
1000 400 956.54 346.57
1000
1000 100
200 254.56
459.07 45.21
332.66
1000
1000 0300 705.80
234.97 340.97
42.80
1000 100 254.56 45.21
1000 200 459.07 332.66
1000 0 234.97 42.80
1000 100 254.56 45.21
By using the1000 maximum powers and 0 shaded modules irradiance
234.97 in Table 6, a graph such as that
42.80
By using the maximum powers and shaded modules irradiance in Table 6, a graph such as that
illustrated in Figure 12 can be plotted. It shows the relationship between the maximum powers and
the shadedBymodules
using theirradiance
maximumof the 4 modules
powers and shadedshaded
modulessetup.
irradiance in Table 6, a graph such as that
the shaded modules irradiance of the 4 modules shaded setup.
the shaded modules irradiance of the 4 modules shaded setup.
Figure
Figure 12. Maximum
12. Maximum power
power versus
versus shaded
modules irradiance (4
(4 modules
modules shaded).
shaded).
Similar Figure 12. Maximum power versus shaded modules irradiance (4 modules shaded).
procedures are applied to Tables 7–9 to obtain the relationship between the maximum
Similar
powers procedures are modules
and the shaded applied to Tables 7–9
irradiance to obtain
for the the 16
8, 12, and relationship between
modules shaded the Figure
setups. maximum 13
powers Similar
and the procedures
shaded are applied
modules to Tables
irradiance for 7–9 8,
the to 12,
obtain
and the
16 relationship
modules between
shaded the maximum
setups. Figure
shows the relationship between the shaded modules irradiance and the maximum powers for all the13
powers and the shaded modules irradiance for the 8, 12, and 16 modules shaded setups. Figure 13
showsexperimental
the relationship between the shaded modules irradiance and the maximum powers for all the
setups.
shows the relationship between the shaded modules irradiance and the maximum powers for all the
experimental setups.
experimental setups.
Figure 13. Maximum power versus shaded modules irradiance (all experiment setups).
Figure
Figure 13. Maximum
13. Maximum power
power versus
versus shaded
modules irradiance (all
(all experiment
experimentsetups).
setups).
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 13 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 13 of 22

4. Discussions
4. Discussions
Considering the 4 modules shaded setup in Figure 8a, the higher voltage peak of the P-V
Considering
characteristics the than
is higher 4 modules
the lower shaded setup
voltage peak inwhen
Figure the8a, the higher
shaded module voltage peakisofbetween
irradiance the P-V800
characteristics 2 is higher than the lower voltage peak when the shaded module
and 900 w/m . Therefore, the higher voltage peak acts as the global peak that represents the maximum irradiance is between
800 and
power of the900photovoltaic
w/m2. Therefore,
string.the
The higher
higher voltage
voltage peak
peak acts as the as
reduces global peak that
the shaded represents
modules the
irradiance
maximum power of the photovoltaic string. The higher voltage peak
decreases, as illustrated in Figure 8. When the shaded modules irradiance drops below 800 w/m2 , reduces as the shaded modules
irradiance decreases, as illustrated in Figure 8. When the shaded modules irradiance drops below 800
the higher voltage peak eventually becomes lower than the lower voltage peak. Therefore, the lower
w/m2, the higher voltage peak eventually becomes lower than the lower voltage peak. Therefore, the
voltage peak becomes the global peak that represents the maximum power of the photovoltaic string.
lower voltage peak becomes the global peak that represents the maximum power of the photovoltaic
Similar situations are observed in the 8 modules shaded setup shown in Figure 9, where the
string.
higher voltage peak acts as the global peak when the shaded modules irradiance is above a certain
Similar situations are observed in the 8 modules shaded setup shown in Figure 9, where the
level. The higher voltage peak reduces as the shaded modules irradiance decreases. When the shaded
higher voltage peak acts as the global peak when the shaded modules irradiance is above a certain
modules irradiance drops peak
below 600 w/m 2
level. The higher voltage reduces as the, the higher
shaded voltage
modules peak eventually
irradiance decreases.becomes
When thelower than
shaded
themodules
lower voltage peak. Therefore, the lower voltage peak started to acts
irradiance drops below 600 w/m , the higher voltage peak eventually becomes lower than
2 as the global peak which
represents
the lowerthe maximum
voltage peak. power of the
Therefore, thephotovoltaic
lower voltage string.
peak started to acts as the global peak which
It is observed
represents that thepower
the maximum similarofsituations that arestring.
the photovoltaic seen in the 4 and 8 modules shaded setups are
also observed in 12 and
It is observed that16the
module
similarshaded setups
situations thatshown
are seen in in
Figures 10 and
the 4 and 11. The shaded
8 modules higher voltage peak
setups are
acts as the global peak when the shaded modules irradiance is above
also observed in 12 and 16 module shaded setups shown in Figures 10 and 11. The higher voltagea certain level. When the shaded
modules
peak acts irradiance drops
as the global below
peak when a certain
the shaded level, the lower
modules voltageispeak
irradiance abovestarted
a certainto level.
acts as the global
When the
shaded
peak which modules
representsirradiance drops below
the maximum power a certain
of the level, the lower
photovoltaic voltage peak started to acts as the
string.
global peak which
Regardless represents
of the number the maximum
of shaded powerinofthe
modules thephotovoltaic
photovoltaic string,
string. the higher voltage peak
Regardless of the number of shaded modules in the
of the P-V characteristics reduces significantly as the shaded modules irradiancephotovoltaic string, the higher voltage peak
decreases. On the
of the
other P-Vthe
hand, characteristics
lower voltage reduces significantly
peak rarely changes as as
thetheshaded
shaded modules
modules irradiance
irradiance decreases.
decreases.OnThis
the is
other hand, the lower voltage peak rarely changes as the shaded modules
because the higher voltage peak of the P-V characteristics is formed by the shaded and unshaded irradiance decreases. This
is because the
photovoltaic higherin
modules voltage peak of the string.
the photovoltaic P-V characteristics
Hence, the higher is formed by thepeak
voltage shaded and unshaded
is susceptible to the
photovoltaic modules in the photovoltaic string. Hence, the higher voltage peak is susceptible to the
shading that is applied to the shaded photovoltaic modules. On the other hand, the lower voltage
shading that is applied to the shaded photovoltaic modules. On the other hand, the lower voltage
peak is formed by the unshaded modules in the photovoltaic string. Hence, the lower voltage peak is
peak is formed by the unshaded modules in the photovoltaic string. Hence, the lower voltage peak
insusceptible to the shading applied to the shaded photovoltaic modules.
is insusceptible to the shading applied to the shaded photovoltaic modules.
To apprehend this theory, consider the photovoltaic string in Figure 14. The photovoltaic string
To apprehend this theory, consider the photovoltaic string in Figure 14. The photovoltaic string
consists of four photovoltaic modules where two photovoltaic modules are unshaded and the other
consists of four photovoltaic modules where two photovoltaic modules are unshaded and the other
twotwophotovoltaic
modules are are
shaded,
shaded,as illustrated in Figure
as illustrated 14. The
in Figure 14.unshaded
The unshaded photovoltaic modules
photovoltaic
generate
modules 7.3generate
A and the 7.3 shaded
A and the photovoltaic modules modules
shaded photovoltaic generate generate
3.65 A. 3.65 A.
Figure 14.Photovoltaic
Figure14. Photovoltaic string
string consisting offour
consisting of fourphotovoltaic
photovoltaicmodules.
modules.
When the load is drawing more than 3.65 A, the shaded photovoltaic modules are bypassed by
When the load is drawing more than 3.65 A, the shaded photovoltaic modules are bypassed by
the bypass diodes. Hence, the current generated by the unshaded photovoltaic modules is directed
the bypass diodes. Hence, the current generated by the unshaded photovoltaic modules is directed
to the load without flowing through the shaded photovoltaic modules, as illustrated in Figure 15.
to the load without flowing through the shaded photovoltaic modules, as illustrated in Figure 15.
Therefore, the I-V characteristics of the photovoltaic string above 3.65 A are formed by the unshaded
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 14 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 14 of 22

Therefore,
Energies 2018,the
11, xI-V characteristics of the photovoltaic string above 3.65 A are formed by the unshaded 14 of 22
photovoltaic
photovoltaic modules only, as illustrated in Figure 16. Hence, variation in the shading heavinesson
modules only, as illustrated in Figure 16. Hence, variation in the shading heaviness on
photovoltaic
the
theshaded modules only,
shadedphotovoltaic
photovoltaic as illustrated
modules
modules does
doesnot inchange
not Figurethe
change 16.I-V
the Hence, variationat
I-Vcharacteristic
characteristic in the shading
atcurrents above
currents heaviness
above3.65 A. on
3.65A.
the shaded photovoltaic modules does not change the I-V characteristic at currents above 3.65 A.
Figure15.
Figure 15.When
Whenthe
theload
loadisisdrawing
drawingmore
morethan
than3.65
3.65A.
A.
Figure 15. When the load is drawing more than 3.65 A.
Figure 16. I-V characteristics above 3.65 A—formed by unshaded modules.

When the load is drawing less than 3.65 A, the shaded photovoltaic modules are not bypassed
When
by the the load
bypass is drawing
diodes. less
Hence, less than 3.65generated
the than
current A, the shaded
by the photovoltaic modules are modules
unshaded photovoltaic not bypassed
flow
by When
the the
bypass load
diodes.is drawing
Hence, the current3.65 A, the
generated shaded
by thephotovoltaic
unshaded modules
photovoltaic are not bypassed
modules flow
through
by the diodes.
the bypass shaded Hence,
photovoltaic modules,
the current as illustrated
generated in Figure
by the unshaded 17. Therefore,
photovoltaic modulesthe I-V
through the shaded
characteristics of the photovoltaic
photovoltaic modules,
string below as3.65
illustrated
A are in Figure
formed by the17. Therefore,
unshaded the flow
I-V
photovoltaic
through the shaded
characteristics of photovoltaic
the photovoltaicmodules,
string as illustrated
below 3.65 Ainare
Figure 17. Therefore,
formed by the the I-V characteristics
unshaded photovoltaic
modules
of and shaded
the photovoltaic photovoltaic
string below 3.65 modules,
A areasas illustrated
formed by thein Figure
unshaded 18. Hence, the I-Vmodules
photovoltaic characteristic
and
modules and
below 3.65 shaded photovoltaic
A is susceptible to as modules,
theillustrated
shading heavinessillustrated
on thein Figure
shaded 18. Hence,
photovoltaic the I-V characteristic
modules.
shaded photovoltaic modules, in Figure 18. Hence, the I-V
below 3.65 A is susceptible to the shading heaviness on the shaded photovoltaic modules.characteristic below 3.65 A is
susceptible to the shading heaviness on the shaded photovoltaic modules.
Energies 2018,
Energies 2018, 11,
11, 1860
x 15 of
15 of 22
22
Energies 2018, 11, x 15 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 15 of 22
Figure
Figure 17. When
17.When
Figure17.
the
Whenthe
load
the load
is drawing
drawingless
load is drawing
lessthan
less than3.65
than 3.65A.
3.65 A.
A.
Figure 17. When the load is drawing less than 3.65 A.
Figure 18. I-V characteristics below 3.65 A—formed by unshaded modules and shaded modules.
Figure
Figure 18.18.
I-VI-Vcharacteristics
characteristicsbelow
below3.65
3.65 A—formed
A—formed by
byunshaded
by unshadedmodules
unshaded modulesand
modules and
andshaded
shadedmodules.
shaded modules.
modules.
When the
When the I-VI-V characteristics
characteristics in in Figure
Figure 18 18 are converted
converted to to P-V
P-V characteristics, the the P-VP-V
When
When theI-VI-V
the characteristics
characteristics in in Figure
Figure 18 are 18 are
are converted
converted to P-V to P-Vcharacteristics,
characteristics, characteristics,
the P-V the P-V
characteristics
characteristics as
characteristics as illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
Figure 1919 will
will be
be obtained. ItIt shows
shows that
that the
the higher
higher voltage
voltage peakpeak of of the
characteristics
as illustrated in as illustrated
Figure 19 willin
beFigure 19 will
obtained. It be obtained.
shows obtained. It shows
that the higher that the
voltage peak higherthevoltage
ofindicated peak the
P-V characteristicsof the
P-V
P-V characteristics is actually
characteristicsisisactually formed
actuallyformed
formedby by the
by the I-V
the I-V characteristics
I-V characteristics below
below 3.65
3.65 A, as
A,A,asas
indicated by
byby the blue
thethe
blue
P-V characteristics
is actually
arrows in formed
in Figureby 19.the I-Vproves
This characteristics
that the
the higher
higher characteristics
belowvoltage
3.65 A,peak below
as indicated
of the
the P-V
P-V3.65 indicated
bycharacteristics
the blue arrows in Figure
is formed
formed blue
by 19.
arrows
arrows in Figure
Figure 19.19. This
This provesthat
proves that the higher voltage
voltage peak
peak of
of the P-Vcharacteristics
characteristics is is formed by by
This
theproves
shaded that
and the higher voltage
unshaded peak ofmodules
photovoltaic the P-V incharacteristics
the is formed
photovoltaic string. by the shaded
Hence, the and unshaded
higher voltage
the shaded and unshaded photovoltaic modules in the photovoltaic string. Hence, the higher voltage
thepeak
shaded
photovoltaic and unshaded
modules
is susceptible
susceptible tointhe
the photovoltaic
the photovoltaic
shading on themodules
the shaded in the photovoltaic
string. photovoltaic
Hence, the higher
photovoltaic modules. string.
voltage
On theHence,
peak
the otheris the higher
susceptible
hand, voltage
to the
the lower
lower
peak is to shading on shaded modules. On other hand, the
peak
shadingis
voltagesusceptible
peak
onpeak
the shaded to
is formed
formed the shading
by the on
the unshaded
photovoltaic the
unshaded
modules.shaded photovoltaic
photovoltaic
On the other modules modules.
hand, theonly, On the
as concluded
lower concluded other
voltage peak hand,
in Figure
Figure
is formed the
20. bylower
the
voltage is by photovoltaic modules only, as in 20.
voltage peak is formed by the unshaded photovoltaic
unshaded photovoltaic modules only, as concluded in Figure 20. modules only, as concluded in Figure 20.
Figure 19. I-V characteristics converted to P-V characteristics.

Figure 19. I-V characteristics converted to P-V characteristics.
Figure 19. I-V characteristics converted
Figure 19. converted to
to P-V
P-V characteristics.
characteristics.
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 16 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 16 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 16 of 22
Figure 20. Higher and lower voltage peak of the P-V characteristics.
The maximum power does not necessarily deliver at a higher voltage. For instance, for the 4
The
modules maximum power does not necessarily deliver at is
a higher voltage. For instance, for thethe4
The shaded
maximum setup in Figure
power does 8a, notthe maximum
necessarily power
deliver at adelivered at a higher
higher voltage. voltage when
For instance, for the 4
modules
shaded shaded setup in Figure 8a, the maximum power is delivered at a higher voltage when the
modulesmodules
shaded irradiance is between
8a, the800 and 900power
w/m , is asdelivered
illustratedatin Figure voltage
21. On the other
2
setup in Figure maximum a higher when the
shaded
hand, modules
the maximumirradiance
power isis between
delivered 800
at and
a lower w/m22, as
900 voltage illustrated
when the in Figure
shaded 21. On
modules the other
irradiance is
shaded modules irradiance is between 800 and 900 w/m , as illustrated in Figure 21. On the other
hand,
below the maximum power is delivered at a lower voltage when the shaded modules irradiance is
hand, or
theequal to 700power
maximum w/m , as
2 illustratedatinaFigure
is delivered 21. Similar
lower voltage whensituations
the shadedare also observed
modules in the 8is
irradiance
below
modulesor equal
shaded,to 12 w/m22, as
700modules illustrated
shaded, and in Figure
16 modules 21.shaded
Similarsetups,
situations
as are also observed
illustrated in Figures in9–11.
the 8
below or equal to 700 w/m , as illustrated in Figure 21. Similar situations are also observed in the 8
modules shaded, 12 modules shaded, and 16 modules shaded setups, as illustrated in Figures 9–11.
modules shaded, 12 modules shaded, and 16 modules shaded setups, as illustrated in Figures 9–11.
Figure 21. Delivery voltages for maximum power (4 modules shaded setup).
Figure 21. Delivery voltages for maximum power (4 modules shaded setup).
Considering Figure
the 821. Deliveryshaded
modules voltages for maximum
setup in Figurepower9, the (4 modules shaded
maximum powersetup).
is delivered at a lower
voltage
Considering the 8 modules shaded setup in Figure 9, the maximum power is point
when the shaded modules irradiance is below or equal to the critical of 500
delivered at aw/m lower.
2
Considering
Considering
voltage when thethetheshaded
16 8 modules
modules shaded
shaded
modules setup
setup in in
irradiance Figure
Figure 11,9,the
is below the maximum
or maximum
equal to the power
power is delivered
is
critical point of at500a lower
lower
w/m2.
voltage whenthethe16 shaded modules irradiance is below 2
voltage
Considering the shaded modules
modules shaded irradiance
setup inisFigure
below or or
11, equal
equal
the to the
to the
maximum critical
critical
power is point
point ofw/m
of 100
delivered 500
at aw/m
2
lower.
. Table
Considering
10
voltage thethe
showswhen 16shaded
critical
the modules forshaded
pointmodules setup inpower
the maximum
irradiance Figure
is below to11,
orthe
deliver maximum
equal atto
a lower power
voltage.
the critical is delivered
point Equation at adefines
(3)
of 100 w/m 2lower
. Table
voltage 2
10 shows the critical point for the maximum power to deliver at a lower voltage. Equation (3) defines.
the when
equation tothe shaded
determine modules
the criticalirradiance
point whichis below
is or
derived equal
from to the
Table critical
10. point of 100 w/m
Table 10 shows
the equation tothe critical point
determine for the
the critical maximum
point which power
is derived to deliver at a lower
from Table 10. voltage. Equation (3)
NumberOfShadedModules
defines the equationCriticalPo
to determine int ≤ −1000 ×
the critical point which is derived from + 900
Table 10. (3)
NumberOfShadedModules
NumberOfTotalModules
CriticalPo int ≤ −1000 × NumberO f ShadedModules + 900 (3)
CriticalPoint ≤ −1000 × NumberOfTotalModules+ 900 (3)
NumberO f Total Modules
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 17 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 17 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 17 of 22
Table 10. Critical points for the maximum power to deliver at a lower voltage.
Table
Table 10. Critical points for the maximum power to deliver at a lower voltage.
Experiment
Experiment Setup Shaded Modules
ModulesIrradiance
Irradiance (w/m 22)
ExperimentSetup
Setup Shaded
Shaded Modules Irradiance (w/m
(w/m)2)
4 Modules Shaded Less or equal to 700
ModulesShaded
4 Modules Shaded Less
Lessororequal
equal to
to 700
700
88Modules Shaded Less ororequal
equaltoto
to500
8 Modules
ModulesShaded
Shaded Less
Less or equal 500
500
12
12Modules Shaded
Modules Shaded Less oror
Less equal
equaltoto300
300
16Modules
16 Modules Shaded
Shaded Less or equal to
Less or equal to 100 100
To
To validate Equation
Equation (3), consider
consider the photovoltaic
photovoltaic string in in Figure 22. 22. The photovoltaic
photovoltaic string
Tovalidate
validate Equation(3), (3), considerthe the photovoltaicstringstring inFigure
Figure 22.The The photovoltaicstringstring
consists
consists of
ofoftwo
two photovoltaic
modules where
where one
one photovoltaic
photovoltaic module
module is
isisunshaded
unshaded and
and fixed
fixed at
atat1000
1000
consists two photovoltaic modules where one photovoltaic module unshaded and fixed 1000
w/m
w/m
2.2 Another photovoltaic module is shaded and is exposed to the irradiance of 100 to 900 w/m22.
w/m . Another photovoltaic module is shaded and is exposed to the irradiance of 100 to 900 w/m2..
2. Another photovoltaic module is shaded and is exposed to the irradiance of 100 to 900 w/m
Figures
Figures 23 and 24 show the simulation results ofof the photovoltaic string in in Figure 22.
22. The simulation
Figures23 23and
and24 24show
showthethesimulation
simulationresults
results ofthe
thephotovoltaic
photovoltaicstring string inFigure
Figure 22.TheThesimulation
simulation
results
results show that the maximum power is delivered at a lower voltage when the shaded module
resultsshow
showthat thatthethemaximum
maximumpower powerisisdelivered
deliveredatataalower
lower voltage
voltage when
when the
the shaded
shaded module
module
irradiance
irradiance is below or equal to the critical point of 400 w/m 2. The critical point obtained from the
2
irradiance is below or equal to the critical point of 400 w/m . The critical point obtained fromthe
is below or equal to the critical point of 400 w/m .
2 The critical point obtained from the
simulation
simulation results resembles the critical point determined using Equation (3). Therefore, Equation (3)
simulationresults
resultsresembles
resemblesthe thecritical
criticalpoint
pointdetermined
determinedusing usingEquation
Equation(3). (3).Therefore,
Therefore,Equation
Equation(3) (3)
derived
derived from the experiment is is validated for for different sizes
sizes of photovoltaic string. string.
derivedfromfromthe theexperiment
experiment isvalidated
validated fordifferent
different sizesofofphotovoltaic
Photovoltaic string
Figure 22. Photovoltaic string consisting of two photovoltaic modules.
Figure 22. Photovoltaic string consisting of two photovoltaic modules.
Figure 23. Simulated P-V characteristics of photovoltaic string in Figure 22—shaded module
irradiance
Figure 23. is betweenP-V
Simulated 500 characteristics
and 900 w/m2.of photovoltaic string in Figure 22—shaded module irradiance
irradiance is between 500 and 900 w/m 2.
is between 500 and 900 w/m2 .
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 18 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, x 18 of 22
Figure 24. Simulated P-V characteristics of photovoltaic string in Figure 22—shaded module irradiance
irradiance is between 0 and 400 w/m2.
is between 0 and 400 w/m2 .
Hence, Equation (3) is applicable to photovoltaic string with a small number of photovoltaic
modulesHence, (twoEquation (3) is applicable
photovoltaic modules) to and photovoltaic
photovoltaic string
string with
with a small
a big number
number of of photovoltaic
photovoltaic
modules (two photovoltaic modules) and photovoltaic
modules (20 photovoltaic modules). It shows that the critical point of large photovoltaic string with a big number of photovoltaic
string and
modules (20 photovoltaic modules). It shows that the critical
small photovoltaic string is not different in nature as they can both be determined using the same point of large photovoltaic string and
small photovoltaic string is not different in nature as they can
equation (Equation (3)). Therefore, Equation (3) should be applicable to any size of photovoltaic both be determined using the same
equation
string. It(Equation
should be(3)). Therefore,
applicable to Equation
the existing (3) photovoltaic
should be applicable plants that to any size of
consist ofphotovoltaic
a huge number string.
of
Itphotovoltaic
should be applicable to the existing photovoltaic plants that consist
modules because a megawatts scale photovoltaic plant consists of parallel connected of a huge number of photovoltaic
modules
photovoltaic because a megawatts
strings. Equation scale photovoltaic
(3) should also beplant suitableconsists of parallel
to determine theconnected
critical point photovoltaic
of every
strings. Equation (3) should also be suitable
photovoltaic string in the megawatts scale photovoltaic plant. to determine the critical point of every photovoltaic string
in theConsider
megawatts scale photovoltaic plant.
the 4 modules shaded setup in Figure 13, where the maximum power drops
Considerfrom
significantly the 4 2346.7
modules shaded
watts setup
to 1924 in Figure
watts as the 13,shaded
where the maximum
modules powerdrops
irradiance drops fromsignificantly
1000 to
from 2346.7 watts to 1924 watts as the shaded modules irradiance drops from 1000 to 700 w/m 2 . This is
700 w/m . This is an 18.65% drop in the maximum power, which is an approximately 6.22% drop for
2
an 18.65% 2
every 100 drop
w/m2in the in
drop maximum
the shaded power,
module which is an approximately
irradiance. However, the 6.22%
maximumdrop for everyrarely
power 100 w/m drops
drop
wheninthe the shaded
shaded modules
module irradiance.
irradianceHowever,
is below the maximum
or equal to 700 powerw/mrarely
2. When drops
the when
shaded themodules
shaded
modules irradiance is below or equal to 700 w/m 2 . When the shaded modules irradiance drops from
irradiance drops from 700 to 0 w/m , the maximum power drops from 1924 watts to 1890.4 watts,
2
700 to 0isw/m 2
which only,athe maximum
1.7% drop in power drops from
the maximum power.1924Itwattsis antoapproximately
1890.4 watts, which 0.24% isdrop
onlyfor a 1.7%
every drop
100
in the maximum power. It is an approximately 0.24% drop for every 100 w/m 2 drop in the shaded
w/m drop in the shaded module irradiance. These results show that the maximum power is
2
module
susceptible irradiance. These on
to the shading results show that
the shaded the maximum
modules when the power shadedismodules
susceptible to the shading
irradiance is above on the
the shaded modules when the shaded modules irradiance is
critical point determined by Equation (3). The maximum power becomes insusceptible to the shading above the critical point determined by
Equation
on the shaded(3). The maximum
modules when powerthe becomes
shaded modulesinsusceptible to the shading
irradiance is belowon orthe shaded
equal to the modules
criticalwhen point
the shaded modules
determined by Equation (3). irradiance is below or equal to the critical point determined by Equation (3).
Similar
Similar situations
situations are are observed
observed in in the
the88modules
modulesshaded, shaded, 12 12modules
modulesshaded,shaded, and and 16 16modules
modules
shaded
shaded setups. For instance, for the 16 modules shaded setup in Figure 13, the maximum power
setups. For instance, for the 16 modules shaded setup in Figure 13, the maximum power
drops
dropssignificantly
significantlyfrom from22162216watts
wattsto to254.56
254.56watts
wattsas asthe
theshaded
shadedmodulesmodulesirradiance
irradiancedrops dropsfrom from1000 1000
to 100 w/m 2 . This is equivalent to an approximately 11.1% drop in the maximum power for every
to 100 w/m . This is equivalent to an approximately 11.1% drop in the maximum power for every 100
2
100 w/m 2 drop in the shaded module irradiance. However, the maximum power rarely drops when
w/m 2 drop in the shaded module irradiance. However, the maximum power rarely drops when the
the shaded modules irradiance is less 2 , which is the critical point determined
shaded modules irradiance is less or or equal
equal to to
100100 w/mw/m 2, which is the critical point determined by
by Equation (3). When the shaded modules irradiance drops from 100 to 0 2w/m 2 , the maximum
Equation (3). When the shaded modules irradiance drops from 100 to 0 w/m , the maximum power
power
drops fromdrops254.56from watts
254.56towatts234.97 to watts,
234.97which
watts,iswhich only ais7.7% onlydrop a 7.7% drop
in the in the maximum
maximum power forpower every
for 2
100every
w/m2 100dropw/m in thedrop
shaded in the
moduleshaded moduleTherefore,
irradiance. irradiance.the Therefore,
shading on thetheshading
shadedon the shaded
modules does
modules does not necessarily cause a high impact to the maximum
not necessarily cause a high impact to the maximum power of the photovoltaic string. It depends on power of the photovoltaic string.
Itthe
depends
number on of theshaded
numbermodulesof shadedasmodules well asasthe well as the shading
shading heaviness heaviness
on theon the shaded
shaded modules. modules. The
The maximum power is very susceptible to the shading on
maximum power is very susceptible to the shading on the shaded modules when the shaded modules the shaded modules when the shaded
irradiance is above the critical point determined by Equation (3). When the shaded modules
irradiance is below or equal to the critical point, the maximum power of the photovoltaic string
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 19 of 22
modules irradiance is above the critical point determined by Equation (3). When the shaded modules
irradiance is below or equal to the critical point, the maximum power of the photovoltaic string become
insusceptible to the shading on the shaded modules. These findings address the condition when the
photovoltaic string is susceptible to shading.
The experimental results are incomparable to those of other researchers presented in [26–39].
This is because the photovoltaic configuration, photovoltaic string size, and partial shading conditions
applied in their experiments are different from this research. A similar issue is also restricting other
researchers to compare their results with different research. However, the results in this research
pretty much resemble the experimental results proposed by S. Silvestre et al. [39], which suggest that
the maximum power of a photovoltaic system becomes insusceptible to the shading on the shaded
modules when the shaded modules irradiance reaches a certain critical point.
The critical point calculation can contribute to the dynamical photovoltaic system reconfiguration
mechanism. The dynamical photovoltaic system reconfiguration mechanism is used to reconfigure
the photovoltaic modules connection in the photovoltaic system on a real time basis to tackle partial
shading [40,41]. If the critical point is known, some unnecessary reconfiguration work can be reduced
as the photovoltaic system become insusceptible to shading heaviness when the critical point is met.
Elimination of unnecessary reconfiguration could reduce the stress of the charge controller of the
energy storage. The proposed critical point calculation can contribute to the development of IEEE
and IEC photovoltaic system standards, therefore leading to policy implementation wherever the
standards are adopted. This research also provide opportunities to achieve the clean energy sustainable
development goals (SDGs). Photovoltaic system research presented in this research can contribute to
the improvement of renewable energy technology which can aid achievement of the Affordable and
Clean Energy and Climate Action goal of the SDGs.
5. Conclusions
Photovoltaic systems are highly susceptible to partial shading. The maximum power of a
photovoltaic system can reduce drastically when partial shading takes place. The susceptibility
of partial shading can vary based on the partial shading patterns, shading heaviness, and the
configuration employed in connecting all the photovoltaic modules in the photovoltaic system. Under a
fixed configuration and partial shading pattern, the maximum power of a partially shaded photovoltaic
system is tacitly assumed to decrease at a constant rate as the shading heaviness increases. This tacit
assumption is proposed based on the functionality of a photovoltaic system that relies on solar
irradiance to generate electrical power. However, some researchers discovered that the maximum
power under a fixed configuration and partial shading pattern can be highly insusceptible to shading
heaviness when a certain critical point is met. Furthermore, the critical point can vary based on
the number of shaded modules in a photovoltaic system. The novelty of this research includes the
formulation of the equation to determine the critical point that is applicable to different photovoltaic
system sizes and numbers of shaded modules in a photovoltaic system. Besides that, the equation has
been verified with different sized photovoltaic systems as well. When 20% of photovoltaic modules in
the photovoltaic system are shaded under an identical partial shading pattern, the maximum power
drops by approximately 6.22% for every 100 w/m2 drop in the shaded module irradiance as the shaded
modules irradiance lies between 1000 and 700 w/m2 . However, when the shaded modules irradiance
lies between 700 and 0 w/m2 , the maximum power drops only by 0.24% for every 100 w/m2 drop
in the shaded module irradiance. This means that the photovoltaic system becomes insusceptible to
shading heaviness as the shaded modules irradiance reaches a critical point of 700 w/m2 . Some cases
applied to 40%, 60%, and 80% of photovoltaic modules are shaded. The critical points of 40%, 60%,
and 80% photovoltaic modules shaded are 500, 300, and 100 w/m2 , respectively. The critical point
varies as the number of shaded modules changes. However, it is determinable using the equation
formulated in this research. The proposed critical point calculation can contribute to the dynamical
photovoltaic system reconfiguration mechanism. If the critical point is known, some unnecessary
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 20 of 22
reconfiguration switching can be reduced as the photovoltaic system become insusceptible to shading
heaviness when the critical point is met.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.C.T.; Methodology, J.C.T.; Software, J.C.T.; Validation, J.C.T.;
Formal Analysis, J.C.T. and R.H.G.T.; Investigation, J.C.T.; Resources, V.K.R. and C.K.T.; Data Curation, J.C.T.;
Writing-Original Draft Preparation, J.C.T.; Writing-Review & Editing, V.H.M. and R.H.G.T.; Visualization,
J.C.T.; Supervision, R.H.G.T., V.H.M., V.K.R. and C.K.T.; Project Administration, R.H.G.T. and V.H.M.;
Funding Acquisition, V.K.R. and C.K.T.
Acknowledgments: This research was funded by the Ministry of Education Malaysia under Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme, Project code FRGS/1/2015/TK07/UCSI/02/1. The publication fees was funded by the
CERVIE department of UCSI University, Malaysia.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Titri, S.; Larbes, C.; Toumi, K.Y.; Benatchba, K. A new MPPT controller based on the Ant colony optimization
algorithm for Photovoltaic systems under partial shading conditions. Appl. Soft. Comput. 2017, 58, 465–479.
[CrossRef]
2. Pandeya, A.K.; Hossain, M.S.; Tyagi, V.V.; Rahim, N.A.; Selvaraj, J.A.; Sari, A. Novel approaches and recent
developments on potential applications of phase change materials in solar energy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
2018, 82, 281–323. [CrossRef]
3. Ozoegwu, C.G.; Mgbemene, C.A.; Ozor, P.A. The status of solar energy integration and policy in Nigeria.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 70, 457–471. [CrossRef]
4. Kabir, E.; Kumar, P.; Kumar, S.; Adelodun, A.A.; Kim, K. Solar energy: Potential and future prospects.
5. Kannan, N.; Vakeesan, D. Solar energy for future world: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 62,
1092–1105. [CrossRef]
6. Bayrak, F.; Ertürk, G.; Oztop, H.F. Effects of partial shading on energy and exergy efficiencies for photovoltaic
panels. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 164, 58–69. [CrossRef]
7. Cucchiella, F.; D’Adamo, I.; Gastaldi, M. Economic analysis of a photovoltaic system: A resource for
residential households. Energies 2017, 10, 814. [CrossRef]
8. Rosa, C.B.; Rediske, G.; Rigo, P.D.; Wendt, J.F.M.; Michels, L.; Siluk, J.C.M. Development of a computational
tool for measuring organizational competitiveness in the photovoltaic power plants. Energies 2018, 11, 867.
[CrossRef]
9. Ingle, A.; Sangotra, D.I.; Chadge, R.B.; Thorat, P. Module configurations in photovoltaic system: A review.
Mater. Today Proc. 2017, 4, 12625–12629. [CrossRef]
10. Syafiq, A.; Pandey, A.K.; Adzman, N.N.; Rahim, N.A. Advances in approaches and methods for self-cleaning
of solar photovoltaic panels. Sol. Energy 2018, 162, 597–619. [CrossRef]
11. Teo, J.C.; Tan, R.H.G.; Mok, V.H.; Ramachandaramurthy, V.K.; Tan, C.K. Effects of bypass diode configurations
to the maximum power of photovoltaic module. Int. J. Smart Grids Energy 2017, 6, 225–232. [CrossRef]
12. Siecker, J.; Kusakana, K.; Numbi, B.P. A review of solar photovoltaic systems cooling technologies.
13. Hazarika, K.; Choudhury, P.K. Automatic monitoring of solar photovoltaic (SPV) module. Mater. Today Proc.
2017, 4, 12606–12609. [CrossRef]
14. Dolara, A.; Lazaroiu, G.C.; Leva, S.; Manzolini, G. Experimental investigation of partial shading scenarios on
PV (photovoltaic) modules. Energy 2013, 55, 466–475. [CrossRef]
15. Maghami, M.R.; Hizam, H.; Gomes, C.; Radzi, M.A.; Rezadad, M.I.; Hajighorbani, S. Power loss due to
soiling on solar panel: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 59, 1307–1316. [CrossRef]
16. Das, S.K.; Verma, D.; Nema, S.; Nema, R.K. Shading mitigation techniques: State-of-the-art in photovoltaic
applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 78, 369–390. [CrossRef]
17. Wang, Y.; Li, Y.; Ruan, X. High accuracy and fast speed MPPT methods for PV string under partially shaded
conditions. IEEE. Trans. Ind. Electron. 2016, 63, 235–245. [CrossRef]
18. Liu, Y.; Chen, M.; Yang, C.; Kim, K.A.; Chiu, H. High-Efficiency Isolated Photovoltaic Microinverter Using
Wide-Band Gap Switches for Standalone and Grid-Tied Applications. Energies 2018, 11, 569. [CrossRef]
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 21 of 22
19. Bouselhama, L.; Hajjia, M.; Hajji, B.; Boualia, H. A New MPPT-based ANN for Photovoltaic System under
Partial Shading Conditions. Energy Procedia 2017, 111, 924–933. [CrossRef]
20. Eldahaba, Y.E.A.; Saad, N.H.; Zekry, A. Enhancing the tracking techniques for the global maximum power
point under partial shading conditions. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 73, 1173–1183. [CrossRef]
21. Lia, G.; Jinb, Y.; Akramb, M.W.; Chen, X.; Ji, J. Application of bio-inspired algorithms in maximum power
point tracking for PV systems under partial shading conditions—A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018,
81, 840–873. [CrossRef]
22. Chaieb, H.; Sakly, A. A novel MPPT method for photovoltaic application under partial shaded conditions.
Sol. Energy 2018, 159, 291–299. [CrossRef]
23. Belhachat, F.; Larbes, C. Global maximum power point tracking based on ANFIS approach for PV array
configurations under partial shading conditions. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 77, 875–889. [CrossRef]
24. Rezka, H.; Fathy, A.; Abdelaziz, A.Y. A comparison of different global MPPT techniques based on
meta-heuristic algorithms for photovoltaic system subjected to partial shading conditions. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 2017, 74, 377–386. [CrossRef]
25. Mohapatra, A.; Nayak, B.; Das, P.; Mohanty, K.B. A review on MPPT techniques of PV system under partial
shading condition. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 80, 854–867. [CrossRef]
26. Patel, H.; Agarwal, V. MATLAB-based modeling to study the effects of partial shading on PV array
characteristics. IEEE. Trans. Energy Convers. 2008, 23, 302–310. [CrossRef]
27. Bingöl, O.; Özkaya, B. Analysis and comparison of different PV array configurations under partial shading
conditions. Sol. Energy 2018, 160, 336–343. [CrossRef]
28. Bana, S.; Saini, R.P. Experimental investigation on power output of different photovoltaic array configurations
under uniform and partial shading scenarios. Energy 2017, 127, 438–453. [CrossRef]
29. Ahmad, R.; Murtaza, A.F.; Sher, H.A.; Shami, U.T.; Olalekan, S. An analytical approach to study partial
shading effects on PV array supported by literature. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 74, 721–732. [CrossRef]
30. Teo, J.C.; Tan, R.H.G.; Mok, V.H. Investigation of shading characteristics of mono-crystalline and
poly-crystalline photovoltaic modules connected in series. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2015, 785, 220–224. [CrossRef]
31. Lua, F.; Guo, S.; Walsh, T.M.; Aberle, A.G. Improved PV module performance under partial shading
conditions. Energy Procedia 2013, 33, 248–255. [CrossRef]
32. Ramaprabha, R.; Mathur, B.L. A comprehensive review and analysis of solar photovoltaic array
configurations under partial shaded conditions. Int. J. Photoenergy. 2012, 2012. [CrossRef]
33. Tian, H.; Mancilla–David, F.; Ellis, K.; Muljadi, E.; Jenkins, P. Determination of the optimal configuration for
a photovoltaic array depending on the shading condition. Sol. Energy 2013, 95, 1–12. [CrossRef]
34. Reiter, R.D.; Michels, L.; Pinheiro, J.R.; Reiter, R.A.; Oliveira, S.V.G.; Péres, A. Comparative analysis of series
and parallel photovoltaic arrays under partial shading conditions. In Proceedings of the 10th IEEE/IAS
International Conference on Industry Applications, Fortaleza, Brazil, 5–7 November 2012.
35. Elserougi, A.A.; Abdel-Khalik, A.S.; Massoud, A.M.; Ahmed, S. A grid-connected switched PV array.
In Proceedings of the 41st Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Yokohama, Japan,
9–12 November 2015.
36. Khatoon, S.; Ibraheem; Jalil, M.F. Analysis of solar photovoltaic array under partial shading conditions for
different array configrations. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Innovative Applications
of Computational Intelligence on Power, Energy and Controls with their Impact on Humanity, Ghaziabad,
India, 28–29 November 2014.
37. Boukenoui, R.; Bradai, R.; Salhi, H.; Mellit, A. Modeling and simulation of photovoltaic strings under partial
shading conditions using Matlab/Simscape. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Clean
Electrical Power, Taormina, Italy, 16–18 June 2015.
38. Abdulazeez, M.; Iskender, I. Simulation and experimental study of shading effect on series and parallel
connected photovoltaic PV modules. In Proceedings of the 7th IEEE International Conference on Electrical
and Electronics Engineering, Bursa, Turkey, 1–4 December 2011.
39. Silvestre, S.; Boronat, A.; Chouder, A. Study of bypass diodes configuration on PV modules. Appl. Energy
2009, 86, 1632–1640. [CrossRef]
Energies 2018, 11, 1860 22 of 22
40. Carotenuto, P.L.; della Cioppa, A.; Marcelli, A.; Spagnuolo, G. An evolutionary approach to the dynamical
reconfiguration of photovoltaic fields. Neurocomputing 2015, 170, 393–405. [CrossRef]
41. Sanseverino, E.R.; Ngoc, T.N.; Cardinale, M.; Vigni, V.L.; Musso, D.; Romano, P.; Viola, F. Dynamic
programming and Munkres algorithm for optimal photovoltaic arrays reconfiguration. Sol. Energy 2015, 122,
347–358. [CrossRef]
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Energies 11 01860

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energies 11 01860

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

energies

Keywords: photovoltaic; partial shading; P-V characteristics; solar energy

Energies 2018, 11, 1860; doi:10.3390/en11071860 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, x 2 of 22

Figure 3. P-V characteristics of photovoltaic string under partial shading.

Figure 7. Photovoltaic string model.

Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 22

Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 22

Table 6. Maximum powers of the 4 modules shaded setup.

Unshaded Modules Shaded Modules Maximum Power

Table 7. Maximum powers of the 8 modules shaded setup.

Unshaded Modules Shaded Modules Maximum Power

Table 8. Maximum powers of the 12 modules shaded setup.

Unshaded Modules Shaded Modules Maximum Power

Energies 2018, 11, x Table 9. Maximum

Energies 2018, 11, x 13 of 22

Energies 2018, 11, x 14 of 22

Figure 16. I-V characteristics above 3.65 A—formed by unshaded modules.

Figure 19. I-V characteristics converted to P-V characteristics.

You might also like