Separation III

Chapter 2: Drying
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DR LIM MEE WEI
(LIMMEEWEI@SEGI.EDU.MY)

1
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to understand the
following terms and conduct the calculations for:
 Drying principles and method
 Describe the type of dryers
 Freeze drying
 Equilibrium moisture content
 Rate of drying curves
 Calculation methods for constant rate and falling rate methods
 Combined conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer in constant-rate
period
 Various types of dryers

2
 Drying principles
What is drying?
Removal small amount of water/other liquid from solid
material by air.
[Solids point of view]

Output: Solids becomes dry (reduced water/liquid

concentration)

3
Drying/Evaporation?
What is the difference between DRYING &
EVAPORATION?

“Evaporation is the removal of relatively large amounts of water from

material, water is removed as vapor at its boiling point”
“Drying removes water as vapor by air”

4
Applications of drying
 Final processing step before packaging  Ease of handling:
 Dried salt : 0.5 wt% of water
 Coal : 4 wt% of water
 Food products : 5 wt% of water

 Preservation technique in biological industries (i.e. food,

pharmaceutical, enzyme, etc)
 At water concentration < 10 wt%, microorganisms that cause food
spoilage and decay cannot grow and multiply
 Enzymes that causes chemical changes in biological materials could not
function without water
 Typically at water concentration < 5 wt%, flavor and nutrition are
preserved

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DRYING METHODS &
EQUIPMENTS

6
Methods of drying
MECHANICAL METHOD THERMAL METHOD

Mechanical dryers are used to Process for the dehydration of

remove water from wet grains moist products based on moisture
evaporation by heating
Various methods:
Various methods:
 Presses
 Direct dryer
 Centrifuging
 Flash dryer
 Fluidized bed

Methods of drying is dependent on operation type, capital cost and

operating cost!

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Methods of Drying
 Drying process could be classified as:
 Batch: Material is inserted into the drying equipment for a
known period of time, t. After t, the dried material is removed
and fresh material is added again.
 Continuous: Material is continuously added, and dry material is
continuously removed

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Methods of Drying
 Can be categorized based on physical condition used to
add heat and remove water vapor:
 Air drying: Direct contact with heated air at atmospheric
pressure. Water vapor formed is removed by air
 Vacuum drying: Evaporation of water under low pressures. Heat
may be added indirectly by contact with a metal wall or by
radiation
 Freeze drying: Water is sublimed (changes from solid to vapor
when heated) from frozen material

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Types of Drying Equipment
A. Tray Dryer
- Steam-heated air is recirculated
by a fan over the trays
- Electrical heat could also be
used
- After drying, cabinet is opened
and trays are replaced with new
batch of trays

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Types of Drying Equipment
B. Vacuum-Shelf Indirect Dryer
- Indirectly heated batch dryers
- Similar concept with trayer
dryers
- Operated under vacuum
- Used to dry expensive or
temperature-sensitive or easily
oxidizable materials
- Useful for handling materials
with toxic or valuable solvents

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Types of Drying Equipment
C. Continuous Tunnel Dryer
- Batch truck or tray compartments operated in series
- Solids are placed on trays or trucks that are moving continuously
through a tunnel with hot gases passing over surface of tray. Hot air
flow can be countercurrent, concurrent or combination
- Used in food industry

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Types of Drying Equipment
D. Rotary Dryers
- Hollow cylinder which is rotated and slightly inclined towards outlet
- Direct contact with gases with countercurrent flow

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Types of Drying Equipment
E. Drum Dryers
- Consists of heated metal roll on the outside, whereby a thin layer of
liquid or slurry is evaporated to dryness
- Final dry solids is scraped off the roll, which is revolving slowly
- Suitable for handling slurries or pastes of solids in fine suspensions
for solutions

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Types of Drying Equipment
F. Spray Dryers
- Liquid or slurry solution is sprayed
into a hot gas stream in the form of
mist droplets
- Water is rapidly vaporized from the
droplets
- Flow of liquid, and gas may be
countercurrent, concurrent or both
- Usually used for dry milk powder

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FREEZE DRYING

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Concept

  Drying without subjected to heat  Suitable for foodstuff,
pharmaceutical and biological materials which could not be heated
 Item is dried by exposure (dehydrated) to cold air at -10 oC (low
temperature process)
 In freeze drying, water is removed as vapor by sublimation from the
frozen material in a vacuum chamber (2000 m Hg)
 After moisture sublimes to vapor, it is removed by mechanical
vacuum pump or steam jet ejectors
 Freeze drying is able to produce a high quality product:
 Retain structural rigidity, maintain porosity & form
 Little loss of flavor and aroma

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Phase Diagram (Water)

Liquid
Freeze Drying
• Ice heated at
constant pressure
• As the line crosses
A-F, ice sublimes
Solid (vaporizes) directly
Gas to vapor

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Freeze Drying Process
 Place the material to be preserved onto the shelves when it is still unfrozen.
 The machine runs the compressors to lower the temperature in the
chamber. The material is frozen solid, which separates the water from
everything around it, on a molecular level, even though the water is still
present.
 Next, the machine turns on the vacuum pump to force air out of the
chamber, lowering the atmospheric pressure below .06 ATM.
 The heating units apply a small amount of heat to the shelves, causing the
ice to change phase. Since the pressure is so low, the ice turns directly into
water vapor.
 The water vapor flows out of the freeze-drying chamber, past the freezing
coil. The water vapor condenses onto the freezing coil in solid ice form.

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Advantages & disadvantages
Advantages of freeze drying:
 Minimize degrading reactions
 Prevent microorganism growth

Disadvantages of freeze drying:

 Slow process
 Usage of vacuum at low temperatures are costly

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Application

A freeze-dried meal of spaghetti and meatballs, designed for

campers/NASA space missions, etc: On the left is the dried version; on
the right is the rehydrated version.

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Freeze Drying Equipment

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EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE
CONTENT

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Equilibrium Moisture Content
What happens when a wet solid is brought into contact with air?

Scenario 1: Material contains more moisture than air

Material will dry by desorption (release water)

Scenario 2: Material contains less moisture than air air

Material will absorb moisture by absorption

UNTIL EQUILIBRIUM IS ATTAINED

equilibrium relationship = equilibrium moisture content

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Equilibrium Moisture Content
 Take for example a wet solid containing moisture is brought into
contact with stream of air
 Large excess of air is used, conditions (Humidity, H and
temperature) are constant
 After exposure to the solid sufficient long for equilibrium to be
reached, solids will attain a definite moisture content. This point is
known as:

EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT

Under specific humidity and temperature of air

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Equilibrium Moisture Content
EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT
 Water in solid cannot be removed by air due to air humidity
 Water of substance when at equilibrium with partial vapor pressure

UNIT = kg water/kg bone dry solid (dry basis)

= kg moisture/kg wet substance (wet basis)
= kg H2O/100 kg dry solid

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Equilibrium Moisture Content
EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE
CONTENT
 Abbreviation : EMC
 Symbol : X*
 Correlates water content
with relative humidity

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Equilibrium Moisture Content

EMC Values

Bound and Free and

Type of Effect of
Unbound Equilibrium
material temperature
Water in Solids Moisture

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 EMC – Type of Material
 At high relative humidities
 EMC increases very rapidly
Equilibrium water content (kgH20/ 100 kg dry solid)

with increasing relative

humidities

 At low relative humidities

 EMC is greatest for food
material high in protein, starch
and HMW polymers
 EMC is lower for food
materials high in soluble solids

Relative Humidity (%) 29

EMC – Effect of temperature
 EMC reduces with increase in temperature
 Take for example raw cotton at a relative humidity of
50%
 EMC@37.8C = 7.3 kg H2O/100 kg dry solid at 37.8 oC
 EMC@93.3C = 5.3 kg H2O/100 kg dry solid at 93.3 oC
 Reduction in EMC of 25%

 For moderate temperature ranges, EMC is assumed to be

constant when experimental data are not available at
different temperatures

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EMC – Bound and Unbounded
Water in Solids
Bound water
 Material moisture content that continues with the 100% humidity line
 Retains water content in such a way that it exert a vapor pressure as
high as ordinary water the same temperature

Unbound water
 Excess moisture content
 Holds primarily in the voids of the solids

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EMC – Bound and Unbounded
Water in Solids
Example: Consider curve 2 for
wool. At 100% RH, the EMC is
27 kg H2O/100kg dry air.
 Any samples of wool contains less
than 27 kg H2O/100kg dry air
contains only bound water
 If the wool sample contains 30 kg
H2O/100kg dry air, 27 kg H2O is
bounded water, while the 3 kg of
water is unbounded water

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EMC – Free and Equilibrium
Moisture of Substance
 X* = Equilibrium moisture (water) content, EMC
 XT = Total water content of the solids

Free moisture content (water) = XT – X*

Free moisture content

 Moisture level above the equilibrium moisture content
 Moisture that can be removed by drying under the given
percent relative humidity
 E.g. Silk has an EMC value of 8.5 kg H2O/100 kg dry material at
50% RH, 25 oC
 If a sample contains 10 kg H2O/100 kg dry material, only 1.5 kg
of H2O/100 kg dry material is able to be removed via drying

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EMC – Free and Equilibrium
Moisture of Substance
 Only free moisture can be removed from air of given temperature
and humidity. It may include both bound and unbound

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RATE OF DRYING CURVES

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Introduction
 In the drying process, we are normally interested in:
 Estimating the dryer size (design engineer)
 Various operating conditions such as air humidity, temperature
and time required for drying (process engineer)

 EMC could not be predicted, and could only be

determined experimentally
 The data would be used to determine the rate of drying
curves

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 Experimental determination of rate
of drying
Sample (solid) is placed on tray

Use a weighing balance to measure the loss in weight of moisture during

drying at different intervals without interrupting the operation.

Data obtained are normally W total weight of the wet solid (dry solid plus
moisture) at different times, t hours in the drying period

Constant drying condition : Velocity, humidity, temperature and

direction of air are constant

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Conversion of data to rate-of-
drying curve
1. Recalculate the data
Weight of wet
solid plus dry W  WS kg total water
solid Xt 
WS kg dry solid
Moisture content
Weight of dry solid

2. Calculate the free moisture content

Equilibrium
X  Xt  X 
moisture
content

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Conversion of data to rate-of-
drying curve
3. Plot graph of free moisture content, X versus time, t in hours

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 Conversion of data to rate-of-
drying curve
4. RATE OF DRYING CURVE: Plot slopes of tangent to obtain dX/dt at
given values of t

kg of dry solid
used
LS dX
R
A dt
drying rate in Exposed surface
kg H2O/h m2 area for drying in
m2.

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 Analysis of rate-of-
drying curve
Point A-B
 At t = 0, initial free moisture
content is shown at Point A
 Assume that the solid is at a colder
temperature from the air
temperature
 Rate of evaporation increases
 At Point B, surface temperature
rises to equilibrium value
Point A’-B
 If the solid is hot at t=0,
evaporation rate will reduce

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Analysis of rate-of-
drying curve
Point B-C
 Rate of drying curve is
straight. Slope and rate are
constant in this period.
 This is known as constant-
rate-of-drying period

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Analysis of rate-of-
drying curve
Point C-D
 Drying rate starts to
decrease.
 This is known as falling-
rate-period
 In the first falling-rate-
period, line CD is usually
linear

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Analysis of rate-of-
drying curve
Point D-E
 Rate of drying falls even more
rapidly
 At Point E, XT = X* (EMC)
 Point E:
X = XT – X*
X = X* - X*
X=0

 In some materials being dried,

the region CD may be missing
completely, or it may constitute
all of the falling-rate period

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Drying Curve Characteristic
Major
portions of
Drying-Rate
Curve

Constant-Rate Falling-Rate
Period Period

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Drying in Constant-Rate
Period
 Surface of the solid is initially very wet
 Continuous film of water exists on drying surface, water is entirely
unbound water
 Non porous solid: Rate of evaporation under the given air
conditions are independent of free solid, and is the same as the rate
from a free liquid surface
 Porous solid: Most of the water is supplied from interior of solid

Continuous film
of water

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 Drying in Falling-Rate Period
Line C-D (First falling-rate period)
 At Point C, it is known as critical free moisture content, XC.
 At this point, there is insufficient water on the surface to maintain a
continuous film of water
 Surface is no longer wetted, and the wetted area continually decreases until
the surface is completely dry (Point D)
Line D-E (Second falling-rate period)
 Evaporation of water from solids. Heat for the evaporation is transferred
through the solid to the zone of vaporization. Vaporized water moves
through the solid into the air stream
 Amount of moisture removed in the falling-rate period may be relatively
small, but the time required is long.
Drying in Falling-Rate Period

Critical free
moisture
content, XC.
Drying in Falling-Rate Period

Falling-Rate
Period:
9 hrs
(0.19  0 kg
H2O/100kg solids)

Constant-
Rate Period:
3 hrs
(0.40  0.19 kg
H2O/100kg
solids)
MOISTURE MOVEMENT
IN SOLIDS DURING
DRYING IN FALLING
RATE PERIOD

50
Moisture Movements in Solids
When drying occurs by evaporation of moisture from the exposed surface
of the solids, moisture must move from the depths of the solids to the
surface.

Moisture movement
to draw the moisture
from the solids to the
surface

There are 2 theories to explain the moisture movement:

51
Moisture Movements in Solids
THEORY 1: LIQUID DIFFUSION THEORY
 Diffusion of liquid moisture occurs when there is a concentration
difference between the depths of solids and surface
 Normally found in non porous solids

Typical drying-rate curve for diffusion-

controlled falling-rate period

52
Moisture Movements in Solids
THEORY 2: CAPILLARY MOVEMENT IN POROUS SOLIDS
 Unbound and free moisture moves through the capillaries and voids
of the solids by capillary action
 This mechanism involves surface tension
 Normally found in granular and porous solids

Typical drying-rate curve for capillary-

controlled falling-rate period

53
Moisture Movements in Solids
EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE
 A solid may shrink when the moisture is being removed
 Commonly affects colloidal and fibrous materials
 May develop a hard layer on the surface, which resists the flow of
liquid and moisture  known as case hardening
 May also cause the material to warp and change its structure

54
CALCULATION FOR
CONSTANT-RATE DRYING
PERIOD

55
Method 1: Experimental
Drying Curve
Drying Time Using Drying Curve
 Given : free moisture content, X1 and X2
 Find : Drying time
 Solution : From drying curve, X1  t1 and X2  t2
Hence drying time = t2 – t1

56
 Tutorial 3, Question 1
A solid whose drying curve is represented in Figure 1 is to be dried from a
free moisture content, X1 = 0.38 kg H2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.25 kg H2O/kg
dry solid. Estimate the time required using the drying curve below.

X1

X2

t1 t2

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Method 1: Experimental
Drying Curve
Drying Time Using Rate-Drying Curve
 LS dX
 Drying Rate, R or RC (rate constant) = R
A dt
 Drying time for constant-rate period:

t 2 t Ls X1 dX
t   dt  
t1  0 A X2 R
Ls
t  X1  X 2 
ARC

58
 Tutorial 3, Question 2
A solid whose rate of drying curve is represented in Figure 2 is to be dried
from a free moisture content, X1 = 0.38 kg H2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.25 kg
H2O/kg dry solid. Estimate the time required using the rate of drying curve
below. Assume Ls/A = 21.5.

RC

59
Method 2: Predicted Transfer
Coefficients

What happens when there are none of the following graphs

are given: drying curves or rate of drying curve?

Utilize the predicted transfer coefficients method of

calculation!

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 Convective heat
Mass
transfer
transfer

Rate of heat transfer from gas to surface: q  h(T  TW ) A

Mass flux of water vapor M
N A  k y ( yw  y)  k y B ( H w  H )
from the surface: MA
Neglecting the small sensible heat changes,
heat required to vaporize NA kg mol/m2.s is q = MANAWA

q h(T  TW )
Combining eqns. RC    k y M B (HW  H )
AW W
Drying time for constant rate drying (in terms of transfer coefficients)
LS W ( X 1  X 2 ) LS ( X 1  X 2 )
t 
Ah(Tg  TW ) Ak y M air ( H W  H )
61

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Method 2: Predicted Transfer
Coefficients
Air is flowing parallel to drying surface
G, mass velocity = (velocity x air density) kg/h m2

h = 0.0204 G0.8

Air is flowing perpendicular to drying surface

G, mass velocity = (velocity x air density) kg/h m2
h = 1.17 G0.37

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Tutorial 3, Question 4
An insoluble wet granular material is dried in a pan 0.457 x
0.457 m and 25.4 mm deep. The material is 25.4 mm deep
in the pan, and the sides and bottom can be considered to
be insulated. Heat transfer is by convection from an air
stream flowing parallel to the surface at a velocity of 6.1
m/s. The air is at 65.6 oC and has a humidity of 0.010 kg
H2O/kg dry air. Estimate the rate of evaporation for the
constant-rate period.

63
Tutorial 3, Question 4
Given: A = 0.457 x 0.457 m
Deep = 25.4 mm deep
Insulated = adiabatic
velocity = 6.1 m/s
T = 65.6 oC
H = 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air
Find: rate of drying for the constant-rate period

64
Effect of Process Variables
 Effect of Air velocity: Rc  h, G0.8
 Effect of gas humidity & gas temperature:
T  Tw 2 H w2  H 2
Rc 2  Rc1  Rc1
T  Tw1 H w1  H1

 Effect of gas temperature:

T2  Tw 2 H w2  H 2
Rc 2  Rc1  Rc1
T1  Tw1 H w1  H1

 Effect of solid thickness: t  thickness x1

70
CALCULATION FOR
FALLING-RATE DRYING
PERIOD

71
Numerical Integration
The rate of drying is not constant, but decreases when the drying proceeds
past the critical free moisture content, XC.
The drying time for any region between X1 and X2 is given as the following:

LS X1 dX
t
A X 2 R
1. Integrate by plotting 1/R versus X
2. Determine the area under curve, using GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION or
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION (spreadsheet)

72
Tutorial 3, Question 7
A batch of wet solid whose drying-rate curve is represented by the
figure below is to be dried from a free moisture content of X1 = 0.38 kg
H2O/kg dry solid to X2­= 0.04 kg H2O/kg dry solid. The weight of the dry
solid is LS = 399 kg dry solid and A = 18.58 m2 of top drying surface.
Calculate the time for drying. Note that LS/A = 21.5 kg/m2.

73
COMBINED CONVECTION,
RADIATION AND CONDUCTION
HEAT TRANSFER IN CONSTANT-
RATE PERIOD

74
Combined convection, radiation
and conduction heat transfer
 Convection  Heat transfer from air to the drying surface
 Radiation  Enclosure surface radiates heat to the drying solids
 Conduction  Heat transfer from metal tray (where solids are
resting on) to the bottom of the solids

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 Convection-Radiation-
Conduction Heat Transfer
The total rate of heat transfer to the drying surface is:
q  qC  qR  q K
Convective heat
transfer Radiation heat transfer Conduction heat transfer
T R TS
T  TS q K  U K  T  TS  A
qC  hC  T  TS  A qR  hR  TR  TS  A
1
UK
 TR  K    TS  K  
4 4
1 hC  z M k M  z S k S
   
hR    5.676  
100   100 
TR  K   TS  K  76

76
Convection-Radiation-
Conduction Heat Transfer
Rate of mass transfer MB
NA  ky  HS  H 
MA

The amount of heat needed to vaporize NA kg mols/s m2 water is

q  M A N A W A

The drying rate:

RC 
q

 hC  U K  T  TS   hR  TR  TS 
A S S
 kyM B  HS  H 

77
Convection-Radiation-
Conduction Heat Transfer
• Rearrange the equation
H  H  S  U K
S
 1 
 h
 T  TS   R  TR  TS 
hC k y M B  hC  hC

hC k y M B  cS  1.005  1.88H 103 J/kg K

78
Tutorial 4, Q1
An insoluble granular material wet with water is being dried in a pan
0.457 X 0.457 m and 25.4 mm deep. The material is 25.4 mm deep in
the metal pan, which has a bottom thickness of zm = 0.610 mm having a
thermal conductivity kM = 43.3 W/m K. The thermal conductivity of the
solid can be assumed as ks = 0.865 W/m K. Heat transfer is by
convection from an air stream flowing parallel to the top drying surface
and the bottom metal surface at a velocity of 6.1 m/s and having a
temperature of 65.6C and humidity H = 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air. The
top surface also receives direct radiation from the steam-heated pipes
whose surface temperature TR = 93.3C. The emissivity of the solid is  =
0.92. Estimate the rate of drying for the constant-rate period.

79
EQUATIONS FOR
VARIOUS TYPES OF
DRYERS

80
Various Types of Dryers

Various Types of
Dryers

Through
Tray Drying with Continuous Dryer Continuous
Circulation
Varying Air (Heat & Mass Counter Current
Drying in Packed
Conditions Balance) Drying
Bed

81
Various Types of Dryers

Various Types of
Dryers

Through
Tray Drying with Continuous Dryer Continuous
Circulation
Varying Air (Heat & Mass Counter Current
Drying in Packed
Conditions Balance) Drying
Bed

82
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Tutorial 4, Q2
A granular paste material is extruded into cylinders with a diameter of
6.35 mm and length of 25.4 mm. The initial total moisture content Xt1 =
1.0 kg H2O/kg dry solid and the equilibrium mixture is X* = 0.01. The
density of the dry solid is 1602 kg/m3. The cylinders are packed on a
screen to depth of x1 = 50.88. The bulk density of the dry solid in the
bed is s = 641 kg/m3. The inlet air has a humidity H1 = 0.04 kg H2O/kg
dry air and a temperature T1 = 121.1C. The gas superficial velocity is
0.811 m/s and the gas passes through the bed. The total critical
moisture content is XtC = 0.50. Calculate the total time to dry the solids
to Xt = 0.10 kg H2O/kg dry solid.
Indicates Packed Bed Systems  Through-Circulation Drying
in Packed Bed

90
Various Types of Dryers

Various Types of
Dryers

Through
Tray Drying with Continuous Dryer Continuous
Circulation
Varying Air (Heat & Mass Counter Current
Drying in Packed
Conditions Balance) Drying
Bed

91
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Various Types of Dryers

Various Types of
Dryers

Through
Tray Drying with Continuous Dryer Continuous
Circulation
Varying Air (Heat & Mass Counter Current
Drying in Packed
Conditions Balance) Drying
Bed

94
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Tutorial 4, Q4
A continuous countercurrent dryer is being used to dry 453.6 kg dry
solid/h containing 0.04 kg total moisture/kg dry solid to a value of 0.002
kg total moisture/kg dry solid. The granular solid enters at 26.7C and is
to be discharged at 62.8C. The dry solid has a heat capacity of 1.456
kJ/kg K, which is assumed constant. Heating air enters at 93.3C, having
a humidity of 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air, and is to leave at 37.8C.
Calculate the air flowrate and the outlet humidity, assuming no heat
losses in the dryer.

Indicates that this is a continuous countercurrent dryer

97
Various Types of Dryers

Various Types of
Dryers

Through
Tray Drying with Continuous Dryer Continuous
Circulation
Varying Air (Heat & Mass Counter Current
Drying in Packed
Conditions Balance) Drying
Bed

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Learning Checklist
 Able to explain and critically review the drying principles, methods and
equipment
 Understand and discuss the concept of freeze drying
 Understand the equilibrium moisture content principle: EMC, X*, X T and X
 Describe the drying rate curve and process for constant-rate and falling-rate
period
 Convert experimental data to rate of drying data
 Perform calculations for constant rate and falling rate drying period
 Perform calculations for combined convection, radiation and conduction
heat transfer in constant rate period
 Identify and apply equations for various types of dryers

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References
Books :
1. Geankoplis C. J., Transport Processes and Separation Process
Principles, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2003.
2. McCabe W. M., Smith J. C. and Harriott P., Unit Operations of
Chemical Engineering, 7th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2005.

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