CHAPTER 

26

Applicability of stable isotope analysis

to the Colombian human
identification crisis
Daniel Castellanos Gutiérrez1,2, Elizabeth A. DiGangi1 and
Jonathan D. Bethard2
 Department of Anthropology, State University of New York at Binghamton, New York, USA
1

 Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, USA

2

26.1 Introduction

Methods used to establish identification when visual recognition is impossible

include comparisons of ante‐mortem medical or dental records to post‐mortem
radiographs or skeletal findings, fingerprints when some soft tissue remains, and
DNA testing. These methods depend in part on the available ante‐mortem data,
and in the case of DNA comparisons, samples from closely‐related kin of the
deceased are required. However, these approaches require that identity of the
decedent is presumed and that comparative samples exist, either in the form of
ante‐mortem records or samples from biological relatives. In many contexts,
including mass disasters, sociopolitical violence and forced disappearance, the
population of missing people is open, meaning that a full accounting of the actual
numbers and names of the missing is unknown. In such situations, approaches
that can narrow the pool of potential matches are crucial in terms of guiding the
identification process, especially when ante‐mortem data are not available or
scarce. In the case of forensic anthropology, the typical approach used for this
purpose involves construction of the biological profile, namely age‐at‐death, sex,
ancestry, and stature estimation (e.g. Komar and Buikstra, 2008).
The analysis and interpretation of isotopic ratios has also proven useful in var-
ious fields of the forensic sciences (e.g. Gentile et al., 2015) and is becoming more
common in forensic anthropological contexts (e.g. Regan, 2006; Juarez, 2008;
Meier‐Augenstein and Fraser, 2008; Bartelink et al., 2014; Someda et al., 2016).
Moreover, forensic anthropologists are beginning to utilize isotope ratios as a tool
in cold case investigations in order to assist the identification process (e.g. Kamenov
et al., 2014). Essentially, analysis of the isotopes locked in a person’s skeletal and

Forensic Science and Humanitarian Action: Interacting with the Dead and the Living, First Edition.
Edited by Roberto C. Parra, Sara C. Zapico and Douglas H. Ubelaker.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

411

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 412    Forensic science and humanitarian action

dental tissues, along with their hair and fingernails, can provide information
about where they have lived, based on the principle that trace amounts of iso-
topes are influenced by consumed foodstuffs (Meier‐Augenstein, 2010), imbibed
water (Chenery et al., 2012), and water associated with bathing and hygiene (e.g.
Tipple et al., 2018; Mancuso and Ehleringer, 2018). Analysing stable isotopes in
bones or teeth can therefore be particularly useful when faced with remains with
otherwise no provenance, in terms of narrowing down a person’s geographical
location during life. This approach has been applied successfully to the investiga-
tion and identification of fallen US military service members from past wars and
conflict situations, as well as humanitarian efforts for identification of deceased
undocumented border crossers (UBCs) near the US–Mexican border (Bartelink
et al., 2018).
This chapter will provide the reader with an overview of stable isotope analysis
for human provenance and provide some insights for its potential application in
the country of Colombia. Overall, we provide background for researchers who are
interested in applying this approach as a potential new tool for casework and
humanitarian efforts alike.
We begin by briefly summarizing the application of stable isotope analysis (SIA)
to human identification, followed by current trends, providing considerations
aimed at assisting scholars interested in the application of the isotope approach.
Following this introduction to the utility of isotopic research, we address the
Colombian context, including insights about the missing, the relevance of
Colombian geology and geography to the applicability of stable isotope research,
and results from preliminary stable isotope research studies. Finally, we discuss
challenges and some research considerations for those interested in the Colombian
context specifically, as well as isotopic research on a continental or global scale.

26.2  Stable isotopes in human provenance

Stable isotopes measured in different tissues of the body that form at different
time intervals (e.g. hair, nails, bone and teeth) can provide information about an
individual’s dietary history, region(s) of origin, and travel history (Bartelink et al.,
2018). Different isotopes have been used in the stable isotope approach, such as
often‐used light isotopes (isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and
sulfur) (e.g., Bartelink et al., 2014; Someda et al., 2016), and isotopes of heavy
elements or geo‐elements (strontium and lead) (e.g. Juarez, 2008; Keller et al.,
2016). Many researchers have employed a multiple‐isotope technique that uti-
lizes a combination of two or more of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, strontium and
lead isotopes (Rauch et  al., 2007; Meier‐Augenstein and Fraser, 2008; Degryse
et al., 2012; Font et al., 2015; Kamenov and Curtis, 2017). Stable isotope analysis
is often able to identify one or more possible geographical regions where a sample
likely originated and, when additional isotopes are used, it assists in greatly

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 Applicability of stable isotope analysis in Colombia    413

narrowing down the possible geographical regions (Ehleringer et al., 2010). Thus,
multi‐isotope techniques are better able to identify regions of origin. As an
example, the data obtained from strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) in human
tissue can help to exclude or eliminate some of the areas suggested based only on
the oxygen isotope (δ18O) values from the same human tissue.
Light stable isotopes (isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen) and
isotopes of heavy elements (strontium and lead) have been used to associate
human remains (e.g. bones and teeth) with geographical regions of origin. One of
the first published cases that used the isotopic approach on the identification of
human remains was the “Adam” case in London in 2001 (Gentile et al., 2015).
Since then, many authors have utilized stable isotope systems to assist with human
identification. Bartelink et al. (2014) provide an example of the use of light iso-
topes to assist with identification. Using human skeletal remains recovered by the
Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command‐Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC‐
CIL, or CIL), Bartelink et al. (2014) tested whether the δ13C (carbon‐13) values of
those remains reflected a geographical origin within North America or instead
between North America and Asia; as a result, they were able to discriminate bet-
ween Americans and Asians using δ13C values for identification purposes.
Stable carbon isotopic composition of bioapatite reflects food consumption pat-
terns (Lee‐Thorp et al., 1989), which can vary between geographical regions due
to cultural dietary differences (Bartelink et al., 2014). Kamenov and Curtis (2017)
noted that using only δ13C values is not enough to clearly discriminate and distin-
guish between populations. Because the differences in δ13C are related to the
relative proportion of C3 versus C4 plants in the regional diet, some regions
exhibit differences, but others overlap. Kamenov and Curtis (2017) suggested that
δ13C data will be useful only for large‐scale geo‐referencing. Based on hair and
teeth data, they define three main large‐scale regions: Region 1 encompasses
Europe, Asia, Australia and northern and western Africa with a low δ13C overall;
Region 2 consists of the United States, with a moderate δ13C overall; and Region 3
is composed of Mexico, Central America, South America, and southern and east-
ern Africa with a high δ13C overall.
The abundance of the isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen (i.e. 2H and 18O) in
human tissues reflects both the water we drink, and the water contained within
fruits and vegetables we consume (Meier‐Augenstein and Fraser, 2008). For
example, the δ18O values in teeth are interpreted as reflecting the δ18O of drinking
water (Font et al., 2015). Therefore, drinking water δ18O values can be calculated
from δ18O values from carbonate in tooth enamel (Chenery et  al., 2012). The
isotopic composition of human drinking water varies geographically, and this
water is mainly derived from precipitation water (Bartelink et al., 2014), which
also varies in its isotopic composition across the landscape. Thus, the oxygen
isotopic composition of human tissues varies geographically because the isotopic
composition of ingested water varies based on location (Bartelink et al., 2014).
Because δ2H and δ18O values in precipitation water varies across the globe,

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 414    Forensic science and humanitarian action

the δ2H and δ18O values in a given area can be predicted using the global meteoric
water line (GMWL) (Bartelink et  al., 2014). In addition, a worldwide meteoric
water isoscape is available and some isoscapes exist for tap water (US and South
Africa) (e.g. Bowen et  al., 2007; West et  al., 2014); isoscapes are “topographic
maps” showing the distribution of isotope ratios over a particular landscape (Keller
et  al., 2016). Thus, forensic investigators can make predictions about place of
provenance or last geographical movement of an individual using these isoscapes.
The information from δ18O values is not truly unique to a region, meaning that
regions can overlap in terms of δ18O. However, if the local origin of an unknown
individual can be achieved by other means, then δ18O can be used for more
detailed geo‐referencing within that given region (Kamenov and Curtis, 2017).
Stable sulfur isotope ratios (δ34S) have been used as an indicator of marine
influence due to δ34S values of oceans being more enriched than atmospheric and
seawater δ34S values (Pye, 2004). Researchers have used this to differentiate
coastal from inland diets (Valenzuela et al., 2012). The δ34S values of consumer
tissues are related to geographical place, which is influenced by geogenic variables
(atmospheric deposition) and the isotopic composition of the bedrock (Valenzuela
et al., 2012). Sulfur isotope ratios have been used mainly in modern populations
for forensic investigations and diet reconstruction (e.g. Valenzuela et  al., 2012;
Bender et al., 2014).
Degryse and colleagues (2012) noted that the basis of using trace strontium for
provenance is that the strontium isotopic composition of a human sample is iden-
tical (within analytical error) to the geological raw material or bedrock from
where the sample originated (i.e. where the individual lived). Thus, human tis-
sues can be directly tied to a geographical location via geology. Strontium
concentration and isotopic ratios in rock, water, soil, plants and animals depend
on the local geology (Degryse et al., 2012). Strontium in the geological bedrock
moves into soil and groundwater, and then into the food chain. Degryse and col-
leagues (2012) suggested that due to the differences between strontium isotopic
composition of plants and the bulk soil, the strontium isotopic ratio (87Sr/86Sr) for
comparison should use all biologically available strontium data. Additionally,
water ingested by all organisms in the food chain should also be considered.
Kamenov and Curtis (2017) noted that strontium isotopes in human teeth are not
simply controlled by the local water and local rock geology. Instead, the strontium
isotopes reflect multiple sources, including food items imported from different
regions.
Lead (Pb) isotopes in human bioapatite are controlled by two main sources:
natural (i.e. soil source) and anthropogenic (i.e. leaded gasoline) (Kamenov,
2008). Kamenov and Curtis (2017) suggest that there is a regional difference in
the lead (Pb) isotopic composition of modern teeth, due in part to the usage of
different lead ores in different regions. They also suggest that high‐precision
lead  isotope data using multiple‐collector inductively coupled plasma mass

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 Applicability of stable isotope analysis in Colombia    415

spectrometry (MC‐ICP‐MS) has shown a distinct regional pattern, but more

worldwide data are needed to corroborate this.
Neodymium (143Nd/144Nd) is used in Nd dating and tracer studies (Pye, 2004). It
has been used in provenance studies, mainly in relation to illegal trading in ivory;
however, data for human and animal teeth are few (Pye, 2004). Like strontium
isotopes, the comparison of neodymium isotope values from human tissues should
be done with values of the bioavailable neodymium. However, the role of diet and
environmental sources in determining the uptake of neodymium into the human
body are not yet well understood (Pye, 2004).
Researchers have improved and expanded worldwide reference data that can
be used to differentiate geographical regions. This includes the development of
global databases, isotopic maps that illustrate the spatial distribution of isotopic
variations (i.e. isoscapes), and predictive maps and models for isotope spatial
­patterning (Gentile et al., 2015).
Keller et  al. (2016) presented a spatiotemporal isoscape from anthropogenic
lead (Pb) for the United States and Europe using published data from dated
­sediments, soils and biological tissues. An isoscape for δ18O in drinking water in
the US was not published until 2007 (e.g. Bowen et al., 2007), and isoscapes for
tooth enamel were described in 2010 (Keller et al., 2016). Laffoon et al. (2017)
built an isoscape of enamel δ18O and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) values for the circum‐
Caribbean area.

26.3  Human tissues appropriate for isotope studies

Researchers are able to obtain isotopic information from different human tissues
for human provenience including hair, nails, teeth and bone. Diet and geo‐loca-
tion influence the isotopic signature of these body tissues (Meier‐Augenstein,
2010) and the differences between turnover rates of tissues can provide differential
information on the origin and life history of an individual. For instance, hair pro-
vides information about diet and environmental exposure on timescales ranging
from a few days to a few years (Pye, 2004). Enamel (with the exception of the
third molar) is deposited relatively early in childhood and does not remodel chem-
ically (Burton, 2008), and therefore provides information for early childhood and
adolescence. Cortical bone material from long bone shafts is often preferred over
trabecular bone for chemical analysis, as it is least susceptible to environmental
exchange and diagenesis (Pye, 2004); this tissue can provide information for the
last 12 to 20 years of an individual’s life (Rauch et al., 2007). Pye (2004) mentions
that enamel is the material of choice for isotopic analysis in archaeological and
environmental reconstruction studies, and also in the context of forensic investi-
gations. This is under the premise that diagenesis of enamel is less likely to be an
issue in most cases (Pye, 2004).

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26.4  Colombian geography

Colombia is a republic divided into 32 departments, essentially subdivisions with

a certain degree of autonomy, similar to the way the various states are organized
in Mexico or in the US (Figure 26.1). The country is located in the northwestern
corner of South America and is complex and diverse environmentally, containing
mountain ranges, jungles and beaches. About three‐quarters of the country’s
inhabitants live in the major cities in either the mountainous zones (i.e. Bogotá)
or on the Caribbean coast (i.e. Cartagena) (Hermelin, 2016). The eastern part of
the country, which is dominated by forest and jungle, remains sparsely populated
(Hermelin, 2016).

W E

San Andrés y Providencia S

La Guajira

Atlantico
Magdalena
Cesar

Sucre
Bolivar
Cordoba Norde de Santander

Antioquia
Santander Arauca

Choco
Boyaca
Caldas Casanare
Risaralda
Cundinamarca
Vichada
Quindio Distrito Especial
Tolima
Valle del Cauca
Meta

Huila Guainia
Cauca
Guaviare
Narino

Putumayo Caqueta Vaupes

Amazonas

Figure 26.1  Political map of Colombia. Divisions are by department. Map credit:
D. Castellanos Gutiérrez.

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 Applicability of stable isotope analysis in Colombia    417

Colombia can be divided geographically into two main regions: the Andean
c­ ordilleras and the eastern plains, which include savannas and the jungle of the
Amazon (Hermelin, 2016). Hermelin (2016) defines several physiographical
zones: the western zone, which includes the Pacific lowlands and the mountain
range known as the Baudo Serrania; the central zone including the western,
central, and eastern cordillera (mountain ranges); the northern zone, which
includes the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range and the Guajira
Peninsula; the eastern zone, which includes eastern savannas known as Llanos
Orientales; and finally, the southern zone comprising the Amazon rainforest.
This geographical variability, including the location of cities at different altitudes
(i.e. Bogotá is approximately 2500 m above sealevel) or proximity to an ocean
coast (i.e. Cartagena), may affect the spatial distribution of oxygen isotope ratios
(δ18O) of human tissues of Colombia’s inhabitants. It is known that the isotopic
composition of oxygen (δ18O) and hydrogen (δ2H) in precipitation water is affected
by temperature, humidity, continentality (distance from the sea) and altitude
(Bartelink et al., 2014). Rodriguez (2004) analysed rainfall samples from different
areas of Colombia and developed a meteoric line for the country, which coincides
with the global meteoric water line (GMWL). In addition, he found that the isotopic
composition of precipitation water changes with altitude, due to the ­correlation
between altitude and isotope content (Rodriguez, 2004).
The three main cordilleras (western, central and eastern) are part of the Andes
mountains of South America. Overall, the Cordillera Oriental is composed mainly
of sedimentary strata that range in geological age from Cambrian to Miocene, with
several massifs of metamorphic and igneous basement complexes that are partly or
totally pre‐Cambrian in age, a belt of metamorphosed early Palaeozoic rocks, and
some intrusions of post‐Jurassic igneous rocks (Singewald, 1949). The Cordillera
Central is composed of metamorphic and plutonic igneous rocks from the Tertiary
and Cretaceous and probably earlier times (Singewald, 1949). Finally, the Cordillera
Occidental is composed of sedimentary rocks in many places, and cross‐cutting
igneous bodies of both acidic and basic rocks, related to the Mesozoic era (Singewald,
1949). Some strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) from Cretaceous intrusive and
volcanic rocks from the western and central cordilleras are reported in Kerr et al.
(1997). Due to the differences in rock type and rock age that constitute the three
different cordilleras, the different strontium isotope values from each cordillera
would be reflected in local water. Therefore, strontium isotope values in human
teeth of individuals who inhabit places located on the cordilleras would reflect
these local geological values. For instance, we would expect differences of strontium
isotope ratios in human tissues (87Sr/86Sr) between individuals living and raised in
Medellín (western cordillera) and individuals from Bogotá (central cordillera).
The geological diversity of the country could be a factor shaping the isotopic
composition of human tissues of the inhabitants of different regions of Colombia,
but in order to understand this diversity, data including individuals from different
locations are needed. Research that explores this is in a nascent stage, although
Colombia has a substantial human identification problem.

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26.5  The Colombian conflict and the missing

For more than 50 years, Colombia has experienced an internal armed conflict. The
multiple actors involved (illegal armed groups and government military forces)
have violated human rights and broken international humanitarian law. The result-
ing violence has caused thousands of deaths, forced disappearances of people, and
displaced communities (Sanabria and Osorio, 2015). The Unique Register of Victims
(Registro Unico de Victimas, RUV) reports 8.3 million victims of the armed conflict,
of whom 1.7 million are direct victims of forced disappearances, homicides, or are
otherwise known to be deceased as a direct result of the conflict. The National
Missing Persons Database (Red Nacional de Desaparecidos, SIRDEC) reports over
64,000 missing persons from 1995 to 2014 (Sanabria and Osorio, 2015).
Government databases estimate that more than 20,000 unidentified persons
have been buried in cemeteries. The rest of the thousands missing remain unac-
counted for. However, from 2005 to 2015, the National Prosecutor’s Office has
found 4649 graves containing 5978 bodies (skeletonized, advanced or partially
decomposed), and of those individuals, 2934 have been identified (Sanabria and
Osorio, 2015). This leaves approximately 3000 of those left to be identified, not
including individuals discovered since.
Colombia is currently undergoing a process of transitional justice. This is a result
of the latest Colombian peace process, which aims (among other goals) to search
for the missing people resulting from the armed conflict, and in case they are
deceased, return their remains to the families. Many Colombians are still waiting
to discover the fate of their relatives. Despite the efforts of searching for the
missing, Colombian authorities face an enormous humanitarian challenge to
respond to the needs of thousands of these families. This is due to the sheer num-
bers of missing people. Finding and identifying the missing will contribute to the
humanitarian goals of revealing the fate of many victims and the repatriation of
human remains to families.
DNA profiles of unidentified human remains and of relatives of the missing are
stored in the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences database,
which contains about 19,000 profiles (Schwartz‐Marin et  al., 2015). However,
DNA databases can only work when data from biological relatives of the missing
are input for comparison. Therefore, methods that can assist in narrowing down
identification possibilities are needed.

26.6  Stable isotopes and identification in Colombia:

Initial research efforts

Different authors have investigated the applicability of stable isotope ratios from
dental enamel for human provenance in Colombia. For instance, Row (2013)
was  the first to study the utility of strontium isotope analysis (87Sr/86Sr) for

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 Applicability of stable isotope analysis in Colombia    419

geolocation. She analysed a sample of 75 teeth from 61 individuals from the

Antioquia Modern Skeletal Reference Collection (located in Medellín, Colombia).
These individuals are mainly representative of the Antioquia department and its
main city of Medellín (Table 26.1). She found that there is no significant difference
between strontium isotope ratios within the population analysed (Antioquia vs.
non‐Antioquia, and Medellín vs non‐Medellín) (Table 26.2). However, the results
are inconclusive regarding the applicability of strontium isotope ratios to distin-
guish populations within Colombia. She pointed out that more samples from
other geographical locations in Colombia are needed to test its applicability within
the country.
Eck (2017) analysed stable oxygen and strontium isotope ratios to determine
their effectiveness for provenancing human remains from Colombia (same
individual geographical distribution as Row (2013); see Table  26.1) and New
England in the US. He found significant differences between these two popula-
tions in terms of both oxygen (δ18O) and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) values (Eck, 2017).
However, no significant differences were found within each population.

Table 26.1  Distribution of individuals by Department

and the city of Medellin. Adapted from Row (2013).

Department n

Atlántico 2
Boyaca 1
Choco 2
Quindio 1
Cundinamarca 1
Caldas 1
Risaralda 1
Antioquia, outside of Medellín 21
Medellín 31
Total 61

Table 26.2  Results of Row’s (2013) analysis

of 87Sr/86Sr.

Region N Sr/86Sr
87

Antioquia 52 0.70746 ± 0.00174

Non‐Antioquia 9 0.70704 ± 0.00104
Medellín 31 0.70748 ± 0.00207
Non‐Medellín 30 0.70710 ± 0.00105

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 420    Forensic science and humanitarian action

Table 26.3  Preliminary results from Castellanos (in preparation).

City N δ18O

Bogotá 16 −7.38
Cartagena 8 −5.39
Neiva 8 −7.08

The author considers that a more diverse Colombian sample is needed to address

possible further variation within the country.
Both studies cited here used the same sample, one that is composed mainly of
individuals from the same department (Antioquia), one of 32 departments in the
country. Half of the sample is from the city of Medellín (the largest city of
Antioquia) and a few individuals are from different departments (Table  26.1).
Both Row (2013) and Eck (2017) suggest that the sample’s lack of diversity affects
its utility in tests of the variation in oxygen and strontium isotope ratios within
Colombia. However, Eck (2017) found that there is a significant difference
­between oxygen and strontium isotope ratios between the Colombian sample and
the New England sample from the US. This is evidence that isotope ratios may
differentiate between populations at a continental level. Also, both authors
­conclude that more samples are needed to conclusively determine whether it is
possible to use strontium and oxygen isotope ratio analysis on the modern
Colombian population to test its applicability for human provenance.
In order to test the applicability of the isotopic approach in Colombia, research
is currently being undertaken to analyse the isotopic values of four isotope sys-
tems (C, O, Sr and Pb) contained within tooth enamel bioapatite in a modern
sample of donated teeth from different regions of Colombia. This sample includes
individuals from the cities of Bogotá, Cali, Neiva and Cartagena (Table 26.3). This
research will expand the diversity of the Colombian data, and together with
previous data, represent a Colombian baseline for future comparisons and predic-
tions. Preliminary results from the oxygen analysis indicate that there are sub-
stantial differences between people raised at altitude in the capital city of Bogotá
nestled in the central cordillera, and people raised at sealevel on the Caribbean
coast in Cartagena (Table 26.3).

26.7  Final remarks

Despite the utility of the isotopic approach, some authors have noted some
­constraints of isotope ratio analysis for human provenance. Pye (2004) mentions
several different factors that limit the use of this approach, such as: (1) restricted
availability of appropriate database information that can be utilized for

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 Applicability of stable isotope analysis in Colombia    421

comparative purposes; (2) existing data are scattered across diverse scientific liter-
atures; and (3) different methodologies used for sample pre‐treatment and anal-
ysis can complicate interpretations. Another difficulty in the interpretation of data
from modern teeth and bones in forensic contexts is the globalization of food web
supplies and more frequent human travel. This is making strontium isotope ratios
(87Sr/86Sr) less variable in modern human populations (Keller et  al., 2016;
Kamenov and Curtis, 2017), hindering its ability to discriminate between regions.
Several authors have mentioned this issue (e.g. Juarez, 2008; Keller et al., 2016),
but others claim that regional local foods can have an effect on 87Sr/86Sr ratios,
thus dietary and environmental signals can still be identified in human tissues
(Valenzuela et al., 2012). Pye (2004) suggests that more research is needed to fully
quantify the range of isotopic variation that exists within and between different
human populations.
In the case of Colombia specifically, initial studies on strontium and oxygen in
modern individuals have taken place (Row, 2013; Eck, 2017). Despite being very
promising, these studies can be considered preliminary as they did not include a
diverse enough sample such that the full applicability of the isotopic approach in
Colombia can be assessed. As a result, thus far isotopic analysis is somewhat pre-
cluded from being a tool for human identification in Colombia.
However, these initial studies have opened the door to future efforts which will
ideally determine whether isotopic signatures of modern Colombians are diverse
enough to be useful with making geographical predictions about a person’s loca-
tion during life. Current ongoing research aims to analyse the isotopic composi-
tion of carbon, oxygen, strontium and lead from a modern sample of donated
permanent teeth from different regions of Colombia. This will expand the diver-
sity of the current isotopic data for Colombia, as well as the isotope systems used
thus far, by incorporating data from carbon and lead stable isotopes.
Research efforts must address the applicability of the isotopic approach not only
within the country itself, but comparisons of Colombian data with current data
from different locations around the world. This would assist with understanding
whether Colombian isotopic data differ from those of other regions, while identi-
fying which isotopes can be most useful for identifying people of likely Colombian
origin. In addition, it is important to test whether the Colombian strontium
isotopic data demonstrate the decrease in variability that many authors have
noticed in other locations (e.g. Keller et al., 2016; Kamenov and Curtis, 2017), or
whether strontium isotope ratios in human tissues reflect the local ratio.
Finally, if future research demonstrates that isotopic data are diverse enough to
distinguish regions within Colombia, then the country’s forensic scientists and
judicial system would have to embrace adding them as a tool. As a new forensic
service for the different governmental institutions in charge of human identification
(the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences and the National
Prosecutor’s Office), this endeavor would face several logistical challenges.

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 422    Forensic science and humanitarian action

First, these institutions would need to build suitable labs or adapt current labs, in
addition to providing training for forensic personnel to conduct isotopic analysis.
A secondary option could be outsourcing some of the analysis using national or
international labs that already have IRMS technology for the different isotopes
(carbon, oxygen, strontium and lead). Either scenario would involve major buy‐
in for this new technique from institutional management and governmental
­officials alike. We hope that this chapter and others to come will start a conversation
in Colombia about additional methods that should be added to the current
identification toolkit.

Acknowledgements

We dedicate this chapter to the forensic scientists in Colombia who work tirelessly
every day to provide resolution for families by identifying victims of the conflict.
We thank John Fredy Ramirez, curator of the Antioquia Skeletal Reference
Collection, which was used for the analyses discussed in this chapter. We also
thank Cesar Sanabria Medina, the dentists Gretel González Colmenares, Paola A.
Calle Osorio, Armando Roa Navarro and John Leottau, who collected donated
teeth, and thanks to the anonymous donors of the teeth being used by the first
author for his dissertation research. Finally, we thank the editors for inviting us to
contribute to this timely and important volume.

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