CHAPTER 

24

Multi‐isotope approaches for region‐of‐

origin predictions of undocumented
border crossers from the US–Mexico
border: Biocultural perspectives on diet
and travel history
Eric J. Bartelink1, Lesley A. Chesson2, Brett J. Tipple3,4, Sarah Hall5 and
Robyn T. Kramer6
1
 Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico, CA, USA
2
 DPAA Laboratory, Joint Base Pearl Harbor‐Hickam, Hawaii, USA
3
 Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, California, USA
4
 School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, USA
5
 School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Arizona, USA
6
 Anatomy Department, University of Otago, New Zealand

24.1 Introduction

In the 1990s, the United States launched a number of border security operations,
including “Operation Hold the Line” (a.k.a. Operation Blockade) in El Paso, Texas
in 1993; “Operation Gatekeeper” in San Diego, California in 1994; “Operation
Safeguard” in southern Arizona in 1995; and “Operation Rio Grande” in south
Texas in 1997 (Martínez et  al., 2014). While these “prevention through deter-
rence” policies of the US Border Patrol have greatly reduced illegal migration
across the southern border, this period has been marked by a sharp increase in
undocumented border crosser (UBC) deaths as migrants are funneled through
more inhospitable areas and often die due to heat‐related illness (Baker, 2014;
DeLeón, 2015; Jimenez, 2009; Martínez et  al., 2014; Reineke and Martínez,
2014). Between 1998 and 2016, the remains of more than 6500 UBCs have been
recovered from along the US–Mexico border (Wexler, 2016).
In 2012, the number of deceased UBCs in south Texas exceeded that of Arizona,
with the majority of the deceased representing Central American nationals (Kovic,
2013; Spradley et al., 2018). Most of the migrant deaths in Texas occur near the
Falfurrias border checkpoint in Brooks County (Rio Grande Valley sector), located

Forensic Science and Humanitarian Action: Interacting with the Dead and the Living, First Edition.
Edited by Roberto C. Parra, Sara C. Zapico and Douglas H. Ubelaker.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

369

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 370    Forensic science and humanitarian action

approximately 70 miles north of the US–Mexico border. Most often, migrants are
dropped off from vehicles along roadways and are instructed to walk around the
checkpoint (Gocha et al., 2018; Reineke and Martínez, 2014). As migrants attempt
to walk through flat, rugged terrain on remote, private ranches, they often become
lost and disoriented, and eventually succumb to heat‐related illnesses. The high
volume of deaths has resulted in a massive identification challenge, especially
given the lack of infrastructure and resources in this rural area of Texas. Many
barriers to identification exist, including lack of documentation about the human
remains and recovery context, lack of ante‐mortem records, difficulties obtaining
family reference DNA samples, and the extent of decomposition. Due to financial
constraints, local authorities began burying unidentified migrants at Sacred Heart
Cemetery in Falfurrias around 2009. Remains were buried without conducting
complete scientific analyses for identification, including the use of DNA testing as
required under Texas Administrative Code (Kovic, 2018).
Forensic anthropologists have featured prominently in the identification pro-
cess of deceased migrants interred without the required DNA analyses. In 2013,
forensic anthropologists began exhuming unidentified remains interred at Sacred
Heart Cemetery for analysis and identification (Latham and Strand, 2018). The
numerous field seasons of exhumations have recovered hundreds of deceased
migrants, which are currently being analysed and identified through the efforts of
Texas State University and their collaborators (Gocha et al., 2018; Spradley et al.,
2018). Despite tremendous efforts by forensic anthropology teams, DNA special-
ists, and non‐governmental organizations, identification and repatriation efforts
have proceeded at a slow pace (Spradley et  al., 2018). This unprecedented
identification challenge has led to the use of multidisciplinary approaches to
identification, including the use of an array of biological and cultural data associ-
ated with the remains, supported to a large degree by efforts of volunteers and
non‐governmental organizations (Anderson and Spradley, 2016; Spradley et al.,
2018). Currently, Texas State University leads the migrant identification effort in
Texas through a project called Operation Identification (OpID).
Over the past decade, the use of stable isotope analysis (SIA) has emerged as an
identification tool for provenancing unidentified decedents (see reviews in
Bartelink and Chesson, 2019; Bartelink et al., 2014a, 2014b, 2016; Cerling et al.,
2016; Chesson et al., 2014, 2018a, 2018b, this volume; Ehleringer et al., 2007,
2010, 2015; Kamenov et  al., 2014; Lehn et  al., 2015; Meier‐Augenstein, 2007,
2010). Recently, a handful of SIA case studies have focused on identifying UBC
remains from the US–Mexico border (Bartelink, 2018; Bartelink et  al., 2018;
Bartelink and Chesson, 2019; Kramer et al., this volume) and also determining
whether an unidentified decedent is likely a foreign national from Latin America
(Bartelink and Chesson, 2019; Ross et al., 2016). Currently, baseline isotope data
are markedly lacking for most regions within Latin America and the circum‐
Caribbean; however, a few recent studies have generated datasets useful for
­provenancing studies (Juarez, 2008; Juarez et  al., this volume; Laffoon et  al.,
2017; Kramer et al., this volume).

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 Multi-isotope approaches for region-of-origin at the US–Mexico border    371

24.2  SIA as an investigative tool for undocumented

border crossers

Here we present SIA results for bone–tooth pairs from UBCs from Brooks County,
Texas. Bone and tooth samples were prepared for SIA, including carbon and
nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen, carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of
bone bioapatite and enamel bioapatite, and strontium isotope analysis of tooth
enamel. Using a multi‐isotope approach, we narrow down the likely region‐of‐
origin for these individuals. We then present preliminary interpretations of
­isotope results for two case studies to illustrate the use of SIA as an investigative
tool for deceased UBC cases from Texas.

24.2.1  Assumptions of SIA for provenancing studies

Provenancing studies that utilize stable isotope analyses of human remains require
several assumptions, which may or may not be met depending on the context,
time period, and geographical location of an individual’s life history. For example,
we assume that human diet is patterned by factors such as ethnicity, geographical
region and socioeconomic status, as reflected in carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios
recorded in body tissues (Hülsemann et al., 2015). Previous research using bone
collagen and bioapatite identified significant differences in carbon isotope ratios
between Southeast Asians, US Americans, and UBCs (Bartelink et  al., 2018).
Additional studies on modern samples have identified significant geographical
patterning in isotope ratios between different geographical regions using various
tissues, including bones (Bartelink et al., 2014a), teeth (Keller et al., 2016; Regan,
2006; Someda et al., 2016), hair (Hülsemann et al., 2015; Valenzuela et al., 2011),
and fingernails (Nardoto et  al., 2006). Second, we assume that most imbibed
water is local, which should be reflected in oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios
recorded in body tissues (Ehleringer et  al., 2008). Although bottled water has
become more common in many regions of the world (including Latin American
countries), it is most often purified local municipal water (Chesson et al., 2010).
Third, we assume that most food that an individual consumes is produced within
the region of residence. This assumption is more difficult to meet for individuals
living in the USA that have access to a “global supermarket” diet, but may be a
reasonable assumption for UBCs who are more likely to have consumed locally
produced foodstuffs. Therefore, bones and teeth of individuals who eat locally
should have strontium isotope ratios that reflect the bioavailable strontium in the
local environment. Thus, the degree to which cultural, geographical and socioeco-
nomic factors pattern diet within a population and the degree to which local food
and water are consumed by an individual are key factors that determine how
­successful SIA will be in a given context. These assumptions can be explored
through analysis of baseline reference sample data and collection of contextual
information from a region (e.g. known cultural dietary patterns, distance that
food and water travel from the source to consumers, etc.). Given the intricate
complexities of human diet, movement of food and water across the landscape,

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 372    Forensic science and humanitarian action

and human migration patterns, it is helpful to test specific hypotheses or to use

SIA as an exclusionary tool to narrow down possibilities. For example, SIA can be
effective at answering whether or not an unidentified decedent is local or non-
local to the region where their remains were found, especially if the decedent is a
foreign national who recently arrived in an area prior to their death. Using a
multi‐isotope approach, researchers can explore a series of hypotheses regarding
origin based on the information derived from each isotope system or by exam-
ining all isotope data collectively.
To use SIA as an investigative tool for narrowing down the region‐of‐origin for
UBC cases, there must be variation in the isotope ratios of interest between indi-
viduals, which should in turn reflect geographically‐controlled isotopic variation.
For example, dietary differences between the US and Latin American countries
and also between individual Latin American countries may be reflected in differ-
ences in carbon, nitrogen and sulfur isotope ratios. In addition, isotopic differ-
ences in water sources and the environment where food is grown and consumed
(oxygen and strontium isotope ratios, respectively) should reflect geography.

24.2.2  Bio‐elements and geo‐elements used for geolocation

Stable isotopes are atoms of an element that contain the same number of protons
and electrons but vary in number of neutrons and do not undergo radioactive
decay (Fry, 2006). Because stable isotopes of the same element have different
atomic weights, they behave slightly differently during chemical reactions. Stable
isotopes are commonly measured as the ratio of a “heavy” (typically rarer) isotope
to a “light” (more common) isotope (e.g. 18O/16O) in a sample, which is compared
to the ratio measured in an international standard. This ratio of ratios is presented
in “delta” notation using the Greek lowercase letter δ.
Stable isotope ratios measured in human tissues reflect inputs from food, water
and pollutants in the environment. Life history information can be derived from
isotope analyses of different tissue types that form over different time intervals
(e.g. bones, teeth, nails, hair). These analyses can provide information about an
individual’s diet and migration history between childhood and adulthood (e.g. by
comparing teeth vs. bones, respectively) and over shorter intervals of time (e.g. by
analysing hair and nails). Forensic applications of SIA of human remains often
include bio‐elements such as hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O)
and sulfur (S), which provide information on both diet and residence patterns. In
addition, the geo‐elements of strontium (Sr) and lead (Pb) are particularly useful
for predicting residence patterns.
Carbon isotope ratios vary in plants based on the photosynthetic pathway a
plant utilizes. The majority of the Earth’s vegetation are C3 plants, which includes
fruits, vegetables, beans, and most grains. However, some cultigens such as corn
and sugarcane are C4 plants, and they use a different photosynthetic pathway that
results in greater incorporation of 13C into plant tissues as opposed to C3 plants.
Thus, C4 plants have higher δ13C values compared to C3 plants, which is in turn

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 Multi-isotope approaches for region-of-origin at the US–Mexico border    373

reflected in the tissues of human consumers. Similar to C4 plants, marine resources

also result in elevated δ13C values in consumers, reflecting the higher amount of
13
C in seafood. Because C3 and C4 plants and marine foods are consumed to varying
degrees globally, C isotopes often reflect culturally and regionally specific dietary
practices (Bartelink et al., 2014a; Hülsemann et al., 2015). The majority of C from
dietary protein is preferentially routed to an animal’s bone collagen, whereas the
C molecules in bone and enamel bioapatite derive from blood bicarbonate and
reflect the whole diet (Ambrose and Norr, 1993; Tieszen and Fagre, 1993). For
UBC cases, δ13C values are expected to be elevated over those of US Americans
due to the greater reliance on corn products throughout Latin America, thus
providing a powerful tool for discriminating between these two groups.
Although less useful for human provenancing studies, N isotope ratios (δ15N)
can provide information on the trophic level of dietary proteins consumed. With
each level of the food chain, there is an approximately 2–4‰ stepwise increase in
the δ15N values of a consumer’s tissues. Thus, δ15N values will be highest among
individuals who consume a large amount of meat (especially seafood), and lowest
among individuals with a vegetarian or vegan diet.
Stable isotope ratios of oxygen and hydrogen (δ18O and δ2H, respectively) in
meteoric water vary spatially, as the lighter isotopes of O and H are retained in the
atmosphere longer while heavier isotopes more readily condense to form rain,
resulting in continental patterning of δ18O and δ2H values across landscapes
(Ehleringer et al., 2008). The δ18O and δ2H values of water are thus influenced by
temperature, distance from large bodies of water, aridity and altitude, resulting in
predictable isotope landscapes  –  or isoscapes  –  of water. These variations can
be mapped using geographical information system (GIS) software. Variations in
O and H isotope ratios across space are incorporated into human tissues through
drinking water.
Strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) reflect the geological age of the underlying
bedrock in a region and are incorporated into plants and the animals that con-
sume them, since Sr substitutes for calcium in hydroxyapatite (Bentley, 2006).
Strontium isotope ratios vary based on the age of rock, with lower 87Sr/86Sr ratios
associated with younger rocks (Bentley, 2006). There is little to no isotopic frac-
tionation in bioavailable Sr, so 87Sr/86Sr ratios measured in human remains can be
directly compared with geological baseline 87Sr/86Sr ratios.

24.3  Samples and analytical methods

In 2013, forensic anthropologists from the University of Indianapolis and Baylor

University began a large‐scale effort to exhume and identify deceased migrants
buried at Sacred Heart Cemetery in Falfurrias, Brooks County, Texas. Collaborative
work between the University of Indianapolis, Baylor University, and Texas State
University has now led to a concerted effort to identify these deceased migrants

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 374    Forensic science and humanitarian action

and to repatriate them to family members. Through OpID, migrant remains are
transferred to the Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS) for
skeletal processing, analysis, DNA sampling, and temporary curation (Spradley
et al., 2018). Part of this effort includes collaboration with the Argentine Forensic
Anthropology Team (EAAF), who are assisting with family reference sample DNA
collection, as well as the University of North Texas Center for Human Identification
and Bode Cellmark Forensics, Inc., who have processed and compared DNA pro-
files for identification (Gocha et  al., 2018; Spradley et  al., 2018). OpID has
expanded beyond Brooks County, Texas to cemeteries in neighboring Starr and
Willacy Counties where additional unidentified migrant remains are buried
(Spradley et al., 2018). As of 2018, only about 29 individuals have been positively
identified out of the more than 270 cases received through OpID. Many of those
identified are from the Central American countries of Guatemala, Honduras and
El Salvador, the so‐called Northern Triangle, although a considerable number of
the unidentified likely originated from Mexico (Gocha et al., 2018).
A paired sample consisting of one premolar tooth and one metatarsal was col-
lected from 30 sets of OpID remains by researchers at FACTS. In addition, another
13 sets of remains were sampled and submitted for SIA through the University of
Indianapolis. These former samples included a wider variety of tooth types and
bones, with data previously reported in Bartelink et al. (2018). Teeth were sampled
to provide childhood diet (δ13C) and origin information (δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr), whereas
bones were sampled to provide information on adult diet (δ13C and δ15N) and origin
(δ18O). Permission to sample was provided through FACTS, and funding was
provided through the AAFS Humanitarian and Human Rights Resource Award and
through a California State University, Chico David Lantis Award. Residual bone
and tooth materials were returned to FACTS upon completion of isotope testing.
Stable isotope ratios of C, N, and O were measured through isotope ratio mass
spectrometry (IRMS). Isotope ratios of samples are reported relative to an inter-
national standard using the delta (δ) notation as described above. As a matter of
convenience, δ values are often reported in parts per thousand or “per mil” (‰).
The δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen were measured by continuous‐flow
IRMS at the Stable Isotope Facility at the University of California, Davis, using an
elemental analyser (PDZ Europa ANCA‐GSL) interfaced with an isotope ratio
mass spectrometer (PDZ Europa 20‐20). The δ13C and δ18O values of bone and
enamel bioapatite were measured by continuous‐flow IRMS at IsoForensics, Inc.
in Salt Lake City, Utah, using a GasBench II (Thermo ScientificTM) interfaced to an
isotope ratio mass spectrometer (FinniganTM MAT 253). Sample preparation pro-
cedures are reported in Bartelink et al. (2014a) for C, N and O isotope analysis.
Strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) were measured on digested tooth enamel
­samples at the Department of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Utah
via high‐resolution multi‐collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer
(MC‐ICP‐MS, Thermo ScientificTM Neptune PlusTM). Isoscape maps were gener-
ated using ArcGIS 10.4 (ESRI) for each of the 43 individuals, although only two
are presented here as case studies.

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 Multi-isotope approaches for region-of-origin at the US–Mexico border    375

24.4 Results

Descriptive statistics for the stable isotope values are reported in Table  24.1.
The mean bone collagen δ13C value is −13.6‰ (± 2.3‰, 1 SD) and the mean δ15N
value is +9.4‰ (± 1.3‰, 1 SD). The mean δ13C value for bone bioapatite is –8.4‰
(± 2.6‰, 1 SD) and for enamel bioapatite is −5.3‰ (± 3.0‰, 1 SD). The mean δ18O
value is −6.6‰ (± 1.1‰, 1 SD) for bone bioapatite and −5.5‰ for enamel bioapa-
tite (± 1.4‰, 1 SD). For Sr, the mean 87Sr/86Sr ratio for tooth enamel is 0.70703
(± 0.00116, 1 SD; OpID 399 was excluded as an extreme outlier).
The mean δ13C values of bone collagen as well as bone bioapatite and enamel
bioapatite are consistent with our expectations for UBCs and indicate a very high
dietary contribution from C4 resources (e.g. corn products). The high degree of
variation in δ13C values (1 SD of 2.3 to 3.0‰) is primarily influenced by four indi-
viduals with lower δ13C values for their bone collagen, bone, and enamel bioapa-
tite. Isoscape prediction maps based on O and Sr isotopes further suggest that
these individuals could be of US origin (not shown). Bone bioapatite and bone
collagen δ13C values show a strong positive correlation (r = 0.941, p < 0.001), indi-
cating that both whole diet (reflected in bioapatite) and the protein source of the
diet (reflected in collagen) are strongly influenced by the consumption of C4
resources. Similarly, bone and enamel bioapatite δ13C values show a strong positive
correlation (r = 0.897, p < 0.001), indicating dietary continuity in the consump-
tion of C4 resources between childhood and adulthood.
Measured δ15N values show relatively low variation across the sampled OpID
cases, consistent with consumption of terrestrial herbivore protein, albeit in some-
what different amounts between individuals. Further, bone bioapatite and bone
collagen δ13C values both show a moderate negative correlation with bone c­ ollagen
δ15N values (r = −0.683, p < 0.001 and r = −0.583, p < 0.001, respectively), suggest-
ing that C4 resource consumption is negatively correlated with consumption of
low trophic‐level protein sources. This could reflect differences in socioeconomic
status between individuals, whereby corn products are consumed in the greatest
amounts by individuals with more limited access to terrestrial meat products.
Isoscape prediction maps were based on δ18O values of precipitation for the US
and Latin America. However, isoscape prediction maps based on 87Sr/86Sr ratios
are only possible within the US since baseline reference data on Sr isotopic varia-
tion in the environment are limited for Latin America. For the majority of the
UBC samples, isoscape prediction maps based on O isotope ratios are consistent
with a Latin American origin, and include areas within Mexico as well as portions
of Central America. These predictions also include areas within the continental
US. Out of 41 tooth samples for which there are O isotope data for enamel bioapa-
tite, 88% (n = 36) included predictions within Latin America. Only five individ-
uals fell into the continental US only based on their δ18O values (between −8.7 and
−6.9‰). Interestingly, these individuals also have the lowest bone collagen and
bone and enamel bioapatite δ13C values in the entire study, suggesting a diet con-
sisting of a mixture of both C3 and C4 resources (more similar to a US American

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 Table 24.1  Descriptive statistics for carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and strontium SIA results for paired bone and tooth samples from 43 sets
of OpID remains; analysis of some samples failed, as indicated by variation in n.

δ13Ccoll, ‰ δ15Ncoll, ‰ δ13Capat, ‰ δ13Capat, ‰ δ18Oapat, ‰ δ18Oapat, ‰ 87

Sr/86Sra
(bone) (bone) (bone) (enamel) (bone) (enamel) (enamel)
n = 43 n = 43 n = 42 n = 41 n = 42 n = 41 n = 40

Mean −13.6 9.4 −8.4 −5.3 −6.6 −5.5 0.70703

SD 2.3 1.3 2.6 3.0 1.1 1.4 0.00116
Minimum −20.0 7.2 −14.0 −14.4 −8.7 −8.7 0.70477
Maximum −9.8 12.2 −4.4 −1.4 −3.6 −1.5 0.71094
a
 Excludes extreme outlier (OpID 399; 87Sr/86Sr = 0.75698).
coll, collagen; apat, bioapatite.

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 Multi-isotope approaches for region-of-origin at the US–Mexico border    377

12 Mean = –13.58
Std.Dev. = 2.261
N = 43

10

8
Frequency

0
–20.00 –18.00 –16.00 –14.00 –12.00 –10.00 –8.00
δ13C Bone Collagen (‰, VPDB)

Figure 24.1  Histogram of bone collagen δ13C values (n = 43) showing a multimodal
distribution, which can be partitioned into low, medium, and high C4 diet groups.

diet). Figure 24.1 is a histogram of the 43 bone collagen δ13C values, and shows
a multimodal distribution. When this distribution is equally partitioned into low
(n = 6), medium (n = 13), and high C4 (n = 24) diet groups, 87Sr/86Sr ratios of
paired enamel and bone bioapatite δ13C values tend to cluster by group
(Figure 24.2). This suggests a relationship between the amount of C4 consumption
and geographical location.

24.5  Case studies

Two case studies are used to illustrate how a multi‐isotope approach can be used
to generate investigative leads regarding unidentified UBC cases. The first case
study (OpID 423) is an unidentified Hispanic male, 29–54 years of age, with an
estimated stature between 5 feet 2 inches and 5 feet 5 inches. His remains were
discovered in Falfurrias, Texas, in August 2010 and were buried in the Sacred
Heart Cemetery. The decedent was wearing a shirt that was made in Guatemala,
providing possible region‐of‐origin information. The δ13C values for bone collagen
(−9.8‰), bone bioapatite (−4.8‰) and enamel bioapatite (−1.7‰) indicate a diet
heavily focused on C4 resources (i.e. corn products), consistent with UBCs from
Latin America (Table  24.2). The isoscape prediction map based on enamel
­bioapatite δ18O values includes the continental US, central and southern Mexico,

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 378    Forensic science and humanitarian action

C4diet
Low C4 diet
Medium C4 diet
High C4 diet
.71000
Sr/86Sr Enamel

.70800
87

.70600

.70400

–14.00 –12.00 –10.00 –8.00 –6.00 –4.00 –2.00 .00

δ13C Bone Apatite (‰, VPDB)

Figure 24.2  Bivariate plot of bone bioapatite δ13C values (n = 40) and tooth enamel
Sr/86Sr ratios between low, medium, and high C4 diet groups.
87

Guatemala and Costa Rica (Figure 24.3). Although the isoscape prediction map
only includes Sr predictions for the US, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio (0.70568) is consistent
with known reference data for Guatemala, especially regions along the Motagua
River Valley (Hodell et al., 2004; Laffoon et al., 2017; Price et al., 2015; Wright,
2005). Although not definitive, the data cannot rule out that OpID 423 could be
a Guatemalan national.
The second case study (OpID 401‐C) is an unidentified Hispanic female,
15–21 years of age, with an estimated stature between 4 feet 9 inches and 5 feet
5 inches. Her remains were discovered in Falfurrias, Texas, in November 2011 and
were buried in the Sacred Heart Cemetery. Although clothing and other personal
effects were recovered with the remains, none pointed to a specific country or
region‐of‐origin. The δ13C values for bone collagen (−13.1‰), bone bioapatite
(−7.1‰) and enamel bioapatite (−4.7‰) indicate a dietary emphasis on C4
resources (i.e. corn products), consistent with Latin American dietary practices
(Table 24.2). However, the isoscape prediction map based on enamel bioapatite
δ18O values includes exclusively the continental US (Figure  24.4). The isoscape
prediction map also includes Sr predictions for the US, and the δ18O value and
87
Sr/86Sr ratio (0.70648) overlap primarily within areas of the Intermountain West
(Figure  24.4). However, when only the 87Sr/86Sr ratio is considered, the
measurement results could be consistent with the Motagua River Valley of
Guatemala or Copan region of Honduras (Hodell et al., 2004; Laffoon et al., 2017;

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 Table 24.2  Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and strontium SIA results for bone and tooth samples from two case studies, OpID 423
and OpID 401‐C.

δ13Ccoll, ‰ δ15Ncoll, ‰ δ13Capat, ‰ δ13Capat, ‰ δ18Oapat, ‰ δ18Oapat, ‰ Sr/86Sr

87

(bone) (bone) (bone) (enamel) (bone) (enamel) (enamel)

OpID 423 −9.8 7.9 −7.2 −1.7 −7.2 −6.1 0.70568

OpID 401‐C −13.1 8.5 −7.1 −4.7 −6.8 −8.7 0.70648

coll, collagen; apat, bioapatite.

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 380    Forensic science and humanitarian action

Predicted Region - Tooth O

Predicted Region - Tooth Sr

Regions - Consistent with both O and Sr

N Date Created: 12/20/2016
IsoForensics, Inc., 2016 Map Creator: B Tipple (tippleb@isoforensics.com)
Data: Tap water: [Bowen et al., 2007, Water
0 370 740 1,480 2,220 2,960 Resources Research, Vol. 43, W03419];
Kilometers Bedrock; [Bataille et al, 2012, Escosphere,
3(12), art.118]

Figure 24.3  Isoscape prediction map for Case Study 1 (OpID 423) using the oxygen and
strontium isotopic compositions of tooth enamel. (Water base layer data used for region‐
of‐origin prediction from Bowen et al., 2007, and Bataille and Bowen, 2012.) The
darkest gray highlighted areas indicate locations where the individual may have obtained
his drinking water (based on measured δ18O values of enamel bioapatite). The lighter
gray highlighted areas indicate locations where the individual may have obtained his
food (based on measured 87Sr/86Sr ratios of tooth enamel). The red highlighted areas
indicate locations where both O and Sr isoscape predictions overlap, representing the
most likely regions‐of‐origin. Note that oxygen SIA predicted areas within northern and
southern Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and the US for this individual. (Map created by
B.J. Tipple, IsoForensics, Inc.)

Price et al., 2015; Wright, 2005). Some possible scenarios for this residence pattern
include one in which the decedent was born in Mexico or Central America, lived
in the US for some period of time, and then traveled back or was deported to a
Mexican/Central American location from the US, before dying in an attempt to
re‐cross the border into Texas. Additional Sr isotope measurement results on the
bone would be useful in this case, since it may indicate whether she moved bet-
ween childhood and adulthood. This case highlights the complexity of predicting
region‐of‐origin given that different isotope systems can be consistent with more
than one location. At this point in time, there is not enough information to narrow
the region of origin for OpID 401‐C, so several possible scenarios should be
considered.

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 Multi-isotope approaches for region-of-origin at the US–Mexico border    381

Predicted Region - Tooth O

Predicted Region - Tooth Sr

Regions - Consistent with both O and Sr

N
Date Created: 12/20/2016
IsoForensics, Inc., 2016 Map Creator: B Tipple (tippleb@isoforensics.com)
Data: Tap water: [Bowen et al., 2007, Water
0 370 740 1,480 2,220 2,960 Resources Research, Vol. 43, W03419];
Kilometers Bedrock; [Bataille et al, 2012, Escosphere,
3(12), art.118]

Figure 24.4  Isoscape prediction map for Case Study 2 (OpID 401‐C) using the oxygen
and strontium isotopic compositions of tooth enamel. (Water base layer data used for
region‐of‐origin prediction from Bowen et al., 2007, and Bataille and Bowen, 2012.) The
darkest gray highlighted areas indicate locations where the individual may have obtained
her drinking water (based on measured δ18O values of enamel bioapatite). The lighter
gray highlighted areas indicate locations where the individual may have obtained her
food (based on measured 87Sr/86Sr ratios of tooth enamel). The red highlighted areas
indicate locations where both O and Sr isotope predictions overlap, representing the
most likely regions‐of‐origin. Note that oxygen SIA predicted a US origin for this
individual, which is further supported based on available strontium data for the US.
(Map created by B.J. Tipple, IsoForensics, Inc.)

24.6  Summary and future research directions

Stable isotope analysis is a useful investigative tool that can aid in the identification
effort of deceased undocumented border crossers by narrowing down probable
regions‐of‐origin. In this study, we identified a clear dietary emphasis on C4
resources (i.e. corn products), as well as dietary continuity between childhood
and adulthood among the UBC remains recovered from Texas analysed to date.
The case studies presented highlight the value of a multi‐isotope approach for
predicting region‐of‐origin, as well as some of the complexities involved with
reconstructing the life and travel history of UBCs. For migrants who cross the

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 382    Forensic science and humanitarian action

US–Mexico border, we assumed that food and water were most likely consumed
locally at their place of origin. However, we recognize that the development of a
global supermarket economy and the increased use of bottled water may hinder
our efforts in using stable isotopes as geolocation tools. The addition of strontium
isotope baseline maps and a representative sample of tap water from different
regions within Latin America will aid in narrowing down provenance predictions
for future case work.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Roberto Parra, Sara Zapico and Douglas Ubelaker
for their kind invitation to contribute to this volume. We thank Kate Spradley,
Tim Gocha, Danny Wescott and Krista Latham for their assistance with the collec-
tion of isotope samples and contextual data. We thank Sam Mijal, Alina Tichinin
and Vanessa Reeves for preparing collagen and bioapatite samples. Special thanks
to Thuan Chau and Michael Lott of IsoForensics, Inc. for their assistance with
analysing the strontium, oxygen and carbon isotope ratios of bone and tooth sam-
ples, and to Dr Joy Matthews of the UC Davis Stable Isotope Facility for analysing
bone collagen samples for carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios. Funding was
provided through the AAFS Humanitarian and Human Rights Resource Award
and through the California State University, Chico’s David Lantis Award.

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