Univ. Sci. 2015, Vol.

20 (2): 261-278
doi: 10.11144/Javeriana.SC20-2.mdas
Freely available on line

original paper

Mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests a Chibchan

migration into Colombia
María Claudia Noguera-Santamaría1, 2, 5 , Carl Edlund Anderson3, Daniel Uricoechea2,
Clemencia Durán1, Ignacio Briceño-Balcázar1, 2, Jaime Bernal Villegas1, 4

Abstract
The characterization of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) allows the establishment of genetic structures and
phylogenetic relationships in human populations, tracing lineages far back in time. We analysed samples of
mtDNA from twenty (20) Native American populations (700 individuals) dispersed throughout Colombian
territory. Samples were collected during 1989-1993 in the context of the program Expedición Humana (“Human
Expedition”) and stored in the Biological Repository of the Institute of Human Genetics (IGH) at the Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colombia). Haplogroups were determined by analysis of RFLPs. Most frequent
was haplogroup A, with 338 individuals (48.3%). Haplogroup A is also one of the most frequent haplogroups
in Mesoamerica, and we interpret our finding as supporting models that propose Chibchan-speaking groups
migrated to northern Colombia from Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. Haplogroup C was found in 199
individuals (28.4%), while less frequent were B and D, with 113 and 41 (16% and 6%) individuals, respectively.
The haplogroups of nine (9) individuals (1.3%) could not be determined due to the low quality of the samples of
DNA. Although all the sampled populations had genetic structures that fit broadly into the patterns that might
be expected for contemporary Central and South American indigenous groups, it was found that haplogroups A
and B were more frequent in northern Colombia, while haplogroups C and D were more frequent in southern
and south-western Colombia.
Keywords: mtDNA; Native Americans; human migrations; Colombia; South America; haplogroups, RFLP
Method - Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism

Edited by Alberto Acosta & Juan Carlos Salcedo-Reyes

1. Instituto de Genética Humana, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana. Bogotá, Colombia. Introduction
2. Grupo de Genética Humana, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de
La Sabana. Chía, Colombia Traditionally, studies of the demographic history of
3. Department of Foreign Languages & Cultures, Universidad de La
Sabana. Chía, Colombia
human populations were based on archaeological
4. Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar. Cartagena, Colombia records and historical documents. During the later
5. Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud. Grupo Gisafaco. Corporación 20th century, these approaches were supplemented by
Universitaria Remington. Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia. studies of classical genetic markers, such as ABO blood
Received: 20-10-2014 Accepted: 01-07-2015 groups and HLA loci. More recently, it has become
Published on line: 09-07-2015 possible to use the direct analysis of autosomal DNA,
Citation: Noguera-Santamaría MC, Anderson CE, Uricoechea D, the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome
Durán C, Briceño-Balcázar I, Bernal-Villegas J (2015) Mitochondrial (NRY DNA), and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to
DNA analysis suggests a Chibchan migration into Colombia. Universitas
Scientiarum 20(2): 261-278 doi: 10.11144/Javeriana.SC20-2.mdas study the genetic structure of human populations in
Funding: Institute of Human Genetics – Pontificia Universidad greater detail. mtDNA, inherited through the maternal
Javeriana. line, has certain properties that make it a valuable tool
Electronic supplementary material: Suppl. 1-3 for analysing variability among human populations

Universitas Scientiarum, Journal of the Faculty of Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, is licensed under the Creative Commons 4.0 of Colombia: Attribution - Noncommercial - No Derivative Works.
262
(Wallace et al. 1999, Ingman et al. 2000). Analysis of
mtDNA haplogroups makes it possible to distinguish
particular maternal lineages within populations,
offering new opportunities for the comparison of these
results with those from archaeological, anatomical, and
linguistic approaches.
Peopling of the Americas
It has long been understood that the Americas were
most likely populated by migration from Asia across
what is now the Bering Strait. Genetic, anatomical,
and archaeological studies have proposed various
models regarding the origin and number of prehistoric
migrations from Asia to the Americas (Stone &
Stoneking 1998). Some have proposed a single wave
of migration (Bonatto & Salzano 1997, Fagundes et al.
2008, Hooshiar Kashani et al. 2012), while others have
supported two (Torroni et al. 1992, Horai et al. 1993,
Pitblado 2011) or three (Greenberg et al. 1986, Reich
et al. 2012) migratory waves. Moreover, previous work
has determined the presence of the four principal
founding mtDNA haplogroups (A, B, C, and D; X is
also found in low frequencies) among contemporary
Native Americans derived from Asian populations
(Schurr et al. 1990, Torroni et al. 1992, 1993a, 1994,
Horai et al. 1993, Brown et al. 1998, Malhi et al. 2003,
Lewis et al. 2005). Analysis of mtDNA sequences
has provided not only a high level of resolution,
confirming the Asian origin of Native Americans, but
also time estimates for migrations into the Americas
from Asia (Luiselli et al. 2000, O’Rourke & Raff 2010,
Hooshiar Kashani et al. 2012). It now seems probable
that the first American populations left north-eastern
Asia as much as 30,000 years before the present (ybp),
perhaps pausing in Beringia for some 15,000 years,
during which time new mutations separated the New
World lineages from their Asian relations, before
then moving into the Americas proper (Torroni et al.
1993a, 1993b, Forster et al. 1996, Tamm et al. 2007,
Goebel et al. 2008, Hooshiar Kashani et al. 2012). It
is possible that two further migrational pulses from
Asia contributed to populations speaking Eskimo–
Aleut languages and to the Canadian Chipewyan
people, who speak a Na-Dene language (Goebel et al.
2008, Reich et al. 2012). The remainder of the Native
American population, however, would seem to be
descended from the initial Asian migration.
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
Chibchan mitochondrial DNA
This scenario recalls Greenberg’s controversial
proposals (Greenberg et al. 1986, 1987, Greenberg &
Ruhlen 1992), which elaborated on an theory originally
developed by Sapir (1916) and which has since been
sustained by Ruhlen (1994), that Native American
languages can be divided in three linguistic macro-
families: Amerind, Eskimo-Aleut, and Na Dene.
This analysis has, however, been strongly criticized
on methodological grounds (Bolnick et al. 2004), and
the conservative consensus among contemporary
linguists recognizes a large number of as-yet distinct
American language families (Campbell 1997). South
America alone is understood to contain some 108
separate language families and isolates (Campbell 2012,
Muysken & O’Connor 2014). Although linguistic
analysis can be a powerful tool to aid in reconstructing
human prehistory (Amorim et al. 2013), and there has
accordingly been much recent interest in comparing
linguistic and genetics studies, it is critical to represent
patterns of both genetic and linguistic variation
accurately if such work is to contribute usefully to our
understanding (Szathmary 1984). Moreover, it must be
remembered that it is not uncommon for populations
to shift languages—or for ethnicity (and language)
to be shared across populations of diverse genetic
heritage. In the case of American languages, analysis
has long been hampered by poor and limited data, and
reassessment of higher-level relationships may need to
await the collection of more and better information.
Nevertheless, in recent decades considerable progress
has been made in clarifying the relationships between
at least some American languages, offering fresh
opportunities for comparison with the results of
archaeological, anatomical, and genetic studies.
Peopling of South America
Regarding indigenous South American populations,
studies of autosomal microsatellite markers
have revealed a pattern of progressively reduced
heterozygosity from north to south and from west to
east (Wang et al. 2007). Most models for the peopling
of South America take one of two basic forms. One
of these assumes that an initial migration into the
continent progressed south from Mesoamerica along
the Andes, thereafter expanding eastward at various
points. The other assumes that the initial migration
from Mesoamerica split into easterly and westerly
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Noguera-Santamaría et al.
groups in the northern part of the continent, thereafter
progressing southward separately (Bodner et al. 2012).
There are also questions about the possibilities of later
population pulses (Lewis et al. 2007), as in the case
of Chibchan speakers (see below), who seem to have
entered northern South America from Mesoamerica
sometime during the Holocene (Constenla Umaña
1995, Melton et al. 2007). Ultimately, no real consensus
on how South America was initially peopled has
been reached. Research using data from modern
populations is complicated by the fact that, although
some populations (e.g. that of Venezuela) reveal
relatively high frequencies of indigenous haplogroups,
many indigenous South American populations have
been impacted by significant inflows of European and
African genes over the last 500 years (Salas et al. 2004,
Mendizabal et al. 2008, Catelli et al. 2011, Gómez-
Carballa et al. 2012).
Chibchan-speaking populations of
Mesoamerica and northern South America
Modern speakers of Chibchan languages are dispersed
across lower Mesoamerica and northern South
America. In recent decades, a sound understanding
of the Chibchan language family has been established
(Constenla Umaña 1981, 1991, 2005, 2008, Quesada
2007) and complemented by archaeological studies
(Lange & Stone 1984, Bray 2003, Hoopes & Fonseca
Z 2003, Hoopes 2005) that, taken together, indicate
Chibchan-speaking populations originated in
Mesoamerica, spreading to northern South America
in prehistoric times. Studies of mtDNA diversity
amongst modern Mesoamerican Chibchan-speakers
have found they are characterized by high frequencies
of haplogroup A (>65%), markedly lower frequencies
of B (20–30%), very low frequencies of D, and
absence of C (Santos & Barrantes 1994, Torroni
et al. 1994, Batista et al. 1995, Kolman et al. 1995,
Kolman & Bermingham 1997). However, a study
by Melton et al. (2007) shows that although modern
Chibchan-speaking populations in Colombia’s
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM) likewise have
high frequencies of haplogroup A (>65%), they
also have moderate frequencies of C (<35%), and
very low frequencies of B as well as D (<7.5%, if
present). Thus, Chibchan populations seem most
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
263
prominently characterized by haplogroup A (common
in Mesoamerica) and moreover show strong genetic
affinities with contemporary Mayan-speakers (Melton
et al. 2007). The secondary frequency of haplogroup
C distinguishes the Chibchan-speakers of Colombia’s
SNSM from Mesoamerican Chibchan-speakers, in
whom B is found at similar frequencies. Haplogroup
C is rare in other southern Mesoamerican populations
(Kolman & Bermingham 1997) but common in other
South American populations (Keyeux et al. 2002).
Moreover, haplogroup D is common in northern
South America (Lalueza-Fox 1996, Lalueza-Fox et al.
1997) though not amongst either Mesoamerican or
Colombian SNSM Chibchan-speakers.
Indigenous populations of contemporary
and prehistoric Colombia
In Colombia, recent estimates suggest that around
68 indigenous American languages, classified into
13 language families and 8 language isolates, are still
spoken by perhaps some 700,000 people (Landaburu
2005). Presently, the state recognizes over 80 ethnic
minority groups (including Afro-Colombian and
Romani-speaking groups), scattered throughout the
country in both rural and urban contexts (Rojas et al.
2010). There is a considerable amount of variation in
the scientific literature with regards to the nomenclature
for American languages and ethnic groups. The present
study uses (Spanish-language) names that align with
the labelling practices of the Biological Repository
of the Institute of Human Genetics (IGH) at the
Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colombia),
from which the samples used in the study were drawn.
For guidance on correspondences between the names
used in the present study and other common names
frequently used to identify the same ethnic groups
in English-language publications in linguistics and
anthropology, see Supplementary material 3 (and,
further, Adelaar & Muysken 2004 p 66).
Since the 1980s, genetic and clinical studies of
molecular HLA antigens (Bernal et al. 1995), as well as
of mtDNA and Y chromosomes (Keyeux et al. 2002,
Melton et al. 2007, Rondón et al. 2008, Noguera 2012,
Noguera et al. 2014), have shed fresh light on the genetic
structures of Colombian populations, revealing a high
degree of admixture between populations of different
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264
origins and a clear vision of antigenic diversity
(Briceño et al. 1996). Some results from the analysis
of nucleotide diversity amongst these groups suggest
past population bottlenecks, followed by later recovery
(Mitchell et al. 2000). Post-bottleneck populations
tend to reveal low genetic variability, and the original
proportion of alleles in the general population may
have changed considerably. There can be significant
frequencies of African haplogroups within modern
Colombian indigenous populations, especially in areas
bordering the Caribbean and Pacific coasts, and some
effects of genetic isolation can be seen through high
frequencies of mtDNA haplogroup L, attributed to
the results of the trans-Atlantic slave trade (Nuñez et
al. 2010). In contrast, northwestern Colombia reveals
a high frequency of European Y chromosomes
alongside a similarly high frequency of indigenous
mtDNA (Carvajal-Carmona et al. 2000). Other studies
suggest that some individuals lacking specific markers
for major South American haplogroups could belong
to haplogroup X, usually found in North American
indigenous populations (Forster et al. 1996, Malhi &
Smith 2002, Malhi et al. 2003, Ribeiro-dos-Santos et
al. 2013).
Besides studies of modern populations, several
studies of ancient Colombian DNA have recently
been conducted. Remains from 11 individuals interred
near Bogotá c. 2,000 ybp were found to belong
exclusively to haplogroup B (Silva et al. 2008). In
contrast, analysis of remains from 16 individuals from
a nearby location in southwestern Bogotá, but dating
from the immediate pre-Colonial period (c. 400-1000
ybp), revealed a mix of haplotypes A and B (Jara et
al. 2010). Given the association of haplogroup A
with both Central and South American Chibchan-
speaking populations (Melton et al. 2007), this change
in haplogroup patterns over time within the same
geographical area has been associated with an influx of
Chibchan speakers (Jara et al. 2010). In contrast, analysis
of comparably aged (c. 860 ybp) remains from 17
individuals from the southern parts of the Department
of Santander associated with the Colonial-era Guane
people (of unknown linguistic affiliation) revealed
higher frequencies of haplogroup B (41%), slightly
lower frequencies of haplogroup A (35%), and lower
frequencies of haplogroup D (24%) (Casas-Vargas et
al. 2011). Accordingly, it may be that the (pre )Colonial
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
Chibchan mitochondrial DNA
Guane represented descendants of an earlier non-
Chibchan-speaking population, characterized by high
proportions of haplogroup B, that had more recently
also received an influx of haplogroup A, perhaps from
the neighboring Chibchan-speaking populations of
the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. The Guane are known
to have had trade relations with Chibchan-speaking
Muisca of the (pre )Colonial Altiplano (Langebaek
Rueda 1985, Lleras Pérez & Langebaek Rueda 1987,
Pérez 1990) and conceivably had other kinds of
relations with them as well.
The present study
Colombia occupies a pivotal juncture between
Central and South America, where peoples from the
Mesoamerican, Caribbean, Amazonian, and Andean
regions have all interacted (Constenla Umaña 1991).
Despite an increased pace of research in recent
decades, many questions remain about the form
and sequence of population movements, as well as
prehistoric cultural and linguistic shifts, in the region.
The present paper reports on a study that analyzed
restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
to identify the mtDNA haplogroups associated with
various indigenous Colombian groups in order to
establish their genetic structures and consider possible
relationships between haplogroup frequencies and
linguistic affiliations, particularly to reexamine proposed
relationships between the extent of the Chibchan
language family and high frequencies of haplogroup
A. All results from this study were based only on the
analysis of mtDNA haplogroups; haplotypes were
determined only as a quality control.
Materials and methods
Population samples
For this study, we analyzed mtDNA from twenty (20)
Native American populations dispersed throughout
Colombia (Figure 1), sampling 700 individuals. The
majority of the samples was collected during 1989-
1993 within the context of the Expedición Humana
project and stored in the Human Biological Repository
of the Institute of Human Genetics (IHG), Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colombia). Another
group of 282 samples had been collected separately
from the Arsario, Coreguaje, Embera, Ijka, Kogui,
and Wayuu populations by Ignacio Briceño in the
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Noguera-Santamaría et al. 265

context of his doctoral research (Briceño 1998), were obtained with informed consent and donated
but these samples are included within the context voluntarily. Data derived from samples collected in
of the Expedición Humana project (see Table 1 and Somalia were compiled using MITOMAP (Derbeneva
Supplementary material 3). All human samples et al. 2010, Lott et al. 2013).

Table 1. Native American populations included in the study. Note [1] to Table 1: Samples collected in Somalia were compiled using
MITOMAP (Derbeneva et al. 2010, Lott et al. 2013).

Department (of Colombia) or country

Native American group Number of sampled individuals Latitude and longitude
(for non-Colombian out-group)
11° 18′ 80.19″ N,
Arsario 50 Magdalena 73° 52′ 99.36″ W
6° 64′ 56.97″ N,
Butaregua 32 Santander 73° 19′ 50.67″ W
10° 54′ 74.61 N,
Chilmila 41 Magdalena 74° 14′ 96.33″ W
1° 10′ 59.11″ N,
Coreguaje 45 Caquetá 75° 40′ 82.47″ W
2° 83′ 44.97″ N,
Embera 45 Chocó 77° 52′ 04.47″ W
4° 43′ 39.36″ N,
Guahibo 49 Casanare, Arauca 71° 91′ 53.08″ W
2° 60′ 54.42″ N,
Guambiano 34 Cauca 72° 34′ 47.14″ W
6° 68′ 31.56″ N,
Guane 16 Santander 73° 24′ 99.72″ W
2° 85′ 94.03″ N,
Guayabero 40 Guaviare 72° 38′ 87.97″ W
0° 60′ 96.94″ N,
Huitoto 23 Putumayo 72° 38′ 87.97″ W
10° 46′ 65.72″ N,
Ijka 40 Magdalena 73° 58′ 34.44″ W
0° 28′ 20.11″ N,
Ingano 23 Putumayo 76° 99′ 63.08″ W
11° 05′ 59.75″ N,
Kogui 50 Cauca 73° 63′ 70.92″ W
0° 61′ 59.17″ N,
Murui-Muinane 18 Putumayo 72° 25′ 01.78″ W
2° 57′ 91.22″ N,
Páez 38 Cauca 75° 98′ 14.11″ W
0° 96′ 66.67″ N,
Pasto (Awá) 39 Nariño 77° 70′ 04.78″ W
1° 24′ 92.81″ N,
Tukano 17 Vaupés 70° 24′ 17.86″ W
11° 97′ 93.28″ N,
Wayuu 52 Guajira 72° 19′ 67.06″ W
10° 03′ 36.81″ N,
Yuco 61 César 73° 09′ 33.33″ W
10° 43′ 91.58″ N,
Zenú 15 Sucre 74° 91′ 22.08″ W
TOTAL SAMPLES 700
7° 01′ 16.39″ N,
Somalian [1] 100 Somalia 45° 25′ 78.11″ W

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266 Chibchan mitochondrial DNA

DNA extraction polymerase chain reaction (choice of template

DNA from the population samples was extracted
through the phenol-chloroform method. Salting out
was used for the extraction of the control samples,
due to the ease of implementation, low toxicity of
reagents, and facility of visualizing the DNA (Miller
et al. 1988).
mtDNA analysis
mtDNA was analyzed by RFLPs using primers based
on Stone & Stoneking (1998) to identify haplogroups
A, B, C, and D. In the present study, conditions for
DNA, enzyme, dNTPs, magnesium chloride, and the
necessary concentrations of each) were standardized.
Hypervariable region I (HVR-I) was analyzed by
sequencing DNA randomly for a small percentage
(5%) as quality control. These samples were analyzed
using primers based on Prieto et al. (2011) (see Table
2).
RFLP analysis defined existing haplogroups (the
four founding haplogroups, A–D), according to three
restriction sites, and a deletion in intergenic region
5. We analyzed the markers that define the founding
Amerindian haplogroups as follows:

Table 2. Polymorphic sites hypervariable region I, HVR-I (random sequencing of 15 samples). Note [1] to Table 2: This table was
prepared using MitoTool (Fan & Yao 2011, 2013).

Individuals Hg 16114 16189 16217 16223 16290 16298 16319 16325 16327 16362
Butaregua 11 A C→T G→A T→C
Butaregua 13 B T→C T→C
Butaregua 19 B T→C T→C
Butaregua 2-33 A C→T G→A T→C
Butaregua 2-39 D C→T T→C
Guane 2-20 A2 C→T G→A T→C
Guane 21 A2 C→T G→A T→C
Guane 2-14 A2 C→T G→A T→C
Guane 19 C1 T→C T→C C→T
Pasto 175 B T→C T→C
Pasto 1-X A C→T G→A T→C
Pasto 234 C1 T→C T→C C→T
Pasto 247 A C→T G→A C→T
Pasto 44 A C→T C→T G→A
Pasto 232 D C→T T→C T→C

Name Variants Haplogroup Possible Sub Haplogroups

16290T, A1, A2, A2b, A2c, A2d, A2d1, A2d2, A2ao, A2f, A2f3, A2g, A2g1, A2h, A2j, A2j1, A2k, A2k1, A2k1a, A2l,
Butaregua11 16319A, A A2n, A2o, A2t, A2w, A2x, A2ag, A2ah, A2ak, A2an, A2r, A2r1, A6, A6a, A6b, A13, A14, A15, A15a, A15c,
16362C A15c1, A17, A18, A20, A21, A22,
B4, B4b'd'e'j, B4b, B2, B2a, B2a1, B2a1a, B2a1a1, B2a1b, B2a2, B2a3, B2a4, B2a4a, B2b, B2b3, B2c, B2c1,
16189C,
Butaregua13 B B2c1a, B2c1b, B2c1c, B2c2, B2d, B2e, B2f, B2g, B2g2, B2h, B2i, B2i2, B2i2b, B2k, B2l, B2n, B2o, B2p, B2q,
16217C
B2r, B4d, B4d1'2'3, B4d1, B4d1a, B4d2, B4e, B4c, B4c1, B4c1a'b, B4c1a, B4c1a2, B4c1a2a, B4c1c
B4, B4b'd'e'j, B4b, B2, B2a, B2a1, B2a1a, B2a1a1, B2a1b, B2a2, B2a3, B2a4, B2a4a, B2b, B2b3, B2c, B2c1,
16189C,
Butaregua19 B B2c1a, B2c1b, B2c1c, B2c2, B2d, B2e, B2f, B2g, B2g2, B2h, B2i, B2i2, B2i2b, B2k, B2l, B2n, B2o, B2p, B2q,
16217C
B2r, B4d, B4d1'2'3, B4d1, B4d1a, B4d2, B4e, B4c, B4c1, B4c1a'b, B4c1a, B4c1a2, B4c1a2a, B4c1c

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Noguera-Santamaría et al. 267

Name Variants Haplogroup Possible Sub Haplogroups

16290T, A1, A2, A2b, A2c, A2d, A2d1, A2d2, A2ao, A2f, A2f3, A2g, A2g1, A2h, A2j, A2j1, A2k, A2k1, A2k1a, A2l,
Butaregua2-33 16319A, A A2n, A2o, A2t, A2w, A2x, A2ag, A2ah, A2ak, A2an, A2r, A2r1, A6, A6a, A6b, A13, A14, A15, A15a, A15c,
16362C A15c1, A17, A18, A20, A21, A22,
D, D4, D4b, D4b2, D4b2a, D4b2a2, D4b2a2b, D4b2b, D4b2b1, D4b2b1a, D4b2b1b, D4b2b1c, D4b2b1d,
D4b2b2, D4b2b2a, D4b2b2a1, D4b2b3, D4b2b4, D4b2b5, D4b2b6, D4e, D4e1'3, D4e1, D4e1a, D4e1a2,
16362C, D4e1a2a, D4e1a3, D4e1c, D4e3, D4e2, D4e2a, D4e2b, D4e2c, D4e2d, D4e4, D4e4a, D4e4b, D4f, D4f1,
Butaregua2-39 D
16223T D4g, D4g2, D4g2b, D4g2b1, D4g2b1a, D4h, D4h4, D4j, D4j1, D4j1a, D4j1a1, D4j1a1a, D4j1a1b, D4j1b,
D4j1b2, D4j4, D4j5, D4j6, D4j13, D4j7, D4j7a, D4j9, D4j10, D4j12, D4j15, D4j16, D4p, D4p1, D4l, D4l1,
D4l2, D4l2a, D4l2b, D4m, D4m2, D4s, D4t
16290T, A1, A2, A2b, A2c, A2d, A2d1, A2d2, A2ao, A2f, A2f3, A2g, A2g1, A2h, A2j, A2j1, A2k, A2k1, A2k1a, A2l,
Guane2-20 16319A, A2 A2n, A2o, A2t, A2w, A2x, A2ag, A2ah, A2ak, A2an, A2r, A2r1, A6, A6a, A6b, A13, A14, A15, A15a, A15c,
16362C A15c1, A17, A18, A20, A21, A22, R7
16290T, A1, A2, A2b, A2c, A2d, A2d1, A2d2, A2ao, A2f, A2f3, A2g, A2g1, A2h, A2j, A2j1, A2k, A2k1, A2k1a, A2l,
Guane21 16319A, A2 A2n, A2o, A2t, A2w, A2x, A2ag, A2ah, A2ak, A2an, A2r, A2r1, A6, A6a, A6b, A13, A14, A15, A15a, A15c,
16362C A15c1, A17, A18, A20, A21, A22, R7
16290T, A1, A2, A2b, A2c, A2d, A2d1, A2d2, A2ao, A2f, A2f3, A2g, A2g1, A2h, A2j, A2j1, A2k, A2k1, A2k1a, A2l,
Guane2-14 16319A, A2 A2n, A2o, A2t, A2w, A2x, A2ag, A2ah, A2ak, A2an, A2r, A2r1, A6, A6a, A6b, A13, A14, A15, A15a, A15c,
16362C A15c1, A17, A18, A20, A21, A22, R7
16298C, C1, C1b, C1b1, C1b2, C1b3, C1b5, C1b5a, C1b9, C1b12, C1b13, C1b13a, C1b13a1, C1b13b, C1b13c,
Guane19 16325C, C1 C1b13c1, C1b13d, C1b13e, C1c, C1c1, C1c1a, C1c1b, C1c2, C1c5, C1d, C1d1, C1d1a, C1d1a1, C1d1b,
16327T C1d1b1, C1d2, C1f
B4, B4b'd'e'j, B4b, B2, B2a, B2a1, B2a1a, B2a1a1, B2a1b, B2a2, B2a3, B2a4, B2a4a, B2b, B2b3, B2c, B2c1,
16189C,
Pasto175 B B2c1a, B2c1b, B2c1c, B2c2, B2d, B2e, B2f, B2g, B2g2, B2h, B2i, B2i2, B2i2b, B2k, B2l, B2n, B2o, B2p, B2q,
16217C
B2r, B4d, B4d1'2'3, B4d1, B4d1a, B4d2, B4e, B4c, B4c1, B4c1a'b, B4c1a, B4c1a2, B4c1a2a, B4c1c
16290T, A1, A2, A2b, A2c, A2d, A2d1, A2d2, A2ao, A2f, A2f3, A2g, A2g1, A2h, A2j, A2j1, A2k, A2k1, A2k1a, A2l,
Pasto1X 16319A, A A2n, A2o, A2t, A2w, A2x, A2ag, A2ah, A2ak, A2an, A2r, A2r1, A6, A6a, A6b, A13, A14, A15, A15a, A15c,
16362C A15c1, A17, A18, A20, A21, A22
16325C, C1, C1b, C1b1, C1b2, C1b3, C1b5, C1b5a, C1b9, C1b12, C1b13, C1b13a, C1b13a1, C1b13b, C1b13c,
Pasto234 16298C, C1 C1b13c1, C1b13d, C1b13e, C1c, C1c1, C1c1a, C1c1b, C1c2, C1c5, C1d, C1d1, C1d1a, C1d1a1, C1d1b,
16327T C1d1b1, C1d2, C1f
16290T,
Pasto247 A A, A3, A3a, A9, A5, A5b
16319A
16114T,
Pasto44 16290T, A A, A3, A3a, A9, A5, A5b
16319A
16290T,
D1, D1a, D1a2, D1b, D1c, D1d, D1d1, D1d2, D1e, D1g4, D1i, D1i1, D1i2, D1k, D1n, D4o,
Pasto232 16325C, D
D4o2
16362C

Haplogroup A. i) Restriction enzyme Hae III. ii) Site
gain in nt663 and formation of fragments of 121, 66,
38, and 17 base pairs (bp).
Haplogroup B. i) 9-deletion base pairs [bp] in COII/
tRNALys.
Haplogroup C. i) Restriction enzyme Hinc II. ii) DNA
fragment of 181 base pair (bp), a loss of a HincII site
at position 13259, and formation of fragments of 155
and 26 bp.
Haplogroup D. i) Restriction enzyme Alu I. ii) DNA
fragment of 183 base pair (bp) present cleavage site
loss Alu site, position 5,176.
The amplification reaction to 700 samples had a
final volume of 20 μL, with 18.5 μL of a master mix
(Green Master Mix, Promega, 0.5 μM of each primer
(1μL), and 1.5 μL of sample. DNA amplification
conditions proceeded in an initial denaturation at 94
°C for 15 minutes, followed by denaturation at 94 °C
for 60 seconds, annealing at 51 °C for 60 seconds in
haplogroup A, 54.3 °C for haplogroups B, C and D,
and extension at 72 °C for 60 seconds. Final extension
at 72 °C for 5 minutes was included. Each region
was independently examined. PCR products were
separated by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels
and detected by ultraviolet irradiation after staining
with ethidium bromide.

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268
Data Analysis
F-statistics (Fst distances), were calculated using the
Arlequin 3.5.1.2 software (Excoffier et al. 2005); see
Supplementary material 1 and 2. An inter-analysis,
based on the parameters of haplogroup diversity,
was performed between each of the pairs of groups
(individuals and/or populations) based on the
methods of Tajima (1989) and Nei & Kumar (2000,
Fig. 1. Map of Colombia showing geographic location of the Native American populations considered in this study and their mtDNA
haplogroups.
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
Chibchan mitochondrial DNA
ll. 284-286). We constructed a dendrogram outlining
phylogeny or evolutionary kinship between the
populations studied and in comparison to an African
(Somali) population. This tree was constructed with
the unweighted pair group method using arithmetic
averages (UPGMA) (see, for example, Sneath &
Sokal 1973), one of the most widely used methods
of clustering of taxa or populations. Percentages of
different mitochondrial haplogroups (see Figure 1)
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Noguera-Santamaría et al. 269

and Fst values for twenty (20) Colombian indigenous Alignment of sequences
populations were calculated (see Table 3 and
Supplementary material 3). Sequences were aligned with the revised Cambridge
Reference Sequence (rCRS) (Anderson et al. 1981,

Table 3. Genetic distances among the 20 sampled populations (pairwise Fst).

Wayuu
Butaregua

Butaregua

0.00077
Zenu

0.04462 -0.00381
Zenu
Coreguaje

Coreguaje

0.05315 -0.00179 0.03129

Guambiano

Guambiano

0.07382 -0.00122 0.03579 -0.0068

Tukano

Tukano

0.01204 -0.01665 0.04423 0.00744 -0.00609

Huitoto

Huitoto

0.01413 -0.00852 0.03796 0.03729 0.01439 -0.05698

Pasto

0.04997 0.05438 0.09623 0.14494 0.11123 0.02452 -0.00586

Pasto
Ingano

Ingano

-0.00184 0.01631 0.02902 0.10205 0.09921 0.01782 -0.00729 -0.00468

Kogui

Kogui

0.08181 0.10878 0.07426 0.21119 0.21112 0.14751 0.10574 0.06442 0.00185

Arsario

Arsario

0.11213 0.15609 0.13503 0.26716 0.26634 0.19299 0.14573 0.07683 0.02239 -0.01272
Paez

0.10158 0.17557 0.21319 0.29123 0.29044 0.18169 0.14069 0.05904 0.0342 0.04893 0.02623
Paez
Chimila

Chimila

0.27875 0.39301 0.48139 0.5 0.5077 0.42392 0.3855 0.22873 0.23825 0.22752 0.1798 0.05265
Ijka

0.37637 0.4914 0.60426 0.58642 0.59535 0.55367 0.5123 0.30064 0.3401 0.26126 0.20026 0.12609 0.06812
Ijka
Guahibo

Guahibo

0.31562 0.42237 0.49844 0.52668 0.53182 0.46296 0.4164 0.2385 0.25466 0.2031 0.14606 0.06388 0.02004 -0.00737
Guane

Guane

0.0322 0.1181 0.19784 0.22863 0.24158 0.12339 0.10572 0.06167 0.02459 0.09628 0.09229 0.00038 0.11351 0.30892 0.19909
Yuco

Yuco

0.18717 0.30197 0.39457 0.39869 0.41575 0.30995 0.29221 0.20443 0.19435 0.2548 0.23498 0.09106 0.09474 0.27506 0.20543 0.01098
Murui Muinane

Murui Muinane

-0.00883 0.03031 0.12266 0.09873 0.10301 -0.0056 -0.00648 0.01692 0.00614 0.13177 0.1544 0.08445 0.27727 0.44113 0.34502 0.00062 0.1345
Guayabero

Guayabero

0.1193 0.22574 0.34294 0.32881 0.34496 0.22422 0.21592 0.15919 0.14445 0.24281 0.23699 0.09364 0.16531 0.40456 0.29507 -0.02155 -0.02035 0.05684
Embera

Embera

0.06262 0.14356 0.23822 0.22729 0.24155 0.12512 0.11985 0.0968 0.08273 0.18486 0.18723 0.08018 0.18058 0.33452 0.26434 -0.01809 0.03548 -0.00259 -0.01551
Somalie

0.28657 0.292 0.35389 0.34236 0.32151 0.26933 0.2676 0.2625 0.28879 0.3673 0.37852 0.3362 0.43088 0.49331 0.46088 0.2924 0.37148 0.24427 0.32212 0.28511

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270
Andrews et al. 1999) using MitoTool (Fan & Yao
2011, 2013). For each of the samples, changes were
determined relative to the rCRS.
Results and discussion
Haplogroups, origins and affiliations of
indigenous Colombia populations
Results of the analysis of mitochondrial DNA (see
Table 2 and Figure 1) show that haplogroup A was most
frequent, found in 338 individuals (48.3%), followed
by haplogroup C, found in 199 individuals (28.4%).
Less frequent were haplogroups B and D, found in
113 and 41 (16% and 6%) individuals, respectively.
The haplogroups of nine (9) individuals (1.3%) could
not be determined due to the low quality of the DNA.
We found higher frequencies of haplogroups A and
B in populations from northern (and mid-western)
Fig. 2. UPGMA cladogram + majority rule consensus tree in
the populations studied.
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
Chibchan mitochondrial DNA
Colombia, and higher frequencies of haplogroups C
and D in populations from southern Colombia (Figure
1). We constructed a phylogenetic tree to show the
genetic distances between populations (Figure 2). The
cladogram reveals four (4) genetically defined branches.
The first of these groups is characterized by the
predominance of haplogroup C. It includes the Wayuu
population (Arawakan-speaking), the Koreguaje
and Tukano populations (Tucanoan-speaking),
the Guambiano population (Barbacoan-speaking),
the Huitoto population (speaking a Bora–Huitoto
language), the Butaregua population (self-identified
as descendants of the extinct Guane, whose language
was of unknown affiliation), and the Zenú population
(language extinct and of unknown affiliation). Here, it
is significant to note the high frequency of C within
the Arawakan-speaking Wayuu population, despite
their close geographic proximity to the Chibchan-
speaking populations of the SNSM (consisting of
the Ijka, Kogui, and Arsario) in which haplogroup A
predominates (Melton et al. 2007). The prevalence of
C amongst the Wayuu may also support the notion
that they share genetic affinity with other indigenous
groups from the Amazonian region, where haplogroup
C likewise predominates and in (or near) which the
Arawakan languages are thought to have originated
(Aikhenvald 1999, 2006; Walker & Ribeiro 2011).
The second group is characterized by the
predominance of haplogroup A. It includes the
Pasto (whose language is extinct, but thought to have
probably belonged to the Barbacoan family) and
Ingano populations (Quechuan-speaking), as well
as the Ijka, Kogui, Arsario, and Chimila populations
(all Chibchan-speaking), the Páez (Nasa Yuwe)
population (speaking a language isolate), and the
Guahibo population (speaking a Guahiban language).
The Pasto population, located in southern Colombia,
is characterized by higher frequencies of haplogroups
A and C (38% and 28% respectively), as well as lower
frequencies of haplogroups D and B (21% and 3%,
respectively). The Pasto also appear to be genetically
closest to the Huitoto population (of the first,
C-dominated group), with a genetic distance of 0.006,
and to the Ingano population, with a genetic distance
of 0.007. The Pasto samples present a greater genetic
distance from Ijka, Chimila, and Guahibo populations,
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Noguera-Santamaría et al.
despite likewise exhibiting a higher frequency of
haplogroup A (possibly as a result of genetic influence
from prehistoric Chibchan-speaking immigrants to the
region). The Chibchan-speaking Chimila presented
a high frequency of A (80%) with somewhat lower
frequencies of B (20%) and no incidence of C or D,
very similar to the results obtained by Batista et al.
(1995) for the Chibchan-speaking Kuna [Cuna] of the
Panamanian-Colombian border region (approximately
72% A, 28 % B, with no C or D).
A third group is comprised of populations
containing three or four founding haplogroups, and
includes the Murui and Huitoto Muinane populations
(speaking Bora–Huitoto languages), a modern self-
identified Guane population, the Embera population
(speaking a Chocoan language), the Guayabero
population (Guajiboan-speaking) and the Yuco
population (Cariban-speaking). Interestingly, the
Guayabero population, living in the departments of
Meta and Guaviare, speak a language of the same
family as the neighboring Guahibo population, but
their genetic profile, showing a high frequency of
haplogroup B, is completely different from that of
the Guahibo, who belong to the A-dominated second
group identified in this study.
Finally, the dendrogram shows the distinct Somali
African population. It was chosen for comparative
purposes as it is genetically very distant from
Colombian indigenous populations.
Additionally, we present the mutational changes
(polymorphic sites of the mtDNA) of hypervariable
region I at different positions in the sequence to
determine founding haplogroups. These changes
are compared (see Table 3) to the rCRS (Anderson
et al. 1981, Andrews et al. 1999). We found that all
individuals show the same haplogroups as determined
by both methods. Using HVR-I allowed identification
of haplotypes A2, B2, and C1 within a small subsample
of individuals (5%) as a quality control; these are all
specific haplotypes found in indigenous American
populations but not in Asian or European populations.
The Chibchan-speaking populations of
Colombia’s SNSM (Ijka, Kogui, and Arsario) share
similar profiles, with high frequencies of haplogroups
A and C (and very low frequencies of B, if present,
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
271
and no incidence of D). However, they are distinct
from the Chibchan-speaking Kuna [Cuna] (Batista et
al. 1995) and Chimila to their west, which in contrast
both present modest frequencies of haplogroup
B (28% and 20%, respectively) but no incidence of
C (or D). The Wayuu, northeast of the SNSM, also
present significant frequencies of A and C, though
they were distinguished from the Chibchan-speaking
SNSM populations by a somewhat higher frequency
(23%) of haplogroup B (similar to the frequencies
of that haplotype in the Chimila and Cuna [Kuna]).
The nearby Cariban-speaking Yuco population,
southeast of the SNSM near the Venezuelan border,
has an even higher frequency (43%) of haplotype B.
Archaeological and linguistic analysis suggests that
Cariban languages may have spread both northwest
and southeast from the Orinoco River delta in
relatively late prehistory, perhaps from the thirteenth
century AD (Muysken 2012). The Yuco language
seems to represent part of a spread of Cariban inland
from the Caribbean coast in prehistoric times (Adelaar
& Muysken 2004), presumably at the expense of other
languages, possibly including Chibchan. The Wayuu
population also shows a genetic resemblance to
Amazonian populations, many of which are likewise
Arawakan-speaking. Archaeological and linguistic
analyses suggest that the Arawakan languages, like the
Cariban languages but in an earlier period, may have
spread from a place of origin in the Amazon down
the Orinoco valley to the Caribbean coast and into the
Caribbean islands by 2,500 byp (Heckenberger 2013).
The close association between high frequencies
of haplogroup A and Chibchan linguistic affiliation
found in previous studies (Melton et al. 2007)
suggests Colombian indigenous populations with
elevated frequencies of haplogroup A may have
been influenced by Chibchan-speaking populations
or may have themselves shifted from Chibchan
to other languages. Alternatively, as haplogroup
A is moreover associated with Central American
populations generally, the possibility that speakers
of other unknown Mesoamerican language families
migrated into Colombia in prehistoric times cannot
be completely ruled out. In any event, the Guahibo
present a high frequency of haplogroup A (86%),
while in contrast their close geographical and
linguistic neighbors the Guayabero have a markedly
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272
lower frequency of haplogroup A (48%). These data
suggest a considerable genetic distance separates the
two groups, and could support the hypothesis that the
ancestors of the (now Guahiboan-speaking) Guahibo
population had Mesoamerican and/or Chibchan-
speaking origins or influences. Besides the strong
genetic similarity of the Guahibo with Colombian
Chibchan-speakers (particularly the Ijka of the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta), it is noted that Guahibo
inhabit a different habitat (savannah) than the
Guayabero (jungle). We interpret the high frequency
of haplogroup A in Guahibos as result of a founder
effect among other possible mechanisms.
Samples from the Zenú population of the
Department of Sucre, whose now extinct language
is of unknown affiliation, revealed no presence of
haplogroup B (comparable with the extremely low
levels in the Chibchan-speakers of the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta) and a lower (in comparison with
those Chibchan-speakers) though still considerable
proportion of haplogroup A (33%), but a relatively
high proportion of haplogroup C (67%). This
situation could result of a population bottleneck, as is
the case in other groups revealing a high frequencies
of haplogroup A, with low genetic diversity (i.e.
Chibchan-speaking populations; Melton et al. 2007).
It should be noted that the Zenú samples’ pattern of
high frequencies of C and somewhat lower frequencies
of A sets them apart from their Chibchan-speaking
neighbors in northern Colombia or in southern
Panama (Batista et al. 1995).
The populations identified in this study as Butaregua
(a settlement name) and Guane are both from near
the town of Barichara in rural Santander. Moreover,
both self-designate as indigenous descendants of the
(pre) Colonial Guane population, though they are
certainly admixed. Neither population has official
state recognition as an ethnic minority. Samples from
the modern Butaregua population reveal a particular
combination of haplogroups A, B, and D (the most
northerly extension of D found in our samples)
reminiscent of (though not identical to) that found
in ancient remains associated with the prehistoric
Guane (A: 35%; B: 41%; D: 24%; Casas-Vargas et al.
2011). However, the Butaregua also reveal a significant
frequency (52%) of haplogroup C, which is absent
from the ancient Guane samples but otherwise
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
Chibchan mitochondrial DNA
common in varying proportions in many modern
Colombian indigenous populations. The modern
Guane population likewise contrasts with the ancient
Guane in having a modest but marked frequency of
haplogroup C. A further contrast between the modern
Guane and both the ancient Guane and their modern
Butaregua neighbors is the complete absence of
haplogroup D. Clearly, the specific genetic histories
of the modern Butaregua and Guane populations
must differ significantly, despite both groups’ claims
of common descent from the ancient Guane. It is
likely both modern populations have been impacted
by genetic drift, founder effects, and/or population
bottlenecks.
Amongst the Pasto, from the department of
Nariño, haplogroup A was most frequent (38%), with
somewhat lower frequencies of haplogroups C (28%)
and D (21%). Although the Pasto language is extinct, it
is thought very likely to have belonged to the Barbacoan
family, which has more typological similarities with
the central Andean sphere characterized by Quechuan
than with the northern Colombian Chibchan sphere
(Constenla Umaña 1991). Quechuan influence was
strong in this region during immediate pre-Colonial
times (after c. 1400 AD), but it is not clear whether
the Andean affinities of Barbacoan hint at a deeper
relationship with Quechuan or simply an earlier
period of areal interaction (Adelaar & Muysken 2004).
Nevertheless, it seems likely that the ancestors of the
modern Pasto were poised, both linguistically and
genetically, between the wider Andean/Quechuan and
Chibchan spheres.
Conclusions
The results of the present study show that
haplogroups A and B are more frequent in northern
Colombia, while haplogroups C and D are more
frequent in southern Colombia. This broadly supports
the findings of previous studies (Lalueza-Fox 1996,
Lalueza-Fox et al. 1997, Keyeux et al. 2002, Melton et
al. 2007) that have found frequencies of haplogroup
D approaching 100% in the Southern Cone of South
America, while haplogroup A is very frequent in
Central America (where D is relatively uncommon).
Likewise, we conclude that the higher frequencies
of haplogroup A in northern Colombia may be best
explained as the result of prehistoric immigrations
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Noguera-Santamaría et al.
from Central America. Such migrations would have
included at least a significant proportion of Chibchan
speakers (as no other linguistic community of Central
American origin has been shown to have expanded
into northern South America). Although the genetic
structures of most indigenous Colombian populations
seem to fall broadly into the described northern A-B
and southern C-D patterns, the Guahibo and Ijka
populations present particularly high frequencies of
haplogroup A (86% and 92%, respectively), suggesting
that either genetic drift, founder effects and/or
population bottlenecks have set them slightly apart.
Further research on mtDNA haplotypes from the
same populations used in the present study should
permit greater precision in determining the amount
of mitochondrial genetic diversity within Colombian
populations. It should be cautioned that further
analyses of haplotypes within these populations may
not necessarily support the present study’s conclusions,
which are based solely on haplogroups.
Nevertheless, the results of the present study
contribute to the ongoing genetic analysis of modern
Colombian indigenous populations, and offer
significant new opportunities for comparison with
ancient DNA from the region, though we would
certainly recommend that further studies of ancient
and modern population genetics be performed.
Although comparative work across disciplines shows
that populations defined through genetic analysis
may sometimes correlate with populations identified
by material culture and/or linguistic affiliation,
though they also make it clear that various instances
of prehistoric language shift also took place. Thus,
simplistic equations of genetically defined populations
with linguistically or culturally defined populations
must be rejected unless stronger evidence for linking
them can be presented. The analysis of such evidence
would certainly call for greater interdisciplinary
collaboration. Elsewhere, in both the Americas and
Eurasia, models for interpreting persistent frontiers
(long-lasting conjunctions of varying combinations
of various archaeologically, genetically, ecologically,
and/or linguistically defined zones) have proven
fruitful for interpreting prehistoric ethnolinguistic
and/or cultural zones (Anthony 2007). Similar kinds
of interdisciplinary approaches to collecting and
analyzing new data should likewise be pursued in
Colombia (and elsewhere in the Americas).
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273
Acknowledgment
The Authors acknowledge to Institute of Human Genetics
– Pontificia Universidad Javeriana for financing this study.
Conflict of interest
There are no conflicts of interest with funding sources or
institutions.
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Análisis mitocondrial de ADN sugiere uma migración
Chibcha a Colombia
Resumen. La caracterización del DNA mitocondrial (mtDNA)
permite el estudio de estructuras genéticas y de relaciones
filogenéticas en poblaciones humanas, al rastrear linajes hacia muy
atrás en el tiempo. Analizamos muestras de mtDNA de veinte (20)
poblaciones nativas americanas (700 individuos) dispersas por toda
Colombia. Las muestras se obtuvieron entre 1989-1993 como parte
del programa Expedición Humana y se almacenaron en el Banco
Biológico del Instituto de Genética Humana (IGH) de la Pontifica
Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colombia). Los haplogrupos se
determinaron mediante análisis de RFLPs. El más frecuente fue
el haplogrupo A, con 338 individuos (48.3%). El haplogrupo A
es también uno de los más frecuentes en Mesoamérica, y nosotros
interpretamos nuestro hallazgo como una evidencia en favor de
los modelos según los cuales los grupos que hablaban chibcha
migraron al norte de Colombia desde Mesoamérica en tiempos
prehistóricos. El haplogrupo C se encontró en 199 individuos
(28.4%), mientras que los menos frecuentes fueron B y D con
113 y 41 individuos (16 y 6% respectivamente). No se pudieron
determinar los haplogrupos de nueve (9) individuos (1.3%)
debido a la baja calidad de las muestras de DNA. Aunque todas
las poblaciones muestreadas tienen estructuras genéticas que se
ajustan en líneas generales a los patrones que se podrían esperar
para grupos indígenas contemporáneos de Centro y Suramérica,
encontramos que los haplogrupos A y B eran más frecuentes en
el norte de Colombia, mientras los haplogrupos C y D eran más
frecuentes en el sur y suroccidente del país.
Palabras clave: mtDNA; nativos americanos; migraciones
humanas; Colombia; Suramérica; haplogrupos, Método RFLP;
Fragmentos de Restricción de Longitud Polimórfica
Universitas Scientiarum Vol. 20 (2): 261-278
Chibchan mitochondrial DNA
Análise de DNA mitocondrial sugere uma migração
Chibchan à Colômbia
Resumo. A caracterização de DNA mitocondrial (mtDNA)
permite o estabelecimento de estruturas genéticas e relações
filogenéticas em populações humanas, rastreando linhagens ao
longo do tempo. Nós analisamos amostras de mtDNA de vinte
(20) populações Nativas Americanas (700 indivíduos) distribuídas
ao longo do território colombiano. Amostras foram coletadas
durante 1989-1993 dentro do contexto do programa Expedição
Humana (“Expedición Humana”) e armazenados no Repositório
Biológico do Instituto de Genética Humana (IGH) da Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colômbia). Haplogrupos foram
determinados por análise do polimorfismo no comprimento
de fragmentos de restrição (RFLPs). O haplogrupo mais
frequente foi o haplogrupo A, com 338 indivíduos (48,3%). Esse
haplogrupo também é um dos mais frequentes em Mesoamérica,
e interpretamos nossos resultados como um modelo de suporte
que propõe que grupos que falam Chibchan migraram ao
Norte de Colômbia a partir da Mesoamérica ainda em tempos
pré-históricos. Halogrupo C foi encontrado em 199 indivíduos
(28,4%), enquanto que os menos frequentes foram B e D, com
113 e 41 (16% e 6%) indivíduos, respectivamente. Os haplogrupos
de nove (9) indivíduos (1,3%) não puderam ser determinados
devido à baixa qualidade das amostras de DNA. Embora todas
as populações amostradas tinham estruturas genéticas que cabem
amplamente nos padrões esperados para os grupos indígenas
contemporâneos da América Central e do Sul, foi observado
que os haplogrupos A e B foram mais frequente no Norte da
Colômbia, enquanto que os haplogrupos C e D foram mais
frequentes no Sul e Sudoeste da Colômbia.
Palavras-chave: mtDNA; Nativos Americanos; migração
humana; Colômbia; América do Sul; haplogrupos, Método RLFP;
Polimorfismo no Comprimento de Fragmentos de Restrição
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