BANGLADESH RAILWAY MATERIALS CASE STUDY

A Thesis
SUBMITTED BY

Md. Shariful Islam 10.01.03.008

Kazi Riyadh Al Saif Ahmed 10.01.03.128

Sarah Subha 10.01.03.132

Enamul Nasir 10.01.03.133

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Under the supervision of

Engr. Dr. Md. Waliur Rahman

Faculty member
Department Of Civil Engineering

AHSANULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

May, 2014
 BANGLADESH RAILWAY MATERIALS CASE STUDY

A thesis by

Md. Shariful Islam

Kazi Riyadh Al Saif Ahmed

Sarah Subha

Enamul Nasir

It is hereby declared that the report in this thesis has been accepted as satisfactory in

partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil

Engineering on May, 2014

Engr. Dr. Md. Waliur Rahman

Faculty member

Department of Civil Engineering

Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology

 DECLARATION

It is hereby declare that the work reported in this research has been performed by the

authors and this report or any other part of this report has not been submitted or

published elsewhere for any other purpose. Except when due references are made in

the text of the report .

Md. Shariful Islam Kazi Riyadh Al Saif Ahmed

Sarah Subha Enamul Nasir

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At first, we are very grateful to almighty Allah for giving us the patience and power

to start and complete this project. We also wish to express the special heartfelt sense

gratitude to our honorable supervisor Engr. Dr. Md. Waliur Rahman, Visiting faculty

member, Department of Civil Engineering, AUST, who has encouraged us in

selecting this important and interesting topic and for his valuable suggestions,

instructions, encouragement, co-operation, guidance and other necessary helps to

complete this project.

We are also highly thankful to Md. Ibrahim Monaim, Asst. Material Engineer, Toma

Construction Limited, for his valuable co-operation and important helps to complete

this project.

Finally, we want to express our gratefulness to our parents and our family members

who encourages us all the time.

May, 2014 Author

Md. Shariful Islam

Kazi Riyadh Al Saif Ahmed

Sarah Subha

Enamul Nasir

ii
 ABSTRACT

The development and success of railways in Bangladesh demands the variety of

materials with diverse nature for day to day operations. In the research study, the
materials being used by Bangladesh Railway and the assessment of the material
quality of existing rail track with the newly constructed rail track have been portrayed
elaborately. Moreover, the study illustrates the comparison between railway materials
being used around the world and the materials being used in Bangladesh. All size,
weight, property and specification are according to the American Standard. This study
on material may be limited but it indicates remarkable development, modification and
modernization of Bangladesh Railway projects.

This research includes almost all kind of test for determining the quality and
utilization of railway track materials, which will be useful for future project research
regarding this topic and helpful for the selection of better quality materials for railway
track.

One of the important findings of this research is that the non-corrosive materials, used
in railway are effective but after certain duration effectiveness is lost. As a suggestion
rail surface should be coated with high quality non-corrosive material. Like special
paints, red lead, bitumen, coal, etc. Galvanized rails might be used for railway
construction but it will not be economical in perspective of Bangladesh.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page No.
Declaration ………………………………………………………………………. i
Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………. ii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………… iv
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………viii
List of Table……………………………………………………………………….ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………1
1.1 General………………………………………………………………………...2
1.2 Bangladesh Railway…………………………………………………………..3
1.2.1 Accomplishments and Undertakings by Bangladesh Railway…………4
1.2.2 Accomplishments and Undertakings by Bangladesh Railway…………6
1.3 Materials for Railway Track Construction……………………………………7
1.4 Objective of the Research……………………………………………………..7
1.5 Scope of the study…………………………………………………………….8
1.6 Thesis layout…………………………………………………………………..8

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE………………………………….9

2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………...10
2.2 Background……………………………………………………………………11
2.3 Railway Systems around the World……………………………………………11
2.4 Railway in Bangladesh…………………………………………………………13
2.5 Subgrade………………………………………………………………………..15
2.6 Sub-ballast………………………………………………………………………15
2.7 Ballast…………………………………………………………………………...16
2.7.1 Ballast properties………………………………………………………16
2.7.2 Construction…………………………………………………………...17
2.7.3 Ballast material………………………………………………………...18
2.7.4 Ballast functions ……………………………………………………...18
2.7.5 Ballast structure ………………………………………………………19
2.7.6 Mechanical Properties ………………………………………………..20
2.7.7 Maintenance ………………………………………………………….20
2.7.8 Quantities……………………………………………………………..21
iv
 2.7.9 Mitigation …………………………………………………………….22
2.7.10 Aspects of Modeling ……………………………………………......22
2.8 Drainage Failure of Substructure ………………………………………………..23
2.9 Railway Sleepers………………………………………………………………... 23
2.9.1 Specifications, Size and Weight ………………………………………23
2.9.2 Requirements of an Ideal Material for Sleepers ………………………24
2.9.2.1 Materials for sleepers ……………………………………….24
2.9.3 Sleepers used in Bangladesh ………………………………………….31
2.10 Track (rail transport) …………………………………………………………...31
2.10.1 Traditional Track Structure …………………………………………..33
2.10.2 Slab Track or Ballastless Track……………………………………….34
2.10.3 Ballasted Vs Non-Ballasted Track……………………………………34
2.10.4 Ladder Track …………………………………………………………36
2.10.5 Track Elements, Rail …………………………………………………36
2.10.5.1 Rail Classification (Weights and Sizes)…………….............37
2.10.5.2 Region-wise Rail Criteria ………………………………….38
2.10.5.3 Types ……………………………………………………….40

CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY………. 42

3.1 General………………………………………………………………………….. 45
3.2 Earthwork………………………………………………………………………. 45
3.2.1 Usual Forms of Cross-Section…………………………………………45
3.2.2 Features of Railroad Bed Level ……………………………………….47
3.3 Drainage…………………………………………………………………………49
3.4 Stabilization of Track on Poor Soil……………………………………………...49
3.5 Design of Earthworks……………………………………………………………50
3.5.1 Survey………………………………………………………………….51
3.5.2 Geotechnical Investigation…………………………………………….51
3.5.2.1 Making Bore Holes and Testing of Soil……………………..51
3.5.2.2 Collection of Disturbed Soil Samples ……………………….52
3.5.2.3 Collection of Undisturbed Soil Samples……………………..52
3.5.2.4 The Tests to be carried out for Sub soil Investigations………52

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 3.5.2.5 Identification of Location not requiring Special Foundation
Ground treatment ……………………………………………………………53
3.5.2.6 Identification of Location by Surcharging & Staged
Construction………………………………………………………………….53
3.5.2.7 Identification of Locations requiring Soft Ground treatment..53
3.5.2.8 Design of Embankment Foundation………………………….54
3.5.2.9 Design Requirements………………………………………...55
3.5.2.10 Design Verification…………………………………………56
3.5.2.11 Identification of Sources of Fill Materials and Material Tests
for Suitability………………………………………………………………...56
3.6 Embankment Work………………………………………………………………57
3.6.1 Materials for Embankment Construction………………………………57
3.7 Sub-Ballast……………………………………………………………………….58
3.7.1 Sub-Ballast Functions………………………………………………….58
3.7.2 Sub-Ballast Materials…………………………………………………..59
3.7.3 Sub-Ballast Material Specification…………………………………….59
3.7.4 Factors Influencing Design of Sub-Ballast……………………………60
3.7.4.1 Total Static and Dynamic Loads Coming on the Track……..60
3.7.4.2 Speed of the Trains………………………………………….60
3.7.4.3 Resilience/Elasticity/Flexibility of Track Structure…………60
3.7.4.4 Drainage……………………………………………………..61
3.7.4.5 Durability…………………………………………………….61
3.7.4.6 Cementing Properties………………………………………...61
3.7.4.7 Stability ……………………………………………………...61
3.7.5 Supply & Placement of Sub-ballast……………………………………61
3.7.6 Sub-Ballast Construction………………………………………………63
3.8 Placing Of Ballast………………………………………………………………..63
3.8.1 Selection of Ballast for Railway ………………………………………65
3.8.2 Mechanical Properties of Ballast ………………………………………65
3.8.2.1 Abrasion test …………………………………………………66
3.8.2.2 Slake durability test ………………………………………….67
3.8.2.3 Fracture toughness testing …………………………………...67
3.8.3 Ballast tamper …………………………………………………………70
3.8.4 Functions of tamping machine …………………………………….......71
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 3.8.4.1 Types…………………………………………………………71
3.8.4.2 General arrangement…………………………………………72
3.8.4.3 Tamping units………………………………………………..72
3.9 Sleeper …………………………………………………………………………..73
3.9.1 Sleeper Functions ……………………………………………………..74
3.9.2 Sleeper Spacing and Density ……………………………………........74
3.9.2.1 Factors affecting spacing/density …………………………..74
3.9.2.2 Minimum Density …………………………………………..74
3.9.2.3 Sleeper Spacing ……………………………………………..74
3.9.3 Material properties…………………………………………………….75
3.9.3.1 Timber ………………………………………………………75
3.9.3.2 Concrete…………………………………………………….77
3.9.3.3 Steel Sleeper ………………………………………………..77
3.9.3.4 Pre-stressing reinforcement…………………………………78
3.9.4 Required Knowledge for Sleeper Laying…………………………….78
3.9.5 Required Skills for Sleeper Laying…………………………………...78
3.9.6 Sleeper Laying Procedure…………………………………………….79
3.10 Function of Rails………………………………………………………………80
3.10.1 Requirements of an Ideal Rail……………………………………….80
3.10.2 Tests Prescribed for Rail……………………………………………..82
3.10.3 Types of Rail Joints…………………………………………………..83
3.10.4 Rail fastenings………………………………………………………..83
3.10.5 Shop Welding to Produce Long Rails………………………………..84
3.10.6 Site Welding to Produce CWR………………………………………85
3.10.7 Stressing or Locking-Up of CWR……………………………………86

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION…………………87

4.1 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….88
4.2 Recommendation………………………………………………………………...89

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION……………………………………………………...90

CHAPTER 6: APPENDICES……………………………………………………..92
REFERENCES
vii
LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 2
Figure 2.1 Pubail,Gazipur
Figure2.2: Longitudinal View of railroad (Showing Ballast Arrangement)
Figure2.3: Wooden sleeper
Figure2.4: Steel sleeper
Figure2.5: Steel sleepers VS Concrete Sleepers from Economic Point of View
Figure 2.6: Concrete Sleeper
Figure 2.7: Unclipped Track in Tongi-Voirob Railway (Ongoing)
Figure 2.8: Section through railway track and foundation showing the ballast and
formation layers (the layers are slightly sloped to help drainage.)
Figure2.8: Ballastless high speed track in China
Figure2.11: Ladder track at Akabane Station, Tokyo, Japan
Figure2.12: Cross-sections of flat-bottomed rail, which can rest directly on the
sleepers, and bullhead rail which sits in a chair (not shown)
Figure2.13: Cross section of new flat bottomed rail

CHAPTER 3
Figure3.1: Embankment
Figure3.2: Cutting
Figure3.3: Embankment and Cutting
Figure3.4 Crushed Ballast
Figure3.5: Los Angeles abrasion testing machine
Figure 3.6: Chevron fracture testing apparatus (after ISRM 1988)
Figure 3.7: Brazilian disk-type specimens in diametral compression having grooved
disk with an edge crack
Figure 3.8: Close-up of a Plasser and Theurer 08-4x4/4S-RT Unimat 08-RT Tamper
at Bristol Temple Meads
Figure 3.9: Balfour Beatty ballast tamper/track tampers train
Figure 3.10 Sleeper Spacing
Figure 3.11: Schematic diagram of rail
Figure 3.12: Flat Bottom (FB) rail and Pandrol clip fastening
Figure 3.13: A crossover layout in BH rail
viii
LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER 1
Table 1.1: Bangladesh Railway Activities at a Glance

CHAPTER 3
Table 3.1: Width of formation
Table 3.2: Grading of ballast stone
Table 3.3: Standard Weight According to Size
Table 3.4: ISRM suggested dimensions for Chevron Notch in Bending (CB)
specimens
Table 3.5: Standard Weight According to Size
Table 3.6: Standard sleeper size

CHAPTER 6
6.1 Aggregate Crushing Value and Ten Percent Fines Value
6.2 Clay Lump and Friable Particles Content (AASHTO T 112 & ASTM C-142)
6.2.1 Track Ballast
6.3 Sieve Analysis of Ballast (AASHTO T 27 / ASTM C 136)
6.4 Concrete Compressive Strength Test (AASHTO T22& Stp 9.2)
6.5 Sieve Analysis (Concrete Aggregate 20 Mm)
6.6 California Bearing Ratio
6.6.1 Unit Weight Data (Before Soaking)
6.6.2 Moisture Content Data
6.7 Field Density Test of Soil by Sand Cone Method (AASHTO T-191)
6.7.1 Test Holes
6.7.2 Determination of Wet Unit Weight
6.7.3 Final Calculation
6.8 Material Finer Than 0.075mm. Sieve (ASSHTO T11 / ASTM C117)
6.9 Sieve Analysis (AASHTO "T -11")
6.9.1 Gradation for Concrete Fine Aggregate (Cumulative)
6.10 Los Angeles Abrasion (AASHTO T: 96)
6.11 Dry Density Moisture Content Relation Test (AASHO T-180)
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 6.11.1 Density Determination
6.11.2 Moisture Content Determination
6.12 Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T89 & T 90)
6.13 Calibration of Sand Cone (AASHTO T 191)
6.13.1 Base Plate and Cone Calibration
6.13.2 Unit Weight of Sand Using Mould
6.14 Sodium Sulphate Soundness Test Worksheet For Fine Aggregate (AASHTO T-
104)
6.15 Specific Gravity & Water Absorption (AASHTO T 85)
6.15.1. Course Aggregate
6.16 Specific Gravity, Absorption and Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate
6.16.1 Specific Gravity& Absorption (AASHTO T 85)
6.16.2 Unit Weight (AASHTO T 19) – Loos
6.17 Sieve Analysis of Sub - Ballast (AASHTO T 27/ASTM C 136)
6.18 Tests for Unit Weight of Fine Aggregate
6.19 Test of Materials Finer than 75 μm (#200 Sieve) By Wash

x
 CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
1.2 Bangladesh Railway
1.2.1 Accomplishments and Undertakings by Bangladesh Railway

1.2.2 Vision & Mission of Bangladesh Railway Transport

1.3 Materials for Railway Track Construction

1.4 Objective of the Research

1.5 Scope of the study

1.6 Thesis layout

1
1.1 General

Railway engineering is a multi-faceted engineering discipline dealing with the design,

construction and operation of all types of railway systems. It encompasses a wide
range of engineering discipline as Civil engineering, electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering and computer engineering. A great many other engineering
sub-disciplines are also called upon to combine and create railroad engineering. The
civil engineers plan the railway track, design the alignment and right of way and
finally they operate.

With the advent of the railways in the early nineteenth century, a need arose for a
specialized group of engineers capable of dealing with the unique problems associated
with Railway engineering. Railroads became the single most popular form of travel.
Since railroads were complex to build and maintain, the need for specialized railroad
engineers grew rapidly. Originally, railroad engineers worked mostly on trains that
were powered by steam, since most trains at that time had steam engines. As the
railway system became more and more important, diesel and electric trains were
conceived. Therefore, engineers who could work on electric and diesel trains became
invaluable to many railroad companies. As the railways expanded and became a
major economic force, a great many engineers became involved in the field, probably
the most notable in Britain being Richard Trevithick, George Stephenson and
Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Today, railway systems engineering continues to be a
vibrant field of engineering, with many major projects such as the Channel Tunnel in
progress.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_engineering,http://www.wisegeek.com/what-
is-railroad-engineering.htm)

Rail communication has traditionally been the main mode of mass transport for both
commercial and cargo usage dating back to the British rule. With wider connectivity
and more efficient technology, rail communication is considered to be environment-
friendly, comfortable and affordable in the densely populated country like
Bangladesh, it is a very important form of transport as it costs relatively lower among
the different form of transport communication. In order to keep pace with changes in
the domain of transport in this sub-continent, Bangladesh Railway is relentlessly

2
trying to cope up with the demand from its customers. With commitment to the
honorable passengers and rail users, Bangladesh Railway is trying to provide a safe,
reliable and affordable rail transport service to the nation.

Why Railway Engineering?

Civil Engineers responsible for:
– Planning the railway tracks
– Designing the alignment
– Right of Way designing
– Operations
– Maintenance

1.2 Bangladesh Railway

Most rail lines in Bangladesh run from north to south, following the north-south river
system, and many freight and passenger journeys include a combination of rail and
water movement. East-west lines exist but are a minor part of the total system.
Because of the nation's numerous waterways, an average of six bridges or culverts are
required per kilometer of rail line. As a result, Bangladesh has some 3,630 rail
bridges. Railroad beds, built on the only high ground in some parts of the country,
provide a refuge in times of flooding. During periods of high water, trains often are
the major form of mass transportation.

Realizing the importance of the railway communication, railway sector has been
given the highest priority in the outline perspective plan as well as in the Sixth Five
Year plan of Bangladesh. In the last 5 (five) years, the average growth rate of GDP
was 6. 21 percent and the contribution of the transport and communications sector
was 10.7 percent. In the fiscal year 2009-10, the contribution of the rail sector was
only 1 percent of land transport. Better rail connectivity will make the communication
easy and will greatly reduce the cost of transportation in Bangladesh. Business
flourished, employment opportunities were created and have a direct and indirect
impact on the poverty alleviation. (www.railway.gov.bd)

3
1.2.1 Accomplishments and Undertakings by Bangladesh Railway

The railroads carry about 2 percent of the nation's cargo. In 1986 Bangladesh had
about 2,818 kilometers of railroad track, all of it owned and operated by the
government's Bangladesh Railways. Two-thirds of the track (1,838 kilometers) was
meter gauge, and the remainder of 980 kilometers was broad gauge. Much of the rail
system was rehabilitated in the early 1980s with the assistance of an Asian
Development Bank loan.

There were 288 locomotives--mostly diesel powered--serving the rail system in 1986.
This was a significant decline from the more than 500 locomotives operating in the
early 1970s. The volume of freight carried in more than 19,600 cars steadily
decreased in the 1980s, however, going from more than 3 million tons in FY 1982 to
2.3 million tons in FY 1986. Most of the bulk cargo was wheat, fertilizer, sugarcane,
raw jute, rice, and cement. With more than 1,660 coaches in use, passenger service
was available and popular between large towns; there were some 82 million
passengers in FY 1986. In the late 1980s, the government was attempting to improve
the quality of that service by adding special fast trains, particularly between Dhaka
and Chittagong.

Most rail lines in Bangladesh run from north to south, following the north-south river
system, and many freight and passenger journeys include a combination of rail and
water movement. East-west lines exist but are a minor part of the total system.
Because of the nation's numerous waterways, an average of six bridges or culverts are
required per kilometer of rail line. As a result, Bangladesh has some 3,630 rail
bridges. Railroad beds, built on the only high ground in some parts of the country,
provide a refuge in times of flooding. During periods of high water, trains often are
the major form of mass transportation.

Bangladesh Railway also has taken some important projects like construction of the
missing portion of Double line between Dhaka-Chittagong, rehabilitation of
deplorable tracks, procurement of rolling stocks and modernization of signaling
system.

4
Bangladesh Railway has recently introduced train related information using IVR
(Interactive Voice Response) system through Mobile Phone and has taken initiative
for computerization of pay roll, asset management, accounting, inventory control etc.
which are the steps towards the implementation of Digital Bangladesh .
(www.railway.gov.bd)

Recently Bangladesh government has undertaken a project named “Tongi-Voirob

Double Line Railway Project (TBDLRP)” with the assistance of Asian Development
Bank. The main concern of this project is rail track, its formation, materials used for a
standard railway or track and their quality and also comparing them with the materials
using for TBDLRP.

Table 1.1: Bangladesh Railway Activities at a Glance

23 June- 1998: East-West Railway connectivity over the mighty river Jamuna was
established from the day one, the day of formal opening of Jamuna
Multipurpose Bridge, after completion of construction of Broad
Gauge track from Jamtoli to lbrahimabad.
14 Aug-2003 Â Direct BG Train. Communication between Dhaka (Joydebpur)
and Rajshahi over Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge was established
by introducing first Intercity passenger Train after completion of
construction of new Dual Gauge track from lbrahimabad to
Joydebpur.
7 March-2004 Â Direct MG train communication between Dhaka and
Lalmonirhat was established.
9 Nov-2007 Â Bangladesh has signed the intergovernmental agreement on the
Trans Asian Railways (TAR) network as a 20th signatory.
14 April-2008 Direct Communication between Dhaka & Kolkata was established
by introducing "Maitree Express" Train.

5
4 March-2010 Â Introduction of ticket selling through mobile phone.

4 Dec.2011 Ministry of Railways formed by the Honorable Prime Minister

under SRO-361 -Rules of Business 1996 Rule-3.

1.2.2 Vision & Mission of Bangladesh Railway Transport

Vision

To provide safe, reliable, cost effective and time efficient rail transport service in the
country through modernizing, expanding & maintaining rail system in a manner
which supports government strategies for economic, social & environmental
development.

Mission

 To Develop & maintain railway tracks & station infrastructures throughout the
country.
 To Maintain & upgrade locomotives, coaches & other rolling stocks.
 To Maintain & modernize signaling & interlocking system & Telecom system
of Bangladesh Railway.
 To ensure safe, speedy & efficient train operation.
 To Implement Government transport policy in rail sector. To procure modern
technology related rolling stocks, Track materials & signaling systems suitable
for Bangladesh Railway.
 To Manage land asset of Bangladesh Railway.
 To ensure optimum utilization of Development Budget & Revenue Budget of
Bangladesh Railway. (www.railway.gov.bd)

6
1.3 Materials for Railway Track Construction

The running of railways in Bangladesh demands huge organization and for a

management like the Bangladesh Railway, the varieties of materials with varied
nature are required for day to day operations. The materials required include
locomotives, passenger coaches, wagons, rails, sleepers, ballast, signal equipment,
electric goods, coal, oil, spare parts of rolling stock, tools for maintenance and various
miscellaneous items. So therefore, proper control, quality testing, purchase, storage
and distribution of materials become very essential.

The Term over Ratio (TOR) is used to serve as the efficiency indicator of the material
management functions. It represents the ratio of store balance to the issues during a
financial year and a close watch is kept on TOR for its further improvement every
year. The purchase planning, scheduling of requirements, testing the materials in the
laboratories for better quality control, determination of policy regarding holding of
stocks of raw and finished materials all indicate the safety and success of any railway
project.

Each Construction company has an individual department of material analysis. For

each part of the construction of a project, as such, subgrade, ballast, sleeper, rail,
track; all are tested by the department in the laboratories before application. The
present system of material management by Bangladesh Railway is easier, profitable
and intelligent after their long experience. It includes modern techniques and
systematic functioning for better material management. The engineers always keep in
mind that the better-quality materials will give safe, smooth, cost-effective success of
any railway project.

1.4 Objective of the Research

Nowadays Railway Transport is very popular among the mass people. For this
purpose it is essential to improve the Railway facility. To fulfill this requirement it is
necessary to upgrade the quality of Railway construction material such as sleeper,
ballast, sub-ballast, fish plate, rail track etc. And this is the main concern of this study.

The objectives are presented briefly as follows:

 Critically analysis the existing procedure of Railway construction.

 Analyze the Specification of the construction material.

7
  Comparison of construction procedure which is followed in Bangladesh &
followed in other countries.
 Present used material in Railway construction.
 Quality Assurance of the material.
 Safety & Cost effectiveness of the Railway construction material.

1.5 Scope of the study

An Analysis has been performed to study the properties of Railway construction

material. For this some typical data has been collected from Ghorashal Testing
Laboratory & compare with the standard value which is mostly used. Due to time &
resource constraints, this study uses existing data from a recent project of Bangladesh
Railway.

1.6 Thesis layout

The structure of this thesis is as follows:

 Chapter 2: Literature Review- This chapter describes the literature of different

Railway construction material.
 Chapter 3: Experimental design and Methodology- This chapter describes
about the methodology usually used for construction of railway track
 Chapter 4: Conclusion and Recommendations
 Chapter 5: Discussion.
 Chapter 6: Appendices

8
 Chapter: 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Background
2.3 Railway Systems around the World
2.4 Railway in Bangladesh
2.5 Subgrade
2.6 Sub-ballast
2.7 Ballast
2.7.1 Ballast properties
2.7.2 Construction
2.7.3 Ballast material
2.7.4 Ballast functions
2.7.5 Ballast structure
2.7.6 Mechanical Properties
2.7.7 Maintenance
2.7.8 Quantities
2.7.9 Mitigation
2.7.10 Aspects of Modeling
2.8 Drainage Failure of Substructure
2.9 Railway Sleepers
2.9.1 Specifications, Size and Weight
2.9.2 Requirements of an ideal material for sleepers
2.9.3 Sleepers used in Bangladesh
2.10 Track (rail transport)
2.10.1 Traditional Track Structure
2.10.2 Slab Track or Ballastless Track
2.10.3 Ballasted Vs Non ballasted Track
2.10.4 Ladder Track
2.10.5 Track Elements, Rail
2.10.5.1 Rail Classification (Weights and Sizes)
2.10.5.2 Region-wise Rails Criteria
2.10.5.3 Types

9
2.1 Introduction
There are many types of motor vehicles exists for passenger carriage like bus, car,
train etc. Among them train, from its beginning is being considered as the most
comfortable means of journey. Railroads, which is the modern formation of
wagonways has started its journey in early 16th century; from then to now it is being
considered the most safest routes of journey. Roads of rails called Wagonways were
being used in Germany as early as 1550. These primitive railed roads consisted of
wooden rails over which horse-drawn wagons or carts moved with greater ease than
over dirt roads. Wagonways were the beginnings of modern railroads. Railway started
its journey in Bangladesh in the middle of 19th century with 53.11 kilometers of broad
gauge lines between Darsana and Jagati. From then to now Bangladesh railway has
improved its quality and is being considered the most favorable means of journey for
the people of the country. (http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blrailroad.htm;
http://www.railway.gov.bd/history.asp)

A railway track normally consists of rails, sleepers, railpads, fastenings, ballast, sub-
ballast, and subgrade. Sometimes, for example in tunnels, the ballast bed is omitted
and the rails are fastened to concrete slabs resting on the track foundation. Two
subsystems of a ballasted track can be distinguished: the superstructure (rails,
sleepers, ballast and sub-ballast) and the subgrade (composed of a formation layer and
the base). In this paper we will distinguish between the mechanical part of the track
structure (rails, sleepers, and railpads between rails and sleepers), and the
geotechnical part (the sub-structure below the sleepers). A railway track sub-structure
normally consists of a top layer of railway ballast, an intermediate layer of sub-
ballast, and the subgrade. (www-classes.usc.edu/engr/ce/599/Thesis/RTRSETTL.pdf)

Recently Bangladesh government has undertaken a project named “Tongi-Bhairab

Double Line Railway Project (TBDLRP)” with the assistance of Asian Development
Bank. The main concern of this project is rail track, its formation, materials used for a
standard railway or track and their quality and also comparing them with the materials
using for TBDLRP.

10
2.2 Background
Wagonways were relatively common in Europe (typically in mining) from about 1500
through 1800. Mechanized rail transport systems first appeared in England in the
1820s. These systems, which made use of the steam locomotive, were critical to the
Industrial revolution and to the development of export economies across the world.
Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared
to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805
at Croydon. In seventeenth century, it was the first beginning of the development of
the main principle on which the permanent way rests.

In the late 1760s, the Coalbrookdale Company began to fix plates of cast iron to the
upper surface of the wooden rails. James Watt, a Scottish inventor and mechanical
engineer, was responsible for improvements to the steam engine. He developed a
reciprocating engine, capable of powering a wheel. The first public railway in the
history of world was opened for traffic on 27 September 1825 in England. The
railway was run between Stockton and Darlington in the country of Durham. The
planning and design of the railway line was carried out by Stephenson. The speed was
of 19.32 km p. h. even though the railway track was rough.

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rail_transport; www.bbc.co.uk>Factual > Cars &

Motors)

2.3 Railway Systems around the World

First Great Western, in UK, operates the UK’s only high-speed inter-city, commuter,
and sleeper train system. It carries one and a half million passengers a week across
9,000 services, covering everything from London and South Wales to Devon and
Cornwall. The trains were recently renovated to include environmentally friendly
engines, updated seating accommodations, and more efficient on-board facilities.
Also, Virgin Trains are probably among the better-known British railway companies.
These high-speed trains, traveling up to 125 miles per hour, give travelers a taste of
the classic, luxurious experience. Britain’s Cross-country trains, British Grand Central
Trains, Traditional East Coast Trains are also seen playing vital roles in railway
system in UK. (www.raileurope.com/blog/10940-top-uk-trains, (2.10.2013))

11
The United States has the world’s largest railway network covering 48 states with a
distance of 240,000kms. Currently major part of the rail network is used to transport
cargo. The freight trains are given the highest priority over passenger trains. The
intercity passenger train service in USA is provided by a government-owned
corporation, National Railroad Passenger Corporation called Amtrak. The Long island
Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America, serving about 83
million passengers each year. Metro-North Railroad runs service between New York
City to its northern suburbs in New York and Connecticut. (www.nriol.com/America-
visitors/transport-in-usa.asp, (1.10.2013))

Today, Japan has about 27,000 km of line in operation, owned either by the JR group
of companies or by other private railways. The latest Shinkansen Train sets have
boosted commercial speeds to 300 km/h and the Maglev guided transport system, now
under development, has already achieved a world speed record of 552 km/h. One
important difference between Japanese railways and those in Europe and North
America is that most Japanese rail services are passenger oriented, with freight
operations playing only a very minor role. The Kinki Nippon Railway (Kintetsu)
serves areas in and around Nagoya, Kyoto and Osaka with lines totaling 573.7 km,
making it the largest operator in Japan. (www.jrtr.net/jrtr36/pdf/f04_soe.pdf,
(1.10.2013))

The French railway system today has around 40,000 km (25,000 mi) of track. In
France, with peak speeds of 320 km/h, TGVs carry millions of passengers a year-
business people, families and tourists who like the quiet ride, reliability and safety.
They serve 230 destinations that people can travel to major cities in France and across
Europe and return the same day in the very heart of town. The Ouigo provides new
range of high-speed, low-fare trains and travel between the Paris region and
southeastern France. The classic French rail service, linking major towns and cities
across the country, with 340 Intercites trains serve medium and long-distance routes.
They carry 100,000 passengers a day from region to region.

(www.sncf.com/en/passengers, (2.10.2013))

At Plimmerton Station, New Zealand, the first audibly-operated signal is installed.

The whistle blast from a locomotive operates not only the signal but also the barriers
at the level-crossing. The whistle detectors respect to the whistles of diesel and

12
electronic locomotives only. The motorists cannot fool this automatic equipment.
(www.transport.govt.nz/ourwork/rail)

The Federal Railways in West Germany conducted an experiment on a double-

purpose vehicle. A perfectly normal car with rubber-tired wheels was run at a speed
of 100 km p. h. The vehicle can easily be converted into a road vehicle, when
necessary.

The Belgian National Railways are carrying experiments to improve safety at level-
crossings by providing barriers made of transparent plastic material and reinforced
with glass fibers for safety factors at night in foggy weather.

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/rail_transport)

2.4 Railway in Bangladesh

Bangladesh Railway is the state-owned rail transport agency of Bangladesh, operating
the entire railway network of the country. It is controlled by the Director General of
Bangladesh Railway under the Ministry of Railways along with Bangladesh Railway
Authority and which works for policy guidance of Bangladesh Railway (BR). It has
coexistence of several gauges, Broad gauge, Meter gauge and Dual gauge and the
separation of the system by the Jamuna River into a Western and Eastern Zone of
operations with only one bridge, the 2003 Jamuna Bridge, connecting two zones. BR
covers a length of 2855 route kilometers and employs 34,168 people. BR operates
international, inter-city and suburban rail systems on its multi-gauge network.

Railway operation in today's Bangladesh began on November 15, 1862 when 53.11
kilometers of 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) (broad gauge) line were opened for traffic between
Dorshona of Chuadanga District and Jogoteeof Kushtia District. The next 14.98
kilometers 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) (meter gauge) line was opened for traffic on 4
January 1885. In 1891, the construction of then Bengal Assam Railway was taken up
by the British Government assistance but that was later on taken over by the Bengal
Assam Railway Company. On 1 July 1895, two sections of meter gauge lines were
opened between Chittagong and Comilla, a length of 149.89 kilometers and
between Laksam Upazila and Chandpur District, a length of 50.89 kilometers.
Railway Companies formed in England took up the construction and operation of
these sections in middle and late 19th century.

13
At time of the partition of India in 1947, Bengal-Assam Railway was split up and the
portion of the system, about 2,603.92 kilometers fell within the boundary of then East
Pakistan and control remained with the central Government of Pakistan. Later with
the effect from 1 February 1961, Eastern Bengal Railway was renamed as Pakistan
Eastern Railway. Then in 1962, the control of Pakistan Eastern Railway was
transferred from the Central Government to the Government of East Pakistan and
placed under the management of a Railway Board with the effect from the financial
year 1962-63 by the presidential Order of 9 June 1962.

As of 2005, the total length of railroad is 2,855 kilometers. Of that, 660 km

are broadgauge tracks (mostly in the western region), 1,830 km are meter
gauge tracks (mostly in the central and eastern regions) and 365 km are dual
gauge tracks. The gauge problem is being tackled by adding third rails to the most
important broad and meter gauge routes so that they become dual gauge. A
major road-rail bridge at Jamuna opened in 1998 to connect the previously detached
east and west rail networks. On March 2008, the broad gauge reached Dhaka, the
national capital. Funding is being sought to upgrade the network and transform
Bangladesh Railway into a profitable business.BR exceeded its target revenue
earnings in the fiscal year 2007-2008.

Bangladesh Railway features mainly three classes of Travel. Air Conditioned

Class, First Class and Second Class are available in BR. Third Class was withdrawn
with effect from August 1, 1989. Most of the trains have the First Class and Second
Class only. Second Class is divided into Shovon Chair, Shovon and Shulov sub-
classes. In some trains a separate mail compartment is present. In Inter-City and long-
distance trains, a pantry car and a power car is included in the center. All Inter-City
trains are partially air-conditioned, feature padded leather seats and berths and provide
passengers with on-demand sheets, pillows, blankets, as well as meals and
refreshments.

The Maitree Express is an international train in operation since 2008 and links Dhaka
and Kolkata, India; the travel time is 13 hours.

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_Bangladesh; Bangladesh Railway)

14
2.5 Subgrade
Subgrade is the layer of material on which the ballast and sub-ballast layers rest. The
subgrade is a very important component in the track structure and has been the cause
of track failure and development of poor track quality (Li and Selig, 1995).
Unfortunately, in existing track, the subgrade is not involved in the maintenance
operation and little can be done to alter its characteristics. At present, the state-of-the-
art of track design concerning the subgrade is most empirical. The factors that control
the performance of this layer are very important. To assess the reasons why a
particular section of track requires maintenance, it is necessary to know the
characteristics of the subgrade, the maintenance history, the environmental history,
and the traffic history. Information on the characteristics of the subgrade of an
existing track is in most cases non-existent. To gain information on the present
conditions of a site, field examinations are done. Factors that control the performance
of the subgrade are poorly understood. In Knothe (1998), the long-term behavior of
the railroad track, including the subgrade behavior and the damage mechanisms
underlying the ballast settlement, is discussed. Knothe states that there does not exist
any damage and settlement equations, and hardly any material equations for the
ballast itself. (http://www.in.gov/indot/files/Earthworks_Chapter_07.pdf)

2.6 Sub-ballast
Below the ballast a layer of sub-ballast is placed. The sub-ballast is material chosen as
a transition layer between the upper layer of large-particle good quality ballast and the
lower layer of fine-graded subgrade. The sub-ballast used in most new construction is
intended to prevent the mutual penetration or intermixing of the subgrade and the
ballast and to reduce frost penetration. Any sand or gravel materials may serve as sub-
ballast material as long as they meet proper filtering requirements.

(http://www.in.gov/indot/files/Earthworks_Chapter_07.pdf)

15
2.7 Ballast
Ballast is a select, granular material placed on the subgrade to restrain the track
laterally, longitudinally, and vertically under the dynamic loads imposed by trains and
the thermal stresses induced in the rails by changing temperatures; provide adequate
drainage of the track; transmit and uniformly distribute the load of the track and trains
to the subgrade in a manner that prevents overstressing of the subgrade; and facilitate
track maintenance. Some of the characteristics of good ballast are strength, toughness,
durability, stability, drainability, cleanability, resistance to deformation, and overall
economy. Commonly used ballast materials include crushed stone and crushed slag
with the gradations ranging from 3-1/2 to 3/4 in.

Track ballast forms the trackbed upon which railway sleepers or railroad ties are laid.
It is packed between, below, and around the ties. It is used to bear the load from the
railroad ties, to facilitate drainage of water, and also to keep down vegetation that
might interfere with the track structure. This also serves to hold the track in place as
the trains roll by. It is typically made of crushed stone, although ballast has sometimes
consisted of other, less suitable materials. The term "ballast" comes from a nautical
term for the stones used to stabilize a ship.

2.7.1 Ballast properties

Good ballast should be strong, hard-wearing, stable, drainable, easy to clean,

workable, resistant to deformation, easily available, and reasonably cheap to
purchase. Early railway engineers did not understand the importance of quality track
ballast; they would use cheap and easily-available materials such as ashes, chalk,
clay, earth, and even cinders from locomotive fireboxes. It was soon clear that good-
quality ballast made of rock was necessary if there were to be a good foundation and
adequate drainage. Good quality track ballast is made of crushed natural rock with
particles between 28 mm and 50 mm in diameter; a high proportion of particles finer
than this will reduce its drainage properties, and a high proportion of larger particles
result in the load on the ties being distributed improperly. Angular stones are
preferable to naturallyrounded ones, as angular stones interlock with each other,
inhibiting track movement. Soft materials such as limestone are not particularly

16
suitable, as they tend to degrade under load when wet, causing deterioration of the
line; granite, although expensive, is one of the best materials in this regard

In the early days of railroads in the United States, much material for ballast came
from rock found in the local area. In the Midwest, for example, much use was made
of quartzite, while states in the southeast, such as Florida, made use of limestone. One
specific type of quartzite used in the Midwest earned the name "Pink Lady" due to its
color; in other areas, the ballast can be a mix of light and dark colors called "Salt and
Pepper".

2.7.2 Construction

The thickness of a layer of track ballast depends on the size and spacing of the ties,
the amount of traffic expected on the line, and various other factors. Track ballast
should never be laid down less than 150 mm (6 inches) thick; high-speed railway lines
may require ballast up to half a meter (20 inches) thick. An insufficient depth of
ballast overloads the underlying soil; in the worst cases, this can cause the track to
sink. If the ballast is less than 300 mm (12 inches) thick, this can lead to vibrations,
which can damage nearby structures (though increasing the depth beyond this has no
measurable effect).

2.1: Pubail,Gazipur

17
Track ballast typically sits on a layer of sub-ballast; the latter is typically made of
small crushed stones. It gives a solid support for the top ballast, and seals out water
from the underlying ground. Sometimes, an elastic mat is placed under the ballast
layer as well; this can allow for significant reductions in vibration.

It is essential for ballast to be piled as high as the ties, and for a substantial "shoulder"
to be placed at their ends;) the latter being especially important, since this ballast
shoulder is, for the most part, the only thing restraining lateral movement of the track.
The ballast shoulder should be at least 150 mm (6 inches) wide under any
circumstances, and may be as large as 450 mm (18 inches).

2.7.3 Ballast material

Ballast is the main structural part of railroad where the sleepers (or ties in US) are
laid. Its main function is to transfer the loads coming from the super structure to the
subgrade without failure and providing good drainage. Different types of materials
used for ballast construction like limestone, basalt, granite, slag and gravel. So, an
aggregate with the following property traditionally considered to be best ballast
material i.e.

- Angular, crushed,

- Hard stones and rock

- Uniformly graded

- Free of dust, dirt and resistant to cementing action

2.7.4 Ballast functions

Even though there are many more functions of the ballast structure, the following are
the most important functions of ballast structure
1. Withstand the actions coming from the sleepers to the substructure. Those actions
can be grouped as uplift, lateral and longitudinal forces.
2. Act as resiliency and energy absorbent for the track structure.
3. The voids between the aggregates provide space for movement and accumulation
of crushed aggregates due to fouling.

18
4. Provide quick drainage system down to the structure.
5. Pressure reducing ballast structure to the allowable stress for the underlying
structure just below the slipper.
6. Tamping will rearrange ballast particles while adjusting track geometry. This
eases and speed up the maintenance operations.

2.7.5 Ballast structure

Ballast structure may be divided in to four zones:
- Crib zones between the slippers
- Shoulder, it is the sloppy zone between the end of the sleeper and down to the top
of sub- ballast.
- Top ballast, it is the top portion of the ballast structure which is usually exposed to
tamping.

2.2: Longitudinal View of railroad (showing ballast arrangement)

- Bottom ballast, it is the bottom and lower part of the structure which support
the overall structure. Depend on the quality of the sub-ballast material, loading
condition, presence of water and drainage property of the structure; it is the
more fouled part of the structure than the rest of the structure.

19
2.7.6 Mechanical Properties

A good mechanical property of ballast can be obtained from the combination of

physical properties of the individual ballast material (i.e. particle size, shape,
angularity, hardness, surface texture and durability) and its in-situ (i.e. in-place which
results from compaction process) The degradation resulted due to train traffic and
maintenance operation will round the aggregate particles and the traffic loading will
break the aggregates consequently reduces the interlocking between inter-particles.
Ballasted track generally have the following shortcomings which arise due to “high
frequency vibrations and uneven settlements.

- It has irregular or uneven settlements with defects in different track positions.

- There is irregular ballast damage in rail defects, insulating rails, bridge

approaches, and welded joints.

- After 30-60 million tons of service, when the settlement of the track exceeds 20
mm, general track maintenance is required and after 30 years of service the entire
ballast structure needs to be changed.

2.7.7 Maintenance

If ballast is badly fouled, the clogging will reduce its ability to drain properly; this, in
turn, causes more debris to be sucked up from the sub-ballast, causing more fouling.
Therefore, keeping the ballast clean is essential. Bioremediation can be used to clean
ballast.

It is not always necessary to replace the ballast if it is damaged nor must all the ballast
be removed if it is to be cleaned. Removing and cleaning the ballast from the shoulder
is often sufficient, if shoulder ballast is removed to the correct depth. While this job
was historically done by manual labor, his process is now, like many other railway
maintenance tasks, a mechanized one, with a chain of specially-designed railroad cars
handling the task. One wagon cuts the ballast and passes it via a conveyor belt to a
cleaning machine, and then the cleaning wagon washes the ballast, and deposits the
dirt and ballast into other wagons for disposal and re-use, respectively. Such machines
can clean up to two kilometers of ballast in an hour.

20
Cleaning, however, can only be done a certain number of times before the ballast is
damaged to the point that it cannot be re-used; furthermore, track ballast that is
completely fouled cannot be corrected by shoulder cleaning. In such cases, it is
necessary to replace the ballast altogether. One method of "replacing" ballast, if
necessity demands, is to simply dump fresh ballast on the track, jack the whole track
on top of it, and then tamp it down alternatively; the ballast underneath the track can
be removed with an undercutter, which does not require removing or lifting the track.
The dump and jack method cannot of course be used through tunnels, under over-
bridges, and where there are platforms. Where the track is laid over a swamp, such as
the Hexham swamp in Australia, the ballast continuously sinks, and needs to be
topped up to maintain its line and level. After 150 years of topping up, there appears
to be 10m of sunken ballast under the track

Regular inspection of the ballast shoulder is important as noted earlier, the lateral
stability of the track depends upon the shoulder. The shoulder acquires some amount of
stability over time, being compacted by traffic; maintenance tasks such as replacing
ties, tamping, and ballast cleaning can upset this stability. After performing these tasks,
it is necessary for either trains to run at reduced speed on the repaired routes, or to
employ machinery to compact the shoulder again if the trackbed becomes uneven, it is
necessary to pack ballast underneath sunk ties to level the track out again. This is, in the
mechanized age, usually done by a ballast tamping machine. A more recent and
probably better technique is to lift the rails and ties, and to force stones, smaller than the
track ballast particles and all of the same size, into the void. This has the advantage of
not disturbing the well-compacted ballast on the trackbed, as tamping is likely to do.
This technique is called pneumatic ballast injection (PBI).

2.7.8 Quantities

The quantity of ballast tends to vary with gauge, the wider gauges tending to have
wider formations. The depth of ballast also tends to vary with the density of traffic, as
faster and heavier traffic requires greater stability. The quantity of ballast also tends to
increase over the years as more and more ballast is piled on. Some figures are:

 First class line - 60 lb rail - 1700 cubic yards per mile.

 Second class line - 41.5 lb rail - 1135 cubic yards per mile.

21
  Third class line - 30 lb rail - 800 cubic yards per mile.

( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_ballast - cite_note-23)

2.7.9 Mitigation

Ballast cleaning, it is a technique to remove the fouled ballast material and replace it
with new material. Measure should be taken when the fouling percent reaches more
than 30% and is necessarily ballast cleaning should be done when fouling reaches
40% finer than 22.4 mm.

2.7.10 Aspects of Modeling

Before railway technology becomes modernized, observation and experience based

empirical solution has been used to determine the track bed thickness without
considering the loading, hydrology and the geology of the area.

There are different kinds of railway track models, among those models most of the
most of them are continuum and the rest are discrete. The one dimensional (1D)
Winkler’s foundation beam (a mass-spring system) is one of the continuum
models, very simple method and it is used most frequently. The 3D linear elastic
model and the 3D nonlinear models are another continuum models which can be
solved by semi-analytical and Finite Element Methods (FEM) respectively. Due to
the discrete nature of the ballast structure, the continuum models have some
difficulties.

Comparing the two modeling techniques, it is seen that the discrete element
method is more realistic; simulating the real condition than the continuum
approach (it does not account the morphological characteristics of aggregates,
such as shape and particle size distribution) as it is shown in below. The discrete
nature of the ballast material such as individual movement of the particles and
physical interaction at contact points makes the continuum modeling very
complex. It is also observed by that, due to the discrete nature of the ballast
structure, the continuum models have some difficulties.

**All the information was collected from (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_ballast)

22
2.8 Drainage Failure of Substructure
The three main water sources in the substructure of railway are listed below:

- Precipitation on the surface of the track

- Collected surface flow from the surrounding area

- Upward groundwater flow.

The effect of frost action can be avoided by considering the following conditions
during design,

- Avoiding the intrusion of water in the structure and controlling the height of
capillary rise by using non frost susceptible soils.

- Introducing an insulation which protects frost penetration and replacing the frost
susceptible soils of the depth of the frost penetration with clean granular
material.

- Provision of surface drainage and intercepting ditches, which can lower the level
of the water and avoid any accumulation of the water from the structure.

2.9 Railway Sleepers

A railroad tie, or railway tie, or crosstie (North America), or railway sleeper (Europe,
Australia and Asia) is a rectangular support for the rails in railroad tracks. These are
generally laid perpendicular to the rails and transfer loads to the track ballast and
subgrade, hold the rail upright and keep them spaced to the correct gauge.Thus
railroad ties form the backbone of rail travel. Apart from some experiments with stone
block sleepers at the earliest stages of rail transport's development, timber has been
the historically dominant material used for railway sleepers. Through the 20th
century, new materials have emerged to respond to the need to accommodate higher
axle loads and faster speeds.

2.9.1 Specifications, Size and Weight

Up to 3000 ties are used per mile of railroad track in the USA, 2640 per mile (30 per
60 ft rail) on main lines in the UK. Rails in the USA may be fastened to the tie by a
railroad spike; iron/steel baseplates screwed to the sleeper and secured to the rail by a

23
proprietary fastening system such as a Vossloh or Pandrol are commonly used in
Europe. The spacing of sleepers is indicated by a formula (n+x) where “n” is the
length of rail in meter and “x” is the number of sleepers more than “n”. In U.S.A.
large number of sleepers, compared to other countries is used, having sleeper density
of (n+9) to (n+11).

The most common length, width and depth for a railway sleeper are 8’6” or 2.6
meters, 10” or 250 mm and 6” respectively. The weight of sleepers varies
enormously, according to the density, type and age of tree the wood come from in
case of wooden sleepers. The steel sleeper consists of a trough or channel made of
steel plate about 6mm thick with the ends bent down to prevent the running of ballast.
The approximate weight of a steel trough sleeper is about 78kg. The weight of
concrete sleepers varies from 150kg to 300kg which is more than wooden or metal
sleepers.

(www.kilgraney.com/KFrailwaysleepers-size%20and%20weight.htm;
www.railwaysleepers.com/railway-sleepers/used-railway-sleepers/used-bolted-grade-
12-railway-sleepers)

2.9.2 Requirements of an ideal material for sleepers

(1) The sleeper should be likely to adjust and maintain the gauge correctly.

(2) The sleeper should be like that sufficient bearing area is maintained below the rail
seat and over the ballast.

(3) The sleeper should be capable of resisting shocks and vibrations due to fast
moving vehicles at high speeds.

(4) The sleeper should be of such design that it cannot be easily pushed ahead due to
passage of trains.

2.9.2.1 Materials for sleepers

Railroad ties were traditionally made of wood, but pre-stressed concrete is now
widely used especially in Europe and Asia. Steel ties are common on secondary lines
in the UK; plastic composite ties are also employed, although far less than wood or

24
concrete. As of January 2008, the approximate market share in North America for
traditional and wood ties was 91.5%, the remainder being concrete, steel, azobé (red
ironwood) and plastic composite.

Depending upon the availability, suitability, economy and design, the following
materials are used:

(1) Timber or wooden sleepers

(2) Steel sleepers

(3) Concrete sleepers.

(1) Timber or wooden sleeper

Timber railway sleepers have been used for centuries for fastening rail lines as they
are hardwearing, long lasting. A variety of softwood and hardwoods timbers are used
as ties, oak, jarrah and karri being popular hardwoods, although increasingly difficult
to obtain, especially from sustainable sources. Some lines use softwoods, including
Douglas fir; while they have the advantage of accepting treatment more readily, they
are more susceptible to wear but are cheaper, lighter (and therefore easier to handle)
and more readily available. Softwood is treated, historically using creosote, but
nowadays with other less-toxic preservatives to improve resistance to insect
infestation and rot.

New boron-based wood preserving technology is being employed by major US

railroads in a dual treatment process in order to extend the life of wood ties in wet
areas. Some timbers (such assal, mora, jarrahorazobé) are durable enough that they
can be used untreated. The life of timber sleepers will depend on various factors such
as climatic conditions, intensity and nature of traffic, quality of wood, and method of
packing, type of fastening. The wooden sleeper fulfills all the requirements of an ideal
sleeper satisfactorily and hence the timber sleepers are universally used almost ever
since the invention of railway. The teak wood is the best material for timber sleepers.
But due to its high cost, it is used mainly as sleepers for girder bridges.

25
 2.3: Wooden sleeper

Problems with wood ties include rot, splitting, insect infestation, plate-cutting, also
known as chair shuffle in the UK (abrasive damage to the tie caused by lateral motion
of the tie plate) and spike-pull (where the spike is gradually loosened from the tie).

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_(rail_transport);
www.timberclick.com/index.php/london/timber-railway-sleepers)

(2) Steel sleepers

Steel sleepers are used for standard railway tracks subjected to medium or heavy axle
loads. They are lightweight and dimensionally more accurate than wooden or concrete
ones. Their multiple advantages, including lower cost compared to wooden sleepers,
make them an effective technical solution for modern rail networks. The rail fastening
for low track load is done directly by means of clips and t-bolts. Also, the rail
fastening for higher loads is done by base plate that is welded to sleeper tops and then
used with elastic rail clip or hook in shoulders with fast clip / elastic rail clips. In
some special cases, electric insulation is done by means of bolted plastic pads or
insulators with rubber pads. Steel sleepers require about one third fewer vehicle

26
movements compared to concrete. Steel ties are formed from pressed steel and are
trough-shaped in section. The ends of the tie are shaped to form a "spade" which
increases the lateral resistance of the tie. Steel ties are now in widespread use on
secondary or lower-speed lines in the UK where they have been found to be
economical to install due their ability to be installed on the existing ballast bed. Steel
ties are 100% recyclable and require up to 60% less ballast than concrete ties and up
to 45% less than wood ties.

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/concrete_sleeper;
www.rahee.com/webpage.php?title=Steel+Sleepers&p_type=1&catid=80)

2.4: Steel sleeper

Important features of steel sleepers

(a) Significant savings can be made when renewing track with steel sleepers.
Reduction in ballast quantities also lead to reduced logistics costs, both for
imported ballast and for spoil disposal.

(b) Steel sleepers provide quicker, lower cost installation using lighter equipment.
These are stackable and light enough to be manually handled or moved in
bundles by a forklift.

27
(c) Steel sleepers need less depth of ballast than concrete sleepers, because the body
of ballast within the sleeper provides the necessary spring to distribute load. They
can also be replaced without excavating the old ballast.

2.5: Steel sleepers VS Concrete Sleepers from Economic Point of View

(d) There is a reduction in wet spots using steel sleepers as the contact surface of steel
sleepers is higher on the ballast layer and remains dries.

(e) Steel sleepers are designed and tested to load levels that are 20-30% higher than
the required duty to avoid fatigue.

But a number of unique problems have limited the adoption of steel for sleeper
applications, especially in the US with its abundance of natural timber resources. Steel
sleepers are susceptible to corrosion and rail operators have reported in the past that
steel ties have been removed from tracks after rail seats became quickly fatigued,
especially on lines with many turns.

(www.tatasteelrail.com/file_source/StaticFiles/Bussiness_Units/Rail/Steel%20sleeper
s.pdf)

28
(3) Concrete sleepers

In 1877, M. Monnier, a French gardener, suggested that concrete could be used for
making ties for railway track. Concrete sleepers were first used on the Alford and
Sutton Tramway in 1884. Designs were further developed and the railways of
Austria and Italy used the first concrete ties around the turn of the 20th century.
This was closely followed by other European railways. Major progress was not
achieved until World War II, when timbers used for ties were scarce due to
competition from other uses, such as mines. By following researches, pre-stressed
concrete tie was developed and more development of concrete ties was found in
France, Germany and Britain. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/concrete_sleeper, 1.10.2013)

The concrete sleepers may be of R.C.C. or pre-stressed concrete, the latter being very
common. This gives greater stability to the railway track. These types of sleepers are
durable and it is expected that they will have a useful life of about 30 years to 35
years on heavy density routes. . Sleepers can be made using a Long Line method or a
Short Line method; each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The PSC
sleepers are environmental friendly and this aspect has come to the fore recently. The
use of these sleepers helps in conserving the forest wealth of the nation for
maintaining the ecological balance. The deflection under loading in a concrete sleeper
track is much less and it contributes to increase longitudinal, lateral and vertical
stability. (S.C. Rangwala, Principles of Railway Engineering, 2003)

2.6: Concrete Sleeper

29
Concrete sleepers lack the elasticity of wooden sleepers and therefore ballast tracks
with Concrete sleepers usually have a much quicker degradation of the ballast when
loaded. This is especially true in bends and turnouts/switches. To reduce the wear on
the ballast and in some cases offer vibration isolation pads are fitted to the base of the
sleeper. The pads are usually manufactured of polyurethane foams with a stiffness
tailored to meet the elasticity requirements of the track.

Advantages

 Do not rot like timber sleepers.

 Less forest destruction and therefore, environment friendly.

 Extra weight makes track more stable, particularly with changes in temperature.

 Withstand fire hazards better than wooden sleepers.

 Longer life than wooden sleepers.

 Less maintenance means lower ongoing costs and less track closures.

 The date of manufacture is usually molded into the top surface.

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/concrete_sleeper)

Alternatives

The cast-iron sleepers were adopted on the Indian railways since 1870 and at present,
nearly 60% of broad gauge track is laid with cast-iron sleepers. The cast-iron sleepers
are not used in any other country except Burma and Pakistan. Sleepers made of
recycled plastics, which are less brittle than concrete, where reported to be under
development in 2007. Fiberglass is also an option. In more recent times, a number of
companies are selling composite railroad ties manufactured from recycled plastic
resins, and recycled rubber. The ties are impervious to rot and insect attack, and can
be modified to provide additional lateral stability while otherwise exhibiting
properties similar to their wooden counterparts in terms of damping impact loads and
sound absorption. Aside from the environmental benefits of using recycled material,
plastic ties usually replace timber ties soaked in creosote, the latter being a toxic
chemical, and are themselves recyclable. Plastic/Rubber composite ties are used in
other rail applications such as underground mining operations.

30
Sekisui's composite sleepers made their European debut in 2004 when they were
installed on the tracks of the Zollamt Bridge in Vienna, Austria. The material was
chosen for the bridge because it matched the performance of wood while remaining
unaffected by temperature changes and the constant moisture hanging in the air.

The advantages of composites are clear – the material can be manipulated and sawed
just like wood, without any of the inbuilt disadvantages of its all-natural counterpart.
It has the durability of concrete (composites have a service lifespan of 50 years or
more), without concrete's weight and ponderous installation process.

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_(rail transport))

2.9.3 Sleepers used in Bangladesh

Traditionally, in Bangladesh former railway sleepers were wooden, but now in

present most of the newly constructed railway lines are laid on concrete sleepers.
Wooden sleepers are exists in maximum junctions for easy movement of rails to
change their direction. Recently Bangladesh government has undertaken a project
named “TONGI-VOIRAB DUAL LINE RAILWAY PROJECT”, where lines are
laying on concrete sleepers instead of wooden sleepers. Steel sleepers are very rare in
Bangladesh. (http://www.railway.gov.bd/history.asp)

2.10 Track (rail transport)

The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the structure
consisting of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties(sleepers, British English) and ballast (or
slab track), plus the underlying sub grade. For clarity it is often referred to as railway
track (British English and UIC terminology) or railroad track (predominantly in the
United States). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track(rail_transport) 30.09.2013)

The permanent way is the elements of railway lines, generally the pairs
of rails typically laid on the sleepers ("ties" in American parlance) embedded in
ballast, intended to carry the ordinary trains of a railway. It is described as permanent
way because in the earlier days of railway construction, contractors often laid a
temporary track to transport spoil and materials about the site; when this work was

31
substantially completed, the temporary track was taken up and the permanent way
installed. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_way_ (history), 30.9.2013)

2.7: Unclipped Track in Tongi-Voirab Railway (Ongoing)

The track system consists of two main parts: SUPER STRUCTURE and SUB
STRUCTURE. The super structure of rail track consists of the rails, fastening system
and sleepers. The substructure includes the ballast and the sub grade. This report
consist details about rails, sleepers, ballast and sub-ballast of super structure and
subgrade of substructure.

2.8: Section through railway track and foundation showing the ballast and formation
layers (the layers are slightly sloped to help drainage.)

32
2.10.1 Traditional Track Structure

Notwithstanding modern technical developments, the overwhelmingly dominant track

form worldwide consists of flat-bottom steel rails supported on timber or pre-stressed
concrete sleepers (railroad ties in the US), which are themselves laid on crushed
stone ballast. Most railroads with heavy traffic use continuously welded rails
supported by sleepers (ties) attached via base plates which spread the load. A plastic
or rubber pad is usually placed between the rail and the tieplate where concrete
sleepers (ties) are used. The rail is usually held down to the sleeper (tie) with resilient
fastenings, although cut spikes are widely used in North American practice. For much
of the 20th century, rail track used softwood timber ties and jointed rails, and
considerable extents of this track type remains on secondary and tertiary routes. The
rails were typically of flat bottom section fastened to the ties with dog spikes through
a flat tieplate in North America and Australia, and typically of bullhead section
carried in cast iron chairs in British and Irish practice.

Jointed rails were used, at first because the technology did not offer any alternative.
However the intrinsic weakness in resisting vertical loading results in the ballast
support becoming depressed and a heavy maintenance workload is imposed to prevent
unacceptable geometrical defects at the joints. The joints also required to be
lubricated, and wear at the fishplate (joint bar) mating surfaces needed to be rectified
by shimming. For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily
operated railroads.

Timber sleepers (ties) are of many available timbers, and are often treated
with creosote, copper-chrome-arsenic, or other wood preservative. Pre-stressed
concrete sleepers (ties) are often used where timber is scarce and where tonnage or
speeds are high. Steel is used in some applications. Details about sleepers are
described in the RAILWAY SLEEPERS section of this report.

The track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the
ties and allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_(rail_transport))

33
2.10.2 Slab Track or Ballastless Track

A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the heavy demand for maintenance,

particularly surfacing (tamping) and lining to restore the desired track and smoothness
of vehicle running. Weakness of the subgrade and drainage deficiencies also leads to
heavy maintenance costs.

2.9: Ballastless high speed track in China

This can be overcome by using ballastless track. In its simplest form this consists of a
continuous slab of concrete (like a highway structure) with the rails supported directly
on its upper surface (using a resilient pad). There are a number of proprietary systems,
and variations include a continuous reinforced concrete slab, or alternatively the use
of pre-cast pre-stressed concrete units laid on a base layer. Many permutations of
design have been put forward. However ballastless track is very expensive in first cost
and in the case of existing railroads requires closure of the route for a somewhat long
period. Its whole life cost can be lower because of the great reduction in maintenance
requirement. Ballast less track is usually considered for new very high speed or very
high loading routes, in short extensions that require additional strength (e.g. rail
station) or for localized replacement where there are exceptional maintenance
difficulties. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_(rail_transport))

2.10.3 Ballasted vs Non-Ballasted Track

The basic argument for different track designs will be based on the bottom line - cost;
cost of installation and cost of maintenance. There are however, other issues such as

34
environment - noise, dust and vibration - or engineering issues such as space, location,
climate and the type of service intended for the track.

There are a wide variety of track forms and systems incorporating some form of
concrete base or support which doesn't need ballast. Almost all of these require less
depth of construction than ballasted track. However, the accuracy of installation must
be higher than that needed for ballasted track. Slab track will not be adjusted after
installation but ballast can be packed to align track as required.

The ability of ballast to allow track realignment is one of its most serious
weaknesses. The lateral movement caused by passing trains on curved track is one of
the major causes of maintenance costs added to which is the crushing caused by axle
weight and damage due to weather and water. Ballast damage leads to tracks
"pumping" as a train passes and, eventually, rail or sleeper damage will occur, to say
nothing of the reduced comfort inside the train and the additional wear on rolling
stock. Apart from regular repacking or "tamping", ballast will have to be cleaned or
replaced every few years.

Another aspect to the ballasted track design, is the dust which is caused during
installation and as it wears or gets crushed. It does however, offer a useful sound
deadening quality.

Fixed track formations using slab track or a concrete base of some sort do not suffer
from such problems. However, the installation of slab track is reported to cost about
20% more than ballasted track. To balance this cost, the maintenance costs have been
quoted as reduced by 3 to 5 times that of ballasted track on a high speed line in Japan.

If low levels of use are foreseen, or if low capital cost is a more important
requirement, ballasted track would be the choice. For a heavily used railway,
particularly one in a structurally restricted area like a tunnel or viaduct, non-ballasted
track must be the best option on grounds of low maintenance cost and reduced space
requirements. However, care must be taken during design and installation to ensure
the best out of the system.

35
2.10.4 Ladder Track

Ladder Track is a type of railway track in which the track is laid on longitudinal
supports with transverse connections holding the two rails at the correct gauge
distance. Modern ladder track can be considered a development of baulk road which
supported rails on longitudinal wooden sleepers.

2.10: Ladder track at Akabane Station, Tokyo, Japan

Ladder track utilizes sleepers aligned along the same direction as the rails with rung-
like gauge restraining cross members. Both ballasted and ballastless types exist.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladder_track)

2.10.5 Track Elements, Rail

Early rails were made of wood, cast iron or wrought iron. All modern rails are hot
rolled steel of a specific cross sectional profile. Typically the cross section (profile)
approximates to an I-beam but is asymmetric about a horizontal axis (however see
grooved rail below). The head is profiled to resist wear and to give a good ride, the
foot is profiled to suit the fixing system. Modern track typically uses Hot rolled steel
with a profile of an asymmetrical rounded I-beam. Unlike some other uses
of iron and steel, railway rails are subject to very high stresses and have to be made of
very high-quality steel alloy. It took many decades to improve the quality of the

36
materials, including the change from iron to steel. The heavier the rails and the rest of
the trackwork, the heavier and faster the trains the track can carry. Other profiles of
rail include: Bullhead rail; Grooved rail; "Flat-bottomed rail" (Vignoles rail or
Flanged T rail; Bridge rail (inverted U shaped used in Baulk road; Barlow rail
and Grooved rail.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_profile;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_
(rail_transport))

2.11: Cross-sections of flat-bottomed rail, which can rest directly on the sleepers, and
bullhead rail which sits in a chair (not shown)

2.10.5.1 Rail Classification (Weights and Sizes)

Rail is graded by weight over a standard length. The weight of a rail per length is an
important factor in determining rails strength and hence axle loads and speeds. Heavier
rail can support greater axle loads and higher train speeds without sustaining damage than
lighter rail, but at a greater cost. In North America and the UK, rail is graded
in pounds per yard (usually shown as pound or lb), so 130-pound rail would weigh
130 lb/yd (64.5 kg/m). The usual range is 115 to 141 lb/yd (57.0 to 69.9 kg/m). In
Europe, rail is graded in kg/m and the usual range is 40 to 60 kg/m (80.6 to 121.0 lb/yd).
In Bangladesh, rail is graded as in kg/m and the usual range is 50 to 65 kg/m (110 lb/yd to
143 lb/yd). The heaviest rail mass-produced was 155 pounds per yard (76.9 kg/m) and
was rolled for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The UK is in the process of transition from the

37
imperial to metric rating of rail. In rail terminology Pound is used synonymously with
pounds per yard, 132 pounds rail means a rail of 132lb/yd.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_(rail_transport);http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_profil,
2.10.2013)

2.10.5.2 Region-wise Rails Criteria

Europe

Rails are made in a large number of different sizes. Some common European rail sizes
include:

 40 kg/m (80.6 lb/yd)  56 kg/m (112.9 lb/yd)

 50 kg/m (100.8 lb/yd)  60 kg/m (121 lb/yd)

 54 kg/m (108.9 lb/yd)

In the countries of former USSR 65 kg/m (131 lb/yd) rails and 75 kg/m (151.2 lb/yd)
rails (not thermally hardened) are common. Thermally hardened 75 kg/m
(151.2 lb/yd) rails also have been used on heavy-duty railroads like Baikal-Amur
Mainline, but have proven themselves deficient in operation and were mainly rejected
in favor of 65 kg/m (131 lb/yd) rails.

North America

The American Society of Civil Engineers (or ASCE) specified rail profiles in 1893
for 5-pound-per-yard (2.48 kg/m) increments from 40 to 100 pounds per yard
(19.8 to 49.6 kg/m). Height of rail equaled width of foot for each ASCE tee-rail
weight; and the profiles specified fixed proportion of weight in head, web and foot
of 42%, 21% and 37%, respectively. ASCE 90 lb/yd (44.6 kg/m) profile was
adequate; but heavier weights were less satisfactory. In 1909 the American
Railway Association (or ARA) specified standard profiles for 10 lb/yd (4.96 kg/m)
increments from 60 to 100 lb/yd (29.8 to 49.6 kg/m). The American Railway
Engineering Association (or AREA) specified standard profiles for 100 lb/yd
(49.6 kg/m), 110 lb/yd (54.6 kg/m) and 120 lb/yd (59.5 kg/m) rails in 1919, for

38
130 lb/yd (64.5 kg/m) and 140 lb/yd (69.4 kg/m) rails in 1920, and for 150 lb/yd
(74.4 kg/m) rails in 1924. AREA recommendations reduced the relative weight of
rail head down to 36%. Attention was also focused on improved fillet radii to
reduce stress concentration at the web junction with the head. AREA
recommended the ARA 90 lb/yd (44.6 kg/m) profile. Old ASCE rails of lighter
weight remained in use, and satisfied the limited demand for light rail for a few
decades. By the mid-20th century, most rail production was medium
heavy (112 to 119 lb/yd or 55.6 to 59.0 kg/m) and heavy (127 to 140 lb/yd or 63.0 to
69.4 kg/m) Sizes under 100 lb/yd (49.6 kg/m) rail are usually for lighter duty freight,
low use trackage, or light rail. Track using (100 to 120 lb/yd (49.6 to 59.5 kg/m)) rail
is for lower speed freight branch lines or rapid transit (for example, most of the New
York City Subway system track is constructed with 100 lb/yd (49.6 kg/m) rail). Main
line track is usually built with 130 lb/yd (64.5 kg/m) rail or heavier. Some common
North American rail sizes include:

 75 lb/yd (37.2 kg/m) (ASCE)
 85 lb/yd (42.2 kg/m) (ASCE)
 90 lb/yd (44.6 kg/m) (ARA)
 100 lb/yd (49.6 kg/m) (AREA)
 105 lb/yd (52.1 kg/m) (New York
Central Railroad)
 115 lb/yd (57.0 kg/m) (AREA)
 119 lb/yd (59.0 kg/m) (Colorado
Fuel and Iron)
 127 lb/yd (63.0 kg/m) (New York
Central Railroad)
 132 lb/yd (65.5 kg/m) (AREA)
 133 lb/yd (66.0 kg/m) (AREA)
 136 lb/yd (67.5 kg/m) (Colorado
Fuel and Iron)
 140 lb/yd (69.4 kg/m) (AREA)
 141 lb/yd (69.9 kg/m) (produced by
Nippon (Japan))

Some common North American crane rail sizes include:

 12 lb/yd  60 lb/yd (29.8 kg/m)  105 lb/yd

(5.95 kg/m)  80 lb/yd (39.7 kg/m) (52.1 kg/m)
 20 lb/yd (9.9 kg/m)  85 lb/yd (42.2 kg/m)  135 lb/yd (67 kg/m)
 25 lb/yd  104 lb/yd  171 lb/yd
(12.4 kg/m) (51.6 kg/m) (84.8 kg/m)
 30 lb/yd  175 lb/yd

39
 (14.9 kg/m) (86.8 kg/m)
 40 lb/yd
(19.8 kg/m)

Australia

Some common Australian rail sizes include:

 30 kg/m  50 kg/m (100.8 lb/yd)

(60.5 lb/yd)  53 kg/m (106.8 lb/yd)
 36 kg/m  60 kg/m (121 lb/yd)
(72.6 lb/yd)  68 kg/m (137.1 lb/yd) (no longer being produced)
 40 kg/m  50 kg and 60 kg are the current standard, although
(80.6 lb/yd) some other sizes are still manufactured.
 47 kg/m
(94.7 lb/yd)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_profile)

2.10.5.3 Types

1. Double headed rails,

2. Bull headed rails,

3. Flat footed/bottom rails

2.12: Cross section of new flat bottomed rail

40
The standard form of rail used around the world is the "flat bottom" rail. It has a wide
base or "foot" and narrower top or "head". In Bangladesh rail track is also provided
with “flat bottom” rail.

Recently Bangladesh government has undertaken a project named “TONGI-VOIRAB

DUAL LINE RAILWAY PROJECT”, where flat footed rails are being used for track
construction. Bangladesh follows combination of Europe and United States design
procedure.

For more details please visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._G._Bagnall and

http://www.railway.gov.bd/history.asp.

41
 CHAPTER: 3

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 General
3.2 Earthwork
3.2.1 Usual Forms of Cross-Section
3.2.2 Features of Railroad Bed Level
3.3 Drainage
3.4 Stabilization of Track on Poor Soil
3.5 Design of Earthworks
3.5.1 Survey
3.5.2 Geotechnical Investigation
3.5.2.1 Making Bore Holes and Testing of Soil
3.5.2.2 Collection of Disturbed Soil Samples
3.5.2.3 Collection of Undisturbed Soil Samples
3.5.2.4 The Tests to be carried out for Sub soil Investigations
3.5.2.5 Identification of Location not requiring any Special Foundation
Ground treatment
3.5.2.6 Identification of Location by Surcharging & Staged Construction
3.5.2.7 Identification of Locations requiring Soft Ground treatment
3.5.2.8 Design of Embankment Foundation
3.5.2.9 Design Requirements
3.5.2.10 Design Verification
3.5.2.11 Identification of Sources of Fill Materials and Material Tests for
Suitability
3.6 Embankment Work
3.6.1 Test Proposed for Materials for Embankment Construction
3.7 Sub-Ballast
3.7.1 Sub-Ballast Functions
3.7.2 Sub-Ballast Materials
3.7.3 Sub-Ballast Material Specification
3.7.4 Factors Influencing Design of Sub-Ballast

42
 3.7.4.1 Total Static and Dynamic Loads Coming on the Track
3.7.4.2 Speed of the Trains
3.7.4.3 Resilience/Elasticity/Flexibility of Track Structure for Good Running
Behavior
3.7.4.4 Drainage
3.7.4.5 Durability
3.7.4.6 Cementing Properties
3.7.4.7 Stability
3.7.5 Supply & Placement of Sub-ballast
3.7.6 Sub-Ballast Construction
3.8 Placing Of Ballast
3.8.1Selection of Ballast for Railway
3.8.2 Mechanical Properties of Ballast
3.8.2.1 Abrasion test
3.8.2.2 Slake durability test
3.8.2.3 Fracture toughness testing
3.8.3 Ballast tamper
3.8.4 Functions of tamping machine
3.8.4.1 Types
3.8.4.2 General arrangement
3.8.4.3 Tamping units
3.9 Sleeper
3.9.1 Sleeper Functions
3.9.2 Sleeper Spacing and Density
3.9.2.1 Factors affecting spacing/density
3.9.2.2 Minimum Density
3.9.2.3 Sleeper Spacing
3.9.3 Material properties
3.9.3.1 Timber
3.9.3.2 Concrete
3.9.3.3 Steel Sleeper
3.9.3.4 Pre-stressing reinforcement
3.9.4 Required Knowledge for Sleeper Laying
3.9.5 Required Skills for Sleeper Laying
43
 3.9.6 Sleeper Laying Procedure
3.10 Function of Rails
3.10.1 Requirements of an Ideal Rail
3.10.2 Tests Prescribed for Rail
3.10.3 Types of Rail Joints
3.10.4 Rail fastenings
3.10.5 Shop Welding to Produce Long Rails
3.10.6 Site Welding to Produce CWR
3.10.7 Stressing or Locking-Up of CWR

44
3.1 General

For the construction of a smooth and jerk free rail track, construction procedure has to
pass within many steps. This chapter nearly describes all the procedure which is
needed to construct a suitable rail track. This chapter includes the description of the
construction works like earthwork i.e. subgrade and sub ballast, sleeper placing, track
installation and finally ballast packing.

3.2 Earthwork

In the layout of a railway track the earthwork & drainage form two important
elements. In this part, these two elements will be briefly described.

3.2.1 Usual Forms of Cross-Section

The naturally occurring soil is known as the subgrade & when it is prepared to receive
the ballast & track, it is called the formation. When the formation is raised on bank of
earth, it is called in embankment & when it is made after cutting the ground below
ground level, it is called in cutting.

A railway line may be constructed either in embankment or in cutting or in a

combined section, as shown in fig. 3.1, fig. 3.2, & fig. 3.3 respectively.

In the case of embankment, the line is laid on a prepared formation & depending on
the side slopes; the cross-section cuts the ground level at suitable points.

45
In the case of cutting, the line is laid below ground level & hence the required portion
is to be excavated. Suitable angle β is provided & then the required cross-section is
worked out.

If a railway line cuts the natural ground surface, a combined section of embankment
& cutting is to be provided, as shown in fig. 3.3.

It should be noted that angles α and β are not necessarily the same. Moreover this
section becomes ideal when the volume of earth in embankment becomes more or less
equal to the volume of earth in cutting. (Railway Engineering by Rangwals, 2003)

46
3.2.2 Features of Railroad Bed Level

It is very important to carefully design the formation ground on which the ultimate
load is to spread. If this ground is flat, it does not create any problem. But when the
formation is to be made on embankment or cutting, the various features should be
carefully considered. Following are such features:

(1) Width of formation: Usually the width of formation will depend on the
number of tracks, gauge of tracks, center to center distance between the tracks,
width of ballast layer and width of trenches to drain off water, if necessary.
The width of formation is generally kept sloping from the center for drainage
purposes. The minimum widths of formation recommended for different
gauges are shown in table 3.1.

TABLE 3.1: Width of formation

Gauge Minimum Minimum width of Remarks

width of embankment cutting
Single Double Single Double
B.G. 610 cm 1082 cm 549 cm 1021 cm 122 cmextra
M.G. 488 cm 884 cm 427 cm 827 cm width is to
be provided
N.G. 370 cm 732 cm 335 cm 701 cm in case of
the
formation in
cutting for
the side
drains.

(2) Slopes of sides: The earthwork stability depends mainly on two factors,
namely, cohesion & friction. For temporary stability, the cohesion is useful
and reliable. But permanent stability is achieved only by friction which keeps
the slopes at the natural angle of response of the material. Hence the slopes to

47
 be provided to the sides of the formation should be slightly flatter than the
angle of response of the material.

The slopes in cuttings vary from nearly vertical to 1.5 to 1 or steeper. The
vertical slopes are provided in case of hard rock & steep slopes are provided in
case of soft material. The slopes in embankments vary from 1:1 to 2:1.
Suitable adjustment is made in case of a combined section.

(3) Drains: The friction in all sorts of soils reduces with the accumulation of
water. And hence it is very important to construct suitable drains to take out
the rain water & make the earthwork stable. In case of embankments, the rain
water is easily drained off. But in case of cuttings, the drains are to be
provided. For this purpose, the side drains are constructed along the track at a
depth of about 1200 mm from the rail level. Suitable gradient is given to these
drains & they are maintained in such a way that they remain clear of any
obstruction.

Generally the bottom width is about 450 mm and height is also 450 mm with
side slopes as 1:1. But the actual size will depend on the quantity of water to
be drained. Sometimes the pipes of stoneware or concrete are laid in a trench
with open or half-open joints & covered with porous material. The diameter of
pipe varies from 150 mm to 230 mm. In case of bad ground, the bottoms of the
pipes should be properly supported by necessary bedding.

(4) Method of construction: In India, the embankments are normally constructed

by digging pits along the track, known as the borrow pits. In other countries,
the required earth is brought from the cuttings or from some other place. The
loose earth is then spread in layers of about 300 mm height & well
consolidated. Sufficient allowance is made for the shrinkage of the material.
The normal allowance is about 167 mm per meter height of the embankment.

The grass is grown along the sides of the embankment to prevent the erosion
of earth particles. Also the loss of earth due to wind, water, etc. should be
noted during maintenance & the required quantity of the earth should be
48
 periodically placed on the embankment. (Railway Engineering by Rangwala,
2003)

3.3 Drainage

It is one of the essential requirement of a good railway track is an efficient drainage

system. The railway track should be provided with a good drainage system.

Requirement of drainage system: It is broadly divided into the following two

categories:

1. Surface drainage: The formation of track should be well above the level
of the adjoining land so that the surface water does not flood the
formation. The side drains should be provided to dispose of the surface
water by cambering the formation & provision of necessary side slopes.
The side drains should be of adequate size to carry the surface water.
2. Sub-surface drainage: The highest underground water level should be
brought down sufficiently below the formation by suitable method. The
water-logged areas should be given proper treatment. As far as possible,
the track alignment should be on pervious naturally drained soil.

3.4 Stabilization of Track on Poor Soil

Sometimes it becomes unavoidable to lay tracks on a very poor soil having improper
drainage facilities. In such cases it becomes essential to improve the nature of the soil
by some suitable method:

Following are the five usual methods of stabilization of track on poor soil:

(1) Layer or blanket of moorum or sand

(2) Cement grouting
(3) Sand piles
(4) Use of chemicals
(5) By providing capillary break or cut-off. (Railway Engineering by Rangwals,
2003)

49
3.5 Design of Earthworks

This part describes the methodology of earthwork which is followed in this study
Railway project.

The activities of execution of earthwork include:

1) Survey.
2) Geotechnical Investigation.
a. Making bore holes & testing of soil.
b. Identification of locations not requiring any special foundation
treatment.
c. Identification of locations requiring pre-consolidation & staged
construction.
d. Identification of locations requiring soft ground treatment &
strengthening & method of treatment (Installation of sand piles or wick
drains or sand blanket or piled embankment as the case may be) for
each location.
3) Design of embankment foundation.
4) Identification of sources of materials for embankment construction & testing
of the materials for their suitability for use in embankment construction.
5) Construction of Haul roads.
6) Fixing of center line & toe line of embankment & setting out (Railway
alignment).
7) Clearing, grubbing & stripping of the ground.
8) Excavation if required.
9) Foundation preparation & stabilization including soft soil treatment where
required.
10) Benching where required.
11) Embankment construction, compaction & testing as required.
12) Sub-ballast placement, compaction & tasting as required.
13) Top-soiling & seeding of slopes.
14) Bank & Erosion protection, location selection, design, material (geotextiles,
bricks, sand, concrete), execution.
15) Backfilling.

50
3.5.1 Survey

Objective:

 To set out the railway track & structures in accordance with drawings & from
the reference points provided by the Employer & as verified during survey by
the contractor.
 To provide permanent gridlines & construct benchmarks for alignment & level
control.
 To carry out routine survey work, identify errors, distribute errors & maintain
survey records.

Scope: Working benchmarks for railway alignment & level.

Equipment: Total stations, GPS, level Machine, Measuring Tapes etc.

3.5.2 Geotechnical Investigation

The location of bore hole shall be shown in the drawing indicating chainage, offset
distance from center line & coordinates. Exploratory boring will be done at selected
locations (on land/water) using 150 mm dia. Protective casing in upper part (up to
required depth) only & there after boreholes up to required depth (as specified by the
engineer‟s respective) will be advanced by percussive wash method. In this method,
during removal of cuttings/loose soil from the borehole, the borehole walls will be
stabilized against cave-in using drilling fluid (water mixed with bentonite) pumped
into the borehole through nose of the chopping bit/chisel attached at lower end of the
drill rod.

3.5.2.1 Making Bore Holes and Testing of Soil:

In accordance with requirements of BS 1377: Part-9 1990, using auto trip specified
hammer & spilt spoon standard penetration tests (SPT), will be carried from existing
ground level (EGL) up to final depth, in all boreholes at every 1.5 m intervals &
results of such tests (N-value) also will be included in the bore logs, without any
correction.

51
3.5.2.2 Collection of Disturbed Soil Samples

In accordance with requirements of AASHTO T-206, after visual examination of soil

retained within the spoon (used for standard penetration tests), available disturbed soil
samples will be preserved within double layered polythene bags in water tight
condition, with proper identification tag & subsequently all soil samples will be
transferred to laboratory with care & use for necessary tests on selected samples.

3.5.2.3 Collection of Undisturbed Soil Samples

In accordance to standard procedure (ASTM D1587 or equivalent) using 100 mm dia,

thin walled Shelby tubes, undisturbed soil samples will be collected from significant
cohesive zones & preserved within the Shelby tube in wax sealed condition &
transported to selected laboratory with proper identification tag & preserved there for
specified tests.

3.5.2.4 The Tests to Be Carried Out For Sub Soil Investigations

Natural Moist Content: Tests-on selected samples, according to AASHTO T-265

standards or equivalent.

Wet & Dry Density: Tests-on selected samples, according to AASHTO T-180
standards or equivalent.

Atterberg Limits: Tests-on selected samples, (collected from cohesive zones only),
according to ASTM D 4381 standards or equivalent.

Specific Gravity: Tests-on selected samples, according to ASTM D 854 standards or

equivalent.

Grain size Analysis: Tests-on available representative samples, collected from

different strata, encountered in the exploratory bore holes & all of pit samples from
potential trial pits, Hydrometer & wet sieve analysis will be carried out according to
ASTM D421 & D422 standards or equivalent.

Quick Consolidated drained Direct Shear (Qc): Tests-on 50mm x 50mm x 20mm
specimens, prepared from selected available disturbed samples collected from
different strata, encounter in the boreholes to determine their Cohesion (C) & angle of
internal friction (ϕ), according to ASTM D-3080 standards or equivalent.

52
Triaxial Tests-on selected samples from selected locations for which such Test is
deemed to provide accurate & enough data for analysis, according to ATM D4767,
ASTM D2850-03a, BS 1377-8 standards or equivalent.

3.5.2.5 Identification of Location not requiring any Special Foundation Ground

Treatment

After confirming of sub-soil investigation reports, the locations not requiring any
special foundation ground treatment will be identified with consultation of engineer‟s
representative.

3.5.2.6 Identification of Location requiring Pre-consolidation by Surcharging

and Staged Construction

Pre-consolidation by surcharging & staged construction of embankment shall be

carried out at the rate of loading & over the lengths & to the heights specified in the
contractor‟s soft ground design requirement.

In areas requiring soft ground treatment an initial 600mm lift of sand blanket/drainage
layer is to be placed & than on subsequent intervals, the placing of additional lifts of
250mm loose thickness (max) & compacted until the final elevation has been reached
& further settlement has ceased.

3.5.2.7 Identification of Locations requiring Soft Ground Treatment

Such locations requiring soft ground treatment will be identified comparing data/test
reports available. The soft soil area will be located based on sub soil investigation
reports & method of treatment including locations will be proposed by the engineer‟s.
The following four methods will be applied for soft ground treatment:

1. The installation of sand piles.

2. The installation of wick drains.
3. The installation of sand blanket.
4. The piled embankment design.

53
3.5.2.8 Design of Embankment Foundation

1. Normally on firm ground, there will not be required any treatment for
embankment foundation. After carrying out the sub soil investigations &
performing tests, the design for treatment method of soft soil will be done in
accordance with the prescribed formula.

The detailed design shall satisfy the following design criteria:

Note:
Soft soil thickness, 𝑍𝑤𝑠 is defined by the following equation:

1 1 1
𝑍𝑤𝑠 = 𝑍𝑠𝑜 + 𝑍𝑠𝑐 + 𝑍𝑠𝑚 + 𝑍𝑓𝑜 + 𝑍𝑓𝑐 + 𝑍𝑓𝑚
2 2 2

Where,

𝑍𝑠𝑜 = thickness of very soft to soft organic soil

𝑍𝑠𝑐 = thickness of very soft to soft clay

𝑍𝑠𝑚 = thickness of very soft to soft silt

𝑍𝑓𝑜 = thickness of firm organic soil

𝑍𝑓𝑐 = thickness of firm clay

𝑍𝑓𝑚 = thickness of firm silt

2. For some design sections, the post construction settlement criteria for the new
embankment can be achieved using wick drains and 6 months preload time, or
alternatively no wick drains and longer preload time (i.e. 9 months). The
designer should provide the most economical solution by taking time into
consideration.

54
3.5.2.9 Design Requirements

Development of geotechnical models including design parameters for use in the soft
ground treatment design. Justification of the design parameters shall be clearly
documented. Clearly indicate the geotechnical model and design strength and
deformation parameters adopted. Settlement analysis, the analysis shall include both
primary and secondary settlement predictions andrates of settlement against time, and
shall be based on conventional theory of soil mechanics.

The primary settlement 𝑆𝑝 of clay & silts shall be based on the equation:

𝐻𝑜 𝜎𝑝 𝜎𝑝 + ∆𝜎𝑣
𝑆𝑝 = ( 𝐶𝑟 log + 𝐶𝑐 log )
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑣𝑎 𝜎𝑝

Where,
𝐻𝑜 = Original thickness of clays/silt
𝑒𝑜 = Initial void ratio
𝐶𝑟 = Recompression index
𝐶𝑐 = Compression index
𝜎𝑣𝑎 = Initial effective stress
𝜎𝑝 = Preconsolidation pressure
∆𝜎𝑣 = Increase in pressure due to applied load

The secondary settlement 𝑆𝑠 of clay & silts shall be based on the equation:

𝐻𝑜 𝑡
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶𝑎 log
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑡𝑝

Where,
𝐶𝑎 = Secondary compression index
𝑡𝑝 = Time at the end of primary consolidation
𝑡 = Time at which secondary settlement is to be determined

55
Rate of consolidation shall be based on Terzhaghi‟s one dimensional theory of
consolidation.

The influence of preload, surcharging, staging & ground modifications shall be

investigated with respect to both primary & secondary settlements, Stability analysis.
Limit equilibrium methods based on traditional FOS shall be used, and the
Morgenstern and Price method of limit equilibrium shall be the primary method of
analysis.

3.5.2.10 Design Verification

The contractor shall carry out an internal design review to ensure that the design
meets the contract requirements and other requirements as specified by the Employer.
Copy of the independent review shall be submitted to the Engineer, The Soft ground
design for the full alignment shall also be reviewed by the Engineer and approval
obtained by the engineer prior to construction.

3.5.2.11 Identification of Sources of Fill Materials and Material Tests for Suitability

Identification of sources of fill materials for Embankment construction & testing of

the materials for their suitability for use in Embankment construction are described
here. There are two type sources used in construction the embankment,
 Materials obtained from BR Land.
 Materials from Contractor‟s own source.

The following tests shall be performed in case of approval of earthen materials

sources & will confirm to the specification requirements:

1) Classification of soil by Unified Soil Classification Systems.

2) Atterberg Limits.
3) Plasticity Index.
4) Maximum Dry Density & Optimum Moisture Content Relations.

56
 5) CBR Test.

3.6 Embankment Work

Objective: To establish the construction procedure, equipment requirement &
contractor‟s role & specification requirement for the following activities.

Scope: The embankment works include the following

a) Clearing, grubbing & stripping
b) Excavation
c) Foundation preparation & stabilization on Firm Ground
d) Foundation preparation on soft ground
e) Railway Embankment construction over Foundation Base
f) Supply & Placement of sub-ballast
g) Top Soiling & Seeding
h) Bank & Erosion protection works
 Grouted Brick flat soling &
 Supply & installment of Geotextile Fabric.

3.6.1 Test Proposed for Materials for Embankment Construction

Testing suitability of the embankment fill material & obtaining approval of the
Engineer.

 Soil classification
 Moisture Content Determination
 Atterberg Limit
 Particle Size Analysis
 Specific Gravity
 Dry-Density Relation
 Organic Content Determination
 CBR
 Shear strength tests (Unconfined Compression test, Vane Shear test)
 Field Density test.

57
Frequency of testing: Initial, at least one test & at every change of soil strata subject
to a minimum of one test for every 3000 cum.

3.7 Sub-Ballast

The layer between the ballast and the subgrade is the sub-ballast. Track ballast forms
the trackbed upon which railway sleepers (UK) or railroad ties (US) are laid and to
support the ballast, sub-ballast is provided. It is packed below the ballast. It is used to
bear the load from the ballast, to facilitate drainage of water, and also to keep
down vegetation that might interfere with the track structure. This also serves to hold
the ballast, as well as, the track in place as the trains roll by.

(books.google.com.bd/books?isbn=1420004891)

3.7.1 Sub-Ballast Functions

It fulfills some important functions which are also on the ballast list. In fulfilling these
functions, the sub-ballast reduces the otherwise required greater thickness of the more
expensive ballast material. These are,

 Reduce the traffic induced stress at the bottom of the ballast layer to a
tolerable level for the top of subgrade.
 Extend the subgrade frost protection

There are some other important functions that cannot be fulfilled by ballast. These
are,

 Prevent interpenetration of subgrade and ballast (separate Function)

 Prevent upward migration of fine material emanating from the subgrade
 Prevent subgrade attrition by ballast, which in the presence of water, leads to
slurry formation, and hence prevent this source of pumping. This is a
particular problem if subgrade is hard.
 Shed water, i.e., intercept water coming from the ballast and direct it away
from the subgrade to ditches at the sides of the track
 Permit drainage of water that might be flowing upward from the subgrade

58
These are very important functions for satisfactory track performance. Hence in the
absence of a sub-ballast layer a high maintenance effort can be expected unless these
functions are fulfilled in some other manner.

3.7.2 Sub-Ballast Materials

The most common and most suitable sub-ballast materials are crushed stone, natural
or crushed gravel, natural or manufactured sand, crushed slag or a homogeneous
mixture of these materials. Some other materials for use as sub-ballast include
broadly-graded naturally occurring or processed sand-gravel mixtures, or broadly-
graded crushed natural aggregates or slags. They must have durable particles and
satisfy the filter or separation requirements for ballast and subgrade. Other than the
natural aggregates, some of the functions of sub-ballast may be provided by,

1. Cement, lime, or asphalt stabilized local soils

2. Asphalt concrete layers or
3. Geosynthetic materials like membranes, grids and filter fabrics (geotextiles)
(wiki.iricen.gov.in/doku/lib/exe/fetch.php?media=721:4ballast...Pd)

3.7.3 Sub-Ballast Material Specification

 For crushed stone and slag, five separate size distributions are allowed.
 The coarsest being not more than 10% coarser than 60mm
 The finest is not more than 5% coarser than 25mm. the proportion at
intermediate sizes and the fines content are also specified.
 For gravel, three size distributions are permitted; 80-100%, 65-100% and 60-
95% respectively finer than 25mm. The percentage passing through finer
sieves is also specified.
 Thickness of Sub-ballast layer can vary but not more than 300mm.

Materials are specified according to ASTM specification (D1241).

59
3.7.4 Factors Influencing Design of Sub-Ballast

3.7.4.1 Total Static and Dynamic Loads Coming on the Track

The design of the sub-ballast should be such that they are able to successfully transmit
all the loads coming on the track superstructure to the sub grade without any failure of
the sub grade. To understand the effect of the increase in axle load, traffic density etc.
on track performance, it is necessary to understand the mechanism by which
settlement occurs. A part of track settlement is attributed to ballast breakdown, its
orientation and lateral creep. But most of the settlement is due to vertical settlement of
the underlying sub grade. With increase in axle loads, stresses induced into subgrade
increases proportionately which lead to increase in rate of settlement of sub grade.
Though with increase in traffic density, stresses in sub grade do not increase but rate
of settlement increases due to increased frequency of load application.

3.7.4.2 Speed of the Trains

The speed of the trains affects the Dynamic Augment which in turn alters the
magnitude of the load coming on the track. It has been observed that the stresses do
not increase with speed but higher speeds call for better maintenance standards
(tolerances). With increase in speed, though dynamic augment „DA‟ increases a little,
but, increase is compensated due to adoption of higher maintenance standards. Studies
by ORE have shown that „DA‟ increases a little with speed up to critical speed and
thereafter it decreases or remains constant but it is very much sensitive to track
leveling defects. Thus, increase in speed may increase the rate of settlement for which
permissible stresses in sub grade should be reduced suitably to keep maintenance
within acceptable level.

3.7.4.3 Resilience/Elasticity/Flexibility of Track Structure for Good Running

Behavior

Running of trains causes vibrations which are transmitted to the track through rail-
wheel interaction. These vibrations influence the performance of the various track
components. The sub-ballast should be such that it absorbs the vibrations and
transfers minimum disturbance to the sub grade.

(books.google.com.bd/books?isbn=1862390797)

60
3.7.4.4 Drainage

The sub-ballast should be able to drain the track system as drainage is the first and
prime consideration in the track maintenance and performance of a ballast material. A
wet sub-ballast section reduces the shearing strength of the assembly of sub-ballast
particles and dirty, moist sub-ballast sections will support the growth of vegetation
which reduces the drainage capability of the sub-ballast material. Drainage is the most
important factor in contractive and expansive sub grade soil conditions which are
prone to cause pumping conditions in the track section.

3.7.4.5 Durability
The material should be such that it does not create fines that may fill the voids
between the particles thereby inhibiting drainage. Further, excessive abrasion loss of
an aggregate will result in reduction in particle size, fouling of the ballast section and
loss of supporting strength of sub-ballast section.

3.7.4.6 Cementing Properties

Some of the powdery fines of carbonate materials have a tendency to cement together
and clogging action could occur. Further, cementing reduces resiliency and provides
undesirable distribution of track loads and in most instances results in permanent track
deformations. Cementing also interferes with track maintenance. So, a sub-ballast
material should be free of cementing properties.

3.7.4.7 Stability
To provide track stability, the ballast must perform several well defined functions.
The sub-ballast must sustain and transmit static and dynamic loads in three directions
(transverse, vertical and longitudinal) and distribute these loads uniformly over the
sub grade. The sub-ballast material should be such that it should be possible to get
well compacted sub-ballast section to provide a stable and uniform area for the
distribution of the track loads throughout the ballast section.
3.7.5 Supply & Placement of Sub-ballast
Procedure:
1) Sub-Ballast Material
i. Check for quality suitability at source/manufacturing point.

61
 ii. Test Proposed:
 Particle size Analysis
 Organic Impurities
 Flakiness
 Elongation
 Fracture face
 LA Abrasion
 CBR
 Density-Moisture Relation for crushed stone & crushing
strength
 Unit weight
 Absorption for crushed bricks

iii. The sub-ballast materials will be collected & stockpiled at the

nearest stock yard.
iv. Frequency of test at site: Minimum one test per 500 cum. Or
part thereof.

2) Sub-ballast material shall be spread on the sub-grade with the help of Motor
grader so as to give maximum compacted thickness of 150mm per layer.
3) Moisture content will be checked and suitably adjusted by sprinkling water
from a water tanker. After adding water the material will be processed by
mechanical means like Disc harrows or Renovator until the layer is uniformly
wet.
4) Sub-ballast material will be compacted to 98% compaction with 8-10 tonne
Vibratory roller & of 0.9m width with minimum overlap of 150mm between
each run of the rollers.
5) Top level & cross slope will be checked & corrected. Top level shall be
finished to within +15mm of design level & cross slope to within 1:28 to 1:30.
The compacted layer will be tested for compaction (bottom layers to 98% of MDD &
top layer to 100% of MDD) as per specification (ASTM Designation D1557). If the
required compaction is not achieved, necessary rectification will be carried out &
tested for compaction

62
3.7.6 Sub-Ballast Construction
Sub-ballast is to be placed in layers and thoroughly compacted in accordance with
standard practice to form a stable foundation for the ballast. Track ballast typically
sits on a layer of sub-ballast; the latter is typically made of small crushed stones. It
gives a solid support for the top ballast, and seals out water from the underlying
ground. The thickness of a layer of sub-ballast depends on the ballast quality, ballast
material, ballast layer depth, size and spacing of the ties, the amount of traffic
expected on the line, and various other factors. Track sub-ballast should never be laid
down less than 150 mm (6 inches) thick; high-speed railway lines may require sub-
ballast layer of about 300mm depth. An insufficient depth of sub-ballast overloads the
underlying soil; in the worst cases, this can cause the track to sink.If the sub-ballast is
less than 300 mm (12 inches) thick, this can lead to vibrations, which can damage
nearby structures (though increasing the depth beyond this has no measurable
effect).Sometimes, an elastic mat is placed under the ballast layer as well; this can
allow for significant reductions in vibration. If ballast is badly fouled, the clogging will
reduce its ability to drain properly; this, in turn, causes more debris to be sucked up from the
sub-ballast, causing more fouling. Therefore, keeping the ballast clean is essential.
Bioremediation can be used to clean ballast.

(www.engr.uky.edu/~jrose/.../CE%20533%20Chap%2021%20rev.pdf)

3.4 Crushed Ballast

3.8 Placing Of Ballast

The crushed stones are seen alongside railroad tracks are what are known as ballast.
Their purpose is to hold rails in place.

63
They are subjected to heat expansion and contraction, ground movement and
vibration, precipitation buildup from rough weather, and weed and plant growth from
underneath. While 99% of the time they are just sitting there unburdened, the
remaining 1% they are subject to moving loads as heavy as 1,000,000 pounds (the
weight of a Union Pacific Big Boy locomotive and its tender).
(http://gizmodo.com/why-you-always-see-crushed-stones-alongside-railroad-tr-
1404579779)

To do so first start with the bare ground, and then build up a foundation to raise the
track high enough so it won't get flooded. On top of the foundation, deposit a load of
crushed stone with sharp edges (the ballast). On top of the stone, lay down
(perpendicular to the direction of the track) a line of wooden beams on 19.5 inch
centers, 8 1/2 feet long, 9 inches wide and 7 inches thick, weighing about 200
pounds...3,249 of them per mile. Then continue to dump crushed stone all around the
beams, effectively locking them in place.

Wooden beams are made of hardwood (usually oak or hickory), and impregnated with
creosote for weather protection. In the US they are called "cross ties" (or, colloquially,
just "railroad ties"); in the UK they are known as "sleepers", in Portuguese,
"dormentes". While 93% of ties in the US are still made of wood, heavily trafficked
modern rail lines are increasingly trying alternatives, including composite plastic,
steel and concrete.

(http://gizmodo.com/why-you-always-see-crushed-stones-alongside-railroad-tr-
1404579779)

Next, bring in hot rolled steel rails, historically 39' long in the US (because they were
carried to the site in 40' gondola cars), but increasingly now 78', and lay them on top
of the sleepers end to end. They used to be joined by bolting on an extra piece of steel
across the joint, but today are usually continuously welded end-to-end.
It would seem that just nailing them or bolt them down to the ties, but that doesn't
work because of the non-trivial movement caused by heat expansion and contraction
along the length of the rail. So instead, the rails are attached to the sleepers by clips or
anchors, which hold them down but allow them to move longitudinally as they expand
or contract.

64
The ballast distributes the load of the ties (which in turn bear the load of the train on
the track, held by clips) across the foundation, allows for ground movement, thermal
expansion and weight variance, allow rain and snow to drain through the track, and
inhibit the growth of weeds and vegetation that would quickly take over the track.
(http://gizmodo.com/why-you-always-see-crushed-stones-alongside-railroad-tr-
1404579779).

3.8.1 Selection of ballast for railway

General Requirements

The ballast used must not crumble or disintegrate due to wet conditions, must bind
well together but remain porous and elastic throughout and must be hard and durable
and remain unweathered. The ballast stone should not contain inorganic or organic
residues and its contamination with ground soil during production and stacking should
be minimized. As far as possible, ballast should be of angular shape and should
consist of a mixture of sizes.
Table 3.2: Grading of ballast stone

Type Mesh % Retention

60 Nil
50 Not exceeding 10%
50 mm 20 Not exceeding 25%
12 Not exceeding 100%

40 Not exceeding 10%

25mm 25 Not exceeding 25%
12 Not exceeding 100%

(http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajst/article/download/15300/16224)

3.8.2 Mechanical Properties of Ballast

The principal mechanical properties of ballast stones are:
(a) Abrasiveness

65
(b) Slake durability
(c) Fracture toughness
Also, recent works have shown that some physical properties of ballast such as
compressive strength porosity, elasticity, thermal expansion, bond characteristics,
volume change on wetting and drying and shape (angularity and flakiness) have
profound influence on the suitability of stone as ballast. The following sections briefly
describe methods of determining principal mechanical properties of ballast stones
some by direct methods and others by indirect methods which are economical and
easy to perform.
3.8.2.1 Abrasion test
Abrasion test measures the resistance of rocks to wear. The abrasiveness of rock is
dependent on the type and quality of various mineral constituents of the rock and
bond strength that exists between the mineral grains. The method described below
covers procedure for testing aggregate for resistance to abrasion using the Los
Angeles testing machine.

3.5: Los Angeles abrasion testing machine

The difference between the original weight and the final weight of the test sample is
expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the test sample. This gives the
aggregate abrasion (wear) of the test material.
66
In the Los Angeles abrasion test, the stone should not have a percentage loss of more
than 40% after 500 revolutions to qualify for use as ballast. (M W Chanda and R
Krishna, Department of Mining Engineering, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia)

3.8.2.2 Slake durability test

Since rocks containing high clay content are prone to swelling and disintegration
when exposed to short term weathering process of wetting and drying, special tests
are necessary to predict their mechanical performance and for the purpose of
comparing one rock to another. The test is intended to assess the resistance offered by
a rock sample to weakening and disintegration when subjected to two standard cycles
of drying and wetting. Methods of determining values for the above properties are
well described in text books on rock mechanics.

3.8.2.3 Fracture toughness testing

Fracture toughness is a property of a rock expressing its resistance to catastrophic

crack propagation or from the energy point of view, it is the fracture surface energy
required to create unit new crack surface. The fracture toughness of rock can be
interpreted by the three fracture parameters: the critical stress, intensity factor, critical
I-integrate and specific work of fracture Figure 2 shows the Chevron fracture testing
apparatus for determining fracture toughness of rock. The specimen configuration is
illustrated with loading and geometry notations. The international society for rock
mechanics (ISRM) suggested dimensions of test specimen.

Table 3.3: ISRM suggested dimensions for Chevron Notch in Bending (CB)
specimens

Geometry Parameter Value Tolerance

Specimen diameter D >10 x grain

Specimen length 4D >3.5D

Half chevron angle, Q 45º ± 1.0º

67
Chevron V tip position, ao 0.15D ± 1.0D

Loading span, I 3.33D ± 0.02D

Notch width, t ≤the greatest of -

0.03D and 1 mm

Notations:
A = Ligment area
D = Specimen diameter
l = Loading span 3.33 D
a = Crack length
ao = Chevron tip distance from specimen surface,
0.15 D
h = Depth of cut in notch flank
B = Crack front width
t = Notch width
L = Specimen length
P = Applied load
2θ = Chevron angle, 90º

3.6: Chevron fracture testing apparatus (after ISRM 1988)

The chevron notch in bending (CB) causes crack propagation to start at the tip of the
V and proceed in the Chevron notch plane in a stable way until applied load reaches
its maximum value. This value is used to estimate the fracture toughness. For a round
bar with a single straight-through crack in three-Point, bending as shown in Figure 2,

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 𝑷
the stress intensity factor K1 is given by Bush (1976) as follows: Ks = x Ys
𝑫𝟑/𝟐

k……(1)
𝟏 𝟏 ∂𝐘𝐬
Where Ysk =𝑫 𝟏 λ…………………………… (2)
α−α2 ∂α

α = a/D, the dimensionless crack length

D = the diameter of the round bar
∂ = the loading span.
Although the above methods of ISRM are the recent innovations for determining
fracture toughness, they are inherent difficulties in preparing specimens. They require
sophisticated systems of loading and recording, crack length measurement techniques
and reduction process. In view of this, the Brazilian disk (in diametral compression)
still remains a popular method for this purpose.
The test was developed by Szendi-Horvath (1980) to determine fracture toughness of
brittle materials. The crack in this case is initiated by the transverse tensile stress
resulting from the diametral compression. Since the tensil stress is always at its
maximum in the centre of the disk Hondros 1959) the crack initiation takes place from
the crack tip in or near the centre of the disk.

3.7: Brazilian disk-type specimens in diametral compression having grooved disk

with an edge crack

The central part of the crack propagates outwards in the diametral direction until it is
stopped by the compressive stress near the loading surface. The specimen pre-
cracking is not required if a saw-cut notch is used (instead of a sharp crack).

69
The maximum stress, which is at the centre of the crack of the disk, is given by:

𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟔 (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛉−𝛉)𝐏
σ θ= ………………………………(3)
𝐁𝐃𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉

Where
P = Diametral compressive load
D = Disk diameter
B = Disk thickness
Θ= Crack orientation angle with respect to the applied load

The central part of the disk can be considered as a semi-infinite plate subjected to a
uniform tensile stress asσ θ long as the ratio of the crack depth to specimen, a/B is
relatively large.
For a plate of finite size, the stress intensity factor (formode I) is given by
𝟏
K1= 1.12 σ(𝝅𝒂)𝟐 …………………………… (4)
where the correction factor is 1.12 (which is approximately polynomial of fourth
order) by combining equation (3) with (4).
(M W Chanda and R Krishna, Department of Mining Engineering, University of
Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia)

3.8.3 Ballast tamper

Over time the constant movement of traffic over the track causes gaps to form in the
ballast structure known as 'voids'. Often, from the trackside, sleepers can be clearly
seen bouncing up and down as the wheels pass over them. Excessive movement is
dangerous, of course, so the voids need to be filled to give a firm base for each
sleeper. This has been done in the past directly by manual labor but today is done by
the tamping machine.

A ballast tamper or tamping machine is a machine used to pack (or tamp) the track
ballast under railway tracks to make the tracks more durable. Prior to the introduction
of mechanical tampers, this task was done by manual labor with the help of beaters.
As well as being faster, more accurate, more efficient and less labor-intensive,

70
tamping machines are essential for the use of concrete sleepers since they are too
heavy (usually over 250 kg (551 lb)) to be packed into the ballast by hand.

Early machines only lifted the track and packed the ballast. More modern machines,
sometimes known as a tamper-liner or tamping and lining machine, also correct the
alignment of the rails to make them parallel and level, in order to achieve a more
comfortable ride for passengers and freight and to reduce the mechanical strain
applied to the rails by passing trains.

3.8.4 Functions of Tamping Machine

 Packing of ballast under sleepers

 Correction of cross level
 Correction of Longitudinal Level
 Driving
 Run Drive
 Work Drive
 Special Functions
 Twist Corrections
 Track Settlement.
3.8.4.1 Types

Ballast Tampers are built in many different varieties depending on their purpose:

Tamping machines

 Straight track tamping machines:

 Universal tamping machines (U.T.)
 Unomatic
 Duomatic
 Continuous action tamping machines (C.S.M.)
 Tamping Express
 Points and crossing tamping machines (UNIMAT )

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 Multi-purpose tamping machines (M.P.T.)

Non-tamping machines

 DTS (DGS), Dynamic Track Stabilizing Machine

 Points And Crossing Relaying Machine (P&C T-28)
 Track Relaying Train (T.R.T.)
 Straight Track Laying Machines (P.Q.R.S.)

3.8.4.2 General arrangement

The majority of track machines are powered by a diesel engine. This provides power
to the driving wheels via a cardan shaft, allowing the machine to propel itself to and
around a work-site. The engine also drives an hydraulic pump to provide power for
the various tools.

3.8: Close-up of a Plasser & Theurer 08-4x4/4S-RT Unimat 08-RT Tamper at Bristol
Temple Meads

3.8.4.3 Tamping units

For each rail there is a tamping unit attached to the main frame by means of vertical
guide columns and a lifting / lowering hydraulic cylinder. The tamping unit consists
of tamping tools (arms or "tines"), a hydraulic vibration motor, a vibration shaft and
an eccentricfly wheel. For each sleeper, a tamping unit is provided with four pairs of

72
tamping arms: one each side of the sleeper, i.e., 16 tamping arms is used for tamping a
single sleeper.

3.9: Balfour Beatty ballast tamper/track tampers train

To process several sleepers simultaneously, a tamping unit may have between 32 and
64 arms (for up to four sleepers), leading to the derivation of machine type numbers:
"16" indicates 16 tines, enough for a single sleeper, "32" for two sleepers. Machines
capable of processing greater amounts of sleepers per movement are now labelled by
the Plasser 'X' methodology. 09-2X for two sleepers, 09-3X for three sleepers and 09-
4X for four, etc.

Tamping units of a Unimat have swivelling tamping arms to pack points and
crossings. Special units are available for use with third-rail electrified track.

3.9 Sleeper

Railway sleepers (UK) or railroad ties as they are known in the US, are a somewhat
unglamorous component of the rail industry. Railway sleepers are laid horizontally
underneath tracks to hold rail lines in place at the correct gauge. But these blocks,
which are laid horizontally underneath tracks to hold rail lines in place at the correct
gauge, form the backbone of rail travel. Millions of these vital blocks are
manufactured and distributed every year to satisfy demand for network expansions
and line upgrades.

(http://www.railwaysleepers.com/railway-sleepers/railway-sleeper-info/railway-
sleeper-facts, http://www.railway-technology.com/features/feature92105/)

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With ongoing track replacement and upgrades being carried out around the world, the
railway sleeper market is huge. The materials being used, are examined before
application, from traditional timber to ultra-modern composites.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_fastening_system)

3.9.1 Sleeper Functions

– Holding rails in correct gauge and alignment
– Providing a firm and even support for rails
– Transferring load from rails to wider areas of ballast
– Absorb impact and vibration
– Providing lateral and longitudinal stability to the permanent way
(http://www.mmrs.org.uk/technical/track.html)

3.9.2 Sleeper Spacing and Density

3.9.2.1 Factors affecting spacing/density

- Axle load and speed
- Type and section of rails
- Type and strength of sleepers
- Type of ballast and ballast cushion
- Nature of formation
- Tradeoff between stability and cost

3.9.2.2 Minimum Density

MKS: Minimum sleeper density= M+7 (BG)
FPS: Minimum sleeper density= N+3 (MG)
Sleeper density= Number of sleepers per unit rail length (per unit track length for
welded rail)

3.9.2.3 Sleeper Spacing

Spacing is not uniform due to
o Sleepers closes near the joints
o Joints are weak points
o Impact of moving loads

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 3.10 Sleeper Spacing
3.9.3 Material properties
In order to capture the crushing and cracking of sleeper, the most critical parameters
should be analyzed such as the maximum tensile stress and strain which can be used
to determine crack propagation of sleeper especially in static situation. Because stress
and strain relation is relevant to material properties, the standard properties of timber,
concrete and steel sleepers are given in this section.

3.9.3.1Timber
Timber has been the historically dominant material used for railway sleepers. Wooden
railway sleepers are also comparatively cheap, as well as light and easy to transport,
install and maintain. The average timber railway sleeper weighs around 160lb-250lb,
whereas an equivalent sleeper made of concrete could weigh anything up to 800lb.
This means that wooden railway sleepers are quicker and easier to install initially and
require little to no specialist equipment or vehicles for maintenance, which means
cost-savings for rail operators.

Dimensions and acceptance tolerances for timber sleepers with the requirements can
be seen from the table below,

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 Table 3.4: Standard sleeper size

Parameter Dimension (mm) Acceptance Tolerance (mm)

Length 2 440 +75 - 0

Width 230 +25 - 0

Depth 130 +10 - 0

Table 3.5: Standard Weight According to Size

Sleeper Type Weight Size

New Untreated French Oak Railway 80Kg / sleeper 9” x 5” x 8Ft 6”
Sleepers (approx.)
New Untreated French Oak Railway 60Kg / sleeper 8” x 5” x 8Ft 6"
Sleepers (approx.)
New Untreated French Oak Half Railway 40Kg / sleeper 9” x 2.5 ” x 8Ft 6”
Sleepers (approx.)

3.9.3.2 Concrete
Concrete sleepers are generally made from cast concrete slabs reinforced internally by
steel wire. Early prototypes made with conventional reinforced concrete were often
found too brittle to withstand high levels of dynamic load. Modern concrete railway
sleepers are primarily manufactured using pre-stressed concrete – a technique where
internal tension is introduced to the railway sleeper (usually to the high-tensile steel
wire skeleton) before it is cast to counteract the external pressure the blocks undergo
during service.

The material requires less maintenance and has a longer service life than timber
sleepers, as it is not prone to environmental degradation, warping or insect infestation
and its non-combustible nature means it lessens the potential for track fires. Pre-
stressed concrete sleepers can also boast a generally superior load capacity and a
smoother ride as a result of their greater weight and vertical / lateral stability. For the

76
most modern high-speed lines, concrete (or composite plastic) becomes a necessity to
bear higher speeds.

The railway sleeper, made of concrete material has the typical properties of normal
strength concrete C55/67,
 Density: ρc= 2400 kg / m3
 Young‟s modulus: Εc= 30200 MPa
 Poisson‟s ratio: νc= 0.2
 Compressive strength: σcc= 52 MPa
 Tensile strength: σct= 2.85 MPa
 Fracture energy: GF = 154 N / m

The non-linear elastoplastic behavior of concrete is assumed when modelling in order

to capture crushing and cracking of sleeper.

3.9.3.3 Steel Sleeper

Steel railway sleepers are often seen as a middle ground between wood and concrete.
Sturdier than timber and less expensive than pre-stressed concrete, it seemed logical
that steel could prove a boon to railway projects looking to undertake an economical
track upgrade. Indeed, in some areas steel ties are still performing adequately after 50
years of service. A lesser reliance on ballast (approximately 60% less than required
for concrete; 45% less than wood) also seems to tip the scale in steel's favor,
especially in areas where timber is scarce.

- Speed mph/kph = 60/98.4

- Axle load ton = 25.5
- Rail joint dip angle, radians =0.01
- Rail centres = 1.485m
- Cant deficiency = 0.15m
- Height of vehicle centre of gravity = 2.1m
- Cant effect 0.29
- P o´ = Static wheel load kN = 160.81
- Sleeper spacing = 0.654m

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 - Unsprung mass on axle, kg = 1500
- K t2 = Track stiffness factor = 55.91
- Rail size, CEN = 56
- P ² = Dynamic rail seat reaction, kN = 216.76
- Rail moment of inertia, Ixx, cm^4 = 2336.00
- Load sharing factor = 1.28
- R ail seat reaction kN = 90.62
- Minimum sleeper test load, kN = 217.5
(Including 1.2 corrosion allowance)

3.9.3.4 Pre-stressing reinforcement

Prestressed reinforcement in sleeper which can increase tensile capacity of the sleeper
is also of importance. Typical properties of reinforcement are indicated below:
 Density: ρs= 7.8 g / cm3
 Young‟s modulus: Εs= 200 GPa
 Poisson‟s ratio: νs= 0.3
 Thermal expansion: α = 1.1 * 10-5 / oC

3.9.4 Required Knowledge for Sleeper Laying

 Contents of relevant workplace, technical manuals and instructions.

 Sleeper condition and placement acceptance standards
 Contents of relevant workplace technical manuals and instructions
 Defects that can occur in sleepering tools and equipment, and related action
that should be taken
 Relevant recording and documentation procedures

3.9.5 Required Skills for Sleeper Laying

 Relevant recording and documentation procedures sleepers
 Communicate effectively with others when installing railway sleepers
 Interpret and follow operational instructions and follow scheduled work
processes when installing railway sleepers
 Complete documentation related to the installation of railway sleepers

78
  Operate electronic communication equipment to required protocol
 Work collaboratively with others when installing railway sleepers
 Promptly report and/or rectify any identified problems, faults or malfunctions
that may occur when installing railway sleepers in accordance with regulatory
requirements and workplace procedures
 Modify activities depending on differing operational contingencies, risk
situations and environments
 Work systematically with required attention to detail without injury to self or
others, or damage to equipment
 Operate and adapt to differences in equipment in accordance with standard
operating procedures
 Install railway sleepers in accordance with workplace requirements
 Restore track gauge in accordance with workplace requirements
 Select and use required personal protective equipment
 Select and use relevant equipment and tools
3.9.6 Sleeper Laying Procedure
Track ballast forms the trackbed upon which railway sleepers (UK) or railroad
ties (US) are laid. Sleepers are heavy, the weight of each sleeper being about 270kg
(approximately). They are handled mechanically using a wide variety of equipment.
There are two types of postal cranes which are in common use, such as,
1. The Plasser Quick Relaying System (PQRS) and
2. T-28 type Ameca portal cranes.

The capacity of each crane is about 28 t or 280 kN. Thus, two such portal cranes can
lift one turnout at a time and lay it in position. The cranes are very versatile and they
are able to move on rough terrain without longitudinal movement. A set of two cranes
is able to lay one turnout in a track possession of about 2 hours.

After laying of the sleeper, the other items such as, leveling of ballast bed, boxing, rail
substitution, ballasting, etc. are carried out manually. It is observed that such a semi-
mechanized procedure of relaying track with sleepers by using heavy equipment as
well as manual labor is the best suited for the field condition. It also results in
shortening of speed restriction period. By laying the sleepers with the help of manual

79
labor only by conventional procedure, speed restriction would be required for 21 days
or so. On the other hand, by adopting the semi-mechanized procedure, the speed
restriction period is reduced only to 9 days or so and hence it thus leads to overall
saving in engine and wagon time and fuel consumption.

The fastening for the sleepers with the rails forms an important component of
concrete sleepers. It has to satisfy two conditions,

1. It should firmly hold the rail to resist creep

2. It should be easily disengaged and re-engaged
Dog spike, screw spike, spring spike, dog screw, fang bolts are some sleeper
fasteners. (http://www.railwaysleeper.com/KFrailwaysleepers-
size%20and%20weight.htm, teacher.buet.ac.bd/cfc/CE353/Lec6_sleepers_web.pdf)

3.10 FUNCTION OF RAILS

Following are the three function or purposes of rails in a railway track:

1. To bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and braking
forces and thermal stresses;
2. To provide a hard and smooth surface for the passage of heavy moving loads
with a minimum friction between the steel rails and steel wheels;
3. To transmit load to the sleepers and consequently to reduce pressure on
ballast and formation. ( Principles of Railway Engineering by S.C. Rangwala,
2003)

3.10.1 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL

Following are the requirements of an ideal rail for the railway track:

 The section of the rail should be such that the load of each wheel is transferred
to the sleepers without exceeding the permissible stresses.
 The section of the rail should be able to withstand the lateral forces caused due
to fast moving trains.

80
 3.11: Schematic diagram of rail

 The underside of the head and top of the foot of the rail section should be of
such aslope that the fishplates fit snugly.
 The center of gravity of the rail section should preferably coincide the center
of the height of the rail so that maximum tensile and compressive stresses are
nearly equal.
 The web of the rail section should be such that it can safely bear the vertical
load without buckling.
 The head of the rail should be sufficiently thick for adequate margin of
vertical wear.
 The foot of rail should provide sufficient bearing area on the underlying
sleepers so that the compressive stresses on the timber sleeper remain within
permissible limits.
 The section of the rails should be such that the ends of two adjacent rails can
be efficiently jointed with a pair of fish plates.
 The surfaces for rail table and gauge face should be sufficiently hard to resist
the wear.

81
  The contact area between the rail and wheel flange should be as large as
possible to reduce the contact stresses.
 The specimen of rail should be able to withstand the blow of a falling weight
in the test specified by the specifications.
 The composition of the steel should conform to the specifications adopted for
its manufacture by Open Hearth of Duplex Process.
 The overall height of the rail should be adequate to provide sufficient stiffness
and strength as a simply supported beam.
 The stiffness of a rail section depends upon the moment of inertia. The
economical design should provide maximum moment of inertia per unit weigh
of rail with due regard to other factors.
 The section moduli of the rail section and that of a pair of fish plates should be
adequate so as to keep the rail and fish plates within permissible limits.
 The foot of the rail should be wide enough so that the rail is stable against
overturning. (http://civilengineerme.blogspot.com/2012/04/requirements-for-
ideal-rail-section.html)

3.10.2 TESTS PRESCRIBED FOR RAILS

The following tests are prescribed for acceptance of the rails:

1. Tests for Grade 710 rails:

 Falling Weight Test.
 Chemical Analysis Test.
 Tensile Test.
2. Tests for Grade 880 rails:
 Falling Weight Test.
 Chemical Analysis Test.
 Tensile Test.
 Microscopic Examination from Top End/Bottom and Crop.
 Hardness Test for 10% of the Cests.

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  Hydrogen Content in Liquid Steel to be checked for 5% of Costs
and shall be Less than 3 PPM.

(http://civilengineerme.blogspot.com/2012/04/tests-prescribed-for-rails.html)

3.10.3 TYPES OF RAIL JOINTS:

1. Supported rail joints:

When the rail ends rest on a single sleeper it is termed as supported joint. The duplex
joint sleeper with other sleepers is an example of the supported joint.

2. Suspended rail joint:

When rail ends are projected beyond sleepers it is termed as suspended joint. This
type of joint is generally used with timber and steel through sleepers.

3. Bridge joints:

When the rail ends are projected beyond sleepers as in the case of suspended joint and
they are connected by a flator corrugated plate called as bridge plate it is termed as a
bridge joint.

4. Insulated joint:

When an insulating medium is inserted in a rail joint ot stop the flow of current
beyond the track circuited part then that type of joint is called an insulated joint.

5. Compromise joint:

Where two different rail sections are required to be joined together it is done by
means of fishplate which fit both rails and this joint is termed as compromise joint.
(http://www.ustudy.in/node/8266)

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3.10.4 RAIL FASTENINGS

These fastenings can be grouped into three distinctive types as shown below:
• An elastic rail spike. This is driven into pre-drilled holes in sleepers and can be used
with or without a steel or cast iron base plate.
• A spring clip bearing on the foot of the rail held down by a nut bolt element
tightened to a predetermined torque. This type of fastening is widely used in France
and Germany and Bangladesh.

3.12: Flat Bottom (FB) rail and Pandrol clip fastening

 A spring clip driven into a hole or slot in a „shoulder‟, either cast into the
sleeper or part of a base plate. The act of driving in the clip either twists or
bends the clip thus creating a toe load on the rail.

3.10.5 Shop Welding to Produce Long Rails

The process of Flash Butt Welding is used in the shops to join rails which are later to
be incorporated into Continuous Welded Rail sites. This process involves clamping
the rails at a predetermined gap distance and passing a high current across the gap at a
low voltage, during which the work pieces are brought together. Electrical resistance
heating first causes contacting surface irregularities to melt and subsequently raises
the temperature of the whole interface to near melting point. Once the components are
sufficiently heated they are forged together, and excess molten steel at the interface is
forced out of the weld area. The stages of FBW in the shops include burn off,

84
preheating, flashing, forging and post weld treatment. Once the weld has solidified,
integral shears at the welding plant remove the excess upset from the periphery of the
weld, leaving about 1mm proud all-round the weld section. The welds are then
straightened and the railhead ground to give a smooth profile for the weld along the
length on the rail. Unlike with metal arc welding, no electrodes or added metal is
used, only the parent metal is fused. Because some of the metal at the rail ends is
forced out of the section profile, the overall effective length of the rail reduces by
about 20mm for each weld.

3.10.6 Site Welding to Produce CWR

On arrival at site, long rails are welded to form CWR using the thermit or alumino
thermic welding process. This method, which was discovered in 1896 by Hans
Goldmidt, is based on the reduction of heavy metal oxides by aluminium. Thermit
welding was first used in Hungary in 1904 and most of Europe had adopted the
process for site rail joints by the late 1920s. The process was not used very widely in
the UK however, until the 1950‟s.Some light railways have used thermit welding of
short rails throughout, without the use of FBW into long rails beforehand. Although
this is cheaper and removes the need for a shop process, the practice is not
recommended for railways carrying heavy axle loads. Thermit welds are completely
satisfactory but have less consistency than FBW, being carried out in the open on site
rather than in controlled workshop conditions. Annual statistics, published on reported
broken rails at welds in the UK over recent years, strongly bear out the better
performance of FBW inpractice. In this process the rails to be joined are set in
position, fixed in their baseplates, with the ends properly aligned and with a gap
between them of between 22 and 26mm. A refractory mould is then placed around the
joint and a thermit portion is ignited in a refractory crucible above the mould.

The portion is a combination of powders which after reaction will produce a weld
metal which matches the chemistry and metallurgy of the parent rails. When the
reaction is complete the crucible is tapped and steel pours into the moulds to form the
weld. Slag, being less dense than the steel, remains at the top of the mould. The weld
is allowed to cool after which the excess metal, mould material and slag is trimmed
away and the joint is ground to profile.

85
 3.13: A crossover layout in BH rail

3.10.7 Stressing or Locking-Up of CWR

With jointed short rails, the object is to allow rails to expand and contract during
extremes of temperature to avoid the buildup of compressive and tensile stresses. In
long welded rails and CWR however, the rail is constrained so that it cannot expand
or contract. In this case, in order that the rail shall remain at its original length, the rail
undergoes compressive and tensile strain, which is equal and opposite of thermal
strain.
“By simple calculation using Hooke‟s Law (F = strain × A × E) it can be seen that a
restrained standard BS113A FB rail increased in temperature, by say 45◦ C, will
produce a force of 76.5 tonnes in the rail.”
A compressive force of such magnitude in hot weather is sufficient to cause a buckle
of the track and it is essential for safety that development of such a force is prevented.
Similarly, high tensile forces in extremely cold weather can cause brittle fracture of
rails and must be avoided. This is done on CWR by artificially extending the rail at
the time of installation and fixing it down in a state of tension. The ideal is to fix the
rail at a length that it will be at a temperature that is exactly halfway between the
hottest and coldest likely rail temperature. In the UK this is generally accepted as a
temperature of 27◦ C. The rail may be artificially extended by rail warming or, as is
now more usual, by stretching with a tensor.
(http://www.scribd.com/doc/30565078/Practical-Railway-Engineering)

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 CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Conclusion

4.2 Recommendations

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4.1 Conclusion

In recent years, Bangladesh Railway has taken some important projects like the
construction of the missing portion of Double line between Dhaka-Chittagong,
rehabilitation of deplorable tracks, procurement of rolling stocks and modernization
of signaling system during.

Today, the railway material supply industry is diverse, global, and competitive.
Nearly all capital equipment and materials for railway infrastructure or operations can
be procured competitively using domestic or international tendering. Technical ability
to specify and monitor railway equipment performance is a core railway competence,
particularly for assets that provide competitive advantage in the transport market.
However, preserving significant manufacturing capability within a railway transport
organization is difficult to justify because the required competencies do not serve the
core business of passenger and freight transport. Some railways might try to make a
business case for manufacturing if they require spare parts with nonstandard
specifications to run their inherited bespoke system, but it is nearly always possible to
source parts through franchising or contracting with an outside company.

The main goal of this thesis is to indicate all the activities relating to the purchase,
storage and utilization of materials for railway track. It thus includes again planning,
scheduling of requirements, determination of policy regarding holding of stocks of
raw and finished materials, storage issue of materials as required etc. Thus the main
objective of the material case study is to provide necessary knowledge to the user
about the required quantity as well as uniform quality so that the production or service
rendered by the user department is not hampered.

After analyzing materials, it has been observed that the function of railway materials
is compared in different ways. It functions like the circulating system of human body.
The materials and finished products are carried through the arteries and veins of this
system (Principles of Railway Engineering by S.C. Rangwala, 2013)

The chapters which has been discussed, is actually an attempt to make the basic
principles of working and other various constituents helpful for the railway projects to
function properly. As time passes, better methods may be employed, but the basic

88
principles will remain the same. It is, therefore, hoped that the reader will get a clear
view of various forces behind the efficient works of inert rails which have been
serving and will continue to serve the humanity for centuries to come.

4.2 Recommendations

The following recommendations are made for future investigations.

Effects of the wearing down of rock particles by friction due to water or wind or hail.

1) The tracks with heavier rails are to be upgraded, and the tracks to a close
tolerance geometry fit for 250–300 km/h are to be built. This implies that the
high-speed gauge is 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm). High-speed tracks are to be
maintained and inspected using automation to ensure required track geometry.
It is important to perform more frequent inspection to ensure high confidence
of safety at high-speed.
2) Rail surface should be coated with non-corrosive material. For this purpose
special paints, red lead, bitumen, coal, etc. have been tried but all of this could
not satisfy the jurisdiction. As a matter of fact in the near future it could be
taken into account to coat rail surface with non-corrosive material.
3) The value of Los Angeles abrasion test is important to justify material
qualification approximately to the marginal limit. So anyhow in the future it
could be taken into subject investigations, taking the value in between
standard limit
4) The materials have not been tested using modern test procedures due to lack of
sufficient facilities, like lack of suitable material source, to fulfill the demand
of Los Angeles abrasion test limit, Atterberg limit of plasticity, solid limit etc.
so in future, materials should be perceived in experiment following multiple
test procedure
5) In Bangladesh, a prototype model is not formed before constructing railway
track, which might be taken into account for future research.

89
 CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION

5.1 Discussion

90
5.1 Discussion
The main objective of the thesis is to indicate the more developed and remarkable
changes in working procedures of Bangladesh Railway. The materials being used for
the railway projects now-a-days, contain better qualities and mechanical properties.
The complete thesis work have been divided systematically into six chapters to
explain the current conditions of railway projects. The first chapter, Chapter 1,
introduces the reader with the thesis work and its objectives. The second chapter,
Chapter 2, provides a complete view of railway track structure, functions of the
structures, materials used for each structure. In the third chapter, Chapter 3,
construction procedures of each structure to form a complete track, earthwork,
modeling and solution techniques have been described briefly. In the Chapter 4, the
recommendation and ending on the material study have been stated. Finally, the last
chapter, Chapter 6, provides the material test formats carried out in the projects.

The study illustrates the comparison between railway materials being used around the
world and the materials being used in Bangladesh. The planning and design of the
railway tracks, accomplishments and undertakings by Bangladesh Railway, future
targets of Bangladesh Railway in the Transportation system all have been portrayed
elaborately in this study. This study on material may be limited but it indicates
remarkable development and modernization of Bangladesh Railway projects. The
thesis work has been done in such a way that the reader can achieve proper
knowledge, important information and clear view about materials used by Bangladesh
Railway.

91
 CHAPTER: 6

APPENDICES

6.1 Aggregate Crushing Value and Ten Percent Fines Value

6.2 Clay Lump and Friable Particles Content (AASHTO T 112 & ASTM C-142)

6.2.1 Track Ballast

6.3 Sieve Analysis Of Ballast (AASHTO T 27 / ASTM C 136)

6.4 Concrete Compressive Strength Test (AASHTO T22& Stp 9.2)

6.5 Sieve Analysis (Concrete Aggregate 20 Mm)

6.6 California Bearing Ratio

6.6.1 Unit Weight Data (Before Soaking)

6.6.2 Moisture Content Data

6.7 Field Density Test Of Soil By Sand Cone Method (AASHTO T-191)

6.7.1 Test Holes

6.7.2 Determination of Wet Unit Weight

6.7.3 Final Calculation

6.8 Material Finer Than 0.075mm. Sieve (AASHTO T11 / ASTM C117)

6.9 Sieve Analysis (AASHTO "T -11")

6.9.1 Gradation for Concrete Fine Aggregate (Cumulative)

6.10 Los Angeles Abrasion (AASHTO T: 96)

6.11 Dry Density Moisture Content Relation Test (AASHO T-180)

6.11.1 Density Determination

6.11.2 Moisture Content Determination

6.12 Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T89 & T 90)

92
6.13 Calibration of Sand Cone (AASHTO T 191)

6.13.1 Base Plate and Cone Calibration

6.13.2 Unit Weight of Sand Using Mould

6.14 Sodium Sulphate Soundness Test Worksheet For Fine Aggregate (AASHTO T-
104)

6.15 Specific Gravity & Water Absorption (AASHTO T 85)

6.15.1. Course Aggregate

6.16 Specific Gravity, Absorption and Unit Weight Of Coarse Aggregate

6.16.1 Specific Gravity& Absorption (AASHTO T 85)

6.16.2 Unit Weight (AASHTO T 19) – Loos

6.17 Sieve Analysis Of Sub - Ballast (AASHTO T 27/ASTM C 136)

6.18 Tests for Unit Weight of Fine Aggregate.

6.19 Test Of Materials Finer Than 75 µm (#200 Sieve) By Wash

93
 GENERAL

This chapter includes almost all kinds of test format which will be helpful
for future research. Most of the data table is blank, which can be filled by
acquiring appropriate test values from any railway project in Bangladesh.
These information will provide proper guidance to the readers or the
researchers for future research about data collection format for railway
project.

It is hoped that these data formats will be very much useful to the
students, the teachers and all the researches in the railway project
analysis.

94
6.1 Aggregate Crushing Value and Ten Percent Fines Value

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE(STP 7.7.1)

RUN
Description No.
1 2 3
Mass of Sample Surface dry m1 gm
Masst Passing 2.36mm Test Sieve m2 gm
Aggregate Crushing Value ((M2/m1)x100) %
Mean or Mediad aggregate Crushing
%
Value(ACV)

6.2 Clay Lump and Friable Particles Content (AASHTO T 112 &
ASTM C-142)
6.2.1 Track Ballast

Weight of
Sieve Size(mm) % Retained Sample,A % Passing
Weighted Maximum
of gm of
% loss Specified
original Designated
Befor After (BxG)/100 Limit
Passing Retained Sample,G Sieve B
Test Test
9.5 4.75
19 9.5
37.5 19.0
37.5
Total

95
6.3 Sieve Analysis Of Ballast (AASHTO T 27 / ASTM C 136)

Cumulative Cumulative Spcification

Mass of Percentage of
Mass of Mass of Requirement of
Sieve Size Material Material
Material Material Material
Retained Passing
Retained Retained Passing
(mm) (gm) (gm) (%) (%) (%)
60 100
50 80~100
40 60~80
20 15~50
10 0~10
4.75 0~1
Pan
Total

Sieve size 60 50 40 20 10 4.0

LowerLimit 100 80 60 15 0 0
Upper Limit 100 100 80 50 10 1

SIEVE ANALYSIS OF BALLAST

100
90
80
70
% PASSING

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10 100
SIEVE SIZE MM

LowerLimit Upper Limit

96
6.4 Concrete Compressive Strength Test (AASHTO T22& Stp 9.2)

6.5 Sieve Analysis (Concrete Aggregate 20 Mm)

ASTM Wt. Cumulative Percent

Size Percent Specified
SIEVE Retained Wt. Passing
(mm) Retained Limit
NO. (g) Retained (g) %
1" 25
3/4" 20.0
1/2" 12.5
3/8" 10
#4 4.75
Pan
Total

Sieve 25 20 12.5 10 4.75

Lower 100 90 20 5 0

Upper 100 100 55 20 5

97
 100
90
Percentage% 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10 100

Sieve Size(mm)

6.6 California Bearing Ratio

6.6.1 Unit Weight Data (Before Soaking)

98
6.6.2 Moisture Content Data

6.7 Field Density Test of Soil by Sand Cone Method (AASHTO T-

191)
6.7.1 Test Holes

6.7.2 Determination of Wet Unit Weight

99
6.7.3 Final Calculation

6.8 Material Finer Than 0.075mm. Sieve (ASSHTO T11 / ASTM

C117)

6.9 Sieve Analysis (AASHTO "T -11")

100
6.9.1 Gradation for Concrete Fine Aggregate (Cumulative)

6.10 Los Angeles Abrasion (AASHTO T: 96)

101
6.11 Dry Density Moisture Content Relation Test (AASHO T-180)
6.11.1 Density Determination

6.11.2 Moisture Content Determination

102
6.12 Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T89 & T 90)

6.13 Calibration of Sand Cone (AASHTO T 191)

6.13.1 Base Plate and Cone Calibration

103
6.13.2 Unit Weight of Sand Using Mould

6.14 Sodium Sulphate Soundness Test Worksheet For Fine Aggregate

(AASHTO T-104)

104
6.15 Specific Gravity & Water Absorption (AASHTO T 85)
6.15.1. Course Aggregate

6.16 Specific Gravity, Absorption and Unit Weight of Coarse

Aggregate
6.16.1 Specific Gravity& Absorption (AASHTO T 85)

105
6.16.2 Unit Weight (AASHTO T 19) – Loos

6.17 Sieve Analysis of Sub - Ballast (AASHTO T 27/ASTM C 136)

106
6.18 Tests for Unit Weight of Fine Aggregate

107
6.19 Test of Materials Finer Than 75 µm (#200 Sieve) By Wash

108
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