MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, students are expected to:

A. Define the key words related to Semiconductor.

B. Introduce and map the concepts related to development of Semiconductor.
C. Explain the theories and principles of Semiconductor
D. Apply the Knowledge learned from the study of STEM in semiconductor
E. Improve the skills of the students in measuring the variables of semiconductor
F. Develop Positive attitude and behavior towards the study of physics in online learning

INTRODUCTION

In the course of Electronics Engineering study, Electronic components are devices or elements that are
capable to conduct between conductor and semiconductor materials majority metals or insulators such
as ceramics. Semiconductors may be solid state, like silicon or germanium, and the likes.

LESSON PROPER

The evolution of semiconductors can be traced back to the creation of the power supply of AC-DC
inverter in 1874. years after, Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Laboratories in the United States created the
transistor in 1946, and Shockley created the bypolar junction transistor in 1947.

APPLICATION IN THE STUDY OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Unlike the physics 1 which is the mechanics of motion physics 2 which is the study of semiconductor
devices is elevated to higher level of the study of physics which includes the application of physics
laws such as coulombs law, Ohm’s law, Faraday’s law, and other related principles that will help the
students in studying the operations of semiconductors using power supply to operate diodes, capacitors,
inductors, transistors, integrated circuits, including its application in radio communications to convert
signals in light waves, radio waves sound waves, and interferences. Students are thought to apply the
(STEM) Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics in the new level of leaning in
semiconductor physics to improve their skills in using electronics test and measurement tools including
MULTISIM, WORKBENCH , GPS, and other related tools in the operation of semiconductor devices.
Students are also trained via online to improve and develop positive attitude and behavior to realize the
vision of the university to produce highly competititve graduates after graduation.

ACADEMIC IMPORTANCE AND

SEMICODUCTOR APPLICATION
The central questions in semiconductor physics are first how
many charge carriers do I have? The second question is
where are they and how are they moving and lastly is How
can I change them and how can I make useful things out of
them, in Semiconductor physics how to analyze things like
MOSFET, Diode, BJT’s, and others, these are just
Semiconductor physics starting point, for analyzing all of
this were going to have roadmap and were start with
Quantum mechanics and to a lesser extend Statistical
mechanics these tools are most powerful tools we have. In
addition of conservation laws those are present force in
anything in physics, we are going to analyze semiconductors
and in order to do that, were gonna calculate things called
the density of the state, so electrons how many state’s do
they have to occupy in the semiconductor this is a quantum
effect, how much room for electrons and were gonna derive
something called the Energy momentum , Band diagram
very heavily in semiconductor physics were gonna use these
band diagrams to calculate things like the effective mass , as
might imagine applying an electric field to a charge within a
semiconductor is a little more complicated than just
applying it to a charge in free space. The last thing we’re
gonna go over is Fermi statistics the one closely tied to the
density of state and were going to use all of this thing to
answer the question how many charge carriers do I have and
were going to do that with an integral basically so were
going to integrate the density of the state multiplied by our
Fermi statistic over energy band diagram, this is brought
together in order to answer our first question of how many
are there.

The second question we want to ask is we’re are they and

how do they move, in order to answer this question were
basically going to start with Maxwells equations and
probability theory, where gonna use this thing to figure out
how do carriers move in semiconductors and the main
mechanisms are called drift and diffusion we were also
going to go over a carrier generation and recombination, in
other words carriers aren’t just sitting there they’re
constantly being created and destroyed, and if were
interested in knowing how things vary with time that its then
its important to understand this and interestingly if you
understand carrier drift, that leads directly to ohm’s law, this
is actually ohm’s law comes from, and were going to use all
this mechanisms after learning about them to derive what we
call continuity equation and the ambipolar transport equation
and both of this things are differential equation sledge
hammer that were going to use for various semiconductor
problem and to analyze PN junctions, once we analyze PN
junctions we’ll able to understand things like diodes,
MOSFET, and BJT’s known as transistors , there other kinds
of transistor as well but these are two of the big ones, we’ll
also be able to understand optical devices, things like solar
cell and photo diodes and LED’s how do this things work
and how do we use them.

ASSESSMENT

DIRECTION: After reading the module answer the following questions carefully. Write the answers in
the space provided

1. What is a semiconductor?
2. Enumerate the semiconductor elements
3. Define all the meaning of semiconductor devices
4. Explain the theories and principles of each semiconductor device
5. What particular areas of STEM are applied in semiconductor. And why?
6. How are you going to improve your skills in using electronics test and measurements apparatus and
computer software such as Multisim and Workbench?
7. What positive attitude and behavior do you need to improve in the study of semiconductor in online
modality

REFLECTION

1. As a student, how does Semiconductor affects your understanding of Science and Mathematics? In
verbal skills and mathematical approach?
2. How would you manage the difficulty of online learning while coping up with COVID-19
Pandemic?
3. How would you help your parents to lessen the burden of your economics while coping up with
COVID-19 Pandemic?
4. What would you suggest to your teachers in order to have a collaborative partnership to manage the
difficulty of online learning without having issues and concerns to submission of learning module
requirements?
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ASSIGNMENT

Direction:
1. After identifying all the semiconductor devices use short bond papers and ruler then sketch all the
semiconductor devices and label each part. Use 1 inch margin in your border line.
2. Download Multisim app
3. Explain how to use multisim by measuring voltage, current, and resistance. Use related videos from
youtube how to use the multisim

REFERENCES

1. Semiconductor video(2021 retrieved) https://youtu.be/ethnHSgVbHs

MODULE 2

COULOMB’S LAW

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1.Define coulomb’s law and Electrical Charges.

2.Introduce related principles such as Force, Work, Power, and Energy.
3.Explain how this variables or parameters are Interrelated.
4.Apply this new knowledge in the study of coulomb’s law in study of semiconductor devices
5.Improve the current skills by putting in online practice through problem solving about coulomb’s law
6.Develop Honesty and sense of leadership among members in interactive learning. Particularly in the
study of coulomb’s law.

Introduction

This module aims to master the knowledge about the coulomb’s law and to exercise their critical
thinking. So, what is coulomb’s law? It is a mathematical description that the electric force between
forces, so the history of coulombs’ law it was formulated by a French physicist Charles Augustin de
coulomb. In the coulombs law the magnitude and sign of the electric force are determined by how
electromagnetism influences the motion of charge objects, remember that the charge is a basic property
of a matter. The electric force for charges is in at rest in the following condition. First remember when
they in charge state they will repel and one another if they are negative on the other hand if it is in the
positive charge, they will attract each other. Second the repulsion or attraction will act along with the
line between charges. Third properties when the size of the force are varies inversely as the square of
the distance between the two charges. So that the distance of the two charges will double the repulsion
will become weaker. Fourth properties the force is proportional to the value of each charge, the unit
coulomb (C), and when there are 0.1 coulomb and the second of 0.2 coulomb, they will just repel each
other with the force that will depend on the product. According to “Marcia Wendorff” there are lot of
Applications for coulombs law that can use for modern life like from the photocopy machine to lasers
printer and powder to coating. In this module that every student will participate on the given activities
and assignments, learn how to apply the formula of coulomb’s law in theory and in real life application.
After this module, the students will acquire the knowledge about coulomb’s law and know how to
apply in theory and application, and appreciation of behavior in electric forces of force between forces.

Lesson – Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law, mathematical description of the electric force between charged objects. Formulated by

the 18th-century French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, it is analogous to Isaac Newton’s law
of gravity. Both gravitational and electric forces decrease with the square of the distance between the
objects, and both forces act along a line between them. In Coulomb’s law, however, the magnitude and
sign of the electric force are determined by the electric charge, rather than the mass, of an object. Thus,
charge determines how electromagnetism influences the motion of charged objects. Charge is a basic
property of matter. Every constituent of matter has an electric charge with a value that can be positive,
negative, or zero. For example, electrons are negatively charged, and atomic nuclei are positively
charged. Most bulk matter has an equal amount of positive and negative charge and thus has zero net
charge.

Coulomb’s law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between
two electrically charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of the charge of the charged
bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of the charged
bodies.

This inverse-square relationship is why the law is also referred to as Coulomb’s inverse-square law.
Coulomb’s Law Formula

Let us imagine, Q1 and Q2 are the electrical charges of two objects.

d is the distance between the center of the objects.

The charged objects are placed in a medium of permittivity εoεr

Then we can write the force ‘F’ as:

The equation above is the formula for Coulomb’s Law. This formula allows us to calculate the
electrostatic force that two charges exert on each other.

Coulomb’s First Law

Coulomb’s first law states that like-charged objects (bodies or particles) repel each other and unlike
charged objects (bodies or particles) attract each other.

Coulomb’s Second Law

Coulomb’s second law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged
objects is directly proportional to the magnitude of their charge and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. Hence, according to
the Coulomb’s second law,

Where,

‘F’ is the repulsion or attraction force between two charged objects.

‘Q1’ and ‘Q2’ are the electrical charged of the objects.
‘d’ is distance between center of the two charged objects.
‘k’ is a constant that depends on the medium in which charged objects are placed. In S.I. system, as
well as in M.K.S. system k=1/4πεoεr. Hence, the above equation becomes.

The value of εo = 8.854 × 10-12 C2/Nm2.

Hence, Coulomb’s law can be written for medium as,

Then, in air or vacuum εr = 1. Hence, Coulomb’s law can be written for air medium as,

The value of εr would change depends on the medium. The expression for relative permittivity εr is as
follows.
Activities:

1.Movies to watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RCGf56wjeu0&t=643s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2GQTfpDE9DQ

2.Link to read:

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-3/Coulomb-s-Law

https://www.britannica.com/science/Coulombs-law

Assessment

Direction:

Write T if the statement is true. Write F if the statement is False and provide the correct answer.

1.If electrons are removed from an object, it will be charged negatively. ____
2.If electrons are added to an object, it will be charged negatively. ____
3.A negatively charged ebonite rod is brought near a neutral, metallic-coated pith ball. Some of the
electrons are repelled by the ebonite rod and move to the far side of the pith ball. This process is called
charging by induction. ____
4.If a negatively charged ebonite rod is brought close to the knob of a neutral electroscope and you
touch the electroscope, some electrons will leave the electroscope and travel through your hand to your
body. When you removed your hand the charge on the electroscope will be positive. ____
5.Coulomb's law is extremely accurate under the conditions that the spheres are small and that the
spheres are also small compared to the distance between them. ____
6.Coulomb's law states that the electric force is directly proportion to the product of the charges on
each sphere and inversely proportional to the distance between the charges. ____
7.When the distance between two charges spheres is decreased by a factor of 2, then the electric force
decreases by a factor of 2. _____
8.When the charge on both spheres is doubled, the electric force is increased by a factor of four. _____
9.One of the ways in which Newton's law of universal gravitation differs from Coulomb's law is that
gravitational force can only attract, whereas the electric force can only repel. _____
10.A small negative charge is used to determine the direction of the electric field lines around a charge.
______

Reflection

Direction:

Answer the following questions

1.How do electric charges atract and repel with one another

2. State the 4 laws of charges
3. How much electron are there in one charge of coulomb
4. What is the coulomb constant in air and in vacuum
5. Make 5 problems with complete solution about coulombs law you may adopt examples form google.
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Assignment
Direction:
1.Two like and equal charges are at a distance of d = 5cm and exert a force of F = 9 x 10-3N on each
other.
a.Find the magnitude of each charge?
b.What is the direction of the electrostatic force between them?
2.What is the magnitude of the force between a 25μC charges exerts on a -10μC charge 8.5cm away?
3. reffering to the link provided, https://youtu.be/RCGf56wjeu0 watch completely the video and make
similar problems using your own data. Show your complete solution
4. Write your answer in a short bond paper with margins

References

(Britannica, n.d.)

(Interesting Engineering, n.d.)

(TNTech, n.d.)
MODULE 3

OHM’S LAW

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

A. Define the keywords relative to the study of Ohm’s law

B. Introduce the laws and theories in the development of ohm’s law
C. Explain the principles of ohm’s law
D. apply the knowledge learned from the study of (STEM) Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics. In the mathematical problems as required by the study.
E. Improve the skills in utilizing MULTISIM and Electrical test instrument
F. Develop critical thinking and initiative to enhance positive attitude and behavior

INTRODUCTION

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
voltage across the two points. (Wikipedia), (2021 retrieved)

LESSON PROPER

The Notion of Electric Circuits and Ohm's Law

Ohm's law which you can view as the most fundamental law of the most basic law or simplest law
when we are dealing with circuits and it connects the ideas of voltage which we will get more of an
intuitive idea for in a second and current which is denoted by capital letter ‘I’ and what connects these
two is the notion of resistance. Resistance that is denoted with the capital letter ‘R’. Voltage is equal to
current times the resistance or another way to view it if you divide both sides by resistance, it is equal
to voltage divided by resistance.
What is voltage? What is current? What is resistance? And what are the units for them? Let's build a
metaphor using the flow of water which helps me at least understand the relationship between voltage,
current and resistance. So let's say, we have this vertical pipe of water it is closed at the bottom right
now and it is all full of water. There is water above year as well. So the water in the pipe, it is going to
have some potential energy and this potential energy, as we will see, it is analogous to a voltage.
Voltage is electric potential. It is not straight up potential energy, it is actually potential energy per unit
charge. You could think of it as joules, which is potential energy, or units of energy per coulomb. The
units for voltage in general is volts.
Now, let's think about what would happen if we now open the bottom of the pipe. So, we open this up.
What is going to happen? Well, the water is immediately got to drop straight down. That potential
energy is going to be converted to kinetic energy. And you can look at a certain part of the pipe. You
could say, well, how much water is flowing per unit time? And that amount of water that is flowing
through the pipe at that point in a specific amount of time that is analogous to current. Current is the
amount of charge, so we could say charge per time. Q for charge and t for time. And intuitively you
could say, how much charge flowing past a point in circuit in a second. And so you could also think
about it as coulombs per second, charge per unit of time.
And the idea of resistance is something could just keep that charge from flowing at an arbitrarily high
rate. And if we want to go back to our water metaphor, we could introduce something that would
impede the water, and that could be a narrowing of the pipe. That narrowing of the pipe would be
analogous to resistance. So in this situation, we have the vertical water pipe, we have to opened it up,
and you still would that potential energy, which is analogous to voltage and it would be converted to
kinetic energy, and you would have a flow of water through that pipe, but now at every point in the
pipe, the amount of water that is flowing past at a given moment of time is going to be lower because
you have literally this bottleneck. So this narrowing is analogous to resistance. How much charge flow
impeded. And the unit here is the ohm, which is denoted with the Greek letter omega.
So now that we have defined these things and we have our metaphor, let’s actually look at an electric
circuit. So first, let us construct a battery. The convention is my negative terminal is the shorter line.
The longer line is the positive terminal. Associated with that battery, I could have some voltage. To
make this tangible, let’s say the voltage is equal to 16 volts across this battery. One way to think about
this, the potential energy per unit charge, let’s say we have electrons at the negative terminal, the
potential energy per coulomb is 16 volts. These electrons, if they have a path, would go to the positive
terminal. And so we can provide a path. At first, I’m not going to make the path available to the
electrons, I’m going to have an open circuit and I’m going to make this path for the electrons. And so
as long as our circuit is open, this is actually analogous to the closed pipe. The electrons, there is no
way for them to get to the positive terminal. But if we were to close the circuit, then all of a sudden the
electrons could begin to flow through this circuit in an analogous way that the water would flow down
this pipe
.Resistors in Series Circuits

So let's say we have a battery, and let us do it in a different color just for variety. That's the positive
terminal, that's the negative terminal. Let's say we have this perfect conductor, and let's say we have
one resistor and we have another resistor. we don't know, just for fun, let's throw in a third resistor.
And we know, of course, that the convention is that the current flows from positive to negative, that
that's the flow of the current. And remember, current is just the charge that flows per unit of time or the
speed of the charge flow. But we know, of course, that in reality what is happening, if there's any such
thing as reality, is that we have a bunch of electrons here that, because of this voltage across the battery
terminals, these electrons want to really badly get to the positive terminal. And the higher the voltage,
the more they really want to get to this positive terminal.

So what's going to happen in this circuit? Actually, let us label everything. So let's call this R1, let's call
this R2, and let us call this R3. The first thing we want to realize is that between elements that the
voltage is always constant. And why is that? Well, we assume that this is a perfect conductor-- let's say
this little segment, And so it's a perfect conductor. Well, let's look at it at the other end. So you have all
these electrons. This is a perfect conductor, so there's nothing stopping these electrons from just
distributing themselves over this wire. Before we encounter an element in the circuit or device or
whatever we want to call that, we can view this ideal conducting wire just from a schematic point of
view as an extension of the negative terminal. And similarly, you can view this wire right here, this part
of the wire, as an extension of the positive terminal. And the reason why we want to say that is because
it actually turns out that it doesn't matter if you measure the voltage here. So let's say if we take a
measure of the voltage across those two terminals using what we call a voltmeter. And we will later do
an experiment on how voltmeters work, but remember, when we measure voltage, we have to measure
it at two points. And why is that? Because voltage is a potential difference. It's not some kind of
absolute number. It's a difference between essentially how bad do electrons want to get from one end to
another. So if we measure the voltage between those two points, it would be the exact same thing as if
we measured the voltage between these two points. Theoretically.

As we know, no wires really have no resistivity. All wires have a little bit, but when we draw these
schematics, we assume that the wires are perfect conductors and all the resistance takes place in the
resistor. So that's the first thing we want to realize, and it makes things very-- so, for example,
everywhere along this wire, this part of the wire, the voltage is constant. Everywhere along this wire,
the voltage is constant. Let me erase some of this, because we don't want this to get too messy. That's a
big important realization when you later become an electronics engineer and have much harder
problems to solve.

OK, so you now know that the voltage between devices is constant. The other thing we want to
convince you is that the current through this entire circuit is constant, and that applies to any circuit in
series. Now, what do we mean by series? Series just means that everything in the circuit is after one
another, If we take the convention and we say current flows in this direction, it'll hit this resistor, then
the next resistor, then the next resistor. At no point does the circuit branch off and have to choose
whether I want to go down path A or path B. So this circuit is completely in series, and there's a couple
ways we can convince you that the current-- let's call the current here I1. Let's call this current here I2.
Let's call this current here I3. we could draw another one, I3. So there's a couple of ways we can
convince you that I1 equals I2, I3. One is we could just say if you experimentally tried it out using an
ammeter, which measures current, you would see that they are identical.

But the other way to think about it, and this time we are going to actually talk about the electrons, so
let's talk about things going in this direction, is-- so these electrons, through this wire, they can go as
fast as they want to go, The speed of light or close to the speed of light since they have very, very,
very low mass. And we'll go into relativity one day. But once they get to this resistor, they start
bumping into things, and they slow down. This resistor is a bit of a bottleneck,

As a matter of example let R1= 2Ohms and R2= 3Ohms then, RT is equal to 2+3= 5ohms. If the
voltage supply is 5 volts, then the current in I1= I2= 1AMPERE

Now if the resistors, R1 and R2 are connected in parallel with the same supplied voltage, then 1/RT=
1/R1+1/R2=1/2+1/3= 5/6 or RT= 6/5ohms and the voltage across each resistor is equal to the supplied
voltage of 5 volts.

ASSESSMENT

Directions. Answer the following questions as required and write your answer in a separate bond paper
with margins

1. What is ohm’s law

2. Make a summary about the historical development of ohm’s law
3. What is the principle and formula of resistance in series circuit. Make an example using 3 resistor
connected in series.Determine the individual current, voltage, power, and total resistance. Show a
circuit diagram
4. What is the principle and formula of resistance in parallel circuit. Make an example using 3 resistor
connected in parallel. Determine the individual current, voltage, power, and total resistance. Show a
circuit diagram
5. 2 resistors are connected in series where R1+ its reciprocal is equal to 4 ohms. Determine the value
of resistance R.
6. Given R1+R2= 11ohms and 1/R1+1/R2= 30/11ohms. Determine the value of R1 and R2

REFLECTION

1. In the study of ohm’s law what important atttitude and behavior should be developed by the students
2. How are you going to realize this attitude and behavior.
3. What do you think are the Gaps that are needed to fill in the lacking parts in this module?
4. What are the needed courses of action should be done in order to improve this module?

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ASSIGNMENT

1. Make 5 problems with complete solution about series circuit

2. Make 5 problems with complete solution about parallel circuit
3. Make problems with complete solution about series-parallel circuit
4. In the link provided watch the video and design an experiment about ohms law:
https://youtu.be/mGS_BIO7yg4

LIST OF REFRENCES
1. Resistive network by Engr. Palmer De leon: https://youtu.be/yghjh7RslbY
MODULE 4

CELLS AND BATTERIES AND ELECTRO CHEMISTRY

LEARNING OUTOMES

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

A.Define the keywords relative to the study of Cells and Batteries and Electrochemistry
B.Introduce the laws and theories in the development of Cells and Batteries and
Electrochemistry.Explain the principles of Cells and Batteries ad=ndElectrochemistry
D.apply the knowledge learned from the study of (STEM) Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics. In the mathematical problems as required by the study of Cells and Batteries and
Electrochemistry.
E.Improve the skills in utilizing VOM Multitester in evaluating Cells and Batteries and
Electrochemistry.
F.Develop critical thinking and initiative to enhance positive attitude and behavior. Develop safety
measures in working with chemical solutions from batteries

INTRODUCTION

Cells and Batteries are essentials in the study of Electronics Engineering. These serve as the source of
power in doing experiment in the laboratory which is safer than using full wave rectifier. Tipical
examples of Cells are the ones that we usually found in our home to operate TV and Radio using the
remote control. But, the bigger version of battery is the one that we use our car batteries to operate the
engine of cars including the lights, horn and radio communication system of todays modern vehicels.
How ever unlike cells that we are using in our home, car batteries have electrochemistry that we have
to consider due to the oxidation-reduction reaction. This will be the main focus of module 4.

LESSON PROPER

Electrochemistry
How we use electrochemistry with battery materials at least for battery research and
the different types of tests

Definition of electrochemistry - it's the study of any chemical reactions that involve
the electron transfer, so in other words if you have a metal ion or it could even be an
organic molecule that has a change in valence then you can assume it's going to be an
electrochemical reaction. So the basis of electrochemistry is a reduction and oxidation
reaction. Just a reminder; reduction reaction is the gain of electrons so for example if
you have a metal ion in this case a metal two plus ion and you gain an electron that
goes from metal2+ to metal2+ okay that's a reduction, on the other hand oxidation is the
opposite is the loss of electrons if you go from a metal2+ ion to metal3+ it's giving away
an electron, it increasing its valence state that's oxidation.

In electrochemical reactions you have to have bothokay so oftentimes we only talk

about one part of the reaction like a reduction or an oxidation separate, but in every
case you know you have to ask yourself where do those electrons come from, if you're
receiving an electron there has to be an opposite reaction somewhere else in the
system that's giving away electrons here's an example of a Redox Reaction.
Example: the oxidation of iron and metal into iron ii oxide FeO

Reduction O2 + 4e- + 2O2-

Oxidation Fe0(s) → Fe2+ + 2e-
Overall 2Fe0(s) + O2(g) → 2FeIIO(s)
This chemical reaction is the reduction of oxygen gas so oxygen O2 molecule which
a neutral molecule is giving away it's receiving electrons and becoming ionized it's
becoming a O2 - ion and so the question is where does it receive those electrons from
and that's the other half of the reaction is the oxidation reaction the iron metal(Fe0)
which is a neutral atom is oxidizing it's giving away its electrons and becoming Fe2+
and then the overall reaction is the iron metal(Fe0) is oxidized by oxygen becomes
iron two oxide(2FeIIO) there's chemical reaction also depends on other factors, like
the oxygen content we can get different iron oxides depending on how much oxygen
there is available the temperature.
Example: presence of water and acidity can give you different chemical compounds
like different types of oxides soiron three oxide iron two three oxide in different
phases of those oxides.

Here's a anti example: this is not a Redux Reaction.

Example: precipitation of Fe3O4

Fe2+(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) + 8(OH)-(aq) → ( FeIII ) [ FeII, FeIII ] O4(s) + 4 H2O

In this example we had a dissolved species of iron two plus like iron chloride, ferrous
chlorides for example and iron three plus like ferric chloride for example in solution
and then so in solution iron two plus and i and three plus are at equilibrium they they
have no problem being together even though there's two different valence states of
the two ions but then we would add a base such as ammonium hydroxide and we're
shifting the ph the higher ph where these ions are no longer stable they're no longer at
equilibrium. in that solution and so what happens is they precipitate out and that
forms this FeIII04 also known as a spinel oxide this is actually let's see iron three plus
and two plus coexist in this solid material.

How do we find out what material oxidizes and what material reduces in the given
reaction:
It is the standard reduction potential the these are empirically determined values of
different species and their reduction potential, or in other words you know what's its
potential to be reduced, so on this list the the species at the the bottom of the list have
a higher potential of being reduced in comparison to the species at the top of the list,
so like lithium plus to lithium metal does not have a very high potential compared to
gold two plus the gold plus as far as reducing on the contrary lithium metal has a very
high potential to become oxidized, it's just the in the negative of this number and so
the one thing i should point out is that this standard reduction potential chart is is the
reference to the she she is standard hydrogen electrode it's just a reference electrode
where you have a hydrogen reaction h plus, it turns into H2 gas it's just a standard u
potential so we we just arbitrarily mark that as zero if we're going to reference it
every other reaction to that standard hydrogen reaction.
Overall the species lower on the list have a higher potential of being reduced in
comparison to the species above it.
If you change the amount of reductant or oxidant you're going to change the voltage.

So here's an example: Fe3/2+ and Zn2+/0 in solution

We have four different species in the same solution. we have iron three plus iron two
plus zinc two plus and zinc metal and the question is which one of these species is
going to oxidize and which one of these species will be reduced in this solution.
And if we look at the chart we see that iron three plus the iron two plus has a higher
reduction potential than the zinc two plus the zinc metal so iron three plus is going to
be the species that's reduced and zinc metal is going to be the species that's oxidized
all right so nothing is going to happen in the zinc 2 plus and nothing will happen to
the iron two plus we're just gonna be we're going to be making producing more iron
two plus and we're gonna be producing more zinc two plus in our solution.

Which species is reduced?

Fe3+ + e- = Fe2+E0red = +0.77 V and those have their standard reduction
Zn2+ + 2e- = Zn0 E0red = -0.76 V potentials right for these separate
redox reactions.

Zn0 + 2Fe3+ → Zn2+ + 2Fe2+ the overall reaction is given here the zinc
metal is dissolving into the solution and the iron
 three plus is reducing in the solution so you're
going to accumulate more zinc two plus and
more iron two plus in solution.

E0rxn = E0red(Fe3+) +E0ox(Zn0) = 1.53 V

▲G0rxn= -zFE0rxn you have an overall cell potential the
electric potential is related to the
gibbs free energy change of the reaction

If you have a negative gibbs free energy change then the reaction is
thermodynamically it will go forward as well there'sa thermodynamic driving force
for the reaction to proceed so the same idea if you have this cell potential which is
positive then there will be a thermodynamic driving force for this reaction to occur
so it's just a simple it's negative z is the number of electrons we believe f is faraday's
constant which is the number of coulombs per mole of electrons and then e is the the
standard reduction potential or that we calculated for the reaction potential.

This is like the setup that we just described where we have a single beaker of solution
that contains these ions and this metal and we said well the potential for this reaction
is 1.5 volts but you know how do you measure that physically how can you measure
that in a single solution and the answer is you can't measure that it's the potential
between the the surface of the zinc and the ions in solution right at the interface so
you just can't measure that and this will hap this reaction will proceed and it
proceeds at the interface of the zinc where the zinc dissolves in the iron three plus at
that interface of receive those electrons and turn into iron two plus.

However, we can measure this potential using like a multimeter if we separate these
two cells or the these two sets of species into two cells separate electrolytes so in one
cell we have iron two plus an iron three plus species in the other cell we have zinc two
plus and zinc species.
There's no current going through the multimeter, so this is an open circuit voltage
that we're measuring and it also again we want to emphasize that we're measuring the
potential at the surface of these electrodes right so these ions in the middle of the
solution there nothing is going to happen to them right they have to be at the surface
of the electrode in order to receive an electron and to be reduced and the same with
the zinc at the surface is dissolving into the solution.

Ion Batteries
there's three essential parts of all batteries, the cathode, anode and the electrolyte.
Different definitions of the things we use in batteries.
Capacity is equivalent to how many electrons are transferred. the units of capacity are
coulombs so one mole of electrons is 96 000 coulombs and, that is called a faraday's
constant is this relation however the conventional unit for capacity and you'll see this
written on a lithium-ion battery.

One amp of current for one hour the capacity is one amp hour and if that redox potential was one volt
then it'd be a one times one to be one watt hour of energy so the units of energy is joules but the
conventional units that we use is watt hour so remember a watt is a form of is the unit of power which
is the current times the voltage the watts are joules per second so current is coulombs per second volts
are joules per coulomb that makes a watt so one watt hour is one joule per second times 3 600 seconds
it's 3 600 joules so that's energy so again energy has to do with voltage and capacity oh is the term
capacity versus capacitance is different the units of capacitance is a farad we believe f farad and those
are used for capacitors and we believe capacitance is Coulombs divided by volts the we guess capacity
divided by the voltage.

Example calculation: Theoretical Capacity

The example of this material vanadium penta oxide V2O5
We're going from vanadium five plus to vanadium four plus so the first question is how many moles of
electrons are transferred if we reduce all the vanadium 5 plus to vanadium 4 plus?
the answer here is

ASSESSMENT

DIRECTION. Read the content of module no. 4 and answer the following questions as required

1. Define the meaning of Cell and Batteries, and Electrochemistry

2. Introduce the principles of REDOX reaction of car batteries. Write the balancing of chemical
equations of REDOX reaction from the module.
3. Explain the function of car batteries and its electrochemistry.
4. 5 batteries are connected in series with each battery have 12 volts capacity. Determine the total
voltage that it can generate. If it is connected in a DC motor with 120ohms resistance how much
current will flow into it?
5. If the batteries in item number 4 are connected in parallel, determine the total voltage it can generate
and the current flow If it is connected to the motor in item number 4 above.
6. Explain the protocol of safety measure in working with batteries.

REFLECTION

Make a one paragraph articel about the application of battery in the study of ECE including the design
of modern batteries in Electronics Industrial Manufacturing Company.

ASSIGNMENT

1. From the link provided, make a reaction paper. https://youtu.be/BxgD7Hz0PPA

2. Using the format in the first laboratory activity design an online experiment about battery for your
group activity.
MODULE 5

CAPACITANCE AND ITS SEMICONDUCTOR PRINCIPLES

LEARNING OUTOMES

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

A.Define the keywords relative to the study of Capacitance and its Semiconductor Principles
B.Introduce the laws and theories in the development of Capacitance and its semiconductor
principles .Explain the principles of Capacitance and its Semiconductor Principles
C.apply the knowledge learned from the study of (STEM) Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics. In the mathematical problems as required by the study of Capacitance and its
Semiconductor Principles
D.Improve the skills in utilizing VOM Multitester in evaluating Capacitance and its Semiconductor
Principles
E..Develop critical thinking and initiative to enhance positive attitude and behavior. Develop safety
measures in working with capacitor and its high voltage impact in electronic circuit.

INTRODUCTION

In the field of semiconductor physics it is very important to understand the different functions of
battery and capacitor. Although the common denominators are both devices store electric charge,
battery continuosly receives electrons to fully charged batteries until it automatically shuts down when
desired capacity is attained. While the capacitor similarly receives electrical charges but the difference
of capacitor’s function is that it stores discharges electrical energy based on the designed for its specific
purpose.

LESSON PROPER

HOW TO SOLVE ANY CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITOR IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

COMBINATION.

In this topic we're going to talk about how to calculate the charge and voltage across the capacitor, if
we have capacitors in series and parallel combinations. So let's start with this problem. What's the first
thing we need to do in order to calculate the charge on every capacitor? Now the first thing needs to do
is calculate the equivalent capacitance of the entire circuit. Now, whenever you have two capacitors in
parallel with each other, the total capacitance or the equivalent capacitance is simply the sum of those
two capacitors.
So it's going to be C two plus c three, just for this network. So we can replace that with a 20 micro
farad capacitor. So now we have this circuit, we have a 10 micro farad capacitor, in series with a 20,
which is in series with another 20. Now, whenever you have two capacitors in series with each other,
and if they have the same value, the equivalent capacitance of those two capacitors is going to be half
of their individual values. So half of 20 is 10. So we can replace these two capacitance with a single 10
micro farad capacitor.
Now this capacitor is also 10. So the equivalent capacitance of these two will be five. So that's the
equivalent capacitance of the entire circuit. Its five micro farad. Now if you wish to confirm the
answer, you can use a formula. So let's use it with these three capacitors in this series. So the equivalent
capacitance is going to be one over c one, plus one over c two, plus one over c three raised to the minus
one. So one over 10 plus one of the 20 plus one a 20. Raise to minus one that is equal to five. Now if
you don't have access to a calculator, is we need to multiply this fraction by two over two to get
commented on meters. So that becomes two over 20 plus one over 20 plus one over 20. And then add
the numerator is now the fractions, so two plus one plus one is four. So what we now have is four over
20 raised to the minus one. Now to raise something to negative one power, we need to flip the fraction,
so becomes 20 over four, which is equal to five. So that's the equivalent capacitance of the circuit. Now
the next thing that you need to know is that the charge for any capacitors in series is the same for each
capacitor in series. For capacitors in parallel, the voltage is the same across each of those capacitors.
Now, what we have is three capacitors in series, we have C one, which is 10 microfarads. And that's in
series with the equivalent capacitance of those two, which is 20. And that's in series with C four, which
is also 20. So let's calculate the charge on each of these three capacitors. So to do that use this one, the
charge of every capacitor in series is going to be the equivalent capacitance times the voltage and that
is the voltage of the battery. So the equivalent capacitance is five micro farads, and the voltage is 100
volts. So five micro farads times 100 is equal to 500 micro amps. So that's the charge on each of these
capacitors. So the charge on C one is 500 micro coulombs. And the charge on c four is also 500 micro
coloumbs. Now what about the charge on C two and C three? Because those are parallel to each other.
The total charge of these two is 500 micro coulombs. But how can we calculate the individual charges.
So to calculate q2, it's going to be the total charge of just this network multiplied by c two divided by
the total capacitance of that network, which is C two plus c three. So the total charge of these two
capacitors is 500. Micro farad. Now c two is 15 micro coulombs Micro farads and C two plus c three,
that's 15 plus five, which is 20 micro farads. So it's going to be 500 times 15 over 20. And so the
charge on C two is 375 micro coulombs. Now, to calculate it on C three, we're just going to use a
different variation of that formula. So it's going to be q three is equal to the total charge for that
network times C three divided by C two plus c three. So that's 500 micro coulombs, times C three,
which is five, C two plus c three is 20. So it's 500 times five over 20. So then C three has a charge of
125 micro coulombs. Notice that these two numbers add up to 500, which tells us that we're on the
right track. So now that we have the charge on every capacitor, we can calculate the voltage across
each capacitor. So let's start with the voltage across c one. So we know that q one is equal to c one
times v one, so the voltage is going to be the charge divided by the capacitance. So the charge is 500
micro coulombs. And the capacitance is 10 micro farads. So the unit micro will cancel that. So 500
divided by 10, will give us a voltage of 50 volts across c one. Now let's calculate the voltage across c
three. So v three is going to be q three over c three.
So the charge is 125 micro coulombs, divided by five micro farads. So 125 divided by five will give us
a voltage of 25 volts. Now notice that C two and C three are in parallel with each other, which means
they should have the same voltage. So to calculate the voltage across c two, it's going to be v two,
which is q2 divided by C two. So that's 375 micro farad, divided by a capacitance of 15 micro farad. So
375 divided by 15, will give us the same voltage of 25 volts. Now to calculate the voltage across c four,
it's going to be q four divided by c four. And so the charge is 500 micro coulombs. And the capacitance
is 20. Micro farad. So 500 divided by 20 will give us a voltage of 25 volts. Now notice that the voltage
across the capacitors adds up to the voltage of the battery. Meaning that 25 plus 25 plus 50, adds up to
100. So that tells us that one of I tracked everything that we've done so far, is correct. So now that we
have the charge on each capacitor, and the voltage across each capacitor, let's calculate the potential
energy stored in one of the capacitors. So let's say if we want to calculate the potential energy stored in
C three, how much is it? And what equations can we use to calculate it, there's three forms that we
could use, it's one half CV squared, we could also use one half CV. Or we could use a one half q
squared divided by c. So I'm going to use the first one, one half CV squared. So for C three, it's going
to be one half times a capacitance of five micro farads, which is five times 10 to the minus six. And
then the voltage is 25 volts. So its point five times five times 10 to minus six times 25 squared. And so
the potential energy across that capacitor is point 00156 joules, which you can say it's one point 56
mille joules. Now what about the energy stored in C one? Let's find that answer as well. So this time,
I'm going to use this equation. So it's one half CV. The charge on C one is 500 micro columns. That's
500 times 10 to the minus six and the voltage across it is 50 volts. So the energy stored in that capacitor
is point 01 to five joules, which is 12.5 mille joules, if you multiply by 1000. So now you know how to
calculate the potential energy of any capacitor in a circuit like this, and you also know how to calculate
the charge on every capacitor, and the voltage across every capacitor.
Now, let's try another similar problem. So let's say if we have a battery attached to a capacitor, which is
in series with a network of capacitors. So let's say the circuit is such. And so this is going to be a 96
volt battery.
Here we have the positive terminal and the negative terminal. Let's call this C one, C two, C three, c
four, let's say C one has a capacitance of 100 micro farads, C three is going to be 40 micro farads and C
420 micro farads and C two, we're going to assign a value of 70 micro farads. Calculate the charge on
every capacitor, and also the voltage across each capacitor. So step one, is we need to calculate the
equivalent capacitance of the entire circuit. And then once we have that, just like before, we're going to
calculate the charge on every capacitor. And then finally, we'll calculate the voltage across each
capacitor. So C three and c four are in parallel, I mean in series with each other.

So to calculate the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors in series, it's going to be one over 40
Plus one over 120 raise to minus one. Now we're going to multiply this fraction by three over three,so
then becomes three over 120 plus one over 120. So three plus one is four. And so this becomes four
over 120 raised to the minus one, which is 120 over four. And so the equivalent capacitance of C three
and c four is 30. Micro farads. And so that is in parallel with C two, which is a 70 micro farad
capacitor, still combined, the 30 and the 70 is 100. When they're in parallel, the equivalent capacitance
is the sum of the individual capacitors. So we can replace this with a single capacitor of 100 micro
farads, and this is in series with this other capacitor, which is also 100 microfarads. So the equivalent
capacitance of two capacitors in series that have the same value is going to be half of 100. So that's
going to be 50. To confirm that answer, you could do this you could say it's one over 100 plus one over
100 raised to minus one, one plus one is two, so this becomes two over 100. And if we flip it, it
becomes 100 divided by two, which is 50. So the equivalent capacitance of all four capacitors is 50
micro farads. So that's step one is to calculate this value. Now let's calculate the charge on this
capacitor and equivalent capacitance of this network which is that value. Now keep in mind, the charge
for two capacitors in series will be the same. So Q is going to equal CV, so it's the equivalent
capacitance of 50 micro farads times the voltage of the entire battery, or the entire circuit and that's 96
volts. So let's go ahead and take 50 and multiply by 96. So this is going to be 4800 micro coulomb
because this was in micro farads. So this is 4800 micro coulombs. And this is also 4800 micro
coulomb, so we have the value for C one, we can write it here. Now we need to focus on the other three
capacitors.
We have the total charge on all three of those capacitors. So now we need to break it down. So this
network is equivalent to these two capacitors in parallel. So that's c two, which is 70. And that's the
combined effect of C three and c four, which earlier we got was 30. Now to calculate the charge on this
capacitor, it's going to be the total charge, which is 4800 micro coulombs, times the value of this
capacitor, which is 70. Divided by the total capacitance of 70 plus 30, which is 100 for that network. So
it's going to be 4800 divided by let us times 70 divided by 100. So C two has a charge of 3360 micro
coulombs. Now let's calculate the total charge on the 30 micro farad. So it's 4800 micro coulomb,
multiplied by 30, divided by the total of 100. So it's 40 100 times 30, over 100. And so this is 1440.
And this was 3360. So these two have to add up to 4800. So whenever you have two capacitors in
parallel, the individual charges on each capacitor has to add up to the total charge on the whole network
of the capacitors in parallel to each other. Now, how can we use this value to calculate the charge on C
three and c four never remember, whenever you have two capacitors in parallel, the voltage is the same
across those two capacitors. If you have two capacitors in series, the charge is the same. So the charge
on C three is the same as the charge on c four, which is the same as the charge on the equivalent
capacitance of C three and c four. So what this means is that the charge on C three and c four is equal
to this number. So it's 1440 micro coulombs. So now we have the charge on every capacitor. Now let's
calculate the voltage across each capacitor. Let's see if it adds up to 96. So let's start with C one. So the
voltage is going to be the charge divided by the capacitance. So the charge is 4800 micro coulombs.
And the capacitance is 100 micro farads. So 4800 divided by 100, is 48 volts.
Now let's calculate the voltage across c three. So v three is going to be q three divided by C three. And
so that's 1440 micro coulombs, divided by 40. Micro farad. And so this will give us 36 volts across the
40 Mark clone, I mean micro farad capacitor. Now let's do the same thing for C four. So v4 is q four
divided by c four. And so that's 1440 micro coulombs, over 120 micro farads. And so that's going to
give us a voltage of 12 volts. Now notice that the voltage across these two capacitors must be equal to
the voltage across the capacitor, because they're parallel to each other. So 36 plus 12, is 48. So we
should get a voltage of 48 across c two. So v two is q two divided by C two. And so that's 3360 divided
by 70 micro farads. So that gives us a voltage of 48 volts. So if we add these three values, 48 plus 36
plus 12. That gives us the voltage of the battery. Now you can't add this as well, because that is already
in parallel with those two values, so you can't add it twice. So that's it for this problem. You Have the
voltage across every capacitor, and a charge on each capacitor. electric potential at every point across
this capacitor network.

ASSESSMENT

DIRECTION. Read the content of module no. 5 and answer the following questions as required

1.Define the meaning of Capacitor, Capacitance and Micro Farad

2.Introduce the principles of Capacitor and Capacitance in Semiconductor study.
3.Explain the function of Capacitor in the study of ECE in its application to Semiconductor
4. 5 capacitors with each has 10 micro farad value are connected in series with a supplied voltage of 5
volts. Determine the total capacitance and indvidual charges of capacitor.
5.If the capacitor in item number 4 are connected in parallel, determine the total capacitance it can
store and the Individual and total charges using the same supply voltage of 5 volts.
6. Explain the protocol of safety measure in working with Capacitors.
REFLECTION

Make a one paragraph articel about the application of Capacitor in the study of ECE including the
design of modern Capacitors in Electronics Industrial Manufacturing Company.

ASSIGNMENT

1.From the link provided, make a 1 pager reaction paper including derivations of capacitors formulas .
https://youtu.be/VfzUVYgF8-A
2.Using the format in the first laboratory activity design an online experiment about Capacitance for
your group activity.
MODULE 6

INDUCTANCE AND ITS SEMICONDUCTOR PRINCIPLES

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

A.Define the keywords relative to the study of Inductance and its Semiconductor Principles
B.Introduce the laws and theories in the development of Inductance and its semiconductor principles
.Explain the principles of Inductance and its Semiconductor Principles
C.apply the knowledge learned from the study of (STEM) Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics. In the mathematical problems as required by the study of Inductance and its
Semiconductor Principles
D.Improve the skills in utilizing VOM Multitester in evaluating Inductance and its Semiconductor
Principles
E. Develop critical thinking and initiative to enhance positive attitude and behavior. Develop safety
measures in working with inductors and different coils to observe the effect of mutual inductance.

INTRODUCTION

Unlike capacitors that usually store electric charges In small to large capacity of up to thousand volts,
inductors behave like transfomer that usually exibit inductance and mutual inductance in Electronics
Circuit. Inductors store and release electromagnetic energy through mutual inductance I order to
maintain the desired function of electronics circuit. Some of its applications are motor steeper
oscillator, automatic relay, switches, and other desired functions in robotics technology.

LESSON PROPER

INDUCTANCE

INDUCTOR

It is a device that functions by or introduces into a circuit.

SYMBOL

INDUCTANCE

It is a circuit element typically a conducting coil in which electromotive force is generated by

electromagnetic induction.
MUTUAL INDUCTION

When an emf is produced in a coil because of the change in the current in a coupled coil, the effect is
called mutual inductance.
As shown in Figure, the mutual inductance (M) can be expressed in terms of the flux (Φ2) through
each turn of the coil (N2) that is caused by the current (i1) in Coil 1 or in terms of (Φ1) through each
turn of the coil (N1) that is caused by the current (i2) in the coil 2. The mutual inductance is given by:
M= mutual inductance = Henry (H)
N1 = No. of turns in coil 1
N2= No. of turns in coil 2
Φ1= Magnetic flux in coil 1 – Weber (Wb)
Φ2= Magnetic flux in coil 2 – Weber (Wb)
I1= Current in coil 1 – Ampere (A)
I2= Current in coil 2 – Ampere (A)

1.A long solenoid with length 0.75m and cross-section area of 2x10-3m2 is closely wound with 1500
turns with wire. A coil 50 turns surrounds it at its center. Find the mutual inductance.

SELF-INDUCTANCE
It is the property of an electric circuit which causes the circuit to oppose any change in current in the
circuit.
It is the ratio of the emf (Ƹ) of self- induction to the rate of change of current (ΔI) in the coil during
the time (Δt). The self- inductance (L) is given by:
2.An average self-induced emf of -0.75V is produced in a 25mH coil when current in it falls to 0 in
0.01s. What was the original current in the coil?

Inductance of a Solenoid
The magnetic field is concentrated in the center of a solenoid. The field outside is weak and
diverging. The inductance of a solenoid depends on the number of turns, cross-sectional area and its
length. The inductance of a solenoid is given by the equations:
INDUCTANCE OF COMMON MATERIALS

3.Find the inductance in air of a 1000 turn solenoid 10cm long that has a cross-sectional area of 20cm2.
ENERGY STORED IN THE MAGNETIC OF AN INDUCTOR
When current flows in an inductor, there is energy stored in the magnetic field and is given by the
equation:

Where:
W – Magnetic energy of inductor (J) joules
I – Inductance (H)
L – Current (A)

MAGNETIC ENERGY DENSITY

The energy density of a magnetic field is the magnetic energy per unit volume associated with
it. Magnetic energy density is defined by the equation:

Where:
W – Magnetic energy density – Joules/cubic meter (J/m3)
β – Magnetic field – Tesla (T)
µ - Permeability of free space - 4π X 10-7 T.m/A or 1.257x10-6 T.m/A

Conversion:
1H = 1J/A2 = 1V.s/A
4.How much current is needed in a 50mH coil for it to have 1J of magnetic energy?

5.The magnetic field in a certain region has the magnitude 6000G. Determine the magnetic energy
density in this region.

ASSESSMENT

DIRECTION. Please answer the following questions as required

1. Define Inductor and Inductance

2. What is a solenoid?
3. Differentiate Inductance and Mutual Inductance
4. What are the applications of solenoid in semiconductor industry?
5. Resolve the examples in this module by changing the values from the given examples and solve
them using your Individual assumptions.

REFLECTION

Make a one paragraph article about the application of Inductor in the study of ECE including the design
of modern Inductors or Solenoid in Electronics Industrial Manufacturing Company.

ASSIGNMENT

1.From the link provided, make a 1 pager reaction paper including derivations of Inductance formulas .
https://youtu.be/_SzhUY_xYsc
2.Using the format in the first laboratory activity design an online experiment about Inductance for
your group activity.

MODULE 7

.LED AND LASER APPLICATIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

A.Define the keywords relative to the study of LED and Laser applications
B.Introduce the laws and theories in the development of LED and Laser Application .Explain the
principles of LED and Laser Applications
C.apply the knowledge learned from the study of (STEM) Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics. In the mathematical problems as required by the study of LED and Laser Application
D.Improve the skills in utilizing LED and Laser Application
E. Develop critical thinking and initiative to enhance positive attitude and behavior. Develop safety
measures in working with Laser and to observe the effect of LED and Laser application.

INTRODUCTION

Just like in the previous modules, we will move to a new learning of semiconductor device where laser
technology is a foundation of electronics designed and application.

A laser diode is a electronic device aken to a light-emitting diode by which a diode pumped directly
with Electricity and produces lasing conditions at the diode's intersection. Laser diodes can directly
convert electrical energy into photons.

LESSON PROPER

,LEDs light emitting diodes diodes that, convert electrical energy into light, energy these devices they
stay cool, they're not like other lamps that, generate a lot of heat so they're very, efficient at converting
electrical, energy into light energy. the polarity of an LED and how to, connect it in a circuit so notice
the, two leads of the LED the long side is, the anode you want to connect that to, the positive terminal
of a battery the, short side is the cathode so that should, be connected to the negative terminal of, a
battery now of course you want to put, a current limiting resistor in series, with the LED and the battery
otherwise, if too much current is flowing through, this LED it could burn up which can be a, problem
so just keep that in mind, here is the electrical symbol of a, regular diode to draw the electrical, symbol
of a light emitting diode simply, put two arrows emanating away from it on, the left side we have the
positive, terminal and on the right side the, negative terminal so the positive,(Please see images in
google for your visual reference). terminal is the anode of the LED ,the, negative terminal is the
cathode now, when current flows from the anode to the, cathode this is conventional current the, LED
will be odd if the voltage is, sufficient to turn it on if you apply, current in the opposite direction the,
LED will be off like all diodes the LED, will allow current to flow in one, direction that is from the
anode to the, cathode but it will block her and from, flowing in the other direction if you're, considering
buying an LED for an, electronics project there are three, things you need to take into, consideration
the forward voltage drop, of the LED which for a green LED that's, typically around 2.2 volts now this,
could vary dependent on how much current, is flowing through the LED and we'll.(Please see related
articles about anode and cathode of LED for your references) the next, thing is the maximum
recommended current,
that should be flowing in the LED some, LEDs can hold a current of 20, some can hold or manage a
current of 30, now if you apply a higher current the LED, could burn out or it may work for some, time
and then burn out later depending, on the magnitude of the current the next, thing is the luminous
intensity the, luminous intensity tells you how bright, the LED will be the LED in the picture that you
will see in google images as you search, a luminous intensity between 15,000 and, 20,000 milli
candelas 100million lumens is equal to one Candela so, that's another thing you need to, consider so the
forward voltage the, maximum recommended current and the, luminous intensity are things that you,
may want to look at when buying an LED, consider this circuit let's say we have, a 9-volt battery
connected to a resistor and a light emitting diode in series, with each other and let's say that the voltage
drop of the light emitting diode, is 2.2 volts and the recommended maximum, current is 20 milliamps
but let's say we, want a current of 10 milliamps to flow, through this light emitting diode with, this
information what is the value of,
the resistor that we should use to limit, the current that is flowing in a circuit so assuming that the
voltage drop is 2.2 it could change based on the current this will need to do so this is the ground which
we're going, to assign it a potential of zero volts, let's call this point A and point B now,
point B is connected to the positive, terminal of the battery so point B is, that a potential of 9 volts
point A is, that a potential of 2 point 2 volts, due to the voltage drop of the LED now,
in order to calculate the resistance of, the resistor that we need to use, Ohm's law which is V equals IR
voltage, is equal to current multiplied by the resistance, so to solve for our we need to divide, both
sides by I so the resistance is, equal to the voltage divided by the,
current the voltage across the resistor, is the potential difference between, points A and B so it's the
potential of, B minus the potential of a divided by, the current flowing through the resistor,
we know the potential at B is nine volts the potential at ay is 2.2 volts and the, current that is flowing
through the resistor is will lease the current that we want which is 10 milliamps now we,
need to convert that to amps 1 amp is equal to one thousand milliamps so to convert milliamps to amps
divided by a thousand 10 divided by a thousand is point zero one so we have a current of,
point zero one amps flowing in the circuit nine minus two point two is six point eight six point eight
divided by 0.01 is 680 so for this particular circuit if we use a 680 ohm resistor and if the voltage drop
is two point two then the current that will be flowing in, a circuit will be 10 milliamps if the, voltage of
the battery is nine so that's how you could determine the appropriate,
resistor to use in an LED circuit first look at the product label to determine,
the forward voltage drop of the led determine the voltage of the battery that you want to use and then
the amount, of current that you want to flow in a circuit taken into account the maximum,
recommended current and then with that information you can use this formula

now, determine the appropriate resistor to use now let's talk about the relationship between the forward
voltage,
of the LED that is the voltage drop across it and the amount of current that is flowing in a circuit so for
this module to use 4 D cells which when you test it the voltage will be 6 volts it will be a little bit less it
will be five point five one and you made a table with our eye and then the voltage across the LED as
measured by a multimeter so when you chose a value of 10 kilo ohms for the resistor the voltage across
the LED is measured to be 2 point 22 volts now to calculate the,
current it's going to be the voltage of the battery 5 point 5 1 minus the voltage drop of the LED so this
will give you the voltage across the resistor divided by the 10 kilo ohm resistor so five point five one
minus two point twenty two that's a voltage of 3.29 volts if you divide it by 10 kilo ohms you'll get
0.33 milliamps it's actually 0.329 but we are going to round it to point 33 now when using a five point
one kiloohm resistor we have a calculated current of 0.59 milliamps but the, voltage across the LED
was two point two seven.

now notice what happens as the,

current flowing in a circuit increases and what pattern do you see so notice that the voltage drop that
should be a 5 10 ohm resistor notice that the voltage drop across the LED is increasing when you use a
5 10 ohm resistor the voltage is now 2 point 5 7 now we’re using a 220 ohm resistor the, current
flowing in the circuit is now twelve point four millions and the voltage across the LED is two point
seven eight volts and then the last one we chose to use was an 82 M resistor and we got a current of
twenty nine point eight milliamps and the voltage is three point O seven volts.

so let's talk about what's happening here as the resistance of the circuit decreases to going from ten kilo
ohms all the way down to 82 the current flowing in a circuit increases as we can see it went from point
thirty three milliamps all the way to twenty nine point eight million ms and as the,
amount of current that's flowing through the led increases the forward voltage drop across the led
increases as well so even though the recommended for voltage is 2.2 volts for a green LED that can
change based on how much current is flowing through it so if you have a lot of current flowing through
the LED the voltage drop will be larger than what you think it will be so for a typical green LED the
voltage drop will be somewhere between two and three point two volts.

now for this particular LED the recommended maximum current is 20 milliamps we exceeded that in
this module and the LED was a very very bright chances are it's not going to sustain this current for
long if we would have kept it at twenty nine point milliamps eventually it's gonna burn out but ideally
you want to keep it under this number as the current flowing through the LED increases the luminous
intensity the brightness is going to increase.

ASSESSMENT

DIRECTION. Please answer the following questions as required

1. Define LED and Laser Diode

2.What is Lumens and lumenous intensity in terms of candela?
3.Differentiate High Power LEDs and Alphanumeric LEDs
4.What are the applications of LEDs in semiconductor industry?
5.Using ohm’s law, make a series circuit LED and calculate the current, voltage, and resistance assume
your own values.
6.Using ohm’s law, make a parallel circuit LED and calculate the current, voltage, and resistance
assume your own values.

REFLECTION

Make a one paragraph article about the application of LED and Laser Diode in the study of ECE
including the design of modern High power LEDs and Alphanumeric LED in Electronics Industrial
Manufacturing Company.

ASSIGNMENT

Direction: 1
1.find a related videos from local youtubers about application of diodes
2. After viewing the video design an experiment for your class about LEDs.
MODULE 8
TRANSISTOR AND ITS PRINCIPLES
MODULE 9

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT AND ITS PRINCIPLES

MODULE 10

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTONICS