Centrifugal Effect on Belts

Usually, power transmission is proportional to belt speed. ...

This centrifugal force reduces the pressure between the belt and the rim of the pulleys, and thus,
move the belt away from the pulley and reduce the wrap angle.
Therefore, the belt tensions and power transmission also are reduced.

Determining Angle of Wrap

Sometimes things which appear simple turn out to be rather complex. Such is the case with the Euler-
Eytelwein Formula, a small formula with a big job. It computes how friction, an omnipresent
phenomenon in mechanical assemblies, contributes to the transmission of mechanical power. Today
we’ll determine the value of one of the Euler-Eytelwein Formula’s variables, the angle of wrap

Figure 1 Determining Angle of Wrap (θ)

Here again is the basis for our calculations, the Euler-Eytelwein Formula.

To recap what we’ve discussed thus far, T1 is the tight side tension, the maximum the belt
can endure before breaking. T2 is the loose side tension. It’s just going along for the ride.
The term e is Euler’s Number, a constant equal to 2.718, and the coefficient of friction, μ,
for contact points between the belt and pulleys is 0.3 based on their materials
The formula introduced to calculate the angle of wrap, θ, is,
where,

By direct measurement we’ve determined the pulleys’ diameters, D 1 and D2, are equal to 1
foot and 0.25 feet respectively. The term x is the distance between the two pulley shafts,
3 feet. The term sin-1 is a trigonometric function known as inverse sine; a button commonly
found on scientific calculators.
Inserting our known values into equation (3) we arrive at,

We can now incorporate equation (5) into equation (2) to solve for θ,

Inserting the values for m and θ into equation (1) we arrive at,

We have at this point solved for over half of the unknown variables in the Euler-Eytelwein
Formula. We still can’t solve for T1, because we don’t know the value of T2. But that will
change next time when we introduce yet another formula, this one to determine the amount
of mechanical power present in our pulley-belt system.

At high speeds, the centrifugal forces acting on the belt reduce the contact pressure and
thus the maximum transmittable circumferential force.

Formation of centrifugal forces

With a belt drive in a resting state, only the pretensioning force Fp acts in the belt. This force
is the same for all belt sections, i.e., in both spans of the belt. Only under load different belt
forces act and a tight side with the belt force Ft and a slack side with the belt force Fs is
formed (see article Power transmission of a belt drive). If the belt drive comes to a standstill
under load or if only low speeds are used, the belt forces at constant torque can be regarded
as almost independent of the belt speed.
At higher belt speeds, however, considerable centrifugal forces act on the belt sections
which run around the pulleys. These centrifugal forces are trying to pull the belt outwards
and lift it off the pulley. However, this would mean a reduction in the contact pressure and
thus a reduction in the frictional force between belt and pulley. With large circumferential
forces to be transmitted, slippage could then occur.
To avoid this, the belt must also be tensioned by the amount of the centrifugal effect acting
during operation (centrifugal belt force). This can be achieved, for example, through a
higher overall preload force, or belt tensioning systems must be used.

The centrifugal forces are generated when the belt revolves around the pulley. They
are tempted to lift the belt off the pulley. This must be counteracted with an
additional preload by the amount of the centrifugal effect!

Influence of the centrifugal forces on the belt forces

Centrifugal forces are only generated at the wrap, i.e., when the belt rotates around the
pulleys. There they are each directed radially away from the pulleys. Although no centrifugal
forces act on the straight span sections of the belt, the belt tension there is influenced by
the centrifugal forces. If the deflection of the slack side is neglected, then the centrifugal
forces are directed symmetrically to the centre line of pulleys. The centrifugal effect
generated at the bended belt sections thus act outwards along that canter line.
The centrifugal forces act as if someone were pulling the belt outwards. This then also
becomes noticeable in the straight belt sections as an additional force to be applied by the
belt (otherwise the contact pressure would drop). Due to the symmetrical pulling effect of
the centrifugal forces, it is also clear that this has the same effect on both belt spans! As
the total force in the tight side increases, so does the total force in the slack side.

Due to the centrifugal forces, the forces in tight side and the slack side increase
equally!

Influence of the centrifugal forces on circumferential

force
The tight side force Ft and slack side force Fs acting in the quasi-static state must increase
at high speeds by the amount Fcf in order to compensate for the centrifugal effect. However,
the additionally acting centrifugal forces do not influence the transmitted circumferential
force Fc at all (at least as long as the load of the belt under the centrifugal effect does not
become too high and the belt is damaged):

The centrifugal forces have no direct influence on the

transmitted circumferential force!
Note that the terms tight side force and slack side force often only refer the forces Ft and
Fs relevant for the actual power transmission according to equation (2) (i.e. forces in the
quasi-static state). Centrifugal forces are often listed separately for the aforementioned
reason that they have no influence on the transmitted circumferential force, although both
forces (“static belt force+centrifugal force”) act together in the span and cannot be
physically separated either, since they always act as a resulting sum of forces.

Calculation of the centrifugal belt force

The centrifugal belt force Fcf acting in the belt due to centrifugal effects, will be determined
at a given belt speed v in the following section. Note that the term centrifugal belt force Fcf
does not mean the centrifugal force itself, but rather to the force additionally acting in the
belt by the centrifugal effect (this corresponds to the force by which the belt must be
additionally tensioned at rest in order to completely compensate for the centrifugal forces)!
For the derivation of the centrifugal belt force it is sufficient to take a closer look at the load-
free operation, i.e. the rotating belt without transmitting a circumferential force, since to
due equation (1) centrifugal forces do not influence the circumferential force and vice versa
the circumferential force does not influence centrifugal forces.

Figure 2 Addition of the centrifugal forces and the centrifugal belt force

If, for reasons of simplicity, only an “idling” belt is considered, then the only force acting in
this belt is the required centrifugal belt force. This force ultimately holds the belt together.
At constant belt speed the centrifugal belt force must be the same at any point of the belt
for equilibrium reasons (otherwise a cut-off section of the belt would be accelerating). This
applies in particular to the curved belt sections that run over the pulleys.
If such a belt section is considered more closely at the angle dφ, then the centrifugal force
dF acting on this section must be balanced with the centrifugal belt forces Fcf. The vectorial
sum of forces thus geometrically forms a closed triangle. The following relationship between
the centrifugal force dF and belt force Fcf can then be established by the infinitesimal arc
angle dφ:

Figure 3 Influence of centrifugal force on the belt

The centrifugal force dF acting on the considered belt section with a mass dm results from
the pulley radius r and the rotational speed v as follows:

The mass dm of the considered belt section depends on the angular section dφ. The larger
the angle, the larger the mass dm. If the total mass m of the belt is referred to its total
length L (“mass per unit length”) and denoted by m’

then the (arc) length dL of the considered belt section and thus its mass dm =m’⋅dL can be
determined by the arc angle dφ:
For the centrifugal force dF acting on the considered belt section at the angle dφ thus
applies:

If this equation (10) is now applied to equation (4), the required dependence of the
centrifugal belt forces Fcf on the belt speed v is obtained:

The belt force Fcf caused by the centrifugal effect is therefore only dependent on the specific
mass m’ and the square of the belt speed v. Neither the pulley diameter nor the wrap angle
influences the centrifugal belt force! In order to completely compensate the centrifugal
effect during operation, the belt must be additionally pre-tensioned by the amount of this
centrifugal belt force!
The additional force required in the belt to compensate for the centrifugal forces that occur
(centrifugal belt force) depends only on the speed and the specific mass of the belt! Neither
the pulley diameter nor the wrap angle has any influence on this!

Power transmission of a belt drive

In this article, learn more about the power transmission in belt drives and the necessary
pretensioning force.

• 1 Circumferential force in the belt

o 1.1 Maximum transmittable circumferential force
o 1.2 Gain
o 1.3 Elastic slippage
• 2 Pre-load tension (initial tension of the belt)
o 2.1 Preload without taking centrifugal forces into account
o 2.2 Preload with taking centrifugal forces into account
o 2.3 Preload measuring
Circumferential force in the belt
In belt drives, forces are transmitted from the input pulley to the belt and then from the belt
back to the output pulley. The force to be transmitted from one pulley to the other is also
referred to as the effective force or circumferential force Fc. The amount of force Fc applied to
the circumference of the input pulley depends on the torque Mi or the power Pi and the
speed ni as well as the diameter di of the driving pulley:

Figure 4 Power transmission of belt drive

This circumferential force Fc causes different forces on the two belt sections
and a tight side and a slack side will form. The balance of forces on a pulley
generally shows that the difference between the tight side force Ft and the
slack side force Fs corresponds to the transmitting circumferential force Fc:

Figure 5 Relationship between circumferential force and tight side and slack side force
The decisive factor for the transmission of power in belt drives is the circumferential force
(also called effective force), which results from the difference between the tight side force
and the slack side force of the belt!

At the pulley with the diameter do driven by the belt this effectively circumferential force Fc
leads to a changed torque Mo (see also the section transmission ratio):

The circumferential force is generated at the input pulley by the torque acting there and the
effective diameter of the pulley. At the output pulley, the circumferential force causes a
change in torque in accordance with the effective diameter of the output pulley.

The circumferential force is transmitted at the interface between belt and pulley by frictional
forces. These maximum possible frictional forces must be sufficiently high to ensure that the
circumferential force can be transmitted safely. If the maximum possible frictional force is
lower than the circumferential force to be transmitted, then obviously there is not enough
“adhesion” to be able to transfer the circumferential force from the pulley to the belt or from
the belt to the pulley according to the equation (2). The pulley or belt slips (sliding slip) and
the full circumferential force is no longer transmitted.

The circumferential force is transmitted by frictional forces between pulley and belt!

Maximum transmittable circumferential force

In the article Basics of power transmission it was shown with the belt friction equation that
the maximum frictional force Ff,max between belt and pulley at a given tight side force Ft or
slack side force Fs can be determined with the formulae listed below. These maximum
frictional forces therefore also represent the limit for the maximum transmittable
circumferential forces Fc,max:

Gain
In the context of the circumferential force, the so-called gain k describes the percentage of
the existing tight side force Ft that could be used to transmit the maximum circumferential
force Fc,max (limiting case to slippage). According to equation (6) the gain corresponds to
the term (1-1/eµφ):
A gain of e.g. k = 0.6 means that a maximum of 60% of the tight side force can be used as
circumferential force for power transmission. In this case, the remaining 40 % is required
for maintaining the belt’s tension on the slack side (slack side force).

The gain indicates what percentage of the tight side force can be used as the maximum
circumferential force; the rest is accounted for by the slack side force to maintain the belt
tension!

Note that the circumferential force is transmitted by frictional forces and their formation
always requires a certain pressure of the belt on the pulley. This means that there must
always be an acting force on the slack side of the belt to ensure the belt tension and with it
the contact pressure. The slack side must therefore not be force-free at all (see also the
article Basics of power transmission)!

The relationship between a given tight side force Ft and the maximum possible
circumferential force Fc,max is thus established by using the gain k as follows:

According to the equation (8), the gain depends only on the wrap angle and the coefficient
of friction. While the coefficient of friction applies equally to both pulleys, the wrap angle of
the smaller pulley is usually smaller. Thus, the smaller pulley (often the driving pulley) is
decisive for the gain or the entire power transmission!

The smallest wrap angle of the pulleys is always decisive for power transmission!

However, based on the equation (8) it can also be seen that the greater the coefficient of
friction, the less influence the wrap angle has on the gain. The relatively small change in the
wrap angle under load (due to the sagging of the slack side of the belt) therefore plays a
subordinate role for large coefficients of friction in practice.

Elastic slippage
Due to the elasticity of the belt, elongation processes occur in the belt during rotation
around the pulleys. These stretching processes are due to the increase (or decrease) in the
belt tension at the transition from the slack side to the tight side (or vice versa) – the belt
stretches according to the force acting on the pulley.

This results in relative motions between belt and pulley (called slastic slip). It is therefore not
a static friction between belt and pulley but rather a sliding friction! Therefore, when applying
the above equations, the sliding coefficient of friction should also be used instead of the
static coefficient of friction.

The coefficient of sliding friction is decisive for power transmission!

However, it must be noted that the sliding friction depends on the (elongation) speed. Thus,
the coefficient of sliding friction is also influenced by the belt speed!

Pre-load tension (initial tension of the belt)

The equations (5) and (6) reflect the maximum possible, transmittable circumferential forces
Fc,max depending on the slack side force Fs or tight side force Ft. These equations must
therefore be interpreted at the limit to slippage. In principle, however, belt drives are not
driven at the limit to slippage, but well below it.

The maximum possible circumferential force according to equation (5) or equation (6) is
therefore not fully utilized to transmit forces from the belt to the pulley and vice versa.
However, the equations show that an increase in the slack side force or tight side force leads
to an increase in the maximum frictional force.

This can be clearly explained by an increase in the contact pressure of the belt on the pulley,
which increases the maximum frictional force. By increasing the belt forces, safety against
slippage can be increased or larger circumferential forces can be transmitted.

The tension in the two spans of the belt (slack side and tight side) is influenced by the pre-
tensioning of the belt (initial tension). The stronger the belt is already under tension in the
load-free state by the so-called pre-load, the higher the belt tension will be during operation
under load. Since higher belt tensions mean higher frictional forces, higher circumferential
forces can be transmitted.

Preload without taking centrifugal forces into account

In principle, it must be borne in mind that the belt forces arising during operation depend
on the circumferential force to be transmitted. In the load-free idle state, only the pre-load
Fp in the belt initially acts. If a circumferential force Fc is introduced by the torque of the
input pulley, the belt force in the tight side increases to Ft and the slack side force
decreases to the same extent to Fs.

Due to the equilibrium of forces (more precisely: equilibrium of torques), the difference
between the tight side force and the slack side force corresponds to the circumferential force
to be transmitted. This means that the tight side force increases by just half the
circumferential force and the slack side force decreases by half the circumferential force:
 Figure 6 Relationship between preload force, circumferential force and span force (without centrifugal
forces)

In accordance with the equation (5), the slack side force must under no circumstances drop
to zero under load, as otherwise the belt tension would be lost. There would be no contact
pressure between belt and pulley and there would be no friction that would be capable of
transmitting circumferential forces.

The preload Fp in equation (11) must therefore be chosen in such a way that the slack side
force Fs does not fall below a critical value during operation, i.e. when the circumferential
force Fc is transmitted. This critical case is reached when the slack side force has decreased
to such an extent that the circumferential force Fc can just be transmitted with the maximum
possible circumferential force according to the equation (5) [Fc,max=Fc]. The slack side force
must therefore not fall below the following value:

With this slack side force Fs,min, which must be present at least to be able to transmit the
given circumferential force Fc, the minimum preload Fp,min can then also be determined
according to equation (11):
Preload with taking centrifugal forces into account
In the previous section, centrifugal forces have not yet been taken into account, but at high
belt speeds v they lead to a reduction in contact pressure and thus to a reduction in frictional
force. In such a case, the required circumferential force can no longer be transmitted. To
compensate for this effect, the belt must be additionally preloaded by the amount of the
centrifugal effect Fcf=m’⋅v² (with m’ as specific weight – “mass per unit belt length”):

Figure 7 Relationship between preload force, circumferential force and span force and centrifugal force

Since the centrifugal force during operation is compensated by the additional preload F cf,
only the preload Fp remains as the relevant effect for contact pressure, which is therefore
also referred to as dynamic preload. In contrast, the total (static) preload Fp,total also takes into
account the centrifugal force to be compensated, which only acts as an additional contact
force at rest. In a separate article, the concept of the belt centrifugal force is explained in
more detail and the derivation of the corresponding formula is shown.

Preload measuring

The sections above showed, that the higher the circumferential force to be transmitted and
the higher the belt speed, the greater the total preload must be. However, excessive pre-
tensioning forces should be avoided, as this not only leads to high bearing loads but also
increases belt wear. In addition, only small circumferential forces can be transmitted with
high pretensioning forces, as otherwise there is a risk that the belt will tear under the high
tension.

In practice, the preload force of the belt can be measured and adjusted accordingly by
vibration tests. For this the belt span is picked like the string of a guitar. The frequency at
which the belt span now oscillates is called natural frequency f. In the same way that the
oscillation frequency (pitch) of a guitar is determined by the tension of the string, the natural
frequency of the oscillating string is also directly related to the pre-load tension.

The higher the tension of the belt, i.e. the higher the preload, the higher its natural frequency.
The frequency of the oscillating belt span is finally measured with the aid of an optical
measuring device. In addition to the preload Fp,total, the span length l and the specific weight
m’ (“mass per meter belt length”) influence the natural frequency, but these variables are
generally known in advance. The following formula can then be used to determine the
preload from the measured natural frequency:

Or at a desired preload, the natural frequency to be set applies:

Step Cone Pulley Design Optimization
A step-cone pulley as shown below in the diagram is used to transmit a power of 0.65
horsepower.

The pulley is made up of an aluminum alloy with the density (ρ) of 168.5 lbft3. The belt used
is made of Polyamide (A-2) which has a thickness (t) of 0.11 in. and a maximum stress (s)
of 75000 lb/ft2. The coefficient of friction (μ) for this model is 0.8. The fixed distance (a)
between the centers of the shafts is 1.67 ft. The tension of the tight side of the belt should
be at least 2 times that of the slack side of the belt. The input shaft has a speed of 350 rpm
(Ni) and the output shaft should be capable of running at speeds of 950 rpm, 650 rpm, 450
rpm, 250 rpm, and 150 rpm.
The design variables are di, the diameter of the i th step, and w the width of the belt and
each step. The objective of this system is to minimize the weight of the step-cone pulley.
The weight (W) is found by the following equation
𝜋 2 2 2 2 5
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑤 (𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + 𝑑42 + 𝑑55 + 𝑑𝑖𝑛.1 + 𝑑𝑖𝑛.2 + 𝑑𝑖𝑛,3 + 𝑑𝑖𝑛,4 + 𝑑𝑖𝑛,5 )
4

The diameters of the input pulley (din) are found by using the ratio between the input
shaft rpm and the target output rpm.

The belt lengths required for the desired output speeds are determined by the following
equation:

The angle of the lap of the belt over the ith pulley step is:

The tension on the tight side of the ith step is given by:
The tension of the loose side of the ith step is given by

The belt length values are subject to the following constraints:

C1−C2=0
C1−C3=0
C1−C4=0
C1−C5=0

The constraint on the power transmitted is given by:

The constraint on tension ratio can be given by: