Week #9: Air/Land pollution

GEOG1003
Week Date Coursework Topics Lectures

1 01-Sep Introduction Introduction to global environmental issues

#1 released
2 08-Sep Climate Change Introduction to climate change
(Due 22-Sep)

3 15-Sep Climate Change Causes of climate change

4 22-Sep Climate Change Climates of the past

5 29-Sep Climate Change Global atmospheric change
Progress Report
6 06-Oct Climate Change Consequences of climate change
(Due 20-Oct)
7 13-Oct NO CLASS! Reading Week
#2 released
8 20-Oct Water resources crisis Water resources and pollution
(Due 3-Nov)
9 27-Oct Overpopulation Overpopulation and urbanization

10 03-Nov Air/land pollution Air pollution, acid deposition, land pollution

Earthquake, Tsunami, Thunderstorm and

11 10-Nov Natural hazards
Tornado
12 17-Nov Energy crisis Energy sources and crisis
Final Project
13 24-Nov Course review Course review
(Due 3-Dec)
14 01-Dec NO CLASS! Revision Period
Reasons for human population increase

• Increases in food production and distribution.

• Medical care (antibiotics, vaccines) help control the
infectious diseases.
• Improvements in public health (water and sanitation).

Lower infant mortality rate and longer life expectancy

What Factors Influence the Size of the
Human Population?

 The average number of children born to women in a

population (total fertility rate) is the key factor that
determines population size.
 Migration: immigration and emigration
 Population size increases because of births and immigration
and decreases through deaths and emigration.
 Population change =
(births + immigration) –
(deaths + emigration)
 Demographic transition

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Preindustrial Transitional Industrial Postindustrial
Population Population grows rapidly Population growth Population growth
grows very because birth rates are high and slows as both birth levels off and then
slowly because death rates drop because of and death rates declines as birth
of a high improved food production and drop because of rates equal and
birth rate health improved food then fall below
(to compensate production, health, death rates
(number per 1,000 per year)

for high infant and education

Birth rate and death rate

80 mortality) and a
70 high death rate
Total population
60
Birth rate
50
40
30
20 Death rate

10
0
Low Increasing Very high Decreasing Low Zero Negative
Growth rate over time
 Urbanization

“To be, or not to be, that is the question”

Urbanization

 Urbanization
• Creation and growth of urban and suburban areas
• Increase in percentage of people living in such areas
 Urban growth: Rate of increase in urban populations
• Natural population increase (births – deaths)
• Immigration from rural areas
• Immigration from other countries (especially in the
developed countries)
• Reclassification of urban boundaries to encompass
formerly rural areas
Why move from rural to cities?

 Push factors
• Poverty
• Lack of land to grow food
• Declining labor market in agriculture
• War, famine, conflicts

 Pull factors
• Jobs, food, housing
• Education
• Health care
Trends in urbanization

 Four major trends:

1. Proportion of global population living in urban areas
is increasing
2. Number and size of urban areas are mushrooming
• Megacities (10-20 million), hypercities (20-40 million).
3. Urban growth has slowed in developed countries
4. Poverty is becoming increasingly urbanized, mostly in
less-developed countries.
World Urban Population (billion)
Urban population by major geographical area
(in per cent of total population)

North A.

Oceania
Europe

Latin A.

Asia

Africa
Map 1: Percentage of urban population
and agglomerations by size class, 1960
Map 2: Percentage of urban population
and agglomerations by size class, 1980
Map 3: Percentage of urban population
and agglomerations by size class, 2011
Map 4: Percentage of urban population
and agglomerations by size class, 2025
Map 5: Growth rates of urban agglomerations, 1970-2011
 Urbanization in China

McKinsey Research Institute report on urbanization in China

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUoeD8bd4n8
Cities Can Grow Outward or Upward
Hong Kong
 Compact cities
• Hong Kong, China
• Tokyo, Japan
• Mass transit

 Dispersed cities Los Angles

• U.S. and Canada
• Car-centered cities
 Inputs and Outputs of Cities

Inputs Outputs

Energy Solid wastes

Waste heat
Food
Air pollutants
Water
Water pollutants
Raw
materials Greenhouse gases

Manufactured Manufactured
goods goods
Noise
Money
Wealth
Information Ideas
 Environment of Cities
• Air
– Smoke & dust (particulates)
– Hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides, ozone
• Water
– Usually must be piped in from distance.
– Pollution from industrial waste.
– Human waste (sewage).
• Solid waste, garbage, litter.
• Spread of infectious diseases
– Common cold, influenza, measles, cholera, typhoid
fever, plague, etc…
 Environment of Cities
• Dense buildings, few trees, little parkland
– Heat island, and dust dome.
• An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area that
is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas
due to human activities.
 Urban Heat Island
• Building & paving materials absorb more heat than natural
surfaces
• Automobiles, air conditioning & other machines make city
warmer than surroundings
• Evapotranspiration helps keep rural areas cool
– Urban asphalt & concrete has little evapotranspiration
 Urban Heat Island
• UHI effect in HK

Summer nighttime air temperature image of

Hong Kong derived from ASTER satellite
 Dust Dome
• Dust Dome is a meteorological phenomenon in which soot, dust, and
chemical emissions become trapped in the air above urban spaces.
• Because of the UHI effect, calm surface winds are drawn to urban centers,
they then rise above the city and descend slowly on the periphery of the
developed core.
Urbanization Has Advantages

 Centers of: Economic development; Innovation;

Education; Technological advances; Jobs; Industry,
commerce, transportation.

 Urban residents tend to have: Longer lives; Lower

infant mortality; Better medical care; Better social
services; More recycling programs

 Concentrating people in cities can help preserve

biodiversity in rural areas
Urbanization Has Disadvantages

 Huge ecological footprints

 Lack vegetation
 Air/Water problems
 Concentrate pollution and health problems
 Excessive noise
 Improper urbanization wastes lands and other
resources.
e.g., China's empty cities house 64 million empty apartments
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wm7rOKT151Y
Air pollution
Nature of the Atmosphere 120 75

110 Temperature
Thermosphere 65
The atmosphere is structured 100

in layers (spheres). 90
Mesopause 55
80
Troposphere:

Altitude (kilometers)
Mesosphere 45
•

Altitude (miles)
Closet to the earth's surface 70
• 80% of the earth’s air mass 60 Stratopause
• 99% of water vapor and aerosols 35
50
• Rising and falling air currents:
Stratosphere
weather and climate 40 25

30 Tropopause

Stratosphere: 20 Ozone layer

15

• Similar composition to the troposphere

10 Pressure
• Much less water Troposphere 5
• O3, ozone layer, filters UV (Sea 0
level)
–80 –40 0 40 80 120
Temperature (˚C)
 What is air pollution?

Introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates,

or biological materials that:
 cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans
 damage other living organisms such as food crops
 damage the natural environment or built environment
Air is never perfectly clean. Natural sources of air pollution
include:
• Ash/smoke from forest fires/volcanoes
• Salt particles from ocean spray
• Pollen/spores from plants
• Windblown dusts.
 Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are airborne particles and gases that occur in
concentrations that endanger the health and well-being of
organisms or disrupt the orderly functioning of the
environment.

Air pollutants can be grouped into two categories:

(1) primary pollutants, which are emitted directly from identifiable
sources, and
(2) secondary pollutants, which are produced in the atmosphere
when certain chemical reactions take place among primary
pollutants.
 Primary Pollutants

CO CO2 Secondary Pollutants

SO2 NO NO2
Most hydrocarbons SO3
Most suspended particles HNO3 H2SO4
H2O2 O3 PANs
Most NO3− and SO42− salts
Sources Natural Stationary

Mobile
 Types of air pollutants
 Aerosols  Gases
• Particulates (solid phase) Carbon oxides COx
Sulfur oxides SOx
Dust, Ash, Fumes
Nitrogen oxides NOx
• Solid and liquid  Polycyclic aromatic
Smoke (from combustion) hydrocarbons PAHs
Coastal aerosols
• Liquid
Aggregate gases (sulfate, nitrate)
Primary Pollutants
Primary Pollutants
 Six common or “criteria” air pollutants

• Carbon monoxide (CO)

--- colorless, odorless gas emitted from combustion processes
--- reducing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, thus oxygen delivery to
the body's organs (like the heart and brain) and tissues.
• Ozone (O3)
Good Up High (against UV), Bad Nearby (harmful to breathe, damaging crops,
trees and other vegetation)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2): adverse respiratory effects, especially asthma
• Sulfur oxides (SOx): adverse respiratory effects e.g., bronchoconstriction
and asthma
• Particulate Matter (PM2.5 & PM10): can get into the lungs and even
bloodstream, causing health problem.
• Lead (Pb): adversely affect the nervous system, kidney function, immune
system, etc.
 Particulate Matter (PM2.5 & PM10)
• Particulate Matter: A mixture of extremely small solid
particles and liquid droplets in the air.
• The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for
causing health problems. Most concerned are particles
10µm or smaller in diameter because they can pass through
the throat and nose and enter the lungs.
• PM2.5 (less than 2.5µm in diameter) fine particles
---Fuel combustion from motor vehicles, power generation and
industrial facilities, residential facilities.
• PM10 (less than 10µm in diameter) coarse particles
---Vehicles travelling on unpaved roads, materials handling and
crushing, dusts and pollens.
 Particulate Matter (PM2.5 & PM10)
• Health effects of PM:
---Both can be inhaled.
---Coarse PM is associated with aggravation of respiratory
conditions such as asthma.
---Fine PM is associated with increased hospital admissions for
heart and lung disease, increased respiratory disease, decreased
lung function, and premature death.
 Secondary Pollutants
• Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and
compounds in photochemical smog.
e.g. sulfuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3)
• Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs).
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from
NOx and VOCs.
 Secondary Pollutants
• Air pollution in urban and industrial areas is often called
photochemical smog (smog) (portmanteau of smoke and fog).
• Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an
area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.
---Still a serious problem in many coal-producing areas

Burning coal and oil

 Secondary Pollutants
• Air pollution in urban and industrial areas is often called
photochemical smog (smog) (portmanteau of smoke and fog).
• Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an
area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.
• Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from
vehicular and industrial emissions that:
---form secondary pollutants by ultraviolet light.
---combine with the primary emissions to form smog.
Global Outlook: Photochemical Smog
in Santiago, Chile
Denver’s Brown Cloud:
 Photochemical Smog
Delhi
Hong Kong

Beijing

Mexico City
 Air Quality Index (AQI)
• AQI is a standardized indicator for reporting daily air quality.
• AQI is calculated for five major pollutants: ground-level ozone,
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen
dioxide.
• Ranges from 0 to 500.
 Factors that affect air pollution

• Emissions (traffic, industrial, domestic)

• Geography (terrain)
• Weather conditions (rain, winds, humidity)
• Season
• Time of day
• Population density
• Indoor vs outdoor
Several Factors Can Decrease or
Increase Outdoor Air Pollution

 Air pollution may be decreased by

• Settling of particles due to gravity
• Rain and snow
• Winds
• Chemical reactions

 Air pollution may be increased by

• Urban buildings
• Hills and mountains
• High temperatures
• Temperature inversions
 Atmospheric conditions affecting the
dispersion of pollutants

• Two of the most important atmospheric conditions

affecting the dispersion of pollutants are:
(1) the strength of the wind
(2) the stability of the air

• They together determine atmospheric mixing and

temperature inversion.
 Air Mixing
• Atmospheric stability determines the extent to which
vertical motions will mix the pollution with cleaner air
above the surface layers.
Higher stability --> Low mixing
• The vertical distance between Earth's surface and the
height to which convectional movements extend is called
the mixing depth.
Greater mixing depth-->
Better air quality.
 Temperature Inversion
120 75

110 Temperature
• Temperature inversion means an Thermosphere 65
100
increase in temperature with
height. 90
Mesopause 55
• It represents a situation in which 80
the atmosphere is very stable and

Altitude (kilometers)
Mesosphere 45
the mixing depth is significantly

Altitude (miles)
70
restricted. 60 Stratopause
35
50
Stratosphere
40 25

30 Tropopause
15
20 Ozone layer

10 Pressure Troposphere 5
(Sea 0
level)
–80 –40 0 40 80 120
Temperature (˚C)
 Temperature Inversion
• When an inversion exists and winds are light, diffusion is inhibited and
high pollution concentrations are to be expected in areas where
pollution sources exist.
• Inversions aloft are associated with sinking air that characterizes
centers of high air pressure (anticyclones).
Warmer air Descending warm air mass

Inversion layer Inversion layer

Sea breeze
Increasing
altitude

Decreasing temperature
This is an example of a
generalized temperature
profile for a surface
inversion.

Temperature-profile
changes in bottom diagram
after the sun has heated
the surface.
Acid deposition
 Acid deposition
• Acid deposition formed when sulfur and
nitrogen oxides produced as by-products of
combustion and industrial activity are converted
into acids during complex atmospheric reactions.
• Acid deposition, which consists of rain, snow,
dust, or gas with a pH lower than 5.6, is
commonly called acid rain.
 Acid Rain Formation

Wind
Transformation to
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3) Windborne ammonia gas
and some soil particles
partially neutralize acids Wet acid depostion
and form dry sulfate and (droplets of H2SO4
Nitric oxide (NO) nitrate salts and HNO3 dissolved
Sulfur dioxide Dry acid deposition in rain and snow)
(SO2) and NO (sulfur dioxide gas and
particles of sulfate and
Acid nitrate salts)
fog
Lakes in shallow
Lakes in deep
soil low in
soil high in
limestone
limestone are
become acidic
buffered
Acid Deposition Has a Number of
Harmful Effects

 Cause human respiratory disorders

 Acidification of surface/ground water, and
damage aquatic ecosystems
 Release of toxic metals
 Leaching of soil nutrients
 Loss of crops and trees
 Damage to buildings, statues, and monuments
 Emissions

SO2 NOx
Acid
HO
deposition 2 2 O3
PANs Others

Direct damage to Reduced Increased

leaves and bark photosynthesis susceptibility to
and growth drought, extreme
cold, insects,
mosses, and
disease organisms

Soil acidification Tree death

Leaching Release Root Reduced nutrient

of soil Acids of toxic damage and water uptake
nutrients metal ions

Lake

Groundwater
Jizera Mountains in Central Europe
Regions Affected by Acid Rain

Potential problem areas because of sensitive soils

Potential problem areas because of air pollution:

emissions leading to acid deposition
Current problem areas (including lakes and rivers)
Acid Rain in China
 SOLUTIONS
Acid Deposition
Prevention Cleanup
Reduce coal use
Add lime to
Burn low-sulfur coal neutralize acidified
lakes
Increase natural gas use
Add phosphate
Increase use of
fertilizer to
renewable energy
neutralize acidified
resources
lakes

Remove NOx from motor

vehicular exhaust

Tax emissions of SO2

Reduce air pollution by

improving energy
efficiency
Guangdong (blue), HK (red), and Macau (Green)
Land pollution
 Land pollution
Land and soil can be polluted by two main types of
substance:
 solid waste – such as plastic,
metal, paper and other man-
made substances
--- represents pollution and
unnecessary waste of resources.

 hazardous (chemical) waste

– such as herbicides and
pesticides, crude oil and waste
from industrial processes.
--- contributes to pollution, natural
capital degradation, health problems,
and premature deaths.
 Land pollution
Land pollution leads to water
pollution, as chemicals are
washed into rivers and lakes.

Land pollution leads to air

pollution while burning.
 How much waste?
Every year, billions of tons of paper, plastics, synthetic
materials, metal and wood are thrown away.
• On average, each UK or US
household produces over 1
ton of garbage each year.
(~half ton by one HK
household).
• 80–90% of hazardous wastes
produced by developed
countries.
Millions of Discarded Tires in a Dump in
Colorado, U.S.
How Should We Deal with
Solid Waste?

 A sustainable approach to solid waste is first to

reduce it, then to reuse or recycle it, and finally
to safely dispose of what is left.
Why Is Reusing and Recycling Materials
So Important?

 Reusing items decreases the use of matter and

energy resources and reduces pollution and natural
capital degradation; recycling does so to a lesser
degree.

Energy Consumption
Involved with Using
Different Types of 350 ml
Containers
 What methods are there for
disposing of waste materials?
 Landfill is the cheapest solution, but sites quickly
become full and the waste contaminates the surrounding
air, soil and water.
 Incinerating waste reduces volume; may product energy;
but often produces GHGs and toxic chemicals.
 Integrated Management of Solid Waste

• Priorities suggested by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences

to deal with solid waste.

First Priority Second Priority Last Priority

Primary Pollution and Waste Secondary Pollution and Waste Management
Prevention Waste Prevention
Treat waste to reduce
Change industrial process to Reuse
toxicity
eliminate use of harmful chemicals Repair Incinerate waste
Use less of a harmful product Recycle
Reduce packaging and materials in Bury waste in landfills
Compost
products Buy reusable and Release waste into
Make products that last longer and environment for dispersal
recyclable products
are recyclable, reusable, or easy to or dilution
repair
How Should We Deal with
Hazardous Waste?

 A sustainable approach to hazardous waste is

first to produce less of it, then to reuse or recycle
it, then to convert it to less hazardous materials,
and finally, to safely store what is left.
 Integrated Management of Hazardous Waste

Produce Less Convert to Less Hazardous or Put in Perpetual

Hazardous Waste Nonhazardous Substances Storage
Change industrial Natural decomposition Landfill
processes to reduce or Incineration Underground
eliminate hazardous injection wells
waste production Thermal treatment
Chemical, physical, and Surface
Recycle and reuse biological treatment impoundments
hazardous waste Dilution in air or water Underground salt
formations
How Can We Make the Transition to a
More Sustainable Low-Waste Society?

 Everything is connected.
 Shifting to a low-waste society requires individuals
and businesses to reduce resource use and to
reuse and recycle wastes at local, national, and
global levels.
 Polluters and producers should pay for the wastes
they produce.
 Solid Waste Disposal in Hong Kong

At present, about 5 million tons of waste are disposed of each

year in our three strategic landfills:
• the West New Territories (WENT) Landfill at Tuen Mun,
• the North-east New Territories (NENT) Landfill at Ta Kwu Ling,
• the South-east New Territories (SENT) Landfill at Tseung Kwan.

Strategic Landfills (3)

Closed Landfills (13)

 Solid Waste Disposal in Hong Kong

Major Materials Recovered

Solid Waste Recovered in 1991-2016 / Recycled in 2011 and 2016

2011

Plastics
metals

Paper
2016
 Solid Waste Disposal in Hong Kong

Quantities of Solid Waste Disposed of Types of Solid Waste Disposed of

at Landfills in 2011 and 2016
at Landfills in 1991-2016 (tons per day)

2011

Construction

Industrial Commercial 2016

Domestic
 Chemical Waste Disposal in Hong Kong

Disposal of Chemical Wastes in HK

in 1993-2016
 Chemical Waste Disposal in Hong Kong

Chemical Wastes Collected at CWTC in 2016

MARPOL:
marine pollution
Land
waste oil
Solvent

MARPOL
oily water

Clinical