Atmosphere

• Greek: atmos (vapor/steam),

sphaira (ball/globe)
• Modern Latin: atmosphaera
• Gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth
• The total mass of the atmosphere is about
5.3 x 1018 kg
• Water is excluded from table 20.1 because its
concentration in air can vary drastically from
location to location.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1) Troposphere
▪ Closest to Earth’s surface (7-18 km above the
equator)
▪ Most active region – where all the dramatic
events of weather occur
▪ Contains almost 80% of the total mass of air
and practically all the atmosphere’s water
vapor(forms clouds and rain)
▪ Thinnest layer of the atmosphere (10 km)
▪ Temperature decreases with increasing
altitude
4) Thermosphere (Ionosphere)
▪ 50-400 km above the equator
▪ Temperature increases with altitude – as
the result of the bombardment of molecular
O2 and N2 and atomic species by energetic
particles, such as electrons and protons, from
the sun.

2) Stratosphere ▪ In reverse, these processes liberate the

▪ Consists of nitrogen, oxygen and ozone.
▪ 19-50 km above the equator
▪ Air temperature increases with altitude due
to the exothermic reactions triggered by UV
radiation from the sun.
▪ One of the products of this reaction sequence
is ozone (O3), which serves to prevent
harmful UV rays from reaching Earth’s
surface.
3) Mesosphere
▪ 30-50 km above the equator
▪ concentration of ozone and other gases is low
▪ temperature decreases again with
increasing altitude
equivalent amount of energy, mostly heat.
▪ Ionized particles are responsible for the
reflection of radio waves back toward Earth.
5) Exosphere
▪ ~400 km above the equator
▪ outermost layer of our atmosphere
▪ This layer separates the rest of the atmosphere
from outer space –10,000 km thick
▪ There is a lot of empty space in between of
very spread-out hydrogen and helium gases.
▪ There is no air to breathe and it is very cold
 Nitrogen Cycle
▪ Molecular nitrogen, with its triple bond, is a
very stable molecule.
▪ Nitrogen fixation the conversion of molecular
nitrogen into nitrogen compounds such as
nitrates
▪ Atmospheric nitrogen fixation
▪ Nitric acid is converted to nitrate salts in the
soil.
▪ These nutrients are taken up by plants, which in
turn are ingested by animals.
▪ Animals use the nutrients from plants to make
proteins and other essential biomolecules.
▪ Denitrification reverses nitrogen fixation to
complete the cycle.
▪ For example, anaerobic organisms decompose
animal wastes as well as dead plants and animals
to produce free molecular nitrogen from
nitrates.
▪ Industrial nitrogen fixation
Oxygen Cycle
▪ The cycle is complicated because oxygen takes
so many different chemical forms.
▪ Atmospheric oxygen is removed through
respiration and various industrial processes
(mostly combustion), which produces CO2.
▪ Photosynthesis is the major mechanism by
which molecular oxygen is regenerated from
CO2 and water.
Aurora
▪ Spectacular celestial light shows as a result of
ejection of myriad electrons and protons in
space during solar flares or violent eruptions on
the surface of the sun.
▪ Aurora borealis – Northern Hemisphere
▪ Aurora australis – Southern Hemisphere
▪ These electrons and protons collide with the
molecules and atoms in Earth’s upper
atmosphere, causing them to ionized and
electronically excited.
▪ The excited molecules and ions return to the
ground state with the emission of light.
▪ An excited oxygen atom emits photons at
wavelengths of 558 nm (green) and between
630 and 636 nm (red).
▪ The blue and violet colors often observed in
auroras result from the transition in the ionized
nitrogen molecule. The wavelengths for this
transition fall between 391 and 470 nm.
 Air Pollutants
Air pollutants can occur naturally! For example, a wildfire produces particulate matter and CO, lightning produces
O3 and NOx, and volcanoes release SO2.

1) Ozone (O3) B. Nitrogen Monoxide (NO)

▪ Has a sharp odor that you may have detected
around electric motors or welding equipment
▪ At troposphere, it is as major part of smog
▪ At stratosphere, it is a protective layer
against UV radiation (ozone layer)
▪ Formed when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) combine
chemically with oxygen in sunlight
▪ Even at low concentrations, ozone can 4) Sulfur Oxides (SOx)
reduce lung function (symptoms: chest pain,
coughing, sneezing, or lung congestion)
2) Carbon Monoxide (CO)
▪ “The silent killer” – no color, taste, nor smell
▪ CO is released when engines burn fossil
fuels –automobile exhaust, charcoal fires,
propane pumping stoves
▪ When inhaled, CO passes into the
bloodstream and interferes with the ability of
the hemoglobin to carry oxygen
▪ CO exposure makes people dizzy, tired and
gives headaches; but continued exposure can
kill
3) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
▪ Refer to a binary compound of nitrogen and
oxygen, or a mixture of such compounds
▪ NO: nitric oxide
▪ NO2: nitrogen dioxide
▪ N2O: nitrous oxide
▪ N4O: nitrosylazide
A. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
▪ NO2 is a reddish-brown gas that comes
from the burning of fossil fuels (power
plants and automobiles)
▪ Has a strong smell at high levels
▪ Primary visible component of urban smog
▪ Can react in the atmosphere to form
ozone, acid rain or particles
▪ Can combine with the moist tissue in lungs
to produce an acid
▪ NO2 is produced from NO
▪ Common name: nitric oxide
▪ A colorless gas
▪ Formed when N in the fuel is burned or
when N in the air reacts with O at very
high temperature –vehicle engines and
coal-fired power plants
▪ Refer to a binary compound of sulfur and
oxygen, or a mixture of such compounds
▪ SO: sulfur monoxide
▪ SO2: sulfur dioxide
▪ SO3: sulfur trioxide
▪ S2O: disulfur monoxide
▪ S2O2: disulfur dioxide
▪ Lower sulfur oxides (S7O2 ,S6O2)
▪ Higher sulfur oxides (SO3,SO4, etc.)
A. Sulfur Dioxides (SO2)
▪ SO2 is a corrosive gas that cannot be seen
or smelled at low levels but
▪ can have a “rotten egg” smell at high levels
▪ Mostly comes from burning of coal or
petroleum in power plants;
▪ also comes from factories that make
chemicals, paper or fuel
▪ Like NO2, it reacts in the atmosphere to
form acid rain
▪ SO2 exposure can affect people with
asthma or emphysema by king it more
difficult to breathe
▪ Also irritates eyes, noses and throats
▪ Can harm trees and crops, as well as
damage buildings

5) Particulate Matter (PM)
▪ Solid or liquid matter that is suspended in
the air
▪ To remain in the air, particles must be less
than 0.1 mm wide and can be as small as
0.00005 mm
▪ Divided into 2 types: coarse particles and fine
particles
▪ Coarse particles: road dust, sea spray,
construction
▪ Fine particles: burning of fuels in power
plants and automobiles
▪ Can enter the lungs - asthma attacks,
respiratory problems, premature death
▪ PM10 (10 μm) - particles with an average
diameter of 10 μm (1.0 x 104 nm), length on
the order of 4 x 10-4 (0.0004) inches or one-
fifth of the width of a human air.
▪ PM2.5 (2.5 μm) - a subset of PM10 and
includes particles with an average diameter 2.5
μm (2.5 x 103 μm) or less.
Sources of Air Pollution: Wood burning stoves,
forest fires, diesel engines, industry, agricultural
pollution, non-road vehicles, cars & buses
Health Effects of PM
▪ Both PM10 are PM2.5 are too tiny to see and
can go deep into lungs and cause irritation,
into blood stream and cause heart disease.
1. Shortness of breath
2. Irritation of the eyes
3. Tightness of the chest
4. Reduced lung function
6) Severe respiratory diseases
7) Irritation of eyes, nose, throat
8) Irregular heartbeat
6) Lead
▪ Blue-gray metal that is very toxic and found
in a number of forms and locations
▪ From cars in areas where leaded gasoline is
used; from power plants and other industrial
sources
▪ Lead paint (peeling paint), lead in old pipes
(drinking water)
▪ High amounts can be dangerous for small
children that may cause lower IQ and kidney
problems
▪ In adults, increased chances of heart attack
and/or stroke
7) Toxic Air Pollutants (TAP)
▪ Arsenic, asbestos, benzene and dioxin
▪ Each toxic air pollutant comes from a slightly
different source, but many are created in
chemical plants or are emitted when fossil
fuels are burned
▪ Asbestos and formaldehyde can be found in
building materials and can lead to indoor air
problems
▪ TAP can also enter food and water supplies
▪ Some TAP can cause cancer and birth
defects (teratogenic)
▪ teratogen - mutagen which causes birth
defects
▪ Some TAP can cause skin & eye irritation
and breathing problems
 A. Asbestos
▪ According to the WHO, asbestos can cause
mesothelioma (rare lung cancer), as well
as lung, laryngeal and ovarian cancer
▪ The material can also cause asbestosis, or
fibrosis of the lungs - a scarring or
thickening of the lung lining, both of which
cause shortness of breath.
▪ Asbestos was used for wall insulation,
mixed with plastic, sealed into floors and
built int cars.
▪ It is resistant to heat and corrosion.
B. Dioxins
▪ Group of chemically related compounds
that are persistent organic pollutants
(POPs).
▪ Found throughout the world in the
environment and they accumulate in the
food chain, mainly in the fatty tissues of
animals.
▪ More than 90% of human exposure is
through food, mainly meat and dairy
products, fish and shellfish
▪ Dioxins are highly toxic and can cause
reproductive and developmental problems,
damage the immune system, interfere with
hormones and may cause cancer.
▪ Burning of municipal and/or hospital
waste, backyard burning and automobile
emissions contribute to the release of low
levels of dioxins into the environment.
Health effects
▪ Eye, nose and throat irritation
▪ Headaches, loss of coordination, nausea
▪ Damage to kidney, liver and central
nervous system (CNS)
▪ Some organics may can cause cancer in
animals, some are suspected or known to
cause cancer in humans
10) Greenhouse Gases
11) Pollens
▪ Pollen from trees, weeds and grass can cause
allergies and hay fever
▪ Pollen pollution is expected to increase
with global warming as growing seasons
lengthen
12) Molds
▪ Mold is a problem affecting indoor air
quality
▪ Some molds produce toxins that bring on
allergies and asthma
▪ occur in damp buildings or with high
humidity

8) Stratospheric Ozone Depleters

▪ Chemicals that can destroy ozone
▪ Include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), halons
and other compounds containing Cl or Br
▪ CFCs are used in air conditioners &
refrigerators as coolants, aerosol cans and fire
extinguishers
▪ Others are used as solvents in industry

9) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

▪ Emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids
▪ Concentration of many VOCs are consistently
higher indoors(>10x) than outdoors
 Air Pollutants Analysis

Air Quality Index Ambient Air Quality

An index determined by calculating the degree ▪ Refers to the quality of outdoor air in the
of pollution in the city or at the monitoring point and surrounding environment
includes five main pollutants: ▪ Air quality can be quantified by concentration
▪ Particulate matter of substances identified through monitoring
▪ Ground level ozone (O3) ▪ Typically measured near ground level, away
▪ Sulfur dioxide (SO2) from direct sources of pollution
▪ Carbon monoxide (CO) Permanent Monitoring Temporary Monitoring
▪ Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) ▪ May be continuous or
passive ▪ Cheaper, portable
▪ Continuous: near
instantaneous ▪ Examples:
measurements, costly due • Mobile Air Monitoring
to capital & operating Laboratory (MAML)
costs; require power and • Portable Air
road access Monitoring (PAM)
▪ Passive: Long term • Canister (for VOCs)
measurements (monthly), • E-BAM (for PM)
portable, user friendly and
cost effective

Flue Gas Analysis

▪ Flue gas – gas exiting to the atmosphere via a ▪ Measurement values are provided in part per
flue, which is a pipe or channel for conveying million (ppm) or percentage (%),
exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace, depending on the size of the reading.
boiler or steam generator ▪ O2 and CO2 usually expressed in percentage
▪ Flue gas usually refers to the combustion ▪ NOx and CO usually expressed in ppm
exhaust gas produced in power plants. ▪ Orsat apparatus (old method)
▪ Composed of usually nitrogen (~2/3) derived ▪ Newer methods include handheld devices or
from the combustion of air, CO2, H2O vapor larger, permanently installed units.
as well as oxygen.
▪ contains small percentage of other pollutants
such as particulate matter, CO, NOx and SOx
▪ Used for efficiency and emissions purposes
▪ Combustion process inputs: fuel and air
▪ Of interest: NOx, CO, CO2 , SOx

Greenhouse Effect
▪ The trapping of heat near Earth’s surface by
gases in the atmosphere, particularly CO2
▪ The solar radiant energy received by the Earth is
concentrated in the 400 to 700 nm range (visible
region of the spectrum).
▪ The thermal radiation emitted by Earth’s surface
is characterized by wavelengths longer than 4000
nm (IR region)
▪ Infrared radiation – trapped by greenhouse gas
 Production of Carbon Dioxide
▪ Burning of any form of carbon or a carbon-
containing compound in an excess O2
▪ Many carbonates give off CO2 when heated and
when treated with acid

▪ CO2 is by-product of fermentation of sugar

▪ CO2 is released as end product of metabolism of

animals during respiration

▪ Volcanic activity is another major source of CO2

Kyoto Protocol
▪ An international treaty which extends the 1992
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state
parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
▪ It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in Dec. 11, 1997
and entered into force on Feb. 16, 2005.

Paris Climate Agreement

▪ On Dec. 12, 2015, parties reached an agreement
to combat climate change and to accelerate and
intensify the actions and investments needed for
a sustainable low carbon future.
▪ 175 countries signed the Paris Agreement on
Earth Day 2016 (April), including the USA
under the Obama administration.
▪ Note: Trump administration pulled out of the
Paris agreement in June 2017.
Carbon Cycle Montreal Protocol
▪ A global agreement to protect the stratospheric
ozone layer by phasing out the production and
consumption of ozone-depleting substances
(ODS). It was finalized in 1987 in Montreal,
Canada.
▪ The protocol sets limits on the production of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons and related
substances that release chlorine or bromine to
the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
 Radon
▪ Radon (Rn) is a naturally occurring, colorless,
tasteless, odorless, radioactive gas the comes
out of the ground all around and below us.
▪ Rn comes from the natural (radioactive)
breakdown of uranium in soil, rock and water
and gets into the air.
▪ Radon is ubiquitous. It can get into any type of
building, homes, offices, schools, and result in
high indoor radon levels.
▪ The US-EPA has determined that high levels of
Radon cause lung cancer more often than
second-hand tobacco smoke.

Photochemical Smog
▪ Formed by the reactions of automobile exhaust
in the presence of sunlight.
▪ Primary pollutants: NO, CO and unburned
hydrocarbons
▪ Secondary pollutants: NO2 and O3 R.A. 8749
▪ Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
▪ Provides the policy framework for the country’s
air quality management program
▪ It seeks to uphold the right of every Filipino to
breathe clean air by addressing air pollution from
mobile and stationary sources
 Hydrosphere
▪ Greek: hydros (water), sphaira (ball/ globe) DENR Standard
▪ Modern Latin: hydrosphaera
▪ Aqueous envelope of the Earth including bodies of
water and aqueous vapor in the atmosphere

Physical States of Water

1. Solid
• Glacier – made up of fallen snow that, over many
years, compressed into large, thickened ice masses.
They usually cover the valley floor of a mountain
range. At present, they occupy ~10% of the world’s
total land area
• Iceberg – piece of a glacier that breaks off (or
calves) when temperatures warm up
2. Liquid
• freshwater (streams, rivers, lakes)
• saltwater (seas, oceans)
• brackish water – results when freshwater from a
river or stream drains into a saltwater body and
lowers the saltwater’s salinity

hypertonic: cells shrink (movement of water will be out of the body)

hypotonic: cells expand (movement of water into the body)

3. Gas (water vapor)

Dissolved Mineral Content

1. Hard water – contains a significant quantity of
dissolved minerals, such as calcium and magnesium;
water usually collects these minerals from the ground as
it flows
2. Soft water – treated water in which the only ion is
sodium. As rainwater falls, it is naturally soft
 ▪ Has high heat of vaporization – large amount of
heat is needed to vaporize a small amount of water

Water Cycle

Properties of Water
▪ Highly polar molecule; useful solvent for many
substances
▪ Solid form is less dense than liquid form – water
expands when it freezes
▪ Has high specific heat (recall: specific heat is the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1g of substance by 1C; water = 4.186 J/g*C,
iron = 0.449 J/g*C)
 Water Contaminants
Natural Contaminants
1. Rainwater
▪ picks up dust particles and dissolves some O2, N2
and CO2 as it falls through the atmosphere
▪ CO2 makes natural water acidic, forming carbonic
acid (H2CO3)
▪ Lightning causes nitrogen, oxygen and water vapor
to form nitric acid (HNO3), which is also
dissolved in rainwater
2. Groundwater
▪ contains the naturally occurring gas radon (Rn),
which is a product of the decay of radioactive
uranium and thorium
▪ Radon is only slightly soluble in water, so the
water used for showering, washing and cooking
contributes only a small proportion (~1-2%) of
total Rn exposure indoors
3. Dissolved Minerals
▪ as water moves along or beneath the earth’s
surface, it dissolves minerals from rocks and soil
4. Organic Matter
▪ Rainwater dissolves matter from decaying plants
and animals
▪ However, organic matter in the form of traces of
lubricants, fuels, some fertilizers and pesticides can
also contaminate water
Biological Contaminants
▪ Microorganisms – waterborne microorganisms may
or may not be pathogenic (disease-causing)
▪ Cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery are common
water-borne diseases, especially in developing countries
Chemical Contaminants
1. Acid Rain
▪ Acids formed from sulfur oxides (SOx) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) come down from the sky in
the form of acid rain, fog and snow
▪ Acid rain corrodes metals, dissolves limestone and
marble, and may ruin the finishes on automobiles
▪ Acids also from into streams from abandoned
mines
▪ Acidic water is detrimental to life in lakes and
streams, and is linked to declining crop & forest
yields
▪ Acids are no threat to lakes and streams where
limestone (calcium carbonate) is plentiful, since
CaCO3 can neutralize excess acid
▪ Where rock is mainly granite, however, no such
neutralization occurs
2. Heavy Metals
▪ Can be released from numerous sources, including
municipal wastewater treatment plants,
manufacturing industries, mining, rural agricultural
cultivation and fertilization
▪ transported as either a dissolved compound in water
or as a part of suspended sediments
▪ May be volatilized to the atmosphere or stored in
sediments
▪ Toxic heavy metals may be absorbed by a variety of
organisms
 Eutrophication
▪ Refers to enrichment of water by nutrient salts
(mainly N & P) that causes structural changes to the
ecosystem such as:
o Increased production of algae and aquatic plants
o Depletion of fish species
o General deterioration of water quality
o Other effects that reduce and preclude use
▪ All water bodies are subject to a natural and slow
eutrophication process, which in recent decades has
undergone a rapid progression due to anthropogenic
(human) activities

Dying Lakes
▪ Due to dumping of human sewage into waterways
• breakdown of organic matter by bacteria
decreases the dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water
and increases the plant nutrients
▪ Due to fertilizer runoff from farms, golf courses,
lawns and seepage from feedlots
• add inorganic nutrients to waterways; may result
in an algal bloom
Structural change in water is due to:
▪ Use of fertilizers
▪ Discharge of runoff into bodies of water
▪ Reduction of self-purification capacity
▪ Accumulation of sediments which start to fill the lake
basin and increases interactions between the water
and sediment

Water Analysis
DO (Dissolved Oxygen)
▪ amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in water
▪ Ways by which O2 can enter water
• direct absorption from the atmosphere
• By-product of photosynthesis from aquatic
producers
▪ Water temperature and volume of moving water can
affect DO levels
 BOD and COD
▪ Biochemical oxygen demand ( and chemical oxygen
demand (are two different ways to measure how
much oxygen the water will consume when it enters
the recipient
▪ In both cases the oxygen consuming substances are
mainly of organic origin. These substances should be
reduced to a minimum in the wastewater treatment
plant Industries normally focus more on COD and
municipalities more on BOD removal

▪ Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

• BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen that
require for the bacteria to degrade the organic
components present in water/ waste water.

▪ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

• is the total measurement of all chemicals (organics
& inorganics) in the water/ waste water
• COD is higher than that of BOD; maximum of up
to 4 times in medium scale industries; but it varies
based on the industrial process and nature of the
raw materials used.
 Wastewater Treatment
Sewage Treatment Systems
▪ Septic tanks – used in rural and suburban areas
▪ Wastewater or sewage treatment plants –urban areas
• Primary sewage treatment – physical process
that uses screens and grit tank to remove large
floating objects and to allow solids such as sand
and rock to settle out; removes 40-60% of
suspended solids as sludge
• Secondary sewage treatment – a biological
process in which aerobic bacteria remove as much
as 90% of dissolved and biodegradable, oxygen-
demanding organic wastes
▪ Primary Treatment – oil, fat and grease from
cooking float to the top 20 of organics and 40 of
solids are removed
▪ Secondary Treatment – aeration tank secondary
clarifier removes remaining organics and solids,
microbial degradation by aerobic (O2-requiring)
microorganisms air is introduced for microorganisms
via blowers
▪ Disinfection and Effluent Pumping – disinfectant
similar to bleach is added to the clear effluent clear
effluent is discharged back to the environment
▪ Solid handling – via anaerobic (without O2 digester
microorganisms break down solids into stable organic
matter known as biosolids biosolids are used as soil
amendment
Advanced treatment (tertiary treatment)
▪ Charcoal filtration – charcoal adsorbs certain
organic molecules, including trihalomethanes such as
chloroform (CHCl3)
▪ Reverse Osmosis - pressure forces the wastewater
through a semipermeable membrane, leaving
contaminants behind
▪ Phytoremediation – involves passage of the effluent
into large natural or constructed lagoons for storage,
allowing plants such as reeds to remove metals and
other contaminants
Desalination
▪ Removal of salts from ocean or brackish (slightly
salty) waters to produce usable water
▪ Methods: distillation and reverse osmosis
• Distillation – involves heating saltwater until it
evaporates (leaving behind salts in solid form) and
condenses as freshwater
• Reverse osmosis (microfiltration) – uses high
pressure to force saltwater through a membrane
filter with pores small enough to remove the salt
▪ Disadvantages
• High cost due to high energy requirement
• Kills many marine organisms and requires large
inputs of energy to run the pumps
• Produces large quantities of salty wastewater
 Soil (Geosphere)
▪ Greek: geo(earth), sphaira (ball/ globe)
▪ portion of the earth that includes the earth's interior,
rocks and minerals, landforms and the processes that
shape the earth's surface.

Soil
▪ The upper layer of earth in which plants grow
▪ typically black, dark brown or reddish material
consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay and
rock particles
▪ Natural product formed from weathered rock by the
action of climate and living organisms

Weathering and Erosion

▪ Weathering – alteration and breakdown of rock
minerals and rock masses when they are exposed to
the sun, wind, rain or organisms
• Physical weathering – mechanical disruption of
rocks (granular disintegration, exfoliation, etc.)
• Chemical weathering – caused by OH- mild
acids, as well as H2O temperature
• Biological weathering – due to vegetation,
animals or microorganisms
▪ Erosion – the removal or transport of
weathered/broken rock materials downslope, and
away from the original site of weathering may be
aided by gravity, wind or water

Soil Horizon

Lithosphere: Organic and Inorganic

▪ Lithosphere is mainly rocks and minerals.
Prominent among these are:
a. Silicate minerals
- compounds of metals with Si and O)
b. Carbonate minerals
- metals combined with C and O)
c. Oxide minerals
- metals combined with O only
d. Sulfide minerals
- metals combined with S only
 Soil Colloids
▪ Most active portion of the soil and determine the
physical and chemical properties of a soil
▪ They are made up of the smallest particles of
humus and clay in the soil
▪ Only particles less than 0.001 mm are officially
defined as colloids
▪ Humus particles are tiny pieces of organic matter and
known as organic colloids
▪ Clay particles are known as inorganic colloids
Clay – any particle less than 0.002 mm in size
2. MICA GROUP
Types of Soil Colloids ▪ Muscovite (Al2K2O6Si)
1. Crystalline silicate clays • Common constituent of Al-rich medium grade
• Phyllosilicates ⟶ tetrahedral and octahedral metamorphic rocks
crystal sheets • Also found in siliceous, Al-rich plutonic
2. Non-crystalline silicate clays (Andisols) igneous rocks (muscovite granites) but has not
• Dominantly amorphous clays been found as a constituent of volcanic rocks
(allophane and imogolite) • Has white to sometimes light brownish color
3. Iron and aluminum oxides (Oxisols) ▪ Biotite (K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F, OH)2)
• Dominantly gibbsite (Al oxide) and • Found in hydrous ultrabasic rock like
goethite (Fe oxide) kimberlite
4. Organic (humus) colloids (Histosols) • Common in trachytic volcanic rocks, granitic
• Non-crystalline colloids dominated by long plutonic rocks and a wide variety of
C-chain molecules metamorphic rocks
• Brown to black in color
Phyllosilicates
▪ Also called sheet silicates 3. CHLORITE
▪ Group of minerals that includes the micas, chlorite, • complicated formula (MgFeAl)3(SiAl)4O10(OH)6
serpentine, talc and clay minerals • Common mineral in low grade metamorphic
▪ Basic structure of phyllosilicates is based on rocks, where it occurs in association with minerals
interconnected six member rings of SiO4-4 tetrahedra like actinolite, epidote and biotite
that extend outward in infinite sheets • In hand specimen, it is characterized by its green
▪ 3 out of the 4 oxygens from each tetrahedral are color ; may be green to pale yellow
shared with other tetrahedral, which leads to a basic
structure of Si2O5-2 Andisols
▪ Most phyllosilicates contain the hydroxyl ion, OH-,
with the OH- located at the center of the
6-membered rings
▪ Thus, the group becomes Si2O5(OH-)-3

1. TALC
• has the formula Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
• Occurrence: found in low grade metamorphic
rocks that originated as ultrabasic to basic igneous
rocks
• Rocks composed almost entirely of talc have a
greasy feel and referred to as soapstone
 Sesquioxides or Oxisols
Soil Fertility and Productivity
▪ Soil fertility – the ability of soil to provide nutrients
in proper quantities and in a balanced way for the
growth of plants. Fertile soil should have the proper
proportion of nutrients and optimum pH
▪ Soil productivity – the capacity of soil, in its normal
environment, to support plant growth. It is affected
by factors other than soil fertility, such as weeds and
farming methods.
Cause of Decrease in Soil Fertility
1. Leaching – loss of water-soluble plant nutrients in soil
• common with nutrients that are highly soluble
such as N. These nutrients are carried to lower
areas, far beyond the reach of many plant roots.
Soil with many leached nutrients is infertile.
2. Soil capping –occurs when soil is covered (capped)
with an impervious material which prevents.
• the penetration of rainwater into soil, which leads
to surface runoff decreases moisture content and
increases erosion
3. Soil erosion – occurs when the top fertile soil is carried
away by moving water and/or wind
• Leads to loss of topsoil and plant nutrients
4. Monocropping – practice of growing one type of crop
on a piece of land for long periods of time.
• Crops grown use only the nutrients they need
while others remain unused ⟶ leads to
exhaustion of nutrients
• Also increases the likelihood of buildup of pests
and diseases, which may be passed on from
residues of the former crop ⟶ leads to low yield
• Also leads to decrease in biodiversity
• wheat, tobacco, corn, rice
Histosols
Factors affecting Soil Fertility
5. Accumulation of salts – mineral salts come from
decomposition of parent rock or decomposition of
organic matter.
• Under normal conditions, salts are washed away
by rainwater. However, in arid and semi-arid
areas, rainfall is irregular and not enough to
remove salts from soil
• may lead to deficiency of water in plants as water
moves out of the root in the soil under the
increased soil osmotic pressure
6. Change in pH – inappropriate use of fertilizers may
change soil pH
• Use of acidic fertilizer over long periods of time
can decrease soil pH, which may affect the activity
of soil microorganisms and availability of nutrients
7. Burning of vegetation – when vegetation is burned,
organic matter is destroyed
• Affects the activities of microorganisms such as N
fixation and decomposition of organic matter
• Soil is exposed to agents of erosion such as wind
and water
• Accumulation of resulting ash also causes
imbalance of nutrients in soil
• slash and burn agriculture (kaingin farming)
has been practiced for many decades
 Chemical Fertilizers
▪ Fertilizer – a chemical or natural substance added to
soil to increase its fertility
▪ Chemical fertilizer manufacturers must guarantee the
analysis of all fertilizers.
• Total N expressed as percent N
• Available P expressed as percent P2O5
• Soluble K (potash) expressed as percent K2O

▪ Quick release fertilizers – made from water soluble

compounds; derived from synthetic nutrients
▪ Slow release fertilizers – made from natural
materials; release nutrients at a slower rate, based on
moisture and temperature

▪ Effect on surface runoff - pollutants are leached off to

the bodies of water
 Chemical Hazards
Chemical Hazards – a substance that has the potential to Physical Hazard
cause illness or injury when a specific quantity is used ▪ chemical for which there is scientifically valid
under specific conditions. evidence that it is a combustible liquid, a compressed
gas, explosive, flammable, an organic peroxide, an
Health Hazard oxidizer, pyrophoric, unstable (reactive), or water-
▪ chemical for which there is statistically significant reactive.
evidence based on at least one study conducted in
accordance with established scientific principles that
acute or chronic health effects may occur in exposed
employees.
▪ include carcinogens, toxic or highly toxic agents,
reproductive toxins, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers,
hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins, agents that
act on the hematopoietic system, and agents that
damage the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes.

Hazard Communication & Labels

HAZARD COMMUNICATION STANDARD
= RIGHT–TO–KNOW LAW
(OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200; 1983)
▪ Warning labels
• Chemical Identity
• Appropriate Hazard Warning
• Protective Clothing and Equipment
• Handling and Storage Instructions
• Manufacturer’s Name and Address
• Product Name
• Hazardous Chemical
• Hazardous Warning
▪ Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Types of Chemical Hazards

 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Section 1: Identification
• Identity of the Chemical (Product Code)
• Manufacturer’s Information and Contact Details
Section 2: Composition
Section 3: Hazard Identification
Section 4: First-Aid Measures

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures
Section 7: Handling and Storage
Section 8: Exposure Control and Personal Protection
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties
Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Information
Section 11: Toxicological Information Section 12: Ecological Information
• effect on the environment
Section 13: Disposal Considerations
Section 14: Transport Information

Section 15: Regulatory Information

Section 16: Other Information