CHAPTER I –Metacognition

Course No.: Ed 105

Descriptive Title: Facilitating Learning

This course deals with basic course on contemporary theories and research on the
cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, socio cultural individual differences factors in the
acquisition of knowledge. The course covered shall focus on contemporary theories and
research on learning ( as such of the oral theories of learning will not be addressed to detail).
The exploration and discussion of these theories and research focuses on how these apply to
the Philippine, regional. local and personal experiences. More importantly,the processing of
theories and research will emphasize how teacher way the various ideas to better facilitating
the learning processes among students.

Course Learning Outcome:

During and upon the completion of the course, the students should have:
1. Create a physical and psychological environment that facilitates learning for all
kinds of learners.
2. Demonstrate understanding of:
a) various learning and development motivation theories.
3. Apply various theories of learning and motivation to help students become highly
motivated and self-directed learners.

Topics to be discussed:
Part 1: Introduction
1.1. Metacognition
1.2. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
Part 2: Focus on the Learner
2.1. Student Diversity
2.2. Learning /Thinking Styles and Multiple intelligences
2.3.Learners with Exceptionalist
Part 3: Focus on the Learning
3.1.Behaviorist Perspective
3.1.1.Behaviorism
3.2. Neo-Behaviorism
3.3. Cognitive Perspective
3.3.1. Gestalt Psyhology
3.4. Information Processing
3.5. Cognitive Processes
3.5.1. Constructive Knowledge Construction/ Concept Learning
3.6. Transfer Learning
Part 4: Focus on Classroom Processes
4.1. Motivation
4.1.1. Meaning and Types of Motivation
4.1.2.Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation
4.1.3. Students’ Diversity in Motivation
4.2. Motivation in the Classroom
4.2.1. Human Environment Factors Affecting Motivation
4.2.2. The Classroom Climate
4.2.3. The Physical Learning Environment
Part 5: Integration
5.1. Revisiting the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

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Dear Students,
I am pleased to welcome you in our class in “Facilitating Learning”. In this
course, you will be learning on how to facilitate learning in your future classroom as
you will be one in the future. So feel comfortable, relax and lets have a short prayer
for guidance, enlightenment and protection from above. We will answer the What,
the How and the Why of Facilitating Learning, so on and so forth. Let’s explore all
the topics presented in the course guide above. Our discussion will always begin with
an activity that you are expected to perform, before we can do the discussion or the
lesson presentation proper.

PART 1 – Introduction
Metacognition is such a long word. What does it mean? You will find this out
in this module.
Learning metacognition will make you learn how to facilitate not just for your
future students’ learning but for your own learning as well.
Learning is an active process. Only you can learn for yourself! No one can do
the learning for you! The greater is your involvement in the learning activities, the
greater is the amount of learning you get. That is one thing for sure!
For you to understand better metacognition kindly answer the given questions
and perform Activity 1.

CHAPTER 1 Metacognition
Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students would be able to:
Explain metacogniton in their own words
Apply metacognitive strategies in their own quest for learning as a novice or an expert
earner

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 CHAPTER I –Metacognition

Chapter 1
Metacognition

Name________________________________ Date_____________
Section ______________________________ Score ____________

Activity

Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check in the column that best describes
what is true to you.

Part I

Always Sometimes Never Your

(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I exert effort to find out why I
need to do a particular task
2 I reward myself when I work
3 I see to it that I give myself
regular breaks from work
4 I am able to keep my
concentration and does not let
my mind “drift away”
5 I have ways of dealing with
distraction
6 I am willing to do the work I do
not enjoy because I see it as
important
7 I seek clarification from the
teacher about her expectations
and standards.
8 I go to tutorials to improve my
school work.

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Part 2

Always Sometimes Never Your

(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I make a weekly timetable for
the school work I need to
accomplish.
2 I make a review schedule for
examination
3 I plan to get the necessary
resources and equipment prior to
starting work.
4 I submit all my assignments on
time
5 I have a place to work where I
won’t be disturbed.
6 I have time for Family
commitments and relaxation as
well as studying.
7 I prioritize tasks which should be
done first, second and so on.
8 I make lists of things to do
9 I make a list of valuable
references with bibliographic
details, page numbers of quotes
and so on.
1 I review my work before
0 submitting it.

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Part 3
Always Sometimes Never Your
(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I discuss work assignments with
other students
2 I share resources with other
students
3 I keep cuttings from newspapers
and magazines which may be of
help to me
4 I make sure I see TV programs
which may be useful.
5 I read the topic assigned before a
session
6 I ask questions and generally
take part in group discussions.
7 I listen out for for key ideas
when someone, is talking.
8 When I am listening to
someone , I try to anticipate what
they will say next.

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Part 4
Always Sometimes Never Your
(10) (5) (0) Score
1 I get so worried about
assignments that they make me
feel ill.
2 This worry about assignments
makes me feel depressed.
3 I feel miserable about doing
assignments.
4 I let these concerns about the
work get on top of me.
5 When I need to work, others
always succeed in persuading me
to go out.
6 I have difficulty in talking to
others about my worries.
7 I ignore my personal fitness
through worrying about
assignments.
8 The stress of assignments causes
me to get behind and I never
seem to catch up.

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 CHAPTER I –Metacognition

Scoring:
The 4 part of the questionnaire pertain to the following aspects of study habits:
Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and planning your work
Part 3 Working with others; Utilizing resources and feedback
Part 4 Managing school work stress

Use the scoring guide below

Scoring for Part I Motivation
Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 55 to 88 mean that you do not appear to have many problems in
getting down to work and keeping to it.
Scores from 31 to 50 mean that you sometimes get down to work but you can
be distracted, you might not always be certain why you have to work. You probably
could benefit from learning some techniques that help you get down to work more
consistently and keep at.
Scores of 30 and below signify that you really do have problems in getting
down to work. Unless you develop skills in this area you are likely to have many
unsatisfactory experiences as a student throughout your life.
You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 2 Organizing and Planning your Work

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 70 to 100 mean you are well-organized and plan ahead for your
work.
Scores from 40 to 65 mean you are not as well-organized as you can be. Your
time management may benefit from a closer analysis.
Scores of 35 and below mean you have little organization, probably deal with
things as they happen, constantly doing things at the last minute, often not getting
work completed.
You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 3

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 55 to 85 mean you make full use of resources available, listen
well and take an active part in seminars.

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Scores from 35 to 50 mean you probably collect resources, but you need to
ask yourself how to use them more effectively.
Scores of 30 and below mean there are important resources around you that
you are ignoring. You may not be hearing much of what is being said. You need to
know what resources is available, and you need to find where they are and what they
have to offer.
You need to take action.

Scoring for Part 4

Score: 10 for Always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
Scores from 65 to 80 mean that although you sometimes get stressed and
worried you have the skills of knowing how to minimize problems and look after
yourself
Scores from 40 to 65 mean that you handle your anxieties and concerns
moderately well but could develop skills to manage them more effectively.
Scores of 35 and under mean that you are likely to get overwhelmed with
your problems which will make you much less effective as a student.
You need to acquire the skills of managing stress more effectively.
You need to take action.

Chapter 1
Metacognition

Name________________________________ Date_____________
Section ______________________________ Score ____________

Analysis

My Score in the Study Habits Questionaire

Aspect of Study Habits My Score Interpretation
Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and Planning Your Work
Part 3 Working with Others, Utilizing
Resources and Feedback
Part 4 Managing School Work

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What did you discover about yourself using this questionnaire?

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What aspect are you strong in?
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What aspects do you need to improve in?
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Discussion:

It is vital that students acquire the skills of how to learn; and that this skills
enable them to learn not just while they are in school but for a lifetime. This entails a
deeper awareness of how one processes information, the ability to evaluate his own
thinking and to think of ways to make his own learning process more effective. All
this involve Metacognition.

Thinking about thinking

Metacognition is the ability to think about and regulate one’s own thoughts.
Teaching metacognitive strategies can improve learners’ performance at school. This
makes it a good, evidence-based target for intervention.
A simplified definition of metacognition is “thinking about thinking”, but
metacognition also encompasses the regulation of these thoughts – the ability to
change them. It is a step further than simple awareness of thought processes,
incorporating the ability to alter thoughts and behaviours. Explicitly teaching learners
strategies for metacognition has been shown to lead to improvements in attainment.
The term “Metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell
(1979,1987),metacognition consist of both metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired
cognitive processes. Flavell further devides metacognitive knowledge into three
categories: knowledge of person’s variables, task variables and strategy variables.

1. Person variable – knowledge about how human beings learn and process
information and individual’s knowledge of one’s own learning process
2. Task variables – knowledge about nature of tasks and type pf processing
demands that it will place upon the individual
3. Strategy variables – awareness of the strategy one is using to learn a topic and
evaluating whether this strategy is effective. Terms like Meta-attention and
Meta-memory are related to strategy variables.
1. Meta-attention – awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep
your attention focused on the topic or task at hand.
2. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best
for you’
These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition. Omrod
includes the following in the practice of metacognition:
 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities

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 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain
amount of time
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material using
effective strategies for retrieval of previuosly stored information
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly usd in a puproseful
manner to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a student may use
knowledge in plnning how to do homework: “ I know that I (person variable)
have more difficulty with my science assignments than English and find
Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable), so I will do my homework in
science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan (strategy
variable).” If one is only aware about one’s cognitive strenghts or weaknesses
and the nature of the task but does not use this to guide or oversee his/her own
learning, then no metacognition has been applied.
However, according to Annie Brookman (2018) , we must be cautious not to
overstate the impact metacognition can have on learning. Like mindsets,
metacognition is sometimes revered as an easy fix, when in fact there are of course
many factors affecting learning. Teaching metacognitive strategies can also be
challenging for the educator. On the other hand, metacognition is disregarded by some
who fear it is simply the latest buzzword in the teaching profession.
Showing learners examples of metacognitive thinking, through thinking aloud,
is one of the key recommendations for enhancing metacognition. There are three key
phases in metacognition (Brookman, 2018): planning, monitoring, and evaluation.
Each of these phases can be modelled by the teacher or parent who is helping the
learner, demonstrating how to approach a problem verbally. This can be done through
asking a series of questions.
During the planning phase, before starting on the task, questions address how
previous work relates to the current work, how best to start the task at hand, and how
the goal can be achieved. The aim here is to increase awareness of different strategies,
and to help students choose a strategy and draw on prior work.

“What seems to be important is that metacognitive strategies are taught

explicitly and in relation to specific tasks.”
In the monitoring phase, while the task is underway, a teacher might ask
whether the current approach is working, and what can be improved, in order to
encourage students to change their strategy if necessary. After the task has finished,
during the evaluation phase, questions relate to whether or not the goal was reached
and what would be better next time.

“Encouraging metacognition doesn’t require expensive specialist equipment, and

is thought to have its biggest impact on disadvantaged students.”
Metacognition is a particularly appealing target for improving learning
because it doesn’t require expensive specialist equipment, and is thought to have its
biggest impact on disadvantaged students. There is a good evidence base, and there
are great resources freely available online to support teachers and parents. If
metacognition is the latest buzzword in teaching, then it’s for good reason (Annie
Brookman-Byrne, June 22, 2018)

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Strategies for teaching metacognition in classrooms

(Owen and Vista, 2017)

Metacognition is thinking about thinking. It is an increasingly useful

mechanism to enhance student learning, both for immediate outcomes and for helping
students to understand their own learning processes. So metacognition is a broad
concept that refers to the knowledge and thought processes regarding one’s own
learning. Importantly, there is research evidence (e.g., Moely and colleagues,
1995;  Schraw, 1998) that metacognition is a teachable skill that is central to other
skills sets such as problem solving, decisionmaking, and critical thinking. Reflective
thinking, as a component of metacognition, is the ability to reflect critically on
learning experiences and processes in order to inform future progress.
David Owen, who teaches history and politics at Melbourne High School in
Victoria, Australia, discusses a simple but effective approach to encourage student
self-reflection:

“I have rethought some of my classroom strategies this year. I teach at a

secondary school which prides itself on its high level of student achievement, and I
had always believed my students performed accordingly. They always ask for help
before, during, and after class. Their varied queries could be superficial knowledge-
based questions or more general questions about their progress, but I’d always read
this habit as a sign that my students had an open mindset: they were inquisitive, cared
about their learning, and charted their progress.”
Owen continued, but having students asking a million questions of the teacher
poses another challenge entirely, which can be framed: “Why aren’t students asking
these questions of themselves?”
Recent shifts in pedagogy according to Owen have emphasized the importance
of encouraging students to figure out how to be independent, self-regulated learners.
The teacher cannot be there to hold their hand beyond school. This demands that
students reflect on their learning in meaningful ways. It also requires students be
critical analysts of their own thinking in order to overcome complex or unexpected
problems.

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Owen said “I’ve begun to highlight strategies which might better encourage
this kind of metacognition. For younger adolescents, I’ve found that “Exit Tickets”
are an opportunity for students to reflect on what they have accomplished and what
they could improve on. Exit Tickets are a family of feedback tools that students
complete for a few minutes at the end of each lesson. They prompt students to think
about how and what they learn, as well as what challenges they are still facing.
“Traffic Lights” is a simple yet effective Exit Ticket which emphasizes three
key factors:
 When students encountered a challenge;
 When students had thought differently about something; and
 When students were learning well.

Over time I’ve found myself more interested in student responses to the
Yellow Light, because it requires students to think about how they were thinking,
rather than when (the emphasis of the Red and Green lights). The Yellow Light
encourages reflective thinking as well as “thinking about thinking, or what is known
as metacognition.” The possibilities for Exit Tickets are numerous and easily
adaptable to the content and specific skills taught in any lesson (Owen, David).

Another example of reflective, self-directed learning which is suited to group

work is setting a classroom rule that groups ask a question together, rather than
individually. What this means is that rather than immediately ask the teacher for help,
a student who has encountered a problem must consult with their group first. If the
group cannot collectively find the solution, they can raise their hands simultaneously
—a sign that the question has been fielded to the group already. There are various
ways to modify this rule: highlighting with traffic-light colors, like in the

Exit Ticket activity, is one such example.

For older students, setting a few rules before requesting aid from the teacher
has seen their self-directed learning—and my feedback—improve markedly. I have
emphasized that students seek specific feedback concerning their trial exams. I ask
students to ensure they have highlighted and annotated their responses before seeing
me. This approach shifts student thinking from the simplistic “submission to
feedback” principle towards a more involved process, where students must consider
what feedback they would want, what advice they would give themselves, and where
they think they need to improve. This approach encourages the students to
independently exercise control over their learning and progress, thereby making them
more independent and self-directed learners(Owen, David).

Novice and Expert Learners

What’s the difference between expert and novice learners?

Novice learners  are well-intentioned folks who are typically brimming with
enthusiasm while lacking actual knowledge about the subject being taught.  
They have limited or nonexistent experience with most of their understanding
of the subject based on basic rules. Because of this, their ability to perform is
rather limited.

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Experts , on the other hand, know a significant amount about the subject and
how it’s organized meaning they cannot only understand but can add to a
lesson. Their abilities allow them to take in the larger picture and not fixate on
minor attributes (as summarized by Ross, Phillips, Klein, & Cohn, 2005).
Expert learners are able to apply what they learn to create a far more intuitive
way of working.

This graphic shares some of the differences between novice and expert
learners:

. 

Also, read Karl Kapp's article: Differences between Experts and Novices

Now, we’ll cover some simple ways to make complex subjects easier for
novice learners:

Treat adult learners like adults

1. Adult learners  are adults and should, therefore, they shouldn’t be
treated like children. Sounds simple enough, right? It is, but sometimes we
need reminders to actually do it.  Because adults have a wide existing
knowledge base they tend to relate new information to existing information.

Here's what you can do:

Frequently summarize information to create ongoing existing knowledge
to build on.

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Maintain focus on a single concept or application and give real world

examples. Adults tend to be more practical than younger learners and will
appreciate information that seems relevant to their actual lives not fanciful
stories.
Work in an element of self-direction to the material. Adults will learn
better and stay more engaged if they are allowed to navigate some info on their
own where they are encouraged to ask and answer questions.
 
2) Clarify complex info, DON’T delete it

It can be tempting, VERY tempting to skip the most complex

topics  when training new learners. Even instructors who don’t skip hard
material will often either oversimplify to the point of patronizing their students
or will present the information as is without regard to individual learning
levels. Both ways are unfair to students but here are some ways to present
subject matter without making it too simple or complex:
If you need to use acronyms and industry jargon, which you probably
do, then take the time to define these things before getting started.
Start by explaining the goal of the information first, not presenting ALL the
info and then giving the conclusion. By starting with the end goal students are
better able to see the connection of other information to what they are trying to
accomplish.
One of the best ways to make complex things easier is to break down a
larger subject into smaller parts.
When possible let students interact with a concept or tool to let them get a
better feel of it and be more likely to remember how. Barring that,
demonstrating slowly and clearly how to do something is the next best way.
Repeat and rephrase your main points along with a summary at the end to give
learners a few more chances to catch on. 
Bottom-line: You need to make   learners feel safe to be dumb !
 
3) Avoid Clichés like the Plague

The trouble with common examples is they are, well, common meaning
we see them A LOT.  Consider the last time you purchased a new chair for your
home. At first this new thing really stood out and you admired and loved your
new purchase. Fast forward to a few years later, can you remember the last time
you even noticed it? This is the way clichés are. At some point they were new
and drew attention to a point, but now are barely noticed.
Even more importantly, clichés make your writing and courses look lazy
as if you couldn’t come up with anything better to say than these tired phrases.
Learners will start skipping and skimming information because you didn’t take
the time to say something original, so why should they take the time to read?
Novice learners invest time learning because they’re looking forward to get
something useful out of it. They want something valuable not only in theory but
also in practice. Offer them something practical and you’ll get their attention.  

Additional Readings:
1. Surf the internet for additional readings on metacognition.

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2. Make a collection of metacognitive strategies that can make learning more effective
and efficient.
3. Make collection of Teaching Strategies that develop metacognition in students.

Chapter 1
Metacognition

Name________________________________ Date_____________
Section ______________________________ Score ____________

Exercise/ Drill
A 5 minute non-stop writing
Your 5 minute non-stop writing begins NOW!
From the module on Metacognition, I realized that metacognition…
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Evaluation
1. Based on the principles of metacognition, prepare your own metacognitive game
plan on how to apply metacognition to improve your study skills.
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REFERENCES:

Bloom, Benjamin S. (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive

Domain. New York: David McKay and Company
Brunning, Roger H. et.al. (2004) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
USA:Merill Prentice-Hall
E. Labinowicz. (1980). The Piaget Primer: Thinking, learning, teaching. Menlo
Park, CA:Addison-Wesley
Morin, E. (1994). Introducción al pensamiento complejo. Ed. Gedisa.
Barcelona, España.

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