Nervous System 2.

Peripheral nervous system

Chapter 9 – Human Anatomy and (PNS) consists of all the nervous
Physiology tissue outside the CNS (nerves
Chapter Sections and ganglia)
▪ Functions of the Nervous System o Functions to link the CNS with the
▪ Divisions of the Nervous System various parts of the body
▪ Cells of the Nervous System o Carries information about the
▪ Electrical Signals and Neural different tissues of the body to the
Pathways CNS and carries commands from
▪ Central and Peripheral Nervous the CNS that alter body activities
Systems
▪ Spinal Cord
▪ Spinal Nerves
▪ Chapter Sections
▪ Brain
▪ Sensory Functions
▪ Motor Functions
▪ Other Brain Functions
▪ Meninges, Ventricles, and
Cerebrospinal Fluid
▪ Cranial Nerves
▪ Autonomic Nervous System
▪ Chapter Sections
▪ Enteric Nervous System
▪ Effects of Aging on the Nervous DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL
System NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
▪ Functions of the Nervous System Sensory division, or afferent division
o Conducts action potentials from
Section 9-1 sensory receptor to the CNS
Functions of the Nervous System o Neurons that transmit action
1. Receiving sensory input potentials from the periphery to the
2. Integrating information CNS are called sensory neurons
3. Controlling muscles and glands Motor division, or efferent division
4. Maintaining homeostasis o Conducts action potentials from the
5. Establishing and maintaining CNS to effector organs, such as
mental activity muscles and glands
o Neurons that transmit action
Section 9-2 potentials from the CNS toward the
Divisions of the Nervous System periphery are called motor neurons
Two Major Divisions of the Nervous
Subdivisions of the Motor Division
System:
of the Peripheral Nervous System
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal o Somatic nervous system transmits
cord action potentials from the CNS to
skeletal muscles
 o Autonomic nervous system
transmits action potentials from the
CNS to cardiac, smooth muscle,
and glands
➢ Sympathetic division
➢ Parasympathetic division
Enteric Nervous System
o It is a unique subdivision of the
peripheral nervous system
o It has both sensory and motor
neurons contained wholly within
the digestive tract
o It can function without input from
the CNS or other parts of the PNS,
although it is normally integrated
with the CNS by sensory neurons
and autonomic nervous system
(ANS) motor neurons
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Section 9-3
Neurons
o Or nerve cells, receive stimuli,
conduct action potentials, and
transmit signals to other neurons or
effector organs
o Parts of a neuron: a cell body,
dendrites, and axons
Cell body or soma
o Contains a single nucleus (fish eye
in appearance), which serves as the
source of information for gene
expression
o Extensive rough ER, a Golgi
apparatus, and mitochondria
surround the nucleus
o Large numbers of neurofilaments
(intermediate) microtubules
organize the cytoplasm
Dendrites
o Short, often highly branching
cytoplasmic extensions that are
tapered from their bases at the
neuron cell body to their tips
o Most are extensions of the neuron
cell body, but dendrite-like
structures also project from the
peripheral ends of some sensory
axons
o Usually receive information from
other neurons or from sensory
receptors and transmit the
information toward the neuron cell
body
Axon
o Each neuron has a single axon, a
single long cell process extending
from the neuron cell body
o The axon hillock is the area where
the axon leaves the neuron cell body
o Each axon has a uniform diameter
and may vary in length from a few
millimeters to more than a meter
o Axons of sensory neurons conduct
action potentials toward the CNS
o Axons of motor neurons conduct
action potentials away from the
CNS
o Also conduct action potentials from
one part of the brain or spinal cord
to another part
o May remain unbranched or may
branch to form collateral axons
o Axons can be surrounded by a
highly specialized insulating layer
of cells called myelin sheath
TYPES OF NEURONS
Neurons can be classified on the basis of
their structure or their function (e.g.,
sensory neuron versus motor neuron)
In structural classification, three categories
of neurons exist based on the arrangement
of their processes:
• Multipolar neurons
• Bipolar neurons
• Pseudo-unipolar neurons
• Neurons
Multipolar Neurons
o Have many dendrites and a single
axon
o Most of the neurons within the CNS
and nearly all motor neurons are
multipolar
Bipolar Neurons
o Have two processes: one dendrite
and one axon
o Located in some sensory organs,
such as the retina of the eye and in
the nasal cavity
Pseudo-unipolar Neurons
o Most other sensory neurons are
pseudo-unipolar neurons
o Have a single process extending
from the cell body
o One process extends to the
periphery, and the other extends to
the CNS
o The two extensions function as a
single axon with small, dendrite-
like sensory receptors at the
periphery
o The axon receives sensory
information at the periphery and
transmits it in the form of action
potentials to the CNS
GLIAL CELLS
Glial cells, or neuroglia, are the primarily
supportive cells of the CNS and PNS
o These cells do not conduct action
potentials
o Far more numerous than neurons
o Most neuroglia retain the ability to
divide, whereas neurons do not
o There are five types of glial cells –
astrocytes, ependymal cells,
microglia, oligodendrocytes, and
Schwann cells
Astrocytes
o Serve as the major supporting cells
in the CNS
o Can stimulate or inhibit the signal
activity of nearby neurons
o In addition, astrocytes participate
with the blood vessel endothelium
to form a permeability barrier,
called the blood-brain barrier,
between the blood and the CNS
o Help limit damage to neural tissue;
however, the repair process can
form a scar that blocks regeneration
of damaged axons
Ependymal Cells
o Line the fluid-filled cavities
(ventricles and canals) within the
CNS
o Some ependymal cells produce
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
o Other ependymal cells with cilia on
their surface help move CSF
through the CNS
Microglia
o Act as immune cells of the CNS
o Possess phagocytic properties, thus
also known as macrophages of the
CNS
o Help protect the CNS by removing
bacteria and cell debris
Oligodendrocytes and Schwann Cells
o Oligodendrocytes in the central
nervous system (CNS) and
Schwann cells in the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) provide an
insulating material that surrounds
axons
o This insulating material is known as
the myelin sheath
MYELIN SHEATHS
Myelin sheaths are specialized layers that
wrap around the axons of some neurons
o These are formed by the cell
processes of oligodendrocytes in the
CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS
o Axons with myelin sheaths are
called myelinated axons
o Each oligodendrocyte process or
Schwann cell repeatedly wraps
around a segment of an axon to
form a series of tightly wrapped cell
membranes
o Myelin is an excellent insulator that
prevents almost all ion movement
across the cell membrane
o Gaps in the myelin sheath, called
nodes of Ranvier, occur about
every millimeter between the
oligodendrocyte segments or
between individual Schwann cells
o Ion movement can occur at the
nodes of Ranvier
o Myelination of an axon increases
the speed and efficiency of action
potential generation along the axon
o Unmyelinated axons lack the
myelin sheaths; however, these
axons rests in indentations of the
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS
o A typical small nerve, which
consists of axons of multiple
neurons, usually contains more
unmyelinated axons than
myelinated axons
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS
TISSUE
o Both the CNS and the PNS contain
areas of gray matter and areas of
white matter
o Gray matter consists of groups of
neuron cell bodies and their
dendrites, where there is very little
myelin
o In the CNS, gray matter on the
surface of the brain is called the
cortex, and clusters of gray matter
located deeper within the brain are
called nuclei
o In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell
bodies is called a ganglion
o White matter consists of bundles of
parallel axons with their myelin
sheaths, which are whitish in color
o White matter of the CNS forms
nerve tracts (fiber tracts), or
conduction pathways, which
propagate action potentials from
one area of the CNS to another
o In the PNS, bundles of axons and
associated connective tissue form
nerves
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND
NEURAL PATHWAYS
Section 9-4
Resting Membrane Potential
o Please refer to Chapter 6 –
Membrane Potential and Action
Potential
Action Potential
o Please refer to Chapter 6 –
Membrane Potential and Action
Potential
Action Potential
o Action potentials occur in an all-or-
none fashion
o That is, if threshold is reached, an
action potential occurs; if the
threshold is not reached, no action
potential occurs
o Action potentials in a cell are all of
the same magnitude – in other
words, the amount of charge
reversal is always the same
o Stronger stimuli produce a greater
frequency of action potentials but
do not increase the size of each
action potential
o Thus, neural signaling is based on
the number of action potentials
o Action potentials are conducted
slowly in unmyelinated axons and
more rapidly in myelinated axons
o In unmyelinated axons, an action
potential in one part of a cell
membrane stimulates local currents
in adjacent parts of the cell
membrane
o The local currents in the adjacent
membrane produce an action
potential
o By this means, the action potential
is conducted along the entire axon
cell membrane
o This type of action potential
conduction is called continuous
conduction
o In myelinated axons, an action
potential at one node of Ranvier
causes a local current to flow
through the surrounding
extracellular fluid and through the
cytoplasm of the axon to the next
node, stimulating an action
potential at that node of Ranvier
o By this means, action potentials
“jump” from one node of Ranvier
to the next along the length of the
axon
o This type of action potential is
called saltatory conduction
o Saltatory conduction greatly
increases the conduction velocity
because the nodes of Ranvier make
it unnecessary for action potentials
to travel along the entire cell
membrane
o Medium-diameter, lightly
myelinated axons, characteristic of
autonomic neurons, conduct action
potentials at the rate of about 3-15
meters per second (m/s)
o Large-diameter, heavily myelinated
axons conduct action potentials at a
rate of 15-120 m/s
o These rapidly conducted action
potentials, carried by sensory and
motor neurons, allow for rapid
responses to changes in the external
environment
o In addition, several hundred times
fewer ions cross the cell membrane
during conduction in myelinated
cells than in unmyelinated cells
o Much less energy is therefore
required for the sodium-potassium
pump to maintain the ion
distribution
SYNAPSE
o A synapse is a junction where the
axon of one neuron interacts with
another neuron or with cells of an
effector organ, such as a muscle or
a gland
o The end of the axon forms a
presynaptic terminal
o The membrane of the dendrite or
effector cell is the postsynaptic
membrane
o The space separating the
presynaptic and postsynaptic
membranes is the synaptic cleft
o Chemical substances called
neurotransmitters are stored in
synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic
terminal
o When an action potential reaches
the presynaptic terminal, voltage-
gated Ca2+ channels open, and Ca2+
moves into the cell
o The influx of Ca2+ causes the release
of neurotransmitters by exocytosis
from the presynaptic terminal
o Neurotransmitters diffuse across
the synaptic cleft and bind to
specific receptor molecules on the
postsynaptic membrane
o The binding of neurotransmitters to
these membrane receptors causes
chemically gated channels for Na+,
K+, or Cl- to open or close in the
postsynaptic membrane, depending
on the type of neurotransmitter in
 the presynaptic terminal and the
type of receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane
o The response may be either
stimulation or inhibition of an
action potential in the postsynaptic
cell
o For example, if Na+ channels open,
the postsynaptic cell becomes
depolarized, and an action potential
will result if threshold is reached
o If K+ or Cl- channels open, the
inside of the postsynaptic cell tends
to become more negative, or
hyperpolarized, and an action
potential is inhibited from occurring
o Best known examples of
neurotransmitters are acetylcholine
and norepinephrine
o Other neurotransmitters include
serotonin, dopamine, glycine,
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and
endorphins
o Neurotransmitters are rapidly
broken down by enzymes within the
synaptic cleft or are transported
back into the presynaptic terminal
o If K+ or Cl- channels open, the
inside of the postsynaptic cell tends
to become more negative, or
hyperpolarized, and an action
potential is inhibited from occurring
o Best known examples of
neurotransmitters are acetylcholine
and norepinephrine
o Other neurotransmitters include
serotonin, dopamine, glycine,
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and
endorphins
o Neurotransmitters are rapidly
broken down by enzymes within the
synaptic cleft or are transported
back into the presynaptic terminal
o Neurotransmitters are removed
from the synaptic cleft so that their
effects on the postsynaptic
membrane are very short-term
o The release and breakdown or
removal of neurotransmitters occur
so rapidly that a postsynaptic cell
can be stimulated many times a
second
o Drugs can modulate the action of
neurotransmitters at the synapse
o Cocaine and amphetamines
increase the release and block the
reuptake of norepinephrine,
resulting in overstimulation of
postsynaptic neurons and
deleterious effects on the body
o Drugs that block serotonin reuptake
are particularly effective at treating
depression and behavioral disorders
REFLEXES
A reflex is an involuntary reaction in
response to a stimulus applied to the
periphery and transmitted to the CNS
o Reflexes allow a person to react to
stimuli more quickly than is
possible if conscious thought is
involved
o A reflex arc is the neuronal
pathway by which a reflex occurs
o The reflex arc is the basic functional
unit of the nervous system because
it is the smallest, simplest pathway
capable of receiving a stimulus and
yielding a response
Five Basic Components of a Reflex Arc
1. Sensory receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. In some reflexes, interneurons,
which are neurons located between
and communicating with two other
neurons
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector organ (e.g., muscles or
glands)
 o The simplest reflex arcs do not
involve interneurons
o Most reflexes occur in the spinal
cord or brainstem rather than in the
higher brain centers
NEURONAL PATHWAYS
Neurons are organized within the CNS to
form pathways ranging from relatively
simple to extremely complex.
Two simplest pathways are converging
and diverging pathways
• In a converging pathway, two or
more axons synapse with (converge
on) the same neuron. This allows
information transmitted in more
than one neuronal pathway to
converge into a single pathway
• In a diverging pathway, the axon
from one neuron divides (diverges)
and synapses with more than one
other neuron. This allows
information transmitted in one
neuronal pathway to diverge into
two or more pathways
o Within the CNS and in many PNS
synapses, it takes more than a single
action potential to have an effect
o A single presynaptic action
potential usually does not cause a
sufficiently large postsynaptic local
potential to reach threshold and
produce an action potential in the
target cell
o Instead, many presynaptic action
potentials are needed in a process
called summation
o Summation of signals in neuronal
pathways allows integration of
multiple subthreshold local
potentials
o Summation of the local potentials
can bring the membrane potential
to threshold and trigger an action
potential
o Spatial summation occurs when
the local potentials originate from
different locations on the
postsynaptic neuron - for example,
from converging pathways
o Temporal summation occurs when
local potentials overlap in time
• This can occur from a
single input that fires
rapidly, which allows the
resulting local potentials
to overlap briefly
o Spatial and temporal summation
can lead to stimulation or
inhibition, depending on the type of
signal
o Collectively, this integration of
multiple inputs determines whether
the postsynaptic neuron will fire an
action potential
CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEMS
Section 9-5
CNS and PNS
Central Nervous System
o The central nervous system (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal cord
o The brain is housed within the
braincase
o The spinal cord is in the vertebral
column
Peripheral Nervous System
o The peripheral nervous system
(PNS) consists of all the nerves and
ganglia outside the brain and the
spinal cord
o It collects information from
numerous sources both inside and
on the surface of the body, and
relays it by way of sensory neurons
to the CNS, where one of three
results is possible:
• Information is ignored
 • Information triggers a
reflex
• Information is evaluated
more extensively
o Motor neurons in the PNS relay
information from the CNS to
muscles and glands in various parts
of the body, regulating activity in
these structures
The nerves of the PNS can be divided into
two groups: SPINAL NERVES
1. 12 pairs of cranial nerves Section 9-7
2. 31 pairs of spinal nerves

SPINAL CORD
Section 9-6

BRAIN
Section 9-8
Brainstem
o The brainstem connects the spinal
cord to the remainder of the brain
o It consists of the medulla
oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain
o The brainstem contains several
nuclei involved in vital body
functioning, such as the control of
heart rate, blood pressure, and
breathing
o Damage to small areas of the
brainstem can cause death
 o Nuclei for all but the first two
cranial nerves are also located in the
brainstem
Medulla Oblongata
o It is the most inferior portion of the
brainstem and is continuous with
the spinal cord
o It extends from the level of the
foramen magnum to the pons
o In addition to ascending and
descending fiber tracts, the medulla
oblongata contains discrete nuclei
with specific functions, such as
regulation of heart rate and blood
vessel diameter, breathing,
swallowing, vomiting, coughing,
sneezing, balance, and
coordination
o On the anterior surface, two
prominent enlargements called
pyramids extend the length of the
medulla oblongata
o The pyramids consist of descending
nerve tracts, which transmit action
potentials from the brain to motor
neurons of the spinal cord
o Pyramids are involved in the
conscious control of skeletal
muscles
Pons
o Immediately superior to the
medulla oblongata is the pons,
which contains ascending and
descending tracts, as well as several
nuclei
o Some of the nuclei in the pons relay
information between the cerebrum
and cerebellum
o Several nuclei of the medulla
oblongata extend into the lower
part of the pons
o Functions such as breathing,
swallowing, and balance are
controlled in the pons, as well as in
the medulla oblongata
o Other nuclei in the pons control
functions such as chewing and
salivation
Midbrain
o The midbrain, just superior to the
pons, is the smallest region of the
brainstem
o The dorsal part of the midbrain
consists of four mounds, called the
colliculi
o The two inferior colliculi are major
relay centers for the auditory nerve
pathways of the CNS
o The two superior colliculi are
involved in visual reflexes and
receive touch and auditory input
o The midbrain contains nuclei
involved in coordinated eye
movements and controlling the
pupil diameter and lens shape
o The midbrain also contains a black
nuclear mass, called substantia
nigra, which is part of the basal
nuclei and is involved in regulating
general body movements
o The rest of the midbrain consists
largely of ascending tracts from the
spinal cord to the cerebrum and
descending tracts from the
cerebrum to the spinal cord and
cerebellum
Reticular Formation
o Scattered throughout the brainstem
is a group of nuclei collectively
called the reticular formation,
which plays important regulatory
functions
o It is particularly involved in
regulating cyclical motor functions,
such as respiration, walking, and
chewing
o The reticular formation is a major
component of the reticular
activating system, which plays an
important role in arousing and
 maintaining consciousness, and in
regulating the sleep-wake cycle
Cerebellum
o The cerebellum is attached to the
brainstem by several large
connections called cerebellar
peduncles
o These connections provide routes of
communication between the
cerebellum and other parts of the
CNS
Diencephalon
o The diencephalon is the part of the
brain between the brainstem and the
cerebrum
Its main components are the following:
• Thalamus
• Epithalamus
• Hypothalamus
Thalamus
o Largest part of the diencephalon
o Consists of a cluster of nuclei and is
shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, with
two large, lateral parts connected in
the center by a small interthalamic
adhesion
o Most sensory input that ascends
through the spinal cord and
brainstem projects to the thalamus,
where ascending neurons synapse
with thalamic neurons
o Thalamic neurons, in turn, send
their axons to the cerebral cortex
o The thalamus also influences mood
and registers an unlocalized,
uncomfortable perception of pain
Epithalamus
o It is a small area superior and
posterior to the thalamus
o Consists of a few small nuclei,
which are involved in the
emotional and visceral response
to odors, and the pineal gland
o The pineal gland is an
endocrine gland that may
influence the onset of puberty
and may play a role in
controlling some long-term
cycles that are influenced by the
light-dark cycle
Hypothalamus
o It is the most inferior part of the
diencephalon and it contains
several small nuclei that are very
important in maintaining
homeostasis
o Plays a central role in the control of
body temperature, hunger, and
thirst
o Sensations such as sexual pleasure,
rage, fear, and relaxation after a
meal are related to hypothalamic
functions
o Emotional responses that seem
inappropriate to the circumstances,
such as “nervous perspiration” in
response to stress or hunger as a
result of depression, also involve the
hypothalamus
o Plays a major role in controlling the
secretion of hormones from the
pituitary gland
o Mammillary bodies form
externally visible swellings on the
posterior portion of the
hypothalamus and are involved in
emotional responses to odors and in
memory
Cerebrum
o It is the largest part of the brain and
is divided into left and right
hemispheres by a longitudinal
fissure
o The most conspicuous features on
the surface of each hemisphere are
numerous folds called gyri, which
greatly increase the surface area of
 the cortex, and intervening grooves
called sulci
o Each cerebral hemisphere is divided
into lobes, which are named for the
skull bones overlying them
o The frontal lobe is important in the
control of voluntary motor
functions, motivation, aggression,
mood, and olfactory reception
o The parietal lobe is the principal
center for receiving and consciously
perceiving most sensory
information, such as touch, pain,
temperature, and balance
o The frontal and parietal lobes are
separated by the central sulcus
o The occipital lobe functions in
receiving and perceiving visual
input and is not distinctly separate
from other lobes
o The temporal lobe is involved in
olfactory and auditory sensations,
and plays an important role in
memory
o The anterior and inferior portions of
the temporal lobe, called the
“psychic cortex,” are associated
with function such as abstract
thought and judgment
o Most of the temporal lobe is
separated from the rest of the
cerebrum by the lateral fissure, and
deep within the fissure is the insula,
often referred to as the fifth lobe
SENSORY FUNCTIONS
Section 9-9
o The CNS constantly receives a
variety of stimuli originating both
inside and outside the body
o We are unaware of a large part of
this sensory input, but it is vital to
our survival and normal functions
o Sensory input to the brainstem and
diencephalon helps maintain
homeostasis
o Sensory input to the cerebrum and
cerebellum keeps us informed about
our environment and allows the
CNS to control motor functions
o A small portion of sensory input
results in perception, the conscious
awareness of stimuli
SENSORY AREAS TO THE
CEREBRAL CORTEX
o Ascending tracts project to specific
regions of the cerebral cortex, called
primary sensory areas, where
sensations are perceived
o The primary somatic sensory
cortex, or general sensory area, is
located in the parietal lobe posterior
to the central sulcus
o Sensory fibers carrying general
sensory input, such as pain,
pressure, and temperature, synapse
in the thalamus, and thalamic
neurons relay the information to the
primary somatic sensory cortex
o Other primary sensory areas
include the visual cortex of the
occipital lobe, the primary
auditory cortex of the temporal
lobe, and the taste area in the
insula
o Cortical areas immediately adjacent
to the primary sensory areas, called
association areas, are involved in
the process of recognition
o Examples include somatic sensory
association area, visual association
area, and the auditory association
area
MOTOR FUNCTIONS
Section 9-10
o The motor system of the brain and
spinal cord is responsible for
maintaining the body’s posture and
balance, as well as moving the
 trunk, head, limbs, tongue and eyes,
and communicating through facial
expressions and speech
o Reflexes mediated through the
spinal cord and brainstem are
responsible for some body
movements without conscious
thought called involuntary
movements
o Voluntary movements, on the
other hand, are consciously
activated to achieve a specific goal,
such as walking or typing
o Although consciously activated, the
details of most voluntary
movements occur automatically
o Voluntary movements result from
the stimulation of upper and lower
motor neurons
o Upper motor neurons have cell
bodies in the cerebral cortex and
their axons form descending tracts
that connect to lower motor
neurons
o Lower motor neurons have cell
bodies in the anterior horn of the
spinal cord gray matter or in cranial
nerve nuclei and their axons leave
the CNS and extend through spinal
or cranial nerves to skeletal muscles
MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL
CORTEX
o The primary motor cortex is
located in the posterior portion of
the frontal lobe, directly anterior to
the central sulcus
o Action potentials initiated in this
region control voluntary
movements of skeletal muscles
o The premotor area of the frontal
lobe is where motor functions are
organized before they are actually
initiated in the primary motor
complex
o Action potentials from the
premotor area are passed to the
upper motor neurons of the primary
motor cortex, which initiate each
planned movement
o The motivation and foresight to
plan and initiate movements occur
in the anterior portion of the frontal
lobes, called the prefrontal area
o This region of association cortex is
well developed only in primates,
especially in humans
o It is involved in motivation and
regulation of emotional behavior
and mood
o The large size of this area in
humans may account for our
emotional complexity and our
relatively well-developed capacity
to think ahead and feel motivated
BASAL NUCLEI
The basal nuclei are a group of
functionally related nuclei
o Two primary nuclei are the corpus
striatum, located deep within the
cerebrum, and the substantia nigra,
a group of darkly pigmented cells in
the midbrain
o Important in planning, organizing,
and coordinating motor movements
and posture
o Complex neural circuits link the
basal nuclei with each other, with
the thalamus, and with the cerebral
cortex
o These connections form several
feedback loops, some of which are
stimulatory and others inhibitory
o The stimulatory circuits facilitate
muscle activity, especially at the
beginning of a voluntary
movement, such as rising from a
sitting position or beginning to walk
o Inhibitory circuits facilitate the
actions of the stimulating circuits by
 inhibiting muscle activity in
antagonist muscles
o In addition, inhibitory circuits
inhibit random movements of the
trunks and limbs, and decrease
muscle tone when the body, limbs,
and head are at rest
Disorders of the basal nuclei result in the
following:
• Difficulty rising from a sitting
position
• Difficulty initiating walking
• Increased muscle tone
• Exaggerated, uncontrolled
movement when they are at rest
• Resting tremor, which is a slight
shaking of the hands when a person
is not performing a task
o Parkinson disease, Huntington
disease, and cerebral palsy are basal
nuclei disorders
Cerebellum
o It is attached by cerebellar
peduncles to the brainstem
o The cerebellar cortex is composed
of gray matter and has gyri and
sulci, but the gyri are much smaller
than those of the cerebrum
o Internally, the cerebellum is
composed of gray matter and white
nerve tracts
o The cerebellum is involved in
maintaining balance and muscle
tone, and in coordinating fine
motor movement
o If damaged, muscle tone decreases,
and fine motor movements become
very clumsy
o A major function of the cerebellum
is that of a comparator, which is a
sensing device that compare data
from two sources – in this case, the
motor cortex and the peripheral
structures
o Action potentials from the cerebral
motor cortex descend into the
spinal cord to initiate voluntary
movements
o Collateral branches are also sent
from the motor cortex to the
cerebellum, giving information
representing the intended
movement
o In addition, simultaneously,
reaching the cerebellum are action
potentials from proprioceptive
neurons, which innervate joints,
tendons, and muscles and provide
information about the position of
body parts
o The cerebellum compares
information about the intended
movement from the motor cortex to
sensory information from the
moving structures
o If a difference is detected, the
cerebellum sends action potentials
to motor neurons in the motor
cortex and the spinal cord to correct
the discrepancy
o The result is smooth and
coordinated movements (e.g.
finger-to-nose test with eyes closed)
o One effect of alcohol is to inhibit the
function of the cerebellum
o Another function of the cerebellum
involves participating with the
cerebrum in learning motor skills,
such as playing the piano
o Once the cerebrum and cerebellum
“learn” these skills, the specialized
movements can be accomplished
smoothly and automatically
OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS
Section 9-11
RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISPHERIC
COMMUNICATION
o The right cerebral hemisphere
receives sensory input from and
controls muscular activity in the left
half of the body
 o The left cerebral hemisphere
receives input from and controls
muscles in the right half of the body
o Sensory information received by
one hemisphere is shared with the
other through connections between
the two hemispheres called
commissures
o The largest of these commissures is
the corpus callosum, a broad band
of nerve tracts at the base of the
longitudinal fissure
o Researchers believe the left
hemisphere is the more analytical
hemisphere, emphasizing such
skills as mathematics and speech
o The right hemisphere is more
involved in functions such as three-
dimensional or spatial perception
and musical ability
SPEECH
In most people, the speech area is in the left
cerebral cortex
Two major cortical areas are involved in
speech:
1. The sensory speech area
(Wernicke area), located in the
parietal lobe, functions in
understanding and formulating
coherent speech
2. The motor speech area (Broca
area), located in the frontal lobe,
controls the movement necessary
for speech
o Damage to these parts of the brain
or to associated brain regions may
result in aphasia, absent or
defective speech or language
comprehension
o The most common cause is a stroke
o It is estimated that 25 to 40 percent
of stroke survivors exhibit aphasia
BRAIN WAVES AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
o Electrodes placed on a person’s
scalp and attached to a recording
device can record the brain’s
electrical activity, producing an
electroencephalogram (EEG)
o EEG patterns can be detected as
wavelike patterns known as brain
waves
o The different levels of
consciousness in an awake and a
sleeping person are marked by
different types of brain waves
o Alpha waves are observed in a
normal person who is awake but in
a quiet, resting state with the eyes
closed
o Beta waves have a higher frequency
than alpha waves and occur during
intense mental activity
o During the beginning of sleep, a
rapid transition takes place from a
beta rhythm to an alpha rhythm
o As sleep deepens, progressively
more delta waves occur
o Delta waves occur during deep
sleep, in infants, and in patients
with severe brain disorders
o A fourth type of brain waves, theta
waves, are usually observed in
children, but they can also occur in
adults who are experiencing
frustration or who have certain
brain disorders
o Neurologists use these patterns to
diagnose and determine the
treatment for the disorders
MEMORY
Storage of memory can be divided into
three stages:
I. Working
II. Short-term
III. Long-term
Long-term memories
o can also be subdivided based on the
type of the memory:
• Those dealing with facts
(declarative)
• Those dealing with skills
(procedural)
Working Memory
o Task-associated memory
o Brain briefly stores information
required for the immediate
performance of a task
o Lasts only a few seconds to
minutes
o Occurs mostly in the frontal
cortex
o Limited primarily by the
number of bits of information
that can be stored at one time
o When new information is
presented, old information
previously stored in working
memory is eliminated
Short-Term Memory
o Lasts longer than working memory
and can be retained for a few
minutes to a few days
o Stored by a mechanism involving
increased synaptic transmission
o Susceptible to brain trauma, such as
physical injury or decreased oxygen
o Susceptible to certain drugs that
affect neural function, such as
general anesthetics
Long-Term Memory
o Short-term memory is transferred to
long-term memory, where it may
be stored for only a few minutes or
become permanent by
consolidation, a gradual process
involving formation of new and
stronger synaptic connections
o Length of time memory stored may
depend on how often it is retrieved
and used
o Declarative memory, or explicit
memory, involves the retention of
facts, such as names, dates, and
places, as well as related emotional
undertones
o Emotion and mood apparently
serve as gates in the brain and
determine what is stored in long-
term declarative memory
o Procedural memory, or reflective
memory, involved the development
of motor skills, such as riding a
bicycle
o Only a small amount of procedural
memory is lost over time
o Long-term memory involves
structural and functional changes in
neurons that lead to long-term
enhancement of synaptic
transmission
o A whole series of neurons, called
memory engrams, or memory trace,
are probably involved in the long-
term retention of a given piece of
information, a thought, or an idea
o Repeating the information and
associating it with existing
memories help us transfer
information from short-term to
long-term memory
LIMBIC SYSTEM AND EMOTIONS
o The olfactory cortex and certain
deep cortical regions and nuclei of
the cerebrum and the diencephalon
are grouped together under the
limbic system
o The limbic system influences long-
term declarative memory,
emotions, visceral responses to
emotions, motivation, and mood
o A major source of sensory input to
the limbic system is the olfactory
nerves
o The limbic system responds to
olfactory stimulation by initiating
 responses necessary for survival,
such as hunger and thirst
o The limbic system is connected to,
and functionally associated with,
the hypothalamus
o Lesions in the limbic system can
result in voracious appetite,
increased (often perverse) sexual
activity, and docility (including
loss of normal fear and anger
responses
MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
SECTION 9-12
MENINGES
Three connective tissue membranes, the
meninges, surround and protect the brain
and the spinal cord
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
Dura Mater
o Most superficial and thickest of the
meninges
o Around the brain, it consists of two
layers, which function as a single
layer but are physically separated
into several regions to form dural
folds and dural venous sinuses
o Folds of dura mater extend into the
longitudinal fissure between the two
cerebral hemispheres and between
the cerebrum and cerebellum
o These folds help the brain in place
within the skull
o The dural venous sinuses collect
blood from the small veins of the
brain and empty into the internal
jugular vein, which exit the skull
o Within the skull, the dura mater
adheres tightly to the cranial bones
o In contrast, within the vertebral
canal is an epidural space between
the dura mater and the vertebrae
o The epidural space is clinically
important as the injection site for
epidural anesthesia of the spinal
nerves, which is often given to
women during childbirth
Arachnoid Mater
o The second meningeal membrane is
very thin and wispy
o The space between the dura mater
and the arachnoid mater is the
subdural space, which is normally
only a potential space containing a
very small amount of serous fluid
o The spinal cord extends only to
approximately the level of the
second lumbar vertebra
o Spinal nerves surrounded by
meninges extend to the end of the
vertebral column
o Because there is no spinal cord in
the inferior portion of the vertebral
canal, a needle can be introduced
into the subarachnoid space at that
level without damaging the spinal
cord
o Physicians use such a needle to
inject anesthetic into the area as a
spinal block or to take a sample of
CSF in a spinal tap
o The CSF can then be examined for
infectious agents (meningitis) or for
blood (hemorrhage)
Pia Mater
o The third membrane, called the pia
mater, is very tightly bound to the
surface of the brain and the spinal
cord
o Between the arachnoid mater and
the pia mater is the subarachnoid
space, which is filled with CSF and
contains blood vessels
 VENTRICLES
o The CNS contains fluid-filled
cavities, called ventricles, which
are quite small in some areas and
large in others
o Each cerebral hemisphere contains
a relatively large cavity called the
lateral ventricle
o The third ventricle is a smaller,
midline cavity located in the center
of the diencephalon between the
two halves of the thalamus and
connected by an interventricular
foramen (holes) or foramina of
Monroe to the lateral ventricles
o The fourth ventricle is located at
the base of the cerebellum and
connected to the third ventricle by a
narrow canal, called the cerebral
aqueduct or Sylvian aqueduct
o It is continuous with the central
canal of the spinal cord, and it also
opens into the subarachnoid space
through foramina in its walls and
roof
• Median aperture of
Magendie (subarachnoid
space via the cisterna
magna)
• Right and left lateral
apertures of Luschka
(subarachnoid space via
the cistern of great
cerebral vein of Galen
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the brain
and spinal cord, providing a protective
cushion around the CNS
o It is produced by the choroid
plexuses, specialized structures
made up of ependymal cells, which
are located in the ventricles
o CSF fills the brain ventricles, the
central canal of the spinal cord, and
the subarachnoid space
Flow of CSF
o The CSF flows from the lateral
ventricles into the third ventricle via
the foramina of Monroe, and then
through the cerebral aqueduct of
Sylvia into the fourth ventricle
o A small amount of CSF enters the
central canal of the spinal cord
o The CSF exits the fourth ventricle
through small openings in its walls
(aperture of Magendie) and roof
(aperture of Luschka) and enters the
subarachnoid space
o Masses of arachnoid tissue, called
arachnoid granulations, penetrate
the superior sagittal sinus, a dural
venous sinus in the longitudinal
fissure, and CSF passes from the
subarachnoid space into the blood
through these granulations
o Blockage of the openings in the
fourth ventricle or the cerebral
aqueduct can cause CSF to
accumulate in the ventricles, a
condition known as hydrocephalus
o The accumulation of fluid creates
increased pressure that dilates the
ventricles and compresses the brain
tissue, which usually results in
irreversible brain damage
o If the skull bones are not completely
ossified when the hydrocephalus
occurs, as in a fetus or newborn, the
pressure can also cause severe
enlargement of the head
o Hydrocephalus is treated by placing
a drainage tube (shunt) from the
ventricles to the abdominal cavity to
eliminate the high internal pressures
 CRANIAL NERVES
Section 9-13
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Section 9-14
Organization of ANS
o The ANS comprises motor neurons
that carry action potentials from the
CNS to the periphery
o The autonomic neurons innervate
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
and glands
o Autonomic functions are largely
controlled unconsciously
o Axons from autonomic neurons do
not extend all the way from the
CNS to target tissues
o This is in contrast to somatic motor
neurons, which extend axons from
the CNS to skeletal muscle
o In the ANS, two neurons in series
extend from the CNS to the effector
organs
o The first is called the preganglionic
neuron and the second is the
postganglionic neuron
o The neurons are so named because
the preganglionic neurons synapse
with the postganglionic neurons in
the autonomic ganglia outside the
CNS
o An exception is the preganglionic
neuron that extends to the adrenal
gland
o There, the postganglionic neurons
are actually the hormone-secreting
cells of the adrenal medulla
o The ANS is composed of the
sympathetic division and the
parasympathetic division
o Increased activity in sympathetic
neurons generally prepares the
individual for physical activity,
whereas parasympathetic
stimulation generally activates
involuntary functions, such as
digestion, that are normally
associated with the body at rest
ANATOMY OF THE SYMPATHETIC
DIVISION
o Cell bodies of sympathetic
preganglionic neurons are in the
lateral horn of the spinal cord gray
matter between the first thoracic
(T1) and the second lumbar (L2)
segments
o Axons of the preganglionic neurons
exit through ventral roots and
project to either the sympathetic
chain ganglia or collateral ganglia
o The sympathetic chain ganglia are
connected to one another and are so
named because they form a chain
along both sides of the spinal cord
o Some preganglionic fibers synapse
with postganglionic fibers in the
sympathetic chain ganglia
 o The postganglionic axons form
sympathetic nerves that innervate
structures of the thoracic cavity
o The axons of those preganglionic
fibers that do not synapse in the
sympathetic chain ganglia form
splanchnic nerves that extend to
collateral ganglia
o Collateral ganglia are located
nearer target organs and consist of
the celiac, superior mesenteric, and
inferior mesenteric ganglia
o Preganglionic neurons synapse with
postganglionic neurons in the
collateral ganglia
o Postganglionic neurons in the
collateral ganglia project to target
tissues in the abdominal and pelvic
regions
ANATOMY OF THE
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Preganglionic cell bodies of the
parasympathetic division are located
either:
▪ Within the brainstem nuclei of the
oculomotor nerve (III), facial nerve
(VII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX),
or vagus nerve (X); or
▪ Within the lateral part of the central
gray matter of the spinal cord in the
regions that give rise to spinal
nerves S2 through S4
o Axons of the preganglionic neurons
extend through spinal nerves or
cranial nerves to terminal ganglia
either located near effector organs
in the head or embedded in the
walls of effector organs in the
thorax, abdomen, and pelvis
o The axons of the postganglionic
neurons extend a relatively short
distance from the terminal ganglia
to the target organ
o Most of the thoracic and abdominal
organs are supplied by
preganglionic neurons of the vagus
nerve extending from the brainstem
o The vagus nerve branches to
provide parasympathetic
innervation to the heart, the lungs,
the liver, and the stomach and other
digestive organs
AUTONOMIC
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
o All preganglionic neurons of both
the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic divisions and all
the postganglionic neurons of the
parasympathetic division secrete
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
o Most postsynaptic neurons of the
sympathetic division secrete
norepinephrine
o Many body functions can be
stimulated or inhibited by drugs that
either mimic these
neurotransmitters or prevent the
neurotransmitters from activating
their target tissues
ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Section 9-15
The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists
of plexuses within the wall of the digestive
tract
The plexuses include:
▪ Sensory neurons that connect the
digestive tract to the CNS
▪ Sympathetic and parasympathetic
neurons that connect the CNS to
the digestive tract
▪ Enteric neurons, located entirely
within the enteric plexuses
A unique feature of enteric neurons is
that they are capable of monitoring and
controlling the digestive tract
independently of the CNS through
local reflexes
 o For example, stretching of the
digestive tract is detected by enteric
sensory neurons, which stimulate
enteric interneurons
o The enteric interneurons stimulate
enteric motor neurons, which
stimulate glands to secrete
o Although the ENS is capable of
controlling the activities of the
digestive tract completely
independently of the CNS,
normally the two systems work
together
o CNS control of parasympathetic
branches of the vagus nerve and
sympathetic nerves (primarily the
splanchnic nerves) can override the
actions of the enteric neurons
o Hence, the ENS is an independent
subdivision of the PNS that is
integrated with the ANS

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Section 9-16
Read 8.16 - Effects of Aging on the Skeletal
System in 9th edition of Seeley’s Essentials
of Anatomy and Physiology