MAT137 1 SET NOTATION

1 Set Notation
Elements and Sets
Typically, we use lowercase letters such as x, y to denote elements (things).
We use uppercase letters such as A, B to denote sets (a bag of things).

Sets are made up of elements.

If an element x is inside set A, we write x ∈ A.

Set Compliment
Ac stands for the set complement of A.
It contains ’everything’ except for the things in A.

Set Containment
We use the symbol ⊂ or ⊆ to denote contained in.
For example, A ⊂ B means set A is contained in set B.
This means every element x in A, x is also in B.
Then we arrive at the property of transitivity for set containment:
If A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C, Then A ⊂ C
If we interpret set A, B, C as bags, then the statement basically says:
If bag A is inside bag B, but bag B is inside bag C,
then bag A must be inside bag C.

Set Equality
Two sets are equal only when A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.

Union and Intersection

We use the symbol ∪ to denote union of sets.
We say an element x ∈ A ∪ B only when x ∈ A or x ∈ B.

We use the symbol ∩ to denote intersection of sets.

We say an element x ∈ A ∩ B only when x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

Distributivity and DeMorgan’s Laws

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

Author: Xiao Page 1

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

2 Proof Techniques
Instantiation
Want to prove a statement P is true for many things (everything in set S).
Example statement:
∀x ∈ S, P is true. (where S is a set, ∀ means for every)

1. Pick x ∈ S randomly, or ’arbitrarily’.

Typically, things in S will have some common properties.

2. Use the properties to prove P is true for this specific x you picked.

3. Conclude P is true for all things in S.

Contradiction
Want to prove a statement P is true.
Instead of proving P directly:

1. Suppose P is false.

2. After some logical reasoning, deduce an impossible statement.

Example: 1=0

3. Conclude P is true.

Implication
Want to prove the statement: If A is true, then B is true. ( A ⇒ B )

1. Suppose A is true.

2. Using the assumption, prove B is true.

3. Conclude A ⇒ B is true.

Equivalent
Want to prove: A if and only if B. ( A ⇐⇒ B)

1. Prove ( A ⇒ B ) is true.

2. Prove ( B ⇒ A ) is true.

3. Conclude A ⇐⇒ B is true.

Author: Xiao Page 2

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Existence
Want to prove something exist, which makes the statement P to be true.
Example statement:
∃x ∈ S, P is true. (where S is a set, ∃ means there exists at least 1)

1. Give one example of x ∈ S.

Typically, x will use quantities that are from former parts of the proof.
x can also be taken directly as a element in S, such as x = 3 ∈ S.

2. Show that P is true for the specific x you have chosen.

(Thus, we need choose x so that we can show P is true.)

3. Conclude x does exist, which makes P true.

Set Containment
Want to prove a set S1 is contained inside S2 : S1 ⊂ S2 .
Method 1: Instantiation.

1. Pick x ∈ S1 randomly, or ’arbitrarily’.

2. Using the common properties of S1 , prove x ∈ S2 .

3. Conclude S1 ⊂ S2 .

Method 2: Use contradiction.

1. Suppose S1 6⊂ S2 .

2. Immediately conclude ∃x ∈ S1 , x 6∈ S2 .

3. After some logical reasoning, deduce an impossible statement.

4. Conclude S1 ⊂ S2 .

Set Equality
Want to prove 2 sets are equal: S1 = S2 .

1. Prove S1 ⊂ S2 .

2. Prove S2 ⊂ S1 .

3. Conclude S1 = S2 .

Author: Xiao Page 3

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Negation
Want to prove a statement Q is not true.

Type 1: Statements with quantifiers: for every ∀ and exists ∃

statement Q = ∀x ∈ S1 , ∃y ∈ S2 , P is true. (where P is another statement.)
1. Write the word not in front of the statement Q with a bracket.
Example: not (Q) = not (∀x ∈ S1 , ∃y ∈ S2 , P is true.)
2. Bring the word not toward the right, passing the quantifiers ∀, ∃.
Each time not pass across ∀, change ∀ to ∃.
Similarly, each time not pass across ∃, change ∃ to ∀.
Example: not (Q) = ∃x ∈ S1 , not (∃y ∈ S2 , P is true.)
not (Q) = ∃x ∈ S1 , ∀y ∈ S2 , not (P is true.)
not (Q) = ∃x ∈ S1 , ∀y ∈ S2 , P is false.
3. Prove the simplified statement of not (Q) attained at the end.
Type 2: Statements with implication: statement Q = (A ⇒ B)
1. Write the word not in front of the statement Q with a bracket.
Example: not (Q) = not(A ⇒ B).
2. Logically, the statement A ⇒ B is equivalent to: not (A) or B.
Use De Morgan’s Law and bring the word not into the bracket.
Example: not (Q) = not not (A) or B
 
not (Q) = not not (A) and not (B)
not (Q) = (A is true) and B is false.
3. Prove the simplified statement of not (Q) attained at the end.
Contrapositive
Want to prove the implication statement: A ⇒ B
Instead of proving the implication directly:
1. We can choose to prove the equivalent statement: not (B) ⇒ not (A).
2. Suppose not (B) is true.
3. Prove not (A) is true.
4. Conclude A ⇒ B is true.

Author: Xiao Page 4

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Proof By Cases
Split into cases, and prove the statement in both (all) cases.
Type 1: Want to prove the statement: (P or Q) is true.
1. Consider the following two cases.
Case 1: P is true. Case 2: P is false.
(We need prove (P or Q) is true in both cases.)
2. In case 1: In case 2:
Conclude (P or Q) is true. Use the new assumption P is false,
prove Q is true.
Conclude (P or Q) is true.
3. Conclude (P or Q) is true in both cases.
Important Note:
Alternatively, we can do the reverse, and split into the following 2 cases:
Case 1: Q is true. Case 2: Q is false.
Sometimes P and Q are very different statements, and only one of the
above 2 case splits can lead to a proof.

Type 2: We know (P or Q) is true. Want to prove statement R is true.

1. Consider the following two cases.
Case 1: P is true. Case 2: Q is true.
(We need prove R is true in both cases.)
2. In case 1: In case 2:
Use the new assumption P is true, Use the new assumption Q is true,
prove R is true. prove R is true.
(Do not use Q is true.) (Do not use P is true.)
3. Conclude R is true in both cases.
Induction
Want to prove: ∀n ∈ N, P (n) is true. (P involves the natural number n)
1. Prove P (1) is true.
2. Suppose P (n) is true.
Prove P (n + 1) is true. (Replace all n in statement P with n + 1)
3. Conclude ∀n ∈ N, P (n) is true.

Author: Xiao Page 5

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Question 1
Prove the following statements are Equivalent:

1. A ∪ B = B

2. A ⊂ B

3. A ∩ B = A

4. B c ⊂ Ac

Strategy:
To prove several statements are equivalent,
we typically prove a loop of implications.
In this case, let’s try to prove 1 ⇒ 2, 2 ⇒ 3, 3 ⇒ 4, 4 ⇒ 1.
In general, we can take any order of number we like.

Proof Part 1: Prove 1 ⇒ 2.

This means we need to prove the statement: A ∪ B = B ⇒ A ⊂ B.
In proving an Implication, the first step is to suppose the left side is true.
So we write in the first line of the proof:

Suppose .

Next, ths statement we need to prove changes to: A ⊂ B.

In proving a set containment, we first take a random element on the left.
So we write in the second line of the proof to be:

Let x ∈ be chosen randomly.

Now the statement we need to prove changes to: x ∈ .

We need to use our assumption in step 1 to arrive at this conclusion.
Think: Since x ∈ A, what is its relationship with A ∪ B in the assumption.

Since x ∈ A, .
Since A ∪ B = B, .
Thus x ∈ .
Thus 1 ⇒ 2 is true.

Author: Xiao Page 6

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Proof Part 2: Prove 2 ⇒ 3.

The statement we need to prove is: A ⊂ B ⇒ A ∩ B = A.
Since it’s an implication, we need to:

Suppose .

Next the statement we need to prove changes to A ∩ B = A.

Note that this is a Set equality.
We need to prove 2 statements: A ∩ B ⊂ A and A ⊂ A ∩ B.

First, we prove: A ∩ B ⊂ A.
Let x ∈ be chosen randomly.
The statement we need to prove changes to: x ∈ .

Using the definition of intersection, we have x ∈ and x ∈ .

Thus x ∈ .

Next, we prove A ⊂ A ∩ B.
Let x ∈ be chosen randomly.
The statement we need to prove changes to: x ∈ A ∩ B.
By the definition of intersection, we need to prove: x ∈ and x ∈ .

By the previous assumption, we already know x ∈ .

By the first assumption , we also have x ∈ .
Thus x ∈ A ∩ B.

Thus A ∩ B = A.
Thus 2 ⇒ 3 is true.

Author: Xiao Page 7

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Proof Part 3: Prove 3 ⇒ 4.

The statement we need to prove is: A ∩ B = A ⇒ B c ⊂ Ac .
Since it’s an implication, we need to:

Suppose .

Next the statement we need to prove changes to B c ⊂ Ac .

Note that this is a Set containment.

Let x ∈ be chosen randomly.

By definition of complement, x 6∈ . (6∈ means not in)

The statement we need to prove changes to: x ∈ .

By definition of complement, we need to prove: x 6∈ .
We use proof by contradiction.

Suppose x ∈ .
Using the first assumption, we have x ∈ .
Using the definition of intersection, we have x ∈ and x ∈ .

This is a contradiction, as we already know x 6∈ .

Thus we conclude x 6∈ .
Thus 3 ⇒ 4 is true.

Author: Xiao Page 8

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Proof Part 4: Prove 4 ⇒ 1.

The statement we need to prove is: B c ⊂ Ac ⇒ A ∪ B = B.
Since it’s an implication, we need to:

Suppose .

Next the statement we need to prove changes to A ∪ B = B.

This is again a Set equality.

First, we prove A ∪ B ⊂ B.
Let x ∈ A ∪ B be chosen randomly.
The statement we need to prove changes to: x ∈ .

Note that as x ∈ A ∪ B, then it is a possibility that x ∈ A or x ∈ B.

Thus to continue, we need to split the proof into 2 cases.
Case 1: x ∈ A Case 2: x ∈ B.
(We need prove x ∈ is true in both cases.)
We use a little trick: Thus x ∈ .
As x ∈ A, we have x 6∈ Ac .
Using the first assumption ,
and x 6∈ Ac , we have x 6∈ .
Thus x ∈ .

Thus in both cases, x ∈ .

Next, we prove B ⊂ A ∪ B.
Let x ∈ be chosen randomly.
The statement we need to prove changes to: x ∈ A ∪ B .

By definition of union, we need to prove: x ∈ or x ∈ .

By the previous assumption, we have x ∈ .
Thus x ∈ .

Thus A ∪ B = B.
Thus 4 ⇒ 1 is true.

Author: Xiao Page 9

MAT137 2 PROOF TECHNIQUES

Question 2
Use induction to prove the following statements P (n) to be true for all n ∈ N:
n
X n(n + 1)
1. P (n) : k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
k=1
2
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2. P (n) : k 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 =
k=1
6
n
X n2 (n + 1)2
3. P (n) : k 3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + n3 =
k=1
4

Author: Xiao Page 10

MAT137 3  − δ LIMIT DEFINITION

3  − δ Limit Definition
The standard limit is as follows:
lim f (x) = L
x→a

However, what exactly do these symbols mean?

Intuitively, it is understood as follows:
We think of a function as an arrow, taking one value a in the domain X,
and ’shoot’ it to the value f (a) of the codomain Y.
f :X→Y
a 7→ f (a)
(In this course, X and Y will be both R, the set of all real numbers.)

We would like to ask:

If instead of starting at a, we are at the point x that is really close to a (in X),
can we make sure that f (x) is really close to f (a) as well (in Y )?

This seems like a reasonable requirement, and is the intuition behind limit.
How can we translate this sentence into mathematical language?

To keep things simple, let’s say the target is L = f (a), and we want to
get f (x) to be close to L. It would be great if f (x) hit exactly L, however,
that is too high of a requirement. Instead, we create an error range around
L. We require f (x) to hit inside this error range. We call the radius of this
error range to be .

After picking this error range, we need to control the values of x we pick.
If x is far from a, we shouldn’t expect f (x) to be in the error range.

So we give a control range centered at a for the values of x we can pick.

We call the radius of this control range to be δ.
What should the control range radius δ satisfy?
We should be able to guarantee that for any value of x taken from the
control range near a, f (x) will be inside the error range, near L.

i.e. We can achieve our goal of f (x) being close to L, by concentrating

the value of x around a, to be inside the control range with radius δ.

Author: Xiao Page 11

MAT137 3  − δ LIMIT DEFINITION

Now to put it into mathematical language:

(Recall that the distance between any 2 points a and b, in R is d(a, b) = |b−a|)

For any  > 0 as the error radius, there will exist δ > 0 as the control
radius, such that for all x inside the control radius (which is |x − a| < δ),
we can guarantee that f (x) is in the error range (which is |f (x) − f (a)| < ).

In symbols:
lim f (x) = L
x→a
∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0, if 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ then |f (x) − L| < 
Remember that the value a is a fixed point given to us from the start, and x
is a variable value that can change inside the control range.
So:
|x − a| < δ ⇔ a − δ < x < a + δ |f (x) − L| <  ⇔ L −  < f (x) < L + 
0 < |x − a| is just a detail: for limits, we do not consider the possibility of x = a.

Using a similar idea, we can say the limit at infinity is done by controlling
x to be very large. So instead of concentrating x inside a control range with
radius δ, we concentrate x ”at infinity”, by requiring x > N , where N is
chosen to be large.
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
∀ > 0, ∃N, if x > N ⇒ then |f (x) − L| < 
What about limit at a does not exist?
It means no matter what value of L (for all L), lim f (x) 6= L.
x→a
Negating the statement would interchange ∀ and ∃, negating the implication
would mean there is a counter-example to the implication, namely, there
is an x in the control range δ, with f (x) outside the error range .
∀L, ∃ > 0, ∀δ > 0, ∃ x , with 0 < |x − a| < δ and |f (x) − L| ≥ 
One type of limit not existing is f (x) going to infinity. In this case, we do
have a goal for the values of f (x), which is to be very large (larger than a
large number M ), as long as x is concentrated closed enough to the point a.
lim f (x) = +∞
x→a

∀M > 0, ∃δ > 0, if 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ then f (x) > M

Author: Xiao Page 12