Supplement to the

Oxford South African Concise Dictionary

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This guide to word formation is supplied as a supplement to the Oxford South African Concise
Dictionary. Use it to build your ability to work out the meanings of hundreds of words quickly.

Word Formation
In English, many of the words we know, both new and old, are formed from roots in the classical
languages, Greek and Latin. This is especially true of technical and scientific terms. Others have
roots going back to Old English or Norman French. The Word Formation panels that follow
illustrate the wide variety of words that are made up of some common linguistic elements.
Understanding these root forms can help you to work out the meanings of many other words
formed in the same way.
Full definitions of most of the words in these panels can be found in the alphabetical section of
the Oxford South African Concise Dictionary.

-aemia (also -haemia) ‘blood’, from Greek haima ‘blood’

Most -aemia words relate to the presence or absence of a particular substance in the blood.
  ➤  Some -aemia words in current use:

anaemia deficiency of red blood cells or haemoglobin Greek an ‘without’

hyperaemia excess of blood Greek huper ‘over’
hyperglycaemia excess glucose in the blood Greek huper ‘over’ + glukus ‘sweet’
hyperlipaemia excess fat in the blood Greek huper ‘over’ + lipos ‘fat’
hypocalcaemia deficiency of calcium in the blood Greek hupo ‘under’
hypoglycaemia deficiency of glucose in the blood Greek hupo ‘under’ + glukus ‘sweet’
hypovolaemia a decrease in the volume of circulating blood Greek hupo ‘under’ + volume
ischaemia inadequate blood supply Greek iskhein ‘keep back’
leukaemia malignant disease involving overproduction of Greek leukos ‘white’
white blood cells
septicaemia blood poisoning Greek sēpein ‘make rotten’
uraemia excess urea in the blood Greek ouron ‘urine’

The US standard spelling is usually -emia, hence anemia, leukemia, and septicemia.
The prefixes haemo- and haemato- are also based on Greek haima ‘blood’, giving rise to such
words as haemoglobin, haemophiliac, and haemorrhoid.

-algia ‘pain’, from Greek algos ‘pain’

  ➤  -algia words in current use:

arthralgia pain in a joint Greek arthron ‘joint’
myalgia pain in a muscle Greek mus ‘muscle’
neuralgia pain along a nerve Greek neuron ‘nerve’

The word nostalgia, with its current sense ‘sentimental longing or affection for the past’,
originally (18th century) meant ‘homesickness’, formed on the Greek element nostos
‘return home’.
 WORD FORMATION 2

  ➤  Other words based on Greek algos ‘pain’:

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analgesia, relief of pain using drugs; relieving pain Greek an- ‘not’ + algein ‘feel pain’
analgesic
hyperalgesia heightened sensitivity to pain Greek huperalgein ‘be in great pain’

  -archy ‘rule or government’, from Greek arkhein ‘to rule’

  ➤  Some of the most common -archy words:
anarchy a state of disorder Greek an- ‘without’
hierarchy a system ranked according to status Greek hieros ‘sacred’ (because it
was originally used to denote the
system of orders of angels and
other heavenly beings)
matriarchy a social organization in which the mother is head Latin mater, matr- ‘mother’
of the family
monarchy government by a king or queen Greek monos ‘alone’
oligarchy a small group of people holding power Greek oligoi ‘few’
patriarchy a social organization in which the father is head of Greek patria ‘family’
the family
squirearchy landowners as the dominant class based on squire + hierarchy

A number of -archy words have equivalents ending in -arch (forming nouns, i.e. ‘a ruler’), for
example monarch, matriarch, and patriarch. In modern English, the elements -arch and -archy
are no longer productive, i.e. they are no longer used to form new words.

  -arium ‘a place’
The form -arium derives from an adjectival ending in Latin.
  ➤  Some -arium words in current use:

aquarium a tank for aquatic fauna and flora Latin aqua ‘water’
columbarium a repository with niches for storing funeral urns Latin columba ‘dove’ (with allusion to
the niches in a dovecote)
dolphinarium an aquarium for dolphins based on dolphin
herbarium a collection of dried plants Latin herba ‘grass, green crop’
insectarium a container for the study of insects based on insect
leprosarium a leper hospital Greek lepros ‘scaly’
oceanarium a large seawater aquarium based on ocean
planetarium a domed building used to project images of the based on planet
sky showing the stars and planets
solarium a room with sunbeds or sunlamps Latin sol ‘sun’
termitarium a termite colony based on termite
terrarium a glass case for keeping small land animals, esp. Latin terra ‘earth’
frogs, snakes, etc.
vivarium an enclosure for keeping animals under observation Latin vivus ‘living’

Some words ending in -arium in this dictionary, such as the chemical elements barium and
samarium, are etymologically unrelated.
3 WORD FORMATION

  -cide ‘killing’, from Latin caedere ‘to kill’

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  ➤  -cide words in current use:
1. with the meaning ‘the killing of another’:

filicide the killing of one’s son or daughter Latin filius ‘son’, filia ‘daughter’
fratricide the killing of one’s brother or sister Latin frater ‘brother’
genocide the killing of a large number of people within a Greek genos ‘race’
single population
homicide the killing of a person; murder Latin homo, homin- ‘man’
infanticide the killing of a baby based on infant
matricide the killing of one’s mother Latin mater, matr- ‘mother’
parricide the killing of a parent or near relation associated with Latin pater ‘father’ and
parens ‘parent’
patricide the killing of one’s father Latin pater, patr- ‘father’
regicide the killing of a king Latin rex, reg- ‘king’
siblicide the killing of siblings in animal groups based on sibling
suicide the intentional killing of oneself Latin sui ‘of oneself’
tyrannicide the killing of a tyrant Latin tyrannus ‘tyrant’
uxoricide the killing of one’s wife Latin uxor ‘wife’

2. with the meaning ‘a substance used to destroy plant or animal life’:

acaricide a substance used to kill mites or ticks Greek akari ‘mite, tick’
bactericide a substance used to destroy bacteria based on bacteria
biocide a substance used to kill living organisms; a pesticide Greek bios ‘life’
fungicide a substance used to destroy fungi based on fungi
germicide a substance used to kill germs based on germ
herbicide a substance used to destroy vegetation Latin herba ‘green crops, grass’
pesticide a substance used to kill pests based on pest
spermicide a contraceptive that kills spermatozoa based on sperm
vermicide a substance used to kill worms Latin vermis ‘worm’

Many of the words in the first list have a long history in English: homicide, for example, is first
recorded in the late 14th century, while fratricide makes its appearance in the mid 15th century.
In earlier uses the sense was frequently also ‘a person who kills ...’ . This sense is less common in
modern use, though it survives in certain words, e.g. suicide: ‘suicides used to be interred with a
stake through the body’.
The words in the second list are more recent: the vast majority were not used before the late 19th
century or early 20th century. The word spermicide, for example, does not enter the language
until around 1930.
Many -cide words are formed with a connecting -i- (i.e. -icide), as in pesticide and spermicide.
These are formed by analogy with early formations from Latin or via French, in which the -i-
belongs to the first element, as in homicide (the -i- in Latin homo, homin-).

  -cracy ‘government or rule’, from Greek kratia ‘power, rule’

The words democracy and aristocracy have their origins in Greek: democracy (dēmos ‘the
people’) referred to direct rule through assembly by the citizens of the ancient Greek city
states, while aristocracy (aristos ‘best’) referred to rule by the best – those best qualified to rule
by education or social position. In English these words (adopted in the 15th/16th century) have
acquired somewhat different, though clearly related, meanings: the chief sense in the current
use of aristocracy, for example, is ‘the highest social class, comprising people of noble birth
with hereditary titles’.
 WORD FORMATION 4

  ➤  Some -cracy words in current use:

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plutocracy government by the wealthy Greek ploutos ‘wealth’

theocracy government by priests (as God’s representatives) Greek theos ‘God’
autocracy government by one person with absolute power Greek autos ‘self’
bureaucracy a system of government by state officials French bureau ‘baize’ (alluding to the
baize covering a desk)
gerontocracy government by old people Greek gerōn, geront- ‘old man’
meritocracy government by those selected on merit based on merit
technocracy government by technical experts Greek tekhnē ‘art, craft’

The presence in original Greek elements of the letter -o- (in dēmos, aristos, etc.) has given rise to
the insertion of -o- in some English formations, even where this is superfluous, as in meritocracy
(where, strictly speaking, the logical formation is meritcracy).
  ➤  Related words:
-cratic forming adjectives, e.g. aristocratic ‘relating to the aristocracy’

  -culture ‘cultivation or husbandry, especially of a specified animal or plant’ from

Anglo-Norman and Middle French culture
  ➤  Some -culture words in current use:

agriculture farming Latin ager, agri- ‘field’

apiculture bee-keeping Latin apis ‘bee’
aviculture rearing of birds Latin avis ‘bird’
floriculture cultivation of flowers Latin flos, flor- ‘flower’
horticulture gardening Latin hortus ‘garden’
mariculture cultivation of sea fish or other marine life Latin mare, mari- ‘sea’
pisciculture breeding of fish Latin piscis ‘fish’
sericulture cultivation of silk and silkworms Latin sericum ‘silk’
silviculture cultivation of trees Latin silva ‘wood’
viniculture less common term for viticulture Latin vinum ‘wine’
viticulture cultivation of grapevines Latin vitis ‘vine’

  ➤  Archaic or rare -culture words:

domiculture housekeeping Latin domus ‘house’
urbiculture development of cities and towns Latin urbs, urb- ‘city’

Most -culture words were first used in English in the 19th century, though a few, notably
agriculture and horticulture, are recorded earlier (17th century).

  -dactyl from Greek daktulos ‘finger, toe’

  ➤  U
 sed
alone, dactyl is a technical term in prosody. However, the literal meaning of the
Greek root daktulos ‘finger’ forms part of a number of technical (chiefly zoological) terms
in English:
artiodactyl a mammal belonging to the order of even-toed Greek artios ‘even’
ungulates, such as ruminants, camels, and pigs
monodactyl having only one finger or toe on each hand or foot Greek monos ‘one’
pentadactyl having five toes or fingers Greek pente ‘five’
5 WORD FORMATION

perissodactyl a mammal belonging to the order of odd-toed Greek perissos ‘uneven’

ungulates, such as horses and rhinoceroses

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polydactyl having more than five fingers or toes on each hand Greek polu- ‘many’
or foot
pterodactyl a type of fossil warm-blooded flying reptile Greek pteron ‘wing’
tetradactyl having four toes or fingers Greek tettares ‘four’
tridactyl having three toes or fingers Greek treis ‘three’
zygodactyl (of a bird) having two toes pointing forward and based on zygo-
two backward

-derm (also -derma and -dermy) from Greek derma, dermat- ‘skin’
ectoderm the outermost layer of cells or tissues of an embryo Greek ektos ‘outside’
endoderm the innermost layer of cells or tissues of an embryo Greek endon ‘within’
epidermis the surface part of the skin of an animal Greek epi ‘upon’
hypodermic relating to the region immediately beneath the skin Greek hupo ‘under’
(also, a needle used to inject beneath the skin)
mesoderm the middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo Greek mesos ‘middle’
pachyderm large mammal with thick skin (e.g. an elephant) Greek pakhus ‘thick’
placoderm a fossil fish covered in flat bony plates Greek plax, plak- ‘flat plate’
pyoderma a skin infection with pus formation Greek puon ‘pus’
scleroderma the hardening and contraction of the skin and Greek sklēros ‘hard’
connective tissue
taxidermy the preparation and stuffing of animal skins Greek taxis ‘arrangement’
xeroderma a disease characterized by dryness of the skin Greek xēros ‘dry’

The prefix dermato- is also derived from Greek, and gives rise to such English words as
dermatology, dermatitis, and dermatomyositis.

-drome from Greek dromos ‘running, course’

  ➤  A number of seemingly unrelated English words are formed using the element -drome:
aerodrome a small airport (also used earlier (1890s) in the sense Greek aēr ‘air’
‘aeroplane’)
hippodrome (in the ancient world) a course for chariot races; in Greek hippos ‘horse’
modern use, in names of theatres and concert
halls
palindrome a sequence of letters that reads the same backwards Greek palin ‘back again’
as forwards
syndrome a group of symptoms occurring together Greek sun- ‘together’
velodrome a steeply banked cycle-racing track French vélo ‘bicycle’

The term dromedary, denoting the Arabian (or one-humped) camel, is also related
etymologically, deriving from Latin dromedarius (camelus) ‘swift-running camel’, based on
Greek dromas ‘runner’.

-ectomy from Greek -ektome ‘excision’

  ➤  Most -ectomy words relate to surgical removal of specified parts of the body:

appendectomy an operation to remove the appendix based on appendix

clitoridectomy removal of the clitoris; female circumcision based on clitoris
hysterectomy an operation to remove the womb Greek hustera ‘womb’
lumpectomy an operation to remove a lump (tumour) based on lump
mastectomy an operation to remove a breast Greek mastos ‘breast’
 WORD FORMATION 6

nephrectomy an operation to remove a kidney Greek nephros ‘kidney’

pancreatectomy removal of the pancreas based on pancreas
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vasectomy male sterilization by cutting and sealing each vas based on vas
deferens

-genic based on Greek genēs ‘born’

  ➤  1. With the sense ‘producing or produced by’:
allergenic causing an allergic reaction based on allergy
allogenic (in geology) transported from elsewhere Greek allos ‘other’
anthropogenic originating in human activity Greek anthrōpos ‘human being’
authigenic (in geology) formed in the present position Greek authigenēs ‘born on the spot’
carcinogenic having the potential to cause cancer Greek karkinos ‘crab’ (see cancer)
cryogenics the production of very low temperatures (e.g. as a Greek kruos ‘frost’
way of keeping a human being alive)
cryptogenic (of a disease) of unknown origin Greek kruptos ‘hidden’
eugenics the science of controlled breeding in a population Greek eu ‘well’
hypo-allergenic not causing an allergic reaction Greek hupo ‘under’ + allergy
neurogenic originating in the nervous system Greek neuron ‘nerve’
pathogenic producing disease Greek pathos ‘disease’
psychogenic having a psychological, rather than physical, cause Greek psukhē ‘soul, mind’
pyrogenic inducing fever Greek pur ‘fire’

  ➤  Related words:
-gen forming nouns, as pathogen ‘a bacterium, virus, etc. that can cause disease’

  ➤  2. With the sense ‘well suited to’:

The term photogenic is the earliest in this sense (first recorded in the 1920s): the others are
formed by analogy with it, as telegenic ‘well suited to television’, radiogenic, etc.

-gon ‘a plane figure with a specified number of straight sides’, from Greek -gōnos
‘-angled’
decagon ten sides Greek deka ‘ten’
dodecagon twelve sides Greek dōdeka ‘twelve’
hendecagon eleven sides Greek hendeka ‘eleven’
heptagon seven sides Greek hepta ‘seven’
hexagon six sides Greek hex ‘six’
nonagon nine sides Latin nonus ‘ninth’
octagon eight sides Greek oktō ‘eight’
pentagon five sides Greek pente ‘five’
polygon many sides Greek polloi ‘many’

-graphy from Greek -graphia ‘writing’

  ➤  A
number of -graphy words in English relate directly to writing, both the techniques used
and the subject matter addressed:
autobiography an account of one’s own life Greek autos ‘self’ + bios ‘life’
biography an account of a person’s life Greek bios ‘life’
calligraphy decorative handwriting Greek kallos ‘beauty’
7 WORD FORMATION

chirography handwriting, esp. as distinct from printed matter Greek kheir ‘hand’
epigraphy the interpretation of ancient inscriptions Greek epigraphein ‘write on’

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hagiography a biography idealizing its subject Greek hagios ‘holy’
orthography spelling, esp. correct spelling Greek orthos ‘correct’
palaeography the study of ancient writing Greek palaios ‘ancient’
stenography writing and transcribing shorthand Greek stenos ‘narrow’
typography the process of setting type; the style of printed Greek tupos ‘impression, force’
matter

  ➤  Other -graphy words relate to the production of images, graphs, or diagrams:

cartography the science of drawing maps Latin carta, from Greek khartēs
‘papyrus leaf’
encephalography a technique for recording electrical activity in Greek enkephalos ‘brain’
the brain
holography the production of three-dimensional images Greek holos ‘whole’
(holograms)
lithography a printing process Greek lithos ‘stone’
mammography the use of X-rays to locate breast abnormalities Latin mamma ‘breast’
photography the taking of photographs Greek phōs, phōt- ‘light’
pornography writing and images designed to stimulate sexual Greek pornographos ‘writing about
excitement prostitutes’
radiography the production of images by X-rays, gamma rays, etc. based on radio
tomography a technique for producing an image showing a Greek tomos ‘slice’
cross-section through the body
topography the arrangement of physical features of an area Greek topos ‘place’

  ➤  O
 ne of the most productive uses in English forms words with the meaning ‘a descriptive
science or study’ (many of the words listed above also have this meaning):
cosmography the science of the universe Greek kosmos ‘order, world’
crystallography the science of crystals Greek krustallos ‘crystal’
ethnography the study of different peoples Greek ethnos ‘nation’
geography the study of the physical features of the earth and Greek gē ‘earth’
their relation to human populations
oceanography the science of the sea based on ocean
petrography the study of rocks Greek petros ‘stone’

-hedron from Greek hedra ‘base’

  ➤  M
 ost -hedron words are used with the sense ‘a solid figure having a specified number of
plane faces’:
decahedron ten faces Greek deka ‘ten’
dodecahedron twelve faces Greek dōdeka ‘twelve’
heptahedron seven faces Greek hepta ‘seven’
hexahedron six faces Greek hex ‘six’
icosahedron twenty faces Greek eikosi ‘twenty’
octahedron eight faces Greek oktō ‘eight’
pentahedron five faces Greek pente ‘five’
polyhedron many faces Greek polloi ‘many’
tetrahedron four faces (a triangular pyramid) Greek tettares ‘four’
trihedron three faces (in addition to the ends) Greek treis ‘three’
 WORD FORMATION 8

-ine forming adjectives relating to animals

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  ➤  S
 ome-ine words in this group are used in general vocabulary, while others relate to a
specific group (sometimes a subfamily ending in -inae) and are found only in technical
contexts:
1. Mammals

bovine relating to cattle Latin bos, bov- ‘ox’

canine relating to dogs Latin canis ‘dog’
caprine relating to goats Latin caper, capr- ‘goat’
colubrine relating to snakes Latin coluber ‘snake’
equine relating to horses Latin equus ‘horse’
feline relating to cats Latin feles ‘cat’
leonine relating to lions Latin leo, leon- ‘lion’
lupine relating to wolves Latin lupus ‘wolf’
murine relating to mice or other rodents Latin mus, mur- ‘mouse’
ovine relating to sheep Latin ovis ‘sheep’
piscine relating to fish Latin piscis ‘fish’
porcine relating to pigs Latin porcus ‘pig’
taurine relating to bulls Latin taurus ‘bull’
ursine relating to bears Latin ursus ‘bear’
vulpine relating to foxes Latin vulpes ‘fox’

2. Birds

aquiline relating to eagles Latin aquila ‘eagle’

corvine relating to crows or ravens Latin corvus ‘raven’
hirundine a bird of the swallow family Latin hirundo ‘swallow’
passerine denoting perching birds Latin passer ‘sparrow’
psittacine relating to parrots Greek psittakos ‘parrot’

-itis denoting an inflammatory disease

In Greek, -itis is the feminine form of adjectives ending in itēs, and was already used in Greek
forms with the noun nosos ‘disease’ understood, even though not expressed.
  ➤  There are many common words in English formed with -itis:
appendicitis inflammation of the appendix based on appendix
arthritis disease causing inflammation of joints Greek arthron ‘joint’
bronchitis inflammation of the bronchial tubes Greek bronkhos ‘windpipe’
bursitis inflammation of a bursa based on bursa
cystitis inflammation of the urinary bladder Greek kustis ‘bladder’
encephalomyelitis inflammation of the brain and spinal cord Greek enkephalos ‘brain’ + muelos
‘marrow’
gastro-enteritis inflammation of the stomach and intestine Greek gaster, gastr- ‘stomach’ + enteron
‘intestine’
hepatitis disease causing inflammation of the liver Greek hēpar, hēpat- ‘liver’
laryngitis inflammation of the larynx based on larynx
meningitis disease causing inflammation of the meninges Greek mēninx, mēning- ‘membrane’

The form -itis is also used in the humorous coinage of words with the sense ‘a particular state
of mind or tendency seen as a disease’ e.g. electionitis (used in 1945 by Winston Churchill),
media-itis, phone-itis.
9 WORD FORMATION

-logue from Greek logos ‘word, speech, telling’

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  ➤  S
 ome of the most common -logue words, typically relating to a particular type of speech
or text:
catalogue a list of items systematically ordered Greek katalegein ‘pick out’ (from
kata ‘down’)
dialogue a conversation Greek dia ‘through’
epilogue a section serving as a comment at the end of a text Greek epi ‘in addition’
ideologue a dogmatic supporter of an ideology based on idea
monologue a long speech by a single actor Greek monos ‘alone’
prologue a separate introductory section to a work Greek pro ‘before’
travelogue a film or text about travel experiences based on travel

Many -logue words are spelled -log in US English, as catalog, dialog, and epilog.
The word analogue relates to logos meaning ‘ratio, proportion’, and means literally ‘up to
proportion’.

-logy from Greek logos ‘word, discourse, account, etc.’

  ➤  Th
 echief sense in English -logy words is ‘a subject of study or interest’, and there are many
hundreds of such words, represented here by some of the most widely used:
anthropology the study of humankind Greek anthrōpos ‘human being’
archaeology the study of human history and prehistory through Greek arkhaios ‘ancient’
excavations, etc.
astrology the study of the stars and planets as having an Greek astron ‘star’
influence on human affairs
biology the study of living organisms Greek bios ‘life’
ecology the study of organisms in relation to their Greek oikos ‘house’
environment
entomology the study of insects Greek entomon ‘insect’
epidemiology the study of diseases Greek epidēmia ‘prevalence of disease’
(from epi- ‘on, above’ + dēmos
‘people’)
geology the science of the physical structure of the earth Greek gē ‘earth’
gynaecology the branch of medicine relating to women Greek gunē, gunaik- ‘woman’
meteorology the science of the atmosphere Greek meteōron, from meteōros ‘lofty’
oncology the branch of medicine relating to tumours Greek onkos ‘mass’
philology the study of the development of languages Greek philologos ‘fond of words’
sociology the study of human society Latin socius ‘companion’

  ➤  Th
 e -logy suffix is also used with the senses relating more generally to types of language
or discourse:
anthology a published collection of works Greek anthos ‘flower’ (i.e. ‘the flowers
of verse’)
apology expression of acknowledgement of fault Greek apologia ‘speech in one’s
defence’ (from apo ‘away’)
etymology the study of word origins Greek etumon, from etumos ‘true’
eulogy a song or speech of praise Greek eulogia ‘praise’ (from eu ‘well’)
ideology a system of (political) ideas on which a theory Greek idea ‘form’
is based
methodology a system of methods Greek methodos ‘pursuit of knowledge’
tautology unnecessary repetition within a statement using Greek tauto- ‘same’
different words
trilogy three related works Greek treis ‘three’
 WORD FORMATION 10

  ➤  Some of the oldest -logy words:

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genealogy 14th century: line of continuous descent from an Greek genea ‘race, generation’
ancestor
mythology 15th century: a set of myths relating to a particular Greek muthos ‘myth’
tradition
theology 14th century: the study of religion and the nature Greek theos ‘God’
of God

Some important -logy words are of relatively recent origin: biology, ecology, and sociology, for
example, date from the 19th century.

-lysis ‘decomposition’, from Greek lusis ‘loosening’

  ➤  Most
-lysis words are used in technical fields, in which the first element indicates either the
agent of decomposition or the substance affected by decomposition:
catalysis using a catalyst to accelerate a chemical reaction Greek kataluein ‘dissolve’ (kata ‘down’
+ luein ‘loosen’)
electrolysis chemical decomposition using an electric current electro-
fibrinolysis breakdown by enzymes of the fibrin in blood clots based on fibrin
glycolysis breakdown by enzymes of glucose Greek glukus ‘sugar, sweet’
histolysis breakdown of tissue Greek histos ‘web, tissue’
hydrolysis chemical breakdown due to reaction with water Greek hudōr ‘water’

  ➤  A
number of words containing the same element are of earlier origin and tend to have less

technical meanings:
analysis detailed examination Greek analuein ‘unloosen’
paralysis loss of the ability to move Greek paraluein (para ‘beside, beyond’)

-mania ‘madness, obsessiveness’

  ➤  Some -mania words in current use:

Anglomania excessive admiration of English customs Latin Anglus ‘English’

bibliomania passionate enthusiasm for books Greek biblion ‘book’
dipsomania a craving for alcohol; alcoholism Greek dipsa ‘thirst’
egomania obsessive egotism based on ego
erotomania excessive sexual desire Greek erōs, erōt- ‘sexual love’
kleptomania an irresistible urge to steal Greek kleptēs ‘thief’
megalomania obsession with power megalo- (from Greek megas ‘great’)
monomania obsession with one thing Greek monos ‘alone’
nymphomania uncontrollable sexual desire in a woman Latin nympha ‘nymph’
pyromania obsessive desire to set things on fire Greek pur ‘fire’

  ➤  Related words:
maniac forming nouns, e.g. megalomaniac ‘a person obsessed with power’
maniacal forming adjectives, e.g. egomaniacal ‘of or relating to excessive egotism’

The use of -mane, taken from or imitating French, to form nouns meaning ‘a person who has a
mania for ... ’ is now relatively rare. It survives in only a few words, e.g. balletomane, bibliomane.
11 WORD FORMATION

-morph from Greek morphē ‘form’

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  ➤  F
 requently also found as adjectives -morphic or -morphous, the -morph element gives rise
to a variety of both technical and general words:
amorphous having no clearly defined form Greek a- ‘without’
anthropomorphic tending to attribute human characteristics Greek anthrōpos ‘human being’
to animals or objects
dimorphic (of an organism) occurring in two different forms Greek di- ‘two’
geomorphology the study of physical features of the earth’s surface Greek gē ‘earth’ + -logy
isomorphic similar in form or relation Greek isos ‘equal’
metamorphic (of rock) having undergone transformation by meta- (denoting a change of condition)
heat, pressure, etc.
morphology the study of the forms of words -logy (in the sense ‘word’)
zoomorphic having an animal form Greek zōion ‘animal’

-nomy ‘an area of knowledge’, from Greek -nomia

  ➤  Th
 e Greek root -nomia is related to nomos ‘law’ and nemein ‘distribute, manage’. It has
given rise to a small and rather diverse group of words in English:
agronomy the science of agriculture Greek agros ‘field’
antinomy a paradox Greek anti ‘against’
astronomy the science of space and celestial objects Greek astron ‘star’
autonomy freedom of independent action Greek autos ‘self’
economy overall production and consumption and supply of Greek oikonomia ‘household
money within a region management’ (from oikos ‘house’)
gastronomy the art of cooking (and serving, etc.) good food Greek gaster, gastr- ‘stomach’
taxonomy the science of classification Greek taxis ‘arrangement’

The oldest English -nomy word in current use is astronomy, which has a first recorded date of 1205.

-oid ‘form or resemblance’, from Greek -oeidēs, related to eidos ‘form’

  ➤  Many technical and semi-technical words are formed using -oid:
amoeboid resembling an amoeba based on amoeba
android a robot with a human appearance Greek anēr, andr- ‘man’
dendroid tree-shaped Greek dendron ‘tree’
diploid having two complete sets of chromosomes Greek diplous ‘double’
fibroid a benign tumour of fibrous tissue based on fibre
gadoid a fish of an order including cod and hake Greek gados ‘cod’
haploid having a single set of unpaired chromosomes Greek haploos ‘single’
hominoid a primate of a group that includes humans Latin homo, homin- ‘man’
humanoid a being resembling a human based on human
paranoid relating to paranoia Greek para ‘irregular’ + noos ‘mind’
Polaroid (trademark) a composite material with the property based on polarize
of polarizing light, used in sunglasses, etc.
rheumatoid relating to rheumatism based on rheumatism
thyroid a gland in the neck secreting hormones regulating Greek thureos ‘oblong shield’ (with
growth and metabolism reference to its shape)

The word tabloid, which is first recorded with its current sense of a ‘popular newspaper’ in
the early 20th century, is formed on tablet + -oid, and reflects the notion of something that is
‘concentrated’ and ‘easily assimilated’.
 WORD FORMATION 12

-onym from Greek onoma ‘name’

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  ➤  1. Types of name:
cryptonym a code name Greek kruptos ‘hidden’
eponym a name or word taken from a person’s name Greek epōnumos ‘given as a name’
(from epi ‘upon’)
pseudonym a fictitious name, as used by an author Greek pseudēs ‘false’
toponym a place name Greek topos ‘place’

  ➤  2. Words having a specific relationship to another word or words:

acronym a word formed from the initial letters of other words Greek akron ‘end, tip’
antonym a word opposite in meaning to another Greek anti- ‘against’
homonym each of two words with the same written form but Greek homos ‘same’
different meanings and origin
metonym a word used to substitute for another Greek metōnumia ‘change of name’
synonym a word or phrase with the same (or similar) meaning Greek sun- ‘with’
as another

  ➤  Related words:
-onymous forming adjectives, e.g. synonymous ‘meaning the same as’. Some -onymous forms are
more common than their counterparts in -onym, e.g. anonymous ‘of unknown identity or
authorship’ is more frequently encountered than anonym ‘an unknown person or thing’.

-pathy from Greek patheia ‘suffering, feeling’

  ➤  Some -pathy words relate directly to the general sense ‘feeling’:

antipathy feeling of aversion Greek antipathēs ‘opposed in feeling’

apathy lack of interest or concern Greek apathēs ‘without feeling’
empathy understanding and sharing the feelings of others Greek empatheia (from em- ‘in’)
sympathy feeling of concern and pity for another’s misfortune Greek sumpatheia (from sun- ‘with’)
telepathy communication of thoughts by means other than Greek tēle- ‘far off’
the known senses

  ➤  Other -pathy words relate to medical disorders and treatments:

allopathy treatment of disease by using drugs with effects Greek allos ‘other’
opposite to the symptoms (cf. homeopathy)
homeopathy a system of complementary medicine using minute Greek homoios ‘same’
doses of a substance which would normally
produce symptoms of a disease
idiopathy a disease arising spontaneously without known cause Greek idios ‘own’
osteopathy a system of complementary medicine using Greek osteon ‘bone’
manipulation of the skeleton and musculature
psychopathy mental illness or disorder psycho-
sociopathy personality disorder involving extreme antisocial socio-
behaviour

  ➤  Related words:
-path forming nouns, e.g. osteopath ‘a practitioner in osteopathy’
Certain -path nouns are more established than their -pathy counterparts, in particular sociopath
and psychopath. The latter typically has a more restricted use than psychopathy, implying ‘a
person having extreme abnormal and violent social behaviour’.
-pathic forming adjectives, e.g. telepathic ‘of or relating to telepathy’
13 WORD FORMATION

-phile ‘a person or organism with a fondness for or tendency towards’, from Greek
philos ‘loving’

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  ➤  Some -phile words in current use:

bibliophile a person who loves books Greek biblion ‘book’

cinephile a cinema enthusiast cine-
electrophile (in chemistry) a substance that attracts electrons electro-
Francophile a person who loves France or the French Latin Francus ‘Frank’
halophile an organism that thrives in salty conditions Greek hals, halo- ‘salt’
oenophile a wine connoisseur Greek oinos ‘wine’
paedophile a person who is sexually attracted to children Greek pais, paid- ‘child’
technophile an enthusiast for new technology Greek tekhnē ‘art, craft’
thermophile an organism that thrives in hot temperatures Greek thermos ‘hot’
videophile a video enthusiast video-

  ➤  Related words:
-philia forming nouns, e.g. necrophilia ‘sexual attraction to dead bodies’ (Greek nekros ‘corpse’)
-philiac forming adjectives (and sometimes nouns), e.g. haemophiliac ‘of or having haemophilia’
or ‘a person with haemophilia’

Most -phile and -philia words are of recent origin: paedophile, for example, is first recorded in
1906, while Francophile and bibliophile first appear in the 19th century.

-phobia ‘extreme or irrational fear or dislike’, from Greek

  ➤  Some of the commonest phobias:
acrophobia fear of heights Greek akron ‘summit’
agoraphobia fear of open or public places Greek agora ‘place of assembly’
arachnophobia fear of spiders Greek arakhnē ‘spider’
claustrophobia fear of confined places Latin claustrum ‘lock, bolt’
cyberphobia fear of computer technology cyber- (from Greek kubernētēs
‘steersman’)
gynophobia fear of women Greek gunē ‘woman’
homophobia fear of homosexuality Greek homos ‘same’
hydrophobia fear of water Greek hudōr ‘water’
photophobia extreme sensitivity to light Greek phōs, phōt- ‘light’
technophobia fear of new technology Greek tekhnē ‘art, craft’
xenophobia fear or dislike of people from other countries Greek xenos ‘stranger’

  ➤  Unusual or interesting phobias (mostly rare or obsolete words):

Anglophobia fear of England Latin Anglus ‘England’
arachibutyrophobia fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of Latin arachis ‘peanut’ + butyrum
one’s mouth ‘butter’
batrachophobia fear of frogs Greek batrakhos ‘frog’
bibliophobia fear or dread of books Greek biblion ‘book’
brontophobia fear of thunderstorms Greek brontē ‘thunder’
deipnophobia fear of dinner parties Greek deipnos ‘dinner’
ergophobia fear of work Greek ergon ‘work’
erythrophobia intolerance of the colour red Greek eruthros ‘red’
hippophobia fear of horses Greek hippos ‘horse’
logophobia fear of words Greek logos ‘word’
mycophobia fear of mushrooms Greek mukēs ‘mushroom’
panophobia terror; excessive panic Greek pan ‘all’
 WORD FORMATION 14

symmetrophobia dread of symmetry based on symmetry

thalassophobia fear of the sea Greek thalassa ‘sea’
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triskaidekaphobia superstition regarding the number 13 Greek treiskaideka ‘thirteen’

  ➤  Related words:
-phobe forming nouns, e.g. technophobe ‘a person with an irrational fear of technology’
-phobic forming adjectives, e.g. xenophobic ‘of or relating to xenophobia’

  ➤  Oldest phobias:
hydrophobia aversion to water (first recorded example from 1547, spelled hidroforbia)
tyrannophobia fear of tyrants (first recorded in 1651)
psychrophobia fear of cold things (first recorded in 1727)

  ➤  New phobias:
Europhobia hatred of Europe and the European Union (1990s)
Islamophobia irrational hatred or fear of Islam (1990s)

-phone from Greek phōnē ‘sound, voice’

  ➤  1. Instruments connected with sound:
aerophone technical term for a wind instrument Greek aēr ‘air’
earphone device worn on the ear to listen to recorded or based on ear
broadcast sound
gramophone old-fashioned term for a record player reversed use of -gram ‘something
written or recorded’
headphones pair of earphones based on head
hydrophone device for detecting sound waves under water Greek hudōr ‘water’
megaphone funnel-shaped device for amplifying the voice Greek megas ‘great’
microphone device for picking up sound for amplification, Greek mikros ‘small’
recording, etc.
saxophone a metal wind instrument from the name of the instrument-
maker Adolphe Sax
sousaphone a type of tuba from the name of the composer
J. P. Sousa
telephone device used for transmitting the voice over Greek tēle- ‘far off’
long distance

  ➤  2. A person speaking a particular language:

anglophone English Latin Anglus ‘English’
francophone French Latin Francus ‘Frank’
lusophone Portuguese from Lusitania, ancient Roman
province occupying modern-day
Portugal

The word telephone (shortened to phone) has given rise to words denoting types of telephone or
related devices, as: answerphone, cellphone, entryphone, mobile phone, payphone, videophone.

  ➤  Related words:
-phony forming nouns, e.g. cacophony ‘harsh discordant sounds’ (from Greek kakos ‘bad’);
euphony ‘pleasing sounds’ (from Greek eu ‘well’)
-phonic forming adjectives, e.g. polyphonic ‘having two or more vocal parts’ (from Greek
polu- ‘many’); quadraphonic ‘through four channels’ (from Latin quattuor ‘four’)
15 WORD FORMATION

ptero- from Greek pteron ‘feather, wing’

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  ➤  1. Used as the suffix -ptera in orders and groups of biological taxonomy, particularly of
insects:
Anisoptera a suborder of insects comprising the dragonflies Greek anisos ‘unequal’
Chiroptera an order of mammals comprising the bats Greek kheir ‘hand’
Coleoptera an order of insects comprising the beetles Greek koleos ‘sheath’
Diptera an order of insects comprising the two-winged or Greek dipteros ‘two-winged’
true flies
Hymenoptera an order of insects including bees, wasps, and ants, Greek humenopteros ‘membrane-
having four transparent wings winged’ (from humēn ‘membrane’)
Lepidoptera an order of insects comprising butterflies and moths Greek lepis, lepid- ‘scale’
Orthoptera an order of insects including grasshoppers and Greek orthos ‘straight, right’
crickets
Siphonaptera an order of insects comprising the fleas Greek siphōn ‘tube’ + apteros ‘wingless’
Trichoptera an order of insects comprising the caddis flies Greek thrix, trikhos ‘hair’
Zygoptera a suborder of insects comprising the damselflies Greek zugon ‘yoke’

  ➤  Related words:
-pterous forming adjectives, e.g. coleopterous ‘of or relating to the order Coleoptera’
-pteran forming nouns, e.g. lepidopteran ‘an insect belonging to the order Lepidoptera’

  ➤  2. -pter words in non-zoological contexts:

gyrocopter a small single-seater autogiro based on gyro- + (heli)copter

helicopter a type of aircraft with horizontally revolving rotors Greek helix ‘spiral’

-saur, -saurus ‘a fossil reptile’, from Greek sauros ‘lizard’

  ➤  M
 ost -saur and -saurus words relate to dinosaurs (including the word dinosaur itself ). In
each case -saurus is used to form the name of the genus in modern Latin and -saur for the
corresponding shorter anglicized form. In practice, however, both -saur and -saurus words
are used in English, some of the best known being:
apatosaurus a huge herbivorous dinosaur with a long neck and Greek apatē ‘deceit’ (because of the
tail (also called brontosaurus) deceptive similarity between certain
bones of apatosaurus and some
other fossil reptiles)
brachiosaurus a huge herbivorous dinosaur with forelegs much Greek brakhiōn ‘arm’
longer than the hind legs
brontosaurus alternative (and less technical) term for apatosaurus Greek brontē ‘thunder’
dinosaur a Mesozoic fossil reptile of a large and diverse group Greek deinos ‘terrible’
dromaeosaur a small carnivorous bipedal dinosaur Greek dromaios ‘swift-running’
hadrosaur a large, mainly bipedal, herbivorous dinosaur with Greek hadros ‘thick, stout’
flattened jaws
ichthyosaur a fossil marine reptile resembling a dolphin Greek ikhthus ‘fish’
megalosaurus a large carnivorous bipedal dinosaur Greek megas, megal- ‘great’
plesiosaur a large fossil marine reptile with paddle-like limbs Greek plēsios ‘near’ (because closely
and a long neck related to the lizards)
pterosaur a fossil warm-blooded flying reptile Greek pteron ‘wing’
stegosaur a large herbivorous dinosaur with a double row of Greek stegē ‘covering’
bony plates along its back
tyrannosaur a very large carnivorous dinosaur with powerful jaws Greek turannos ‘tyrant’
and small claw-like front legs
 WORD FORMATION 16

-scope from Greek skopein ‘look at’

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  ➤  Most -scope words have the sense ‘an instrument used in observation or examination’:

arthroscope an instrument for inspecting the interior of a joint Greek arthron ‘joint’
electroscope an instrument for detecting electric charge electro-
endoscope an instrument for viewing internal organs Greek endon ‘within’
fibrescope a fibre-optic device for viewing normally inaccessible based on fibre optics
structures
gastroscope an instrument for inspecting the stomach Greek gastēr, gastr- ‘stomach’
gyroscope a device used to provide or maintain stability, Greek guros ‘a ring’
consisting of a disc spinning rapidly about an axis
kaleidoscope a tube containing mirrors and coloured glass, Greek kalos ‘beautiful’ + eidos ‘form’
forming changing patterns when the base is
rotated
microscope an instrument for viewing tiny objects through Greek mikros ‘small’
magnification
oscilloscope a device for viewing oscillations on the screen of a oscillo-
cathode ray tube
periscope a device having a series of mirrors, for viewing Greek peri ‘about, around’
objects normally out of direct line of sight
spinthariscope an instrument for viewing alpha particles by flashes Greek spintharis ‘spark’
on a fluorescent screen
stereoscope a device for creating an image with depth, using two Greek stereos ‘solid’
photos from different angles
stethoscope an instrument for listening to a person’s heartbeat Greek stēthos ‘breast’
stroboscope a device producing a bright, rapidly flashing light Greek strobos ‘whirling’
telescope an instrument for making distant objects appear Greek tēle- ‘far off’
nearer

The majority of the -scope words above are of 19th or 20th century origin, including stethoscope,
periscope, and stroboscope. A few are earlier: microscope and telescope are first recorded in
the 17th century, for example. The term telescopio is found in the letters of Galileo from 1611,
replacing earlier terms for similar devices, such as perspicillum (Latin perspicere ‘look through’)
and conspicillum (Latin conspicere ‘look at attentively’).
The word horoscope is of very early origin, being used in astrological senses in Old English.
It derives from Greek hōroskopos (hōra ‘hour’ + skopos ‘observer’).

-therm, -thermal, etc. from Greek thermē ‘heat’

ectotherm an animal dependent on external sources of body Greek ektos ‘outside’
heat
endotherm an animal dependent on internal generation of heat Greek endon ‘within’
endothermic (of a reaction) accompanied by the absorption of Greek endon ‘within’
heat
eurythermal (of an organism) tolerant of a wide temperature range Greek eurus ‘wide’
exothermic (of a reaction) accompanied by the release of heat Greek exō ‘outside’
geothermal relating to the internal heat of the earth Greek gē ‘earth’
homeotherm an organism that maintains constant body heat by Greek homoios ‘like’
metabolic activity
isotherm a line on a map joining places of equal temperature Greek isos ‘equal’
poikilotherm an organism that cannot regulate body temperature Greek poikilos ‘varied’
internally
stenothermal (of an organism) able to tolerate only small ranges in Greek stenos ‘narrow’
temperature

The dish called lobster thermidor is named after Thermidor, a month in the French Republican
Calendar of 1793–1805 corresponding to parts of July and August, itself based on Greek thermē
‘heat’ and dōron ‘gift’.
17 WORD FORMATION

-vorous ‘feeding on a specified food’, from Latin vorare ‘to devour’

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  ➤  Commonest -vorous words:

carnivorous feeding on flesh Latin caro, carn- ‘flesh’

detritivorous feeding on detritus based on detritus
frugivorous feeding on fruit Latin frux, frug- ‘fruit’
herbivorous feeding on plants Latin herba ‘green crops, herb’
insectivorous feeding on insects based on insect
nectarivorous feeding on nectar based on nectar
omnivorous feeding on both plants and animals Latin omnis ‘all’
piscivorous feeding on fish Latin piscis ‘fish’

  ➤  Rarer -vorous words:

baccivorous feeding on berries Latin bacca ‘berry’

hominivorous feeding on human beings Latin homin-, hominem ‘man’
lignivorous feeding on wood Latin lignum ‘wood’
mellivorous feeding on honey Latin mel, mell- ‘honey’
merdivorous feeding on dung Old French merde ‘dung’
ovivorous feeding on eggs Latin ovum ‘egg’
sanguivorous feeding on blood Latin sanguis ‘blood’

  ➤  Related words:
-vore forming nouns, as carnivore ‘a person or animal that eats meat’

-wright ‘a maker or builder’

  ➤  Th
 e word wright comes from Old English wryhta, and was in general use until the 19th
century, also with the specific sense of ‘a carpenter’. In modern use it appears only in
combination (earliest recorded dates shown):
cartwright a person who makes carts 15th century (York Mystery Plays)
millwright a person who builds or maintains mills 15th century
playwright a person who writes plays 17th century (in the Workes of Ben
Jonson)
ploughwright a person who makes ploughs 13th century
shipwright a shipbuilder 11th century
wainwright a person who makes wagons 11th century (from the archaic term
wain ‘wagon’)
wheelwright a person who makes wooden wheels 13th century