electronics

Article
Design and Implementation of a Compact
Single-Photon Counting Module
Ming Chen 1,2 , Chenghao Li 2 , Alan P. Morrison 3 , Shijie Deng 1, *, Chuanxin Teng 1 ,
Houquan Liu 1 , Hongchang Deng 1 , Xianming Xiong 1, * and Libo Yuan 1
1 Guangxi Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information Processing, School of Electronic Engineering and
Automation, Guilin University of Electronics Technology, Guilin 541004, China; mchen@guet.edu.cn (M.C.);
tcx19850425@guet.edu.cn (C.T.); liuhouq@guet.edu.cn (H.L.); hcdeng@guet.edu.cn (H.D.);
lbyuan@guet.edu.cn (L.Y.)
2 School of Information and Communication, Guilin University of Electronics Technology, Guilin 541004,
China; 1802202006@mails.guet.edu.cn
3 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University College Cork, Cork T12 K8AF, Ireland;
a.morrison@ucc.ie
* Correspondence: shijie.deng@guet.edu.cn (S.D.); xmxiong@guet.edu.cn (X.X.)




Received: 2 June 2020; Accepted: 9 July 2020; Published: 11 July 2020


Abstract: A compact single-photon counting module that can accurately control the bias voltage
and hold-off time is developed in this work. The module is a microcontroller-based system which
mainly consists of a microcontroller, a programmable negative voltage generator, a silicon-based
single-photon avalanche diode, and an integrated active quench and reset circuit. The module is
3.8 cm × 3.6 cm × 2 cm in size and can communicate with the end user and be powered through a
USB cable (5 V). In this module, the bias voltage of the single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) is
precisely controllable from −14 V ~ −38 V and the hold-off time (consequently the dead time) of the
SPAD can be adjusted from a few nanoseconds to around 1.6 µs with a setting resolution of ∼6.5
ns. Experimental results show that the module achieves a minimum dead time of around 28.5 ns,
giving a saturation counting rate of around 35 Mcounts/s. Results also show that at a controlled
reverse bias voltage of 26.8 V, the dark count rate measured is about 300 counts/s and the timing jitter
measured is about 158 ps. Photodetection probability measurements show that the module is suited
for detection of visible light from 450 nm to 800 nm with a 40% peak photon detection efficiency
achieved at around 600 nm.

Keywords: single-photon counting; compact module; bias voltage control; hold-off time setting

1. Introduction
Single-photon counting techniques have been used in low-light sensing applications such
as LIDAR [1,2], quantum key distribution [3], medical imaging technology [4], and 3D imaging
technology [5,6]. Photomultiplier tubes have been the traditional solution for photon counting
applications, but in recent years single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) has become an alternative
candidate due to its lower cost, lower operating voltage, higher sensitivity, and smaller size.
The dead time in a SPAD is the off time when the SPAD is quenched after every avalanche event to
dissipate trapped charge, thereby minimizing the “afterpulsing” phenomenon. As a result, a trade-off
exists between the maximum photon counting rate and an acceptable level of noise. An accurate
adjustment of the dead time is important to achieve an optimal dead time (and consequently optimal
maximum photon counting rate) in a single-photon counting system. The bias voltage has a major effect
on the SPAD’s important performance parameters such as dark count rate (DCR) and photon detection

Electronics 2020, 9, 1131; doi:10.3390/electronics9071131 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 2 of 11
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11

detection (PDE).
efficiency efficiency (PDE).bias
A higher A higher
voltagebias voltage
will lead towill leadPDE
better to better
due toPDE thedue to theinincrease
increase in the
the avalanche
avalanche
trigger trigger probability.
probability. However, the However,
potential thedrawbacks
potential include
drawbacks include
higher DCRhigher
and the DCR and the
considerable
considerableeffect.
afterpulsing afterpulsing effect.
Therefore, theTherefore,
bias voltagethe should
bias voltage should beand
be adjustable adjustable
optimized andtooptimized
achieve bestto
achieveperformance.
overall best overall Several
performance. Severalsingle-photon
SPAD-based SPAD-basedcountingsingle-photon
modules counting
have beenmodules have [7–17]
developed been
developed
but [7–17] but
these modules arethese modules
limited in thatare limited
the dead in thatand
time thebias
deadvoltage
time and of bias voltage of
the detector thedifficult
are detectorto
are difficult
change. to change.
This limits their This limits their
usefulness usefulness
in varying in varying
environments andenvironments and for
for the case where thethe case where
detector needs
tothe
bedetector
changedneeds to be changed
for different for different
measurement purposes. measurement
In addition, purposes. In addition,
existing designs existingbulky
are usually designsand
are usually bulky and cumbersome, which limits their usefulness in applications
cumbersome, which limits their usefulness in applications that require compact solutions. that require compact
solutions.
In this work, a compact multi-parameter adjustable single-photon counting module is developed.
In thisis work,
The module a compact multi-parameter
a microcontroller-based system mainly adjustable
consistingsingle-photon
of a programmablecounting module
negative voltageis
developed. The module is a microcontroller-based system mainly consisting
generator, a silicon-based SPAD, an active quenching and reset integrated circuit (AQR-IC) and of a programmable
negative
I/O voltage generator,
components. a silicon-based
In this module, a customSPAD, designedan active
SPAD quenching and reset
was fabricated integrated
and used with circuit
its bias
voltage precisely controllable from −14 V ~ −38 V using a programmable negative voltageand
(AQR-IC) and I/O components. In this module, a custom designed SPAD was fabricated used
generator.
withthe
With its bias voltage
AQR-IC, theprecisely
hold-offcontrollable from −14 the
time (consequently V ~ −38
dead V time)
using ina programmable
the SPAD can negative voltage
be adjusted from
a few nanoseconds to around 1.6 µs with a setting resolution of ∼6.5 ns. A microcontrollercan
generator. With the AQR-IC, the hold-off time (consequently the dead time) in the SPAD of be
the
adjusted from a few nanoseconds to around 1.6 μs with a setting resolution of ∼6.5 ns. A
module is used to drive and control the SPAD’s bias voltage and hold-off time which can also be
microcontroller of the module is used to drive and control the SPAD’s bias voltage and hold-off time
connected to a PC through USB for the graphical user interface. With the control of the bias voltage and
which can also be connected to a PC through USB for the graphical user interface. With the control
high-resolution setting of the dead time, intelligent control can be added to the module for detection
of the bias voltage and high-resolution setting of the dead time, intelligent control can be added to
optimizations under varying environments that greatly improve the SPAD-based photon counting
the module for detection optimizations under varying environments that greatly improve the SPAD-
system’s robustness. In addition, the module developed is about 3.8 cm × 3.6 cm × 2 cm in volume,
based photon counting system’s robustness. In addition, the module developed is about 3.8 cm × 3.6
allowing it to be used in compact photon counting systems. Experimental results show that the module
cm × 2 cm in volume, allowing it to be used in compact photon counting systems. Experimental
achieves a minimum dead time of around 28.5 ns which demonstrates a saturation counting rate
results show that the module achieves a minimum dead time of around 28.5 ns which demonstrates
of around 35 Mcounts/s. At a controlled reverse bias voltage of 26.8 V, the DCR measured is about
a saturation counting rate of around 35 Mcounts /s. At a controlled reverse bias voltage of 26.8 V, the
300 counts/s and the timing jitter measured is about 158 ps. Photodetection probability measurements
DCR measured is about 300 counts/s and the timing jitter measured is about 158 ps. Photodetection
show that the module is suited for detection of visible light from 450 nm to 800 nm with a 40% peak
probability measurements show that the module is suited for detection of visible light from 450 nm
PDE at around 600 nm.
to 800 nm with a 40% peak PDE at around 600 nm.
2. System Description
2. System Description
Figure 1 shows the block diagram of the single-photon counting module consisting of the following
Figure 1 shows the block diagram of the single-photon counting module consisting of the
parts: (1) A Microcontroller (STC89C52RC) circuitry which is used to communicate with the user
following parts: (1) A Microcontroller (STC89C52RC) circuitry which is used to communicate with
end (PC) via an USB to TTL chip and also used for the control of bias voltage and the hold-off time;
the user end (PC) via an USB to TTL chip and also used for the control of bias voltage and the hold-
(2) A programmable negative voltage generator which is used to generate a stable and controllable
off time; (2) A programmable negative voltage generator which is used to generate a stable and
negative high voltage for the SPAD; (3) An active quenching and reset integrated circuit (AQR-IC) for
controllable negative high voltage for the SPAD; (3) An active quenching and reset integrated circuit
the hold-off time setting in the SPAD and (4) A custom designed SPAD.
(AQR-IC) for the hold-off time setting in the SPAD and (4) A custom designed SPAD.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Block
Block diagram
diagram of
of the
the single-photon
single-photon counting
countingmodule
moduledeveloped.
developed.

2.1. Microcontroller Circuitry

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Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 3 of 11
In the microcontroller circuitry, a crystal oscillator is used to provide the clock pulses to the
microcontroller chip which is powered through a USB cable. The circuitry is used to receive the
2.1. Microcontroller
control informationCircuitry
(including hold-off time and bias voltage value) from PC (end user) through the
USB-TTL converter chip and
In the microcontroller sends athe
circuitry, control
crystal signals is
oscillator to used
related
to circuitry
provide thefor clock
the bias voltage
pulses and
to the
hold-off time setting
microcontroller in the isSPAD.
chip which The through
powered microcontroller sets theThe
a USB cable. eight binary ports
circuitry is usedS0~S of the AQR-
to7 receive the
IC, from 0 (“00000000”) to 255 (“11111111”) to achieve the hold-off time of 6.5 ns~1.6
control information (including hold-off time and bias voltage value) from PC (end user) through the μs in the SPAD.
It also sends
USB-TTL “ADJ”chip
converter signal
andtosends
the programmable negative
the control signals voltagecircuitry
to related generatorfortothe
achieve the required
bias voltage and
negative
hold-off bias
time voltage
setting for SPAD.
in the biasingThethe microcontroller
SPAD. sets the eight binary ports S0 ~S7 of the AQR-IC,
from 0 (“00000000”) to 255 (“11111111”) to achieve the hold-off time of 6.5 ns~1.6 µs in the SPAD.
It2.2.
alsoProgrammable
sends “ADJ”Negative
signal toVoltage Generator
the programmable negative voltage generator to achieve the required
negative bias voltage for biasing the SPAD.
Figure 2 shows the schematic of the programmable negative voltage generator. In the circuit, a
boost circuit (consists of a bipolar transistor, an inductor, a diode and two capacitors) is used to
2.2. Programmable Negative Voltage Generator
generate high negative output voltage and a MAX749 chip (digitally adjustable bias regulator) [18]-
based circuit
Figure is used
2 shows thetoschematic
drive the boost
of the circuit, detect the
programmable feedback
negative signal,generator.
voltage and maintain thecircuit,
In the output
a boost circuit (consists of a bipolar transistor, an inductor, a diode and two capacitors) is used to generateby
voltage at a set value. The output of the programmable negative voltage generator is determined
the negative
high internal reference current,
output voltage andIREF of the chip
a MAX749 chipwhich is setadjustable
(digitally by the microcontroller
bias regulator) (through
[18]-basedsignal line,
circuit
isADJ).
used When
to drive thethe
voltage
boostgenerator is operating,
circuit, detect if the current
the feedback signal, flowing through
and maintain thethe feedback
output resistance
voltage at a
(Rvalue.
set FB), IS , The
is greater
outputthan theprogrammable
of the reference current, IREF, the
negative boostgenerator
voltage circuit will be stopped and
is determined theinternal
by the absolute
value of current,
reference the output IREFvoltage
of the will
chipdrop
which andisthe
set Iby
S will
thedecrease. If IS falls(through
microcontroller below IREF , the boost
signal circuit
line, ADJ).
will be
When thedriven
voltagetogenerator
continueisto boost theif output
operating, the currentand flowing
the absolute
throughvalue
the of the output
feedback voltage
resistance (RFBwill
),
ISincrease
, is greater and thethe
than IS will increase.
reference In this
current, way,
IREF , theISboost
can becircuit
set equal
will to
be Istopped
REF and theandoutput voltagevalue
the absolute −VOUT
ofcan
thebe controlled
output voltage as follows:
will drop and the IS will decrease. If IS falls below IREF , the boost circuit will
be driven to continue to boost the output and the absolute value of the output voltage will increase
−V =I ×R (1)
and the IS will increase. In this way, IS can be set equal to IREF and the output voltage −VOUT can be
In this
controlled design, the feedback resistance RFB is set to 2 MΩ and the reference current can be set
as follows:
from around 7 μA to 19 μA. This makes − VOUTthe = setting
IREF ×range
RFB of the programmable negative voltage (1)
generator to be around −14 V ~ −38 V.

Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicofofprogrammable
programmablenegative
negativevoltage
voltagegenerator.
generator.

2.3.In this design,

SPAD the feedback resistance RFB is set to 2 MΩ and the reference current can be set from
and AQR-IC
around 7 µA to 19 µA. This makes the setting range of the programmable negative voltage generator
The SPAD
to be around −14 and AQR-IC
V ~ −38 V. used in the module are previously designed chips [19–22]. The SPAD is
a 20 μm diameter planar SPAD which is based on a shallow p-n junction. It is manufactured in p-
type epitaxially grown bulk silicon using a 1.5 μm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor
(CMOS) compatible process and suited for detection of visible wavelengths (from 400 nm to 850 nm)
[19,20]. In the SPAD, a p-substrate with a p-type doping forming the central active area and the N+
Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 4 of 11

2.3. SPAD and AQR-IC

The SPAD and AQR-IC used in the module are previously designed chips [19–22]. The SPAD is a
20 µm diameter planar SPAD which is based on a shallow p-n junction. It is manufactured in p-type
epitaxially grown bulk silicon using a 1.5 µm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS)
compatible process and suited for detection of visible wavelengths (from 400 nm to 850 nm) [19,20].
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11
In the SPAD,
Electronics a p-substrate
2020, 9, x FOR PEER with
REVIEW a p-type doping forming the central active area and the N+ doping 4 of 11
overlaps
doping the active the
overlaps area,active
formsarea,
the diode
forms cathode,
the diodeand contactand
cathode, to metal
contactlayers. Thelayers.
to metal overlapping
The
doping
guard ring, overlaps
and the the active
diode forms area,
with forms
the the diodeprevents
p-substrate, cathode,edgeand breakdown
contact to of metal
the layers. active
central The
overlapping guard ring, and the diode forms with the p-substrate, prevents edge breakdown of the
overlapping guard ring, and the diode forms with the p-substrate, prevents edge breakdown of the
area. The active
central AQR-IC is used
area. to actively
The AQR-IC quench
is used the SPAD
to actively after each
quench avalanche
the SPAD after event (lower its event
each avalanche reverse
central active area. The AQR-IC is used to actively quench the SPAD after each avalanche event
bias voltage
(lower below its
its reverse breakdown
bias voltage belowvoltage), keep it involtage),
its breakdown “OFF” state
keep for
it ina “OFF”
periodstate
of user-defined
for a period time
of
(lower its reverse bias voltage below its breakdown voltage), keep it in “OFF” state for a period of
(hold-off time) time
user-defined and (hold-off
set the reverse
time) andbias voltage
set the back
reverse biasto its original
voltage back to level for the
its original next
level for avalanche
the next
user-defined time (hold-off time) and set the reverse bias voltage back to its original level for the next
detection.
avalanche The hold-offThe
detection. time (and the
hold-off timedead
(and time) is controlled
the dead by the end
time) is controlled user
by the through
end the PCthe
user through and
avalanche detection. The hold-off time (and the dead time) is controlled by the end user through the
thePC and the microcontroller
microcontroller chip. Withchip. With the developed
the developed active quenching
active quenching and reset and
IC,reset IC, the maximum
the maximum counting
PC and the microcontroller chip. With the developed active quenching and reset IC, the maximum
counting
rate rate of the
of the module canmodule can be
be greatly greatly extended and the after pulsingcan effects can be effectively
counting rate of the module can extended
be greatly and the after
extended and pulsing
the aftereffects be effectively
pulsing effects reduced.
can be effectively
reduced.
Thereduced.
photos TheThe photos
of the of the
fabricated fabricated SPAD and AQR-IC can be seen in Figure 3a,b, respectively.
photos of the SPAD andSPAD
fabricated AQR-IC andcan be seen
AQR-IC caninbe
Figure
seen in3a,b, respectively.
Figure 3a,b, respectively.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
3.3.3.Photosofofthe
Photos the custom designed
designed and fabricated (a)
(a)SPAD
SPADand
and(b)
(b)AQR-IC.
Figure
Figure Photos of thecustom
custom designedand
and fabricated
fabricated (a) SPAD and (b) AQR-IC.
AQR-IC.
3. Experimental
3. ExperimentalResults
Results
3. Experimental Results
Figure
Figure4 shows
4 showsthe
theassembled
assembledsingle-photon
single-photon counting module.The
counting module. Themodule
moduleconsists
consistsof of a main
a main
Figure 4 shows the assembled single-photon counting module. The module consists of a main
board, a cubic
board, a cubicblack
blackpackage,
package,and
andaafiber
fiberadapter
adapter that allows
allowscoupling
couplingofofincident
incident light
light to to
thethe SPAD
SPAD
board, a cubic black package, and a fiber adapter that allows coupling of incident light to the SPAD
through
througha fiber.
a fiber.
through a fiber.

Figure 4. The assembled single-photon counting module.

Figure
Figure 4. 4.The
Theassembled
assembledsingle-photon
single-photon counting
counting module.
module.
Figure 5a shows the experimental results for the reverse bias voltage setting in the module. By
Figure 5a shows the experimental results for the reverse bias voltage setting in the module. By
inputting the required voltage in the user graphic interface (GUI), the bias voltage will be adjusted.
inputting the required voltage in the user graphic interface (GUI), the bias voltage will be adjusted.
Results show that the bias voltage can be accurately set from −14 V to −38 V with standard deviation
Results show that the bias voltage can be accurately set from −14 V to −38 V with standard deviation
of less than 0.06 V and output voltage ripples of less than 50 mV. The setting range and resolution
of less than 0.06 V and output voltage ripples of less than 50 mV. The setting range and resolution
can be changed by setting the feedback current flowing to the feedback port of the MAX749 chip in
Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 5 of 11

Figure 5a shows the experimental results for the reverse bias voltage setting in the module.
By inputting the required voltage in the user graphic interface (GUI), the bias voltage will be adjusted.
Results show that the bias voltage can be accurately set from −14 V to −38 V with standard deviation
of less than 0.06 V and output voltage ripples of less than 50 mV. The setting range and resolution
Electronics
can 2020,
2020,9,
be changed
Electronics 9,xxFOR
by PEER
PEERREVIEW
FORsetting the feedback current flowing to the feedback port of the MAX749 chip
REVIEW 55of
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in
11
the programmable negative voltage generator circuit. Figure 5b shows the setting of the hold-off time
in
in SPAD
SPAD of of the
the module.
module. The
The hold-off
hold-off time
time can
can also
also be
be adjusted
adjusted using
using thethe PC-based
PC-based GUI.
GUI. As As can
can bebe
in SPAD of the module. The hold-off time can also be adjusted using the PC-based GUI. As can be
seen
seen from
from the
the figure,
figure, by
by changing
changing the
the input
input code
code from
from “1”
“1” to
to “255”,
“255”, the
the hold-off
hold-off time
time in
in the
the SPAD
SPAD
seen from the figure, by changing the input code from “1” to “255”, the hold-off time in the SPAD can
can be
be linearly
canlinearly
linearly and precisely adjusted from several nano seconds to
to 1.6 μs
μs with aa setting resolution
be and and precisely
precisely adjusted
adjusted from from several
several nano nano seconds
seconds to 1.6 1.6
µs with with setting
a setting resolution
resolution of
of about
of about 6.5 ns. With the minimum hold-off time, a dead-time of around 28.5 ns can
can be achieved,
be
about 6.5 6.5
ns. ns.
With With the minimum
the minimum hold-off
hold-off time, time, a dead-time
a dead-time of aroundof around
28.5 ns 28.5 nsachieved,
can be achieved,
giving a
giving
giving aa saturation
saturation counting rate
rate of around 35
35 Mcounts/s.
saturation countingcounting
rate of around of35around
Mcounts/s. Mcounts/s.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 5.
Figure 5. (a)
5. (a) The
(a) The bias
The bias voltage
bias voltage boost
voltage boost circuit’s
boost circuit’s output
circuit’s output voltage
output voltage with
voltage with the
with the voltage
the voltage set
voltage set on
set on computer;
on computer; (b)
computer; (b)
(b)
External
External input
input codes
codes versus
versus hold-off
hold-off time.
External input codes versus hold-off time.

To
To
To test
test the
the PDE
PDE andand thethe dark
dark count
count characteristics
characteristics ofof the module,
the module,
module, an experimental
an experimental setup
experimental setup shown
setup shown
shown
in
in Figure 6 was built. In the setup, a broad band light source (Thorlabs SLS201L/M)
in Figure 6 was built. In the setup, a broad band light source (Thorlabs SLS201L/M) is used with its
Figure 6 was built. In the setup, a broad band light source (Thorlabs SLS201L/M) is
is used
used with
with its
its
output
output light
output lightguided
guidedtoto
guided toa afilter
a filterholder
filter holder
holder (Thorlabs
(ThorlabsFOFMF/M)
(Thorlabs FOFMF/M)
FOFMF/M) by abyfiber
by and the
aa fiber
fiber andoutput
and the of the of
the output
output filter
theholder
of the filter
filter
is connected
holder
holder is to the SPAD
is connected
connected to theusing
to the SPAD
SPAD another
using fiber. Optical
using another
another fiber. band-pass
fiber. Optical filters and
Optical band-pass
band-pass attenuation
filters
filters and filters arefilters
and attenuation
attenuation used
filters
to
arealter
are used
used thetospectrum
to alter the and
alter the powerand
spectrum
spectrum intensity
and powerofintensity
power the lightof
intensity directed
of the to the
the light
light SPAD.to
directed
directed toAthecounter
the SPAD.
SPAD. (FCA3100)
AA counter
counter is
used to
(FCA3100) record
is the
used pulse
to recordcounting
the rate
pulse at the
countingoutput
rate of
at the
the module.
output
(FCA3100) is used to record the pulse counting rate at the output of the module. of the module.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Experimental
Experimental setup for the dark count rate and photon detection efficiency measurement.
Experimental setup for the dark count rate and photon detection efficiency measurement.
measurement.

Figure
Figure 77 shows
shows the the DCR
DCR measured
measured for for different
different bias
bias voltages.
voltages. This
This measurement
measurement was was carried
carried
out
out when
when the
the light
light source
source isis turned
turned off
off and
and the
the hold-off
hold-off times
times was
was set
set to
to about
about 100
100 ns,
ns, 500
500 ns,
ns, and
and
1000 ns. Results show that with overran excess bias voltage of 1 V (reverse bias
1000 ns. Results show that with overran excess bias voltage of 1 V (reverse bias voltage of around voltage of around
25.6
25.6 V),
V), the
the DCR
DCR in in the
the SPAD
SPAD is is about
about 80
80 counts/s
counts/s and
and when
when the
the excess
excess bias
bias voltage
voltage increased
increased toto 33 V,
V,
the
the DCR
DCR increases
increases toto about
about 11 kcounts/s.
kcounts/s.
Figure
Figure 88 shows
shows the the PDE
PDE measured
measured for for different
different wavelengths
wavelengths andand reverse
reverse bias
bias voltages.
voltages. InIn the
the
Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 6 of 11

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

Figure 7 shows the DCR measured for different bias voltages. This measurement was carried out
when the light
light. For each source
specificiswavelength,
turned off and
thethe hold-off
incident times
light was and
power set to about
the 100 counting
photon ns, 500 ns,rate
andof1000
the
ns. Results
module are show that and
measured withthe
overran
PDE ofexcess bias voltage
the module of 1 V (reverse
is calculated. bias voltage
Results show that theofmodule
aroundis25.6 V),
suited
the DCR in the SPAD is about 80 counts/s and when the excess bias voltage increased to
for detecting the short wavelengths of the incident light from 400 nm to 800 nm with a peak PDE of3 V, the DCR
increases
about 40%toachieved
about 1 kcounts/s.
at 600 nm.

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

light. For each specific wavelength, the incident light power and the photon counting rate of the
module are measured and the PDE of the module is calculated. Results show that the module is suited
for detecting the short wavelengths of the incident light from 400 nm to 800 nm with a peak PDE of
about 40% achieved at 600 nm.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Dark
Dark count
count rate
rate measured
measured for
for varies
varies bias
bias voltages.
voltages.

Figure 8 shows the PDE measured for different wavelengths and reverse bias voltages. In the
measurement, a broad-spectrum light source is used to provide the incident light to the module and
optical filters are used to select the specific wavelength and alter the power intensity of the incident
light. For each specific wavelength, the incident light power and the photon counting rate of the
module are measured and the PDE of the module is calculated. Results show that the module is suited
for detecting the short wavelengths of the incident light from 400 nm to 800 nm with a peak PDE of
about 40% achieved at 600 nm.7. Dark count rate measured for varies bias voltages.
Figure

Figure 8. Dependence of photon detection efficiency on the incident wavelength for different bias
voltages.

Figure 9 shows the experimental setup for measuring the afterpulsing probability. A pulsed
pico-second laser source operating at 10 kHz was used to generate the incident light which was
coupled to the SPAD of the module. The laser source used is from ALPHALAS GmbH and the part
number of the laser driver and the diode laser are “PLDD-50M” and “PICOPOWER-LD-660-50”
respectively. The output of the module is connected to the two ports (start and stop) of a Time-to-
Figure
digital
Figure Dependence
8. Dependence
converter (TDC). The ofofTDC’s
photon
photon detection
“start” channel
detection efficiencyon on
thethe
is triggered
efficiency incident
by wavelength
thewavelength
incident rising edgefor for output
different
of different
the pulse
bias
bias voltages.
of thevoltages.
module and the “stop” channel is triggered by the falling edge of the next neighboring pulse.
In this way, the time interval between every two pulses is recorded. After a large amount of data
Figure
Figure 99 shows
shows the
the experimental
experimental setup forfor measuring the
the afterpulsing probability. A A pulsed
collection (around 10,000 samples), thesetupdistributionmeasuring
histogram afterpulsing
of the intervalprobability.
times between pulsed
two
pico-second
pico-second laser
lasersource
sourceoperating at
operating 10
at kHz
10 was
kHz used
was to
usedgenerate
to the
generate incident
the light
incidentwhich
lightwas coupled
which was
adjacent pulses can be built and the afterpulsing probability can be concluded [23–26].
to the SPAD of the module. The laser source used is from ALPHALAS
coupled to the SPAD of the module. The laser source used is from ALPHALAS GmbH and the part GmbH and the part number
of the laser
number of driver anddriver
the laser the diode
andlaser are “PLDD-50M”
the diode and “PICOPOWER-LD-660-50”
laser are “PLDD-50M” and “PICOPOWER-LD-660-50”respectively.
The
respectively. The output of the module is connected to the two ports (start and stop) of aconverter
output of the module is connected to the two ports (start and stop) of a Time-to-digital Time-to-
(TDC).
digital The TDC’s(TDC).
converter “start”The
channel is triggered
TDC’s by the is
“start” channel rising edge of
triggered bythetheoutput pulseof
rising edge ofthe
theoutput
modulepulse
and
of the module and the “stop” channel is triggered by the falling edge of the next neighboring pulse.
In this way, the time interval between every two pulses is recorded. After a large amount of data
collection (around 10,000 samples), the distribution histogram of the interval times between two
adjacent pulses can be built and the afterpulsing probability can be concluded [23–26].
Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 7 of 11

the “stop” channel is triggered by the falling edge of the next neighboring pulse. In this way, the time
interval between every two pulses is recorded. After a large amount of data collection (around 10,000
samples), the distribution histogram of the interval times between two adjacent pulses can be built and
the afterpulsing probability can be concluded [23–26].
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11

Figure
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Experimental
9. Experimental setup
Experimental setup for
setup for measuring
for measuring SPAD’s
measuring SPAD’s afterpulsing
SPAD’s afterpulsing probability.
afterpulsing probability.
probability.

Figure
Figure 10 10 shows
shows the
the measured
measured afterpulsing
afterpulsing probability
probability in
in the
the module
module forfor different
different hold-off
different hold-off times
times
with a bias voltage of 27.6 V. Results show that when the hold-off time of the SPAD is
with aa bias
bias voltage
voltage ofof 27.6
27.6 V.
V. Results
Results show
show that
that when
when the the hold-off
hold-off time time
of of
the the
SPAD SPAD
is setistoset to
to more
more
set than
more
than
500 500
thanns,
500 ns,
the the
the afterpulsing
ns,afterpulsing probability
probability
afterpulsing can
can be
probability be
be significantly
significantly
can limited
limited
significantly to
to below
to below
limited 0.3%.0.3%.
below Results
Results
0.3%. also also
Results also show
show that
show
that
as as
the the
bias bias voltage
voltage increases,
increases, the the afterpulsing
afterpulsing probability
probability will will
also also
rise.
that as the bias voltage increases, the afterpulsing probability will also rise. rise.

Figure
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Afterpulsing
10. Afterpulsing probability
Afterpulsing probability versus
probability versus different
versus different hold-off
different hold-off times.
hold-off times.
times.

To
To measure
To measure
measure thethe timing
timing jitter
jitter of the module,
of the module, the the experimental
experimental setup setup shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 11
Figure 11 was
11 was built.
was built.
built.
In the setup, a 660 nm pulsed laser is used to generate a pulsed light signal to the SPAD
SPAD
In the setup, a 660 nm pulsed laser is used to generate a pulsed light signal to the SPAD of the module of the module
and
and the
the time
time delay
delay between
between thethe laser
laser synchronized
synchronized pulsepulse signal
signal and
and the
the pulses
pulses ofof the
the module’s
module’s output
output
is
is measured using a TDC. The time delays’ histogram distribution is then built and its full width half
measured using a TDC. The time delays’ histogram distribution is then built and its full width half
maximum
maximum (FWHM)
(FWHM) is is taken
taken asas the
the system’s timing
system’s timing jitter
timing jitter [27].
jitter [27].
[27].
Figure
Figure 12
12 shows
shows the the timing
timing responses
responses of of the
the module
module for for different
different bias
bias voltages.
voltages. In In the
the
measurement, the hold-off time was set to about 200 ns. As can be seen from
measurement, the hold-off time was set to about 200 ns. As can be seen from the figure, increasing the figure, increasing
the
the bias
bias voltage
voltage results
results inin narrower
narrower timing
timing jitter
jitter and
and aa timing
timing jitter
jitter of
of 145
145 ps
ps was
was measured
measured at at the
the bias
bias
voltage of 27.6 V.
voltage of 27.6 V.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 8 of 11
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Experimental
Experimental setup
setup for
for measuring
measuring timing
timing response of the
response of the module.
module.

Figure 12 shows the timing responses of the module for different bias voltages. In the measurement,
the hold-off time was set to about 200 ns. As can be seen from the figure, increasing the bias voltage
results in narrower timing jitter and a timing jitter of 145 ps was measured at the bias voltage of 27.6 V.
Figure 11. Experimental setup for measuring timing response of the module.

Figure 12. Timing responses of the single-photon counting module.

To test the heat dissipation of the module, the module was operated continually at room
temperature (20 °C) for more than 3 hours and the temperature of the main chips and components
on the board (including microcontroller chip, Max749 (boost circuit) chip, USB to TTL chip, DAC chip,
Figure 12.
12. Timing responses
responses of of the
the single-photon counting
counting module.
module.
5V–3V stabilizer, chip crystal Timing
Figure oscillators, SPAD andsingle-photon
AQR-IC) was measured. Results show that most
the main
To
components
To test
test the heat
the
are kept cool
heat dissipation
dissipation of with
of
the temperature
the module,
the module, the module
the
of less
module wasthan
was
30 °C. continually
operated
operated continually at room
room
The breakdown
temperature (20 (20◦°C) voltage
C)for
formore and
morethan DCR temperature
than3 3hours
hoursand andthethe dependency
temperature (using a temperature chamber) were
temperature temperature of of
thethe main
main chips
chips andand components
components on
also tested.
on the board As can be
(including seen from Figure
microcontroller 13, the
chip, breakdown
Max749 voltage
(boost of the
circuit)chip, SPAD
chip,USB rises
USBtotoTTL with
TTLchip, increasing
chip,DAC
DACchip,
chip,
the board (including microcontroller chip, Max749 (boost circuit)
5temperature
5V–3V at about
V–3 Vstabilizer,
stabilizer, chip0.024
chip V per
crystal
crystal °C. Figure
oscillators,
oscillators, SPAD
SPAD14 shows the plotwas
and AQR-IC) of the DCR for different
measured.
measured. temperatures,
Results show most
that most
in this case the excess bias voltage iswith
kepttheat 1temperature
V. Results show that the30DCR increases with increasing
the
the main
maincomponents
componentsare arekept cool
kept cool with the temperature of less than
of less than◦ C.
30 °C.
temperature
The by aboutvoltage
The breakdown
breakdown 23 counts/s
voltage and per °temperature
and DCR C.
temperature dependency
dependency (using
(using a temperature chamber) were
also tested. As can be seen from Figure 13, the breakdown voltage of the SPAD rises with increasing
temperature ◦
temperature at about 0.024 V per °C. Figure 14 shows the plot of the DCR for different
different temperatures,
in this case the excess bias voltage is kept at 1 V. Results show that the DCR increases with increasing
temperature ◦
temperature by by about
about 23
23 counts/s
counts/s per
per °C.
C.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 9 of 11
Electronics 2020,
Electronics 2020, 9,
9, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 99 of
of 11
11

Figure
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Breakdown voltage
13. Breakdown voltage measured
measured for
for various
various temperatures.
temperatures.
temperatures.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Dark
Dark count
count rate measured for
rate measured for various
various temperatures.
temperatures.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In
In thispaper,
In this
this paper,the
paper, thethedesign,
design,
design, thethe
the implementation,
implementation,
implementation, and and
and the characterization
the characterization
the characterization newofcompact
of new
of new compact
compact single-
single-
single-photon
photon counting
photon counting
counting modulemodule is module is
is presented. presented.
presented. The The
The module module
module enables enables
enables accurate accurate
accurate digital digital
digital control
control of control
of the
the biasof the
bias voltage bias
voltage
voltage and
and hold-off
and hold-off
hold-off time time of time
of the of
the SPAD.the SPAD.
SPAD. This This
This enables enables
enables the the intelligent
the intelligent optimization
intelligent optimization
optimization of of photon
of photon detection
photon detection
detection in in
in
varying environments
varying environments
varying environments to to enhance
to enhance
enhance the the module’s
the module’s robustness.
module’s robustness.
robustness. In In
In thethe system,
the system, a programmable
system, aa programmable
programmable negative negative
negative
voltage
voltage generator
voltage generatorwas
generator wasdesigned
was designedtoto
designed toprovide
provide
provide the bias
the
the voltage
bias
bias voltage
voltage forfor
thethe
for SPAD
the SPAD
SPADandand an active
and quench
an active
an active and reset
quench
quench and
and
chip was
reset chip
reset developed
chip was was developed for the
developed for hold-off
for the time
the hold-off control,
hold-off time afterpulsing
time control, reduction,
control, afterpulsing and
afterpulsing reduction, maximum
reduction, and counting
and maximum
maximum rate
extension.
counting rate
counting Theextension.
rate new implementation
extension. The new
The includes a silicon
new implementation
implementation SPADaafabricated
includes
includes silicon SPAD
silicon SPADin-house is used
fabricated
fabricated as the photon
in-house
in-house is used
is used
detector
as the
as the photonand a detector
photon microcontroller
detector and system supervises
and aa microcontroller
microcontroller the user
system
system interface
supervises
supervises the
theanduser
usertheinterface
setting ofand
interface biasthe
and voltage
the setting
setting and
of
of
hold-off
bias voltage
bias time.
voltage and The module
and hold-off
hold-off time. is 3.8
time. Thecm ×
The module 3.6 cm
module is × 2
is 3.8cm
3.8 cm in size
cm ×× 3.6 and
3.6 cm can
cm ×× 22 cm be
cm in powered
in size
size and using
and can
can be a USB
be powered connection
powered using using
athat
a USB
USBallows it to be used
connection
connection thatinallows
that compact
allows it to
it single-photon
to bebe used
used in incounting
compactapplications.
compact single-photon
single-photon Experimental results show
counting applications.
counting applications.
that the module
Experimental results
Experimental can
results showprovide
show that a
that thecontrolled
the module
module can bias voltage
can provide for the
provide aa controlled SPAD
controlled bias from
bias voltage −14
voltage for V ~
for the −38
the SPAD V with
SPAD from
from a
setting
−14 V
−14 resolution
V ~~ −38
−38 V V with of 0.4
with aa settingV and the
setting resolution hold-off
resolution of time
of 0.4
0.4 V (consequently
V and
and the
the hold-off the
hold-off time dead time)
time (consequently in
(consequently thethe SPAD
the dead from
dead time) a few
time) inin
nanoseconds
the SPAD
the SPAD from to around
from aa few 1.6 µs
few nanoseconds with
nanoseconds to a setting
to around resolution
around 1.6 1.6 μsμs withof ∼6.5 ns.
with aa setting Results
setting resolution showed
resolution of the module
∼6.5 ns.
of ∼6.5 ns. Results can
Results
achieve
showedathe
showed minimum
the moduledead
module can time of 28.5
can achieve
achieve ns that leads
aa minimum
minimum deadtotime
dead a maximum
time of 28.5
of 28.5 ns counting
ns that leads
that rateto
leads toofaaaround
maximum
maximum 35 Mcounts/s.
counting
counting
At
ratea of
rate controlled
of around
around 35 bias voltage of At
35 Mcounts/s.
Mcounts/s. 26.8aa V,
At a low DCR
controlled
controlled bias
bias ofvoltage
300 counts/s
voltage of 26.8
of 26.8 and V,aaalow
V, lowtiming
low DCR of
DCR jitter
of 300ofcounts/s
300 158 ps can
counts/s andbe
and aa
achieved.
low timingResults
low timing jitter of
jitter ofalso
158show
158 ps can
ps canthat
bewhen
be achieved.
achieved.the hold-off
Results time
Results was
showset
also show
also to when
that
that more
whenthan 500 ns, the
the hold-off
the hold-off time
time afterpulsing
was set
was set to
to
can
more
more bethan
effectively
than 500 ns,
500 reduced
ns, the to below 0.3%.
the afterpulsing
afterpulsing can In
can beaddition,
be effectively
effectively thereduced
photodetection
reduced to below
to below probability
0.3%. In
0.3%. Inmeasurements
addition, the
addition, the
show that the module
photodetection probability
photodetection is suited
probability measurementsfor detection
measurements show of short
show that wavelengths
that the the module
module is of the light
is suited
suited forfrom 450
for detection nm
detection of to 800
of shortnm
short
with a 40% peak
wavelengths
wavelengths of PDE
of the
the achieved
light
light from 450
from at 600
450 nm nm.
nm to 800
to 800 nm
nm with
with aa 40%40% peak
peak PDE PDE achieved
achieved at at 600
600 nm.nm.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1131 10 of 11

Author Contributions: Conceptualization and methodology, M.C., A.P.M., S.D. and X.X.; SPAD fabrication,
A.P.M.; validation, C.L. and C.T.; investigation, C.L., H.L. and H.D.; writing—original draft preparation, S.D. and
C.L.; writing—review and editing, A.P.M. and X.X.; supervision, L.Y. and X.X.; funding acquisition, M.C. and X.X.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by This work was supported in part by the National Key Research and
Development Program of China under Grant 2019YFB2203903, in part by the National Natural Science Foundations
of China under Grants, 61827819, 61964005, 61965006, and 61965009, in part by Guangxi Project under Grant
AD18281092, AD18281062, AD19245064, 2018GXNSFBA281148, 2019GXNSFBA245057 and 2019GXNSFAA245024,
in part by the foundation from Guangxi Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Information Processing under Grant
GD18102, in part by Guangxi Project for ability enhancement of young and middle-aged university teacher under
grant 2019KY0211, in part by the foundation from Guangxi Key Laboratory of Automatic Detecting Technology
and Instruments under Grant YQ20102, YQ19106 and YQ20107,and in part by Innovation Project of GUET
Graduate Education under grant 2020YCXS032.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.

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