4.

11 Temperature Switches and Alarm Alarm Damper or

Valve

Thermostats TSH

TS TC
TT
B. G. LIPTÁK (1982, 1995) L. W. MOORE, B. ADLER (2003)

Flow Sheet Symbol

Types: A. Electronic Switches

A1. Input From Transmitter
A2. Input From Sensor in the Field
B. Electromechanical Switches
C. Thermostats
C1. Electrical/Electronic
C2. Pneumatic

Range: A1: Depends on sensor/transmitter range

A2: Depends on sensor, from −328 to 4172°F (−200 to 2300°C)
B: From 0 to 75°F (−8 to 24°C) up to 50 to 650°F (10 to 343°C) spans are standard;
the maximum range is from −50 to 1100°F (−46 to 593°C)
C: Room thermostat set points are adjustable from 45 to 85°F (7 to 29°C) for heating
and from 55 to 105°F (13 to 40°C) for cooling services

Cost: A: $150 to $600

B: Bimetallic spring elements cost only a few dollars; general purpose temperature
switches are $150; industrial-quality, indicating, explosion-proof temperature
switches with thermowells cost $300 to $500
C: Conventional room thermostats cost from $50 to about $100; programmable
microprocessor-based energy-saver thermostats cost $200 to $400

Inaccuracy: B: 0.5 to 2% of span

C: Traditional thermostats are usually uncalibrated and their set point error can vary
from 0.5 to 3% and is not guaranteed. The microprocessor-based programmable
thermostats are repeatable within 1°F (0.6°C).

Repeatability of Actuation: A: 0.5% of span for analog, 0.05% for digital

Partial List of Suppliers: Acromag (A1, A2) (www.acromag.com)

Allen-Bradley (B) (www.ab.com)
Ametek Drexelbrook (B) (www.drexelbrook.com)
API (A1, A2) (www.api-usa.com)
Applications Engineering Ltd. (B) (www.appeng.co.uk)
ASCO (B) (www.ascovalve.com)
Ashcroft (B) (www.dresserinstruments.com)
Barksdale/Crane (B) (www.barksdale.com)
Custom Control Sensors (B) (www.ccsduslsnap.com)
Dallas Semiconductor/Maxim (B) (www.para.maxim-ic.com)
Dresser Instruments (B) (www.dresserinstruments.com)
Eurotherm/Action Instruments/Invensys (A1, A2) (www.actionio.com)
Eurotherm/Barber Coleman (A1, A2, C) (www.eurotherm.com)
Fluid Components (B) (www.fluidcomponents.com)
Foxboro Co. (A1) (www.foxboro.com)
Hi-Stat Div. Stoneridge (B) (www.histat.com/histat/temp-sw.htm)
Honeywell (B) (www.thermalswitch.com)
Honeywell (C) (www.content.honeywell.com/yourhome/ptc-thermostats/thermostat.ht)

657
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
658 Temperature Measurement

Honeywell Sensing and Control (A1, A2) (www.honeywell.com/sensing)

Jumo (B) (www.jumoprocesscontrol.com)
Kobold (B) (www.coboldusa.com)
Mercoid/Dwyer (B) (www.dwyer-inst.com)
Moore Industries-International, Inc. (A1, A2) (www.miinet.com)
Neo-Dyn (B) (www.neodyn.com)
Omega Engineering (A1, A2, B) (www.omega.com)
Powers Controls (B, C) (www.powerscontrols.com)
Robertshaw/Invensys (C) (www.robertshaw.com/cli-fam-robTherm.html)
Rochester/Ametek (A1, A2) (www.rochester.com)
Rosemount Inc. Div. of Emerson (A1) (www.rosemount.com)
SOR (B) (www.sorinc.com/productsTemp.stm)
Staefa/Siemens Building Automation (C) (www.sbt.siemens.com/hvp/Components/
catalog/thermostats.asp)
Therm-O-Disc/Emerson (B) (www.thermodisc.com)
Thermo Electric (B) (www.thermo-electric-direct.com)
United Electric (B) (www.ueonline.com)
White Rogers (C) (www.whiterogers.com)

INTRODUCTION
The terms thermostat and temperature switch are somewhat
interchangeable. Temperature switches are on-off devices,
while thermostats are narrow (frequently fixed) proportional
band controllers. Their common characteristic is that mea-
surement, set point, and control functions are all combined
into a single instrument.
A thermostat is a device that controls the temperature in
an enclosed space and can be electrical/electronic or pneu-
matic. It functions either as a proportional-only controller or
as an on-off switch with a dead-band.
Figure 4.11a illustrates some of the terminology used in
connection with temperature switches. The temperature range
within which the actuation point can be set is referred to as
adjustable range. The switch may actuate at its set point on
High Temperature Switch Low Temperature Switch
(Detects Temperature Rise) (Detects Temperature Decrease)
Accuracy Tolerance
Reactivation
Set Point Point
rising (high) or falling (low) temperature. The set point is the
temperature that actuates the switch to open or close an
electric circuit. The set point accuracy defines the band within
which repetitive actuations will occur. Differential or dead
band is the difference between the set point and reactuation
point. For example, if a high temperature switch is set to
actuate (close) at 100°F (38°C) on rising temperature, it will
close at that point. When the temperature drops, it will not
open again until the temperature has fallen to 95°F (35°C).
In this case, the differential is 5°F (2.8°C). Tolerance is the
repeatable accuracy of the reactuation point.
Temperature switches utilize a wide variety of technolo-
gies depending on their applications in commercial products,
industrial equipment, process control, and even aerospace.
They also vary in sophistication from simple snap disc mod-
els typically used in coffee makers up through very sophis-
ticated models. An alternate name for them is limit alarms.
They can accept temperature sensor inputs from thermocou-
ples (TCs) or resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and
provide multiple alarms at different settings or serve both
alarm and equipment shutdown functions. This section will
discuss both industrial and commercial switches as well as
personal comfort (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
[HVAC]) thermostats.

ELECTRONIC TEMPERATURE SWITCHES

Adjustable
Differential Range Differential There are two types of electronic temperature switches (some
suppliers also call them limit alarms), which are differenti-
ated by the source of their input signals. If the temperature
of interest is detected by a temperature transmitter, the high
or low temperature switch detects a transmitter output signal
Reactivation Set Point
Point
of 4–20 mA or 1–5 V DC. If a transmitter is not available,
Accuracy
a local process temperature sensor is connected directly to
Tolerance
the electronic high or low temperature switch (limit alarm),
FIG. 4.11a which is preferably mounted near the sensing point. Both
Temperature switch terminology. types will be discussed.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták


Input from Transmitter
Temperature transmitters with 4–20 mA output signals are
often connected to a programmable logic controller or dis-
tributed control system for monitoring, alarming, and control.
However, there are often requirements to have a backup
device for monitoring the same signal for redundant alarming
and emergency equipment shutdown. It makes economical
sense to locate this device near the equipment being moni-
tored so that shutdown commands need not be wired all the
way from the control room.
This type of temperature switch uses an analog circuitry
and typically has either one or two trip points that are screw-
driver adjusted and provide relay outputs. These analog
switches require a signal source and a continuity-measuring
device to set the trip points. Such an analog temperature
switch is shown in Figure 4.11b. Indicating models are also
available, which indicate both the detected temperature and
the set point for switch actuation. Trip point repeatability as
a percent of input span varies from 0.5 to 0.05% of span, as
a function of whether the device is an inexpensive analog
model or a more accurate digital one. Some models are also
provided with an adjustable dead band, which is a range,
through which the input can change without causing a state
change in the switch position.
High-end digital temperature switches are field-configurable
for trip point, dead band, time delay, and latching options
(Figure 4.11c). Others also incorporate an indicating display,
which is scalable in various engineering units, or provide
excitation power for the temperature transmitter and retrans-
mits the received input signal as an isolated 4–20 mA output
signal. These temperature switches are available with 1 to 4
relays.
FIG. 4.11b
Analog electronic switch operating off the output signal of a trans-
mitter. (Courtesy of Moore Industries-International, Inc.)
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
4.11 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 659
FIG. 4.11c
Configurable and indicating digital electronic switch operating off
the output signal of a transmitter. (Courtesy of Moore Industries-
International, Inc.)
Input Directly from Sensor
These direct connected temperature switches also range from
less sophisticated analog designs to the more sophisticated
field-configurable digital models. For the analog switches,
the type of sensor input must be specified while the digital
models can be field-configured for a variety of sensors. This
includes eight types of TCs and a number of RTDs, including
two-, three-, or four-wire circuitry and platinum, nickel, or
copper elements.
These switches also accept direct resistance input or mil-
livolt signals. A valuable feature of these sensor input devices
is their ability to perform sensor diagnostics. One model pro-
vides a relay output in the event of a sensor failure while
inhibiting the other alarm/shutdown outputs. The benefit is
that a nuisance shutdown of a piece of machinery or a process
may be avoided and yet the user knows that a sensor must
be replaced to maintain monitoring.
If the same temperature, which is detected by the tem-
perature switch, is also needed for control, recording or other
reasons, some of these direct-connected devices are able to
also act as transmitters and output a 4–20 mA signal (Figure
4.11d). This way, in addition to the temperature switch, the
functions of indication and transmission are also provided by
the same unit.
Installation Considerations
In The Control Room If a temperature transmitter output is
already being sent to the control room, it is logical to also
mount the temperature switch there. For direct sensor input,
better performance is obtained by installing the instrument
close to the sensor, in order to reduce the effects of electrical
660 Temperature Measurement
FIG. 4.11d
Direct connected configurable electronic temperature switch with
display and retransmission capability. (Courtesy of Moore Industries-
International, Inc.)
noise (electromagnetic interference and radio frequency
interference [RFI]) and the errors introduced by extension
cables.
For the installation of high temperature switches, the
recommended practice is to connect them in parallel with the
rest of the control system, recorder, or logger. Most input
circuits to these devices use a 250-Ω input resistor that con-
verts the 4–20 mA signal into a 1–5 V DC signal. By con-
necting the alarm trip in parallel, it can then monitor this
same 1–5 V DC signal and either device can be removed
from service without affecting the operation of the other.
While most models can be surface mounted, the (DIN)
rail mounting style is the most effective, because the elec-
tronic switch units simply clip on a standard DIN rail elim-
inating the need for drilling and tapping screw holes.
Field Mounting Local mounting is recommended for all
direct connected temperature switches in order to minimize
the signal degradation caused by the long wiring runs back to
a control room. When a high temperature switch also initiates
equipment shutdown, wiring costs can be reduced by installing
the alarm/shutdown switch near the protected equipment.
When installing any electrical or electronic equipment in
the field, the instrument enclosures must meet both environ-
mental and safety concerns. If explosive vapors or dust are
present continuously in the area, the enclosure must be a
Class 1, Division 1 explosion proof enclosure, which would
be needed to meet Class 1, Division 1 requirements of agen-
cies like (FM) and (CSA).
If these vapors or dusts are only present under abnormal
conditions, the enclosures must meet the much less rigorous
requirements of Class 1, Division 2. Note that both the instru-
ment and the enclosure enter into the consideration. Often a
Division 2 enclosure can also meet (NEMA) 4X requirements
for watertight and corrosion resistance. Division 2 also man-
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
dates that there be no open contacts, and alarm devices must
have hermetically sealed relays or use solid-state switching
to meet this requirement.
Because temperature switches are often installed to pro-
tect critical processes, a false or nuisance trip can be very
costly. Frequently the cause of these nuisance trips is RFI
generated by walkie-talkies, which are used in most plant
locations. Therefore, it is important to specify that the switch
must include RFI immunity. (Immunity to 10 V/m according
to the SAMA specification 33.1 is considered acceptable.)
Availability and Reliability
Often, a temperature switch will have the critical role of
guaranteeing a safe shutdown. Safety Instrumented Systems
standards (including ANSI/ISA 84.01, IEC 61508, and IEC
61511) provide guidance and thereby assure the availability
and reliability of the devices that are used in safety related
applications.
Availability means that the device will be able to perform
the assigned task when it is called upon to do so. For example,
the probability that an alarm switch or limit device will sense
a dangerously high temperature and will trip an emergency
shutdown valve when the tripping occurs is referred to as its
Probability of Failure On Demand.
Reliability refers to the likelihood of the device suffering
a nuisance failure and thereby causing a false trip. This factor
is referred to as its Mean Time To Fail spurious. These stan-
dards contain equations for the calculation of the reliability
of the complete loop. These calculations are performed by
inserting numerical values for the availability and reliability
of each device in a loop. Only a few suppliers can provide
the data required to calculate the reliability of such loops.
When a third party tests and evaluates an instrument, it pub-
lishes a report known as a Failure Modes Effects, Diagnostic
Analysis. That report contains all the required data for the
calculations in the standards. Documented reliability does
not have to increase costs, because higher reliability often
results in reduced maintenance costs.
ELECTROMECHANICAL TEMPERATURE SWITCHES
Temperature switches are used to energize and deenergize
electric circuits as a function of the relationship between the
process, temperature, and a predetermined set point. The set
point error on the best electro-mechanical switches is about
± 0.5% of span, but that error can rise substantially as the
switch cost and quality drops. The sensing elements are
mostly the elastic types including filled and bimetallic ele-
ments. The electric switching assemblies are either snap-
acting mechanical micro-switches or mercury switches. The
latter contain no mechanical moving parts and must be mounted
on a vibration-free level surface.
Many applications from furnace protection to local fan
controls may not require sophisticated electronic temperature

switches, and in such applications bimetallic or filled bulb
type switches are used. The lower cost versions are provided
only with factory set fixed set points and fixed differentials,
while the more expensive ones can be indicating and have
adjustable differentials and calibrated, externally adjustable
set points and setting scales.
Features Required for Industrial Applications
Temperature switch elements should be selected with service
life and maximum operating temperature in mind. Most elas-
tic elements will have a service life of close to a million
cycles if the cycle time is not less than 5 s. The service life
is related to the amount of current required to switch and the
frequency of switching. By increasing the dead-band, the
frequency of switching is reduced and the life of the switch
increases. Similarly, increasing the margin between the switch
rating and the actual current flow handled will also increase
switch life. For example, a device that is switching 4 A should
have a 10-A and not a 5-A rating.
Selection of the adjustable range for a specific installation
should consider both the set point actuation accuracy and the
life factor. For greatest accuracy, the set point should fall in
the upper half of the range, but for longest service life it
should be in the lower half. The usually acceptable compro-
mise is to locate the set point in the middle third of the range.
It is desirable to have an external calibrated knob pro-
vided on the temperature switch for set point adjustment.
Uncalibrated or internal set point adjustments are generally
undesirable on industrial installations. The fixed differential
temperature switches are furnished with a single adjustment
for set point. These units are factory-set with differentials
that range from 0.5 to 1% of span. On double-adjustment-
type designs, both set points and reactuation points can be
independently adjusted. The maximum differential in such
designs is the range of the switch, while the minimum varies
between 2 and 8% of span. Temperature switches with dual
control are also available. Here, two independent switches
mounted in the same housing are responding to the same
process temperature in opening or closing two independent
circuits.
Safety Considerations
The electrical rating of temperature switches at a 115 V oper-
ating level varies from 0.3 to 10 A on AC or DC circuits.
Generally, the dual control and the fixed differential switches
have lower ratings, and the double-adjustment-type units have
higher ratings. The available circuit arrangements are very
flexible. Some of the standard arrangements include single-
pole–single-throw, single-pole–double-throw, and double-
pole–double-throw designs, but units are available with up to
four poles.
There are basically three standard case designs: general
purpose (NEMA 1), weather-resistant (NEMA 2 and 3), and
explosion-proof (NEMA 7) cases. These enclosures and the
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
4.11 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 661
switches inside them may require certification to meet haz-
ardous area classifications from certification agencies such
as FM, CSA, or Underwriters’ Laboratories.
In some designs, the control mechanism is an integral part
of the explosion-proof case, while in others it can be removed
in the field for maintenance. As noted earlier, the set point
should be externally adjustable so that the explosion-proof
case does not need to be opened in order to change the set
point. For added convenience of the operator, some switches
also provide continuous process temperature indication.
Another optional feature is push-button reset, which must be
manually operated before the circuit will be restored to its
original state after an automatic operation. This manual reset
encourages the operator to verify the safety of the system
before restarting.
THERMOSTATS
Conventional thermostats are usually uncalibrated devices
and their manufacturers usually do not guarantee their accu-
racy. This is a limitation, because it is possible to have some
thermostats with as much as 5 to 10°F (3 to 6°C) error in
their measurement. In the last decades a new generation of
thermostats has been introduced that guarantee to limit their
error to 1°F (0.6°C) or less.
Electromechanical Designs
There is little difference between a two-position thermostat
and a temperature switch. The temperature-sensing elements
in the thermostats shown in Figure 4.11e are bimetallic
springs. In the design shown on the left, the gap between
contacts is almost zero and the movement of the bimetallic
element directly opens and closes the load contact. In the
design shown in the center a positive gap is provided, serving
to reduce wear on control equipment. The gap is produced by
toggle action and is adjustable by adjusting the spring tension.
In slow processes with long cycle periods, such as in
domestic thermostats, anticipation is provided through the
use of a negative gap (right of Figure 4.11e). In this thermo-
stat, when the heater in a room is turned on, a small internal
heater within the thermostat is also actuated. This causes the
bimetallic spring to turn off the room heater before the room
temperature reaches the temperature inside the thermostat.
+G
−G
Positive Gap
Zero Gap Negative Gap
FIG. 4.11e
Design variations of two-position electromechanical thermostats.
662 Temperature Measurement
Setpoint Scale
Sets the Normal Value
Manual Setpoint
Adjustment
As the Temperature Rises the Bimetallic
Element Moves to the Right, Increasing
the Back Pressure on the Nozzle and
Thereby Raising the Thermostat Output
Signal (this Is called Direct Action).
Bimetallic
Element
FIG. 4.11f
Direct-acting pneumatic-bimetallic thermostat with manual set point and fixed proportional band. This is a low-volume design since output
air flow is limited because there are no relays.
Pneumatic Designs
Pneumatic-Bimetallic The next level of sophistication is to
replace the completely on-off action (with or without adjust-
able gap) of the thermostat with a small amount of throttling.
In such throttling thermostats, the room temperature has to
move away from set point by a degree or two before the
heating (or cooling) valve (damper) is fully opened. One
simple way of achieving such throttling action is by letting
the bimetallic spring move a flapper in front of a nozzle
(Figure 4.11f), thereby causing the pneumatic output pres-
sure of the thermostat to change with temperature.
Throttling Thermostats are distinguished from other control-
lers in that they provide proportional action only and that their
proportional band (gain) is narrow and fixed. A conventional
room thermostat might have a set point range of 55 to 85°F (13
to 29°C) and a fixed sensitivity (gain) of 2.5 PSI/°F (0.3 bar/°C).
Assuming that this thermostat operates a control valve having
a 9 to 13 PSIG (0.6 to 0.9 bar) spring range, we can convert
the fixed sensitivity of 2.5 PSI/°F into a percent proportional
band value that is better understood by instrument engineers.
Sensitivity (or gain) is stated as the ratio between a change
in measurement and a change in the corresponding controller
output. A 1°F (0.56°C) change in measurement is 3.3% of
the measurement range of 30°F (55 to 85°F, or 13 to 29°C),
while the 2.5 PSI change in controller output is 62% of the
controller output range of 4 PSI (9 to 13 PSIG). If a 3.3%
change in input results in a 62% change in output, that is a
gain of 62/3.3 = 19. Converting this typical thermostat gain
to proportional band, we get:
100 100
P= = = 5.3%
G 19
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
This Thermostat Is Called a Fixed
Proportional Band Design Because the
Distances A and B Are Fixed. A Standard
Response Is to Give a 2.5 PSIG (17kPa)
°F 50 60 70 80 °F Change in Output Signal for Each °F
°C 10 15 20 25 °C Change in Measurement.
0.01" (0.25 mm)
Diameter
Restriction
A B
INCR.
20 PSIG (140 kPa)
Air Supply
Low Volume
(1 SCFH or
0.028 m3/hr)
Output
Signal to
Flapper 0.015" (0.375 mm) Dampers or
Diameter Nozzle to Control
Valves
This controller, having a fixed proportional band of 5%
is very sensitive, has a small “offset,” and, as its gain is fixed,
cannot be tuned.
Offset Error Let us examine the consequences of these
characteristics separately. A sensitive controller is suited for
the control of very slow, large-capacity processors. Temper-
ature control in the HVAC industry usually fits that descrip-
tion. Therefore, thermostats with fixed, high gains can give
acceptable results, if space temperature can change only very
slowly. On the other hand, such thermostats cannot control
spaces with fast dynamics (short time constants) and will
cycle or lose control when applied to such service.
The offset inherent in all proportional controllers is not
a serious drawback because the resulting error is small, due
to the narrowness of the proportional band. Using our earlier
example and assuming that the thermostat output is set at
11 PSIG (0.76 bar) when the error is zero (thermostat on
set point), we can calculate the maximum error due to offset.
When there is no error, the control valve is 50% open
(output is 11 PSIG, or 0.76 bar). As the load changes, an
error must be allowed to develop in order for the valve
opening to change. Assuming that the valve has been cor-
rectly sized and is large enough to handle all expected loads,
the maximum error due to offset will be that deviation from
set point that is required to move the valve from half to full
opening. This 2 PSIG (0.14 bar) change in thermostat output
will occur when the deviation from set point is 0.8°F
(0.4°C).
Therefore, this is the size of the permanent offset error
for a gain of 19:1. There is an inverse linear relationship
between gain and offset error, such that if the gain is cut in
4.11(1)
half, the offset error will be doubled.

From the above discussion it might be concluded that the
conventional room thermostat is a good selection for the
HVAC-type applications and that more expensive instru-
ments, such as PID controllers, would not necessarily
improve the overall performance.
Design Features Application engineers can choose from a
fairly large variety of design features when specifying ther-
mostats, because they cannot only be electromechanical,
pneumatic, or electronic, but can also be (1) indicating or
blind, (2) direct or reverse acting, (3) can automatically switch
their actions in response to a pneumatic or electronic signal,
(4) can have bimetallic, filled, or electronic sensing elements,
(5) can have local or remote set points, or (6) have their set
points under key, concealed, or externally adjustable.
Advanced Features If the set point of a pneumatic thermo-
stat is adjusted remotely by an air signal, each 1 PSIG (0.07 bar)
change in set point pressure will move the set point by an
adjustable preset amount. The range of this adjustment is
usually from 0.15 to 1.4°F (0.1 to 0.8°C) per 1 PSI (0.07 bar).
If the set point is to change as a function of the time of day,
a timer can automatically operate a solenoid and thereby
switch the set point signal.
Some of the more recently developed and more advanced
thermostat features include the following:
Adjustable Gains or Proportional Bands Another term used
to describe the sensitivity of thermostats is throttling range.
As shown in Figure 4.11g, it refers to the amount of temper-
ature change that is required to change the thermostat output
from 3 to 13 PSIG (0.2 to 0.9 bar). The throttling range is
usually adjustable from 2 to 10°F (1 to 5°C).
Dual Set Points These thermostats will switch their settings
in response to a change in the air supply pressure. Both set
points can be manually adjusted, with the day setting made by
external thumbwheel and the night setting concealed internally.
Thermostat
Output (PSIG)
13
3 The two basic limitations of the split-range approach are:
Temperature
Throttling (°F)
Range
FIG. 4.11g
Definitions of throttling range for pneumatic thermostats.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
4.11 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 663
Heating Cooling
Load Load
Conventional Control
100% 100%
ZEB Control
Resulting Saving
0% Room
0%
55 65 75 85 95 Temperature
Zeb (°F)
(Adjustable)
FIG. 4.11h
Zero energy band control.
Limited Control Range These thermostats allow the occu-
pant of an office to move the set point to any value desired,
but will disregard any setting that exceeds the limit value.
For example, in heating applications, the limit could be 74°F
(23°C). In this case, the space temperature will be limited to
a maximum of 74°F, regardless of the setting by the occupant.
Similar limit values can be set for cooling.
Zero Energy Band Control A recent addition to the avail-
able thermostat choices is the zero energy band (ZEB) design.
The idea behind ZEB control is to conserve energy by not
using any when the room is comfortable. As illustrated by
Figure 4.11h, the conventional thermostat wastes energy by
continuing to use energy when the area’s temperature is
already comfortable. The comfort gap, or ZEB, is adjustable
and can be varied to match the nature of the particular space
involved.
ZEB control can be accomplished in one of two ways. The
single set point and single output approach is illustrated on the
left side of Figure 4.11i. Here the cooling valve fails closed
and is shown to have an 8 to 11 PSIG (0.55 to 0.76 bar) spring
range, while the heating valve is selected to fail open and has
a 2 to 5 PSIG (0.14 to 0.34 bar) range. Therefore, between 5
and 8 PSIG (0.34 and 0.55) both valves are closed, and no pay
energy is expended while the thermostat output is within this
range. The throttling range is usually adjustable from 5 to 25°F
(3 to 13°C). Thus, if the ZEB is 30% of the throttling range,
it can be varied from a gap size of 1.5°F (0.85°C) to 7.5°F
(4.2°C) by changing the throttling range (or gain).
Split Range Control While the split-range approach is a little
less expensive than the dual set point scheme (shown on the
right of Figure 4.11i), it is also less flexible and more restrictive.
1. The gap width can only be adjusted by changing the
thermostat gain; maximum gap width is limited by the
minimum gain setting of the unit.
2. In this design, the heating valve must fail open; this is
undesirable from an energy conservation point of view.
664 Temperature Measurement

Dual Output
Pressure from
Thermostat
Output Pressure
(PSIG)
of Single Full Heating Full Cooling
Thermostat 13
Gain = 0.75 PSI/°F
(PSIG)
12
Cooling Valve Open 11
11
10
10 9 Zero
9 8 Energy
Cooling Valve Closed
8 7 Band
7 6
6 Heating
Valve Closed 5
5
4
4 Heating
Valve 3
3
Open 2 Cooling
2 Heat
1 Off Off
1 Space Space
0 Temperature 0 Temperature
67 71 75 79 °F
Heat ZEB Cool °F 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82

Single Set Point Split-Range System Dual Set Point System

FIG. 4.11i
Implementation of zero energy band control.

These limitations are removed when a dual set point, dual
output thermostat is used. Here both valves can fail closed
and the band width is independently adjustable from the
thermostat gain. The gains of the heating and cooling ther-
mostats are also independently adjustable. In Figure 4.11i,
the heating thermostat is reverse-acting and the cooling ther-
mostat is direct-acting.
Electrical/Electronic Designs
The most common is the low voltage unit that uses
external interposing relays to control heating and/or
cooling equipment (typically 24 V AC)
Line voltage units that directly control AC circuits (120
or 240 V AC)
Heating only or heating/cooling models
Digital or analog indication of room temperature
Bimetallic, filled system or electronic sensing elements
Direct or reverse acting
Local or remote set point
Local set points may be external or internal and may
be key protected
Limited control range thermostats allow the occupant
of an office to move the set point to any value
desired, but will disregard any setting that exceeds
the limit value. For example, in heating applications,
the limit could be 74°F (23°C). In this case, the
space temperature will be limited to a maximum of
74°F, regardless of the setting by the occupant. Sim-
ilar limit values can be set for cooling.
Programmable setback models with 24-hour or 7-day
programs
RECENT ADVANCES
Microprocessor-based units continue to incorporate new fea-
tures. These are programmable devices with memory and
communication capability. They can be monitored and reset
by central computers using pairs of telephone wires as the
communication link. Microprocessor-based units can be pro-
vided with continuously recharged backup batteries and with
accurate electronic room temperature sensors. They can also
operate without a host computer (in the stand alone mode).
In this case the user manually programs the thermostat to
maintain various room temperatures as a function of the time
of day and other considerations.
In 2000, the first residential gateway for the HVAC indus-
try’s new open communications standard for residential envi-
ronmental control was introduced. This gateway enables
secure, remote access to residential HVAC systems via touch-
tone telephone, standard phone line, and pass code. Some
systems offer either dial in or dial out functions. Owners can
call in to check the temperature, change the status of their
HVAC system, and perform other thermostat-related func-
tions. These telephone access modules enable monitoring of
the building’s temperature and its heating/cooling equipment.
It can report when a furnace filter needs replacing or an
electronic air cleaner’s cells need cleaning. And it can call
up to three phone numbers to immediately alert the owner,

© 2003 by Béla Lipták


contractor, or others of problems, such as freezing tempera-
tures or an extended power outage.
Bibliography
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute Standard: 750–76, “Thermo-
static Refrigerant Expansion Valves,” Atlanta, GA, 1976.
American Gas Association Standard: Z21.23–1975, “Gas Appliance Ther-
mostats,” Washington, D.C., 1975.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
Standard: 17–75 (ANSI: B60.1–1975), “Method of Testing for Capac-
ity Rating of Thermostatic Refrigerant Expansion Valves,” Atlanta,
GA, 1975.
American Society of Testing and Materials Standard: B106–68, “Standard
Method of Test for Flexibility of Thermostat Metals,” West Consho-
hocken, PA, 1972.
American Society of Testing and Materials Standard: B389–65, “Standard
Method of Test of Thermal Deflection Rate of Spiral and Helical Coils
of Thermostat Metal,” West Conshohocken, PA, 1975.
“Automatic Control,” in ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory, Atlanta,
GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers,1980, chap. 34.
Eckman, D.P., Automatic Process Controls, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1958.
“Filled-Systems Thermometers,” Measurements and Controls, September 1991.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
4.11 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 665
Hashemian, H.M., et al., “Assuring Accurate Temperature Measurement,”
InTech, October 1989.
Jutila, J.M., “Temperature Instrumentation,” Instrumentation Technology,
February 1980.
Krigman, A., “Guide to Selecting Temperature Switches,” InTech, June
1984.
Lipták, B.G., “Reducing the Operating Costs of Buildings by the Use of
Computers,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 83, Part I, 1977.
National Electric Manufacturers’ Association Standard: DC3–1972, “Res-
idential Controls: Low Voltage Room Thermostats,” Rosslyn, VA,
1972.
National Electric Manufacturers’ Association Standard: DC13–1973, “Res-
idential Controls: Integrally Mounted Thermostats for Electric Heat-
ers,” Rosslyn, VA, 1973.
Plumb, H.H., “Temperature: Its Measure and Control in Science and Indus-
try,” 5th Symposium on Temperature, National Bureau of Standards,
American Institute of Physics, Instrumentation, Systems, and Automa-
tion Society, 1971.
Spethmann, D.H., “Importance of Control in Energy Conservation,”
ASHRAE Journal, February 1975.
Roots, W.K., Fundamentals of Temperature Control, New York: Academic
Press, 1969.
Underwriters’ Laboratories Standard: UL-521 (ANSI: Z220.1–1971), “Stan-
dard for Fire-Detection Thermostats,” Northbrook, IL, 1971.
Ween, S., “Liquid-in-glass Thermometers, Still Well and Indicating,” Paper
#91–0308, Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society Confer-
ence, Toronto, 1991.