!

!
 !
!

! I!
!
!

4%

12% 23% 16%

6% 2%

26%

9%

! II!
 The Relationship Between Different Indicators Of Reading
Fluency And Fourth Grade Students’ Reading
Comprehension

Summary

This study aimed to explore the relationship between four different indicators of

reading fluency (rapid naming, sight word fluency, fluency of connected texts, and

fluency of disconnected texts)and reading comprehension of students in fourth grade.

The participants were 156 fourth graders drawn from two elementary schools in

Pingtung City. The students took the Chinese Character Recognition Test and The

Reading Comprehension Growth Test in their classroom. Then each student

completed The Rapid Naming Test, The Sight Words Fluency Test, Fluency Test of

Connected Texts, and Fluency Test of Disconnected Texts individually. The reading

rates were calculated for the four fluency tests. A series of multiple regression

analyses were conducted. The main findings are as follows:

1. The four indices significantly predicted reading comprehension individually.

Rapid naming speed explained 4% of the variance of reading comprehension,

sight words fluency explained 12% of the variance, connected texts reading speed

explained 23 % of the variance, and disconnected texts reading speed explained

16% of the variance. However, after the variance of Chinese character

recognition were accounted for, only connected texts reading speed and

disconnected texts reading speed predicted reading comprehension significantly,

! III!
 with 6% and 2% of total variance were explained.

2. When entered into the equation altogether, the four indices of fluency predicted

reading comprehension significantly, with 26% of variance explained. After the

variance of Chinese character recognition were accounted for, the four indices still

predicted reading comprehension significantly, with 9% of total variance

explained. Only connected reading speed and rapid naming explained reading

comprehension significantly.

3. After the other three indices of fluency were accounted for, only connected

texts reading speed and disconnected texts reading speed had unique contribution

to reading comprehension. On the other hand, after Chinese character recognition

and the other three indices of fluency were accounted for, only connected texts

reading speed and rapid naming had unique contributions to reading

comprehension. !

Keywords: fourth grade, reading comprehension, reading fluency!

! IV!
! V!
! VI!
!
! VII!
 !
!!!
!

Trelease

Programme for International Student Assessment, PISA

! 1!
 !

Gunning, 2003;

Meyer & Felton, 1999

Reading First

Torgesen, 2002

Laberge Samuels automaticity

theory

Mckenna Stahl 2003

White 1995

Shaywitz 2003

LaBerge & Samuels, 1974

! 2!
Kuhn & Stahl, 2000 White, 1995

Chard,

Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; National Reading Panel, 2000

Chall 1966

prereading decoding confirmation and

fluency reading for learning the new

multiple viewpoints construction and

reconstruction

confirmation and fluency stage

learning to read

reading to learn

Stanovich 1986 Matthew effects

Chall fourth-grade-slump

! 3!
 National Assessment of

Educational Progress, NAEP 45%

Lee, J.; Grigg, W.; Dion, G.,

2007

Fuchs,

Marston, & Shin, 2001

van

den Broek, Espin, Deno 2003

Georgiou,

Parrila Liao

! 4!
 Catts 2001 sight-word reading

McCormick, 1995

Kim Petscher, 2010; Klauda Guthrie, 2008; Van den Broek, Espin,

Deno, 2003

! 5!
!

!
!

! 6!
 !

!
reading fluency

! 7!
 reading comprehension

A3

! 8!
 Chinese character recognition !

!!!! word recognition

increment

! 9!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

! 10!
 !

Stahl, 2004

Carver, 1992; Freese, 1997 Hudson Lane Pullen 2005

Kuhn & Stahl,

2003

Stahl Kuhn 2002

rate Perfetti

Meyer Felton 1999 Richek Caldwell Jennings Lerner

2002 sight

words

accuracy

! 11!
 speed Mckenna Stahl 2003

Mckenna Stahl 2003

National Assessment of Educational

Progress NAEP

Stahl & Kuhn, 2002 ; Tindal, 2006

decoding

automaticity prosody Kuhn & Stahl,

2003

music

Hudson Lane & Pullen 2005 Kuhn &

Stahl 2000 reading fluency

accuracy

prosody speed / rate

! 12!
 Klauda

Guthrie 2008

Gough Tunmer 1986 Kuhn & Stahl 2003

Schwaneflugel Hamilton Kuhn Wisenbaker Stahl 2004

! ! ! ! Gagné decoding literal

comprehension inferential comprehension

comprehension monitoring

! 13!
 matching recoding

lexical access

parsing

mental dictionaries

integration summarization

elaboration

macro

goal-setting strategy

! 14!
selection goal checking remediation

Gagne

Mckenna Stahl 2003

reasoning reading comprehension

LaBerge Samuels 1974

Kuhn

Stahl 2000 National Reading Panel, 2000; Rasinski & Hoffman, 2003

! 15!
 Samuels, 1994

Adams, 1990;

Stanovich, 1984

LaBerge Samuels Samuels

1994

orientation of

sensory receptors

Samuels 1994

alertness

selectivity

limit capacity

! 16!
 Samuels, 1994

Samuels

1979

Mayer, 2008,

p. 63

! 17!
 LaBerge Samuels 1974

Mayer, 2008, 21p. 61

Samuels, 1994; Stanovich,

1980

Stanovich 1980 interactive-compensatory

! 18!
 Chall Ehri

Chall 1979 1983 1996

Chall & Indrisano, 1995;

Kuhn & Stahl, 2003

Carnine, et al., 2004; Chall, 1983 Chall

Carnine, et al., 2004; Indrisano & Chall, 1995; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003

prereading stage

spoken lauguage

words / vocabulary syntax

pretend reading

! 19!
 conventional literacy stage / beginning

of formal reading instruction

confirmation and fluency / ungluing from print

comfort

! 20!
 reading for learning the new information

multiple viewpoints stage

construction and reconstruction stage

! 21!
 Chall

Chall, Jacobs, & Baldwin, 1990; Kuhn & Stahl,

2003 Michael Pressley Reading Instruction That Works

Pressley,

2006

Schatschneider, Fletcher, Francis, Carlson Foorman 2004

Klauda & Guthrie, 2008

Allington, 1983; Samuels, 1988;

Schreiber, 1991

Ehri

knowledge of the alphabetic system

! 22!
 Ehri, 2005 Ehri

Kuhn & Stahl, 2003 p. 414

Ehri 2005

Ehri

Beech, 2005; Ehri, 2005; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003 Chall 1983

pre alphabetic phases

Chall

partial alphabetic phases

! 23!
 full alphabetic phases

Chall

consolidated alphabetic phases

Chall

Ehri 2005

Perfetti 1992

Kuhn & Stahl, 2004, .

415

Chall

Ehri

! 24!
 Mckenna Stahl 2003

!!!! Geschwind 1965

Wolf, 1999 Geschwind

Geschwind

Wolf Bowers 1999

! 25!
 Blachman 1994 Torgesen Wagner Rashotte 1994

Wolf

Bowers 2000 Wolf Bowers 1999, 2000

double-deficit hypothesis

Wolf Bowers 2000

Wolf Bowers 1999, 2000

Wolf 1999

! 26!
 characters

rapid

automatized naming, RNA

Geschwind Geschwind

Wolf

& Bowers, 1999 Geschwind Denckla Rudel

! 27!
 Korhonen 1995

9 18

Swanson 1989

2008 Wolf

Bowers Biddle 2000

1998

1997 1999 2000 2001

! 28!
 200mm×130mm

Wolf 1999

Wolf Bowers 1999, 2000

Bowers Swanson 1991

Cutting Carlisle Denckla

1998

Denckla Rudel 1974 1976

Wolf 1986

! 29!
 Katzir

Catts, Fey, Tomblin et al., 2002; Catts, Fey, Zhang et al.,

1999

! 30!
 sight word

McCormick, 1995

Stoodt 1989

good reader

poor reader

occipitotmeporal OT

inferior frontal gyrus IFG

parieto-tem- poral system Shaywitz, 2003

OT Carr, Brown,

Vavrus, & Evans, 1990 Carr

! 31!
 1990 Slosson Oral Reading Test SORT

SORT

2007a

OT

!!!!

B1 B2 B34 B57 B89

! 32!
 Van den Broek, Espin, Deno 2003

Hudson, Lane, &

Pullen, 2005 White, 1995

Rasinski, T. V., Blachowicz, C. L., & Lems, K.,

2012 Mckenna Stahl 2003

Mastropieri, Leinart, & Scruggs, 1999

! 33!
 WPM WCPM

Ashcraft, 2002

Long & De Ley, 2000

Saenz Fuchs 2002

! 34!
 Jenkins, Fuchs, Van Den Broek, Espin, Deno 2003

Bie- miller, 1977–1978; Doehring, 1976; Perfetti, Finger, & Hoga- boam, 1978;

Stanovich, 1980

Jenkins, Fuchs, Van Den Broek, Espin, Deno, 2003

! 35!
 Posner and Snyder , 1975

Vukovic, Wilson, & Nash, 2004

Jenkins, Fuchs, Van Den Broek, Espin, Deno 2003

! 36!
 Klauda Guthrie 2008

Kim, Petscher, Schatschneider, Foorman 2010 12,536

! 37!
 nonsense words

24.5%

Jenkins, Fuchs, Van Den Broek, Espin, Deno 2003

! 38!
 ! !
!

!!!!

!
!

1,1 !

1,2 !

1,3 !

1,4 !

1,5

1,6

1,7

1,8

! 39!
 !

2,1

2,2

3,1

3,2

3,3

3,4

3,5

3,6

3,7

! 40!
 3,8

!
!!!!

85 71 156 !

!!!!

!!!!

(A3)

A3

! 41!
 !

!!! 2008

30 200

.99 .81~.95 .99

.36~.76

.48~.67

!!!!

! 42!
 / !

14

A4

! 43!
 14

A4

14 A4

79

1200 3,1

!!!!!

3,1 !

! ! ! ! !

! ! 359! 11.25! 97.5!

! ! 283! 7.45! 97.6!

! 44!
 !

!!!!

!!!!

!!!! 1

2 !

!!!! !

!!!

30 !

! 45!
!!!!! !

40 !

!!!!

!!!!

! 46!
 !

!!!! !

! ;!

!!!! !

! ;!

!!! !

! 47!
!

!!

! 48!
!

! 49!
! 50!
 ! !

!!!!

! !

!!!! 4,1

23.16 7.59

2008

20.14 4.23 68.11

18.65

2011 157.10 34.60 !

4,1! !

! ! ! ! !

! 10! 36! 24.33! 6.10!

! 50! 174! 105.03! 23.09!

! 8! 37! 17.67! 4.40!

! 49! 186! 107.03! 23.40!

! 103! 385! 201.05! 50.25!

! 60! 233! 115.54! 29.73!

! 51!
 !

!!!!

!!!! 4,2

!!!!

p<.01

.41 .70

.21 .49

r=.49 r=.48

r=.40 r=.35

4,2 n=156 !

! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

1. ! 1! ! ! ! ! !

2. ! 0.488**! 1! ! ! ! !

3. ! ,0.208**! ,0.413**! 1! ! ! !

4. ! 0.352**! 0.607**! ,0.617**! 1! ! !

5. ! ! 0.475**! 0.571**! ,0.582**! 0.698**! 1! !

6. ! 0.394**! 0.557**! ,0.666**! 0.684**! 0.638**! 1!

**p<.01!

! 52!
 !

!!!! 4,3

F p<.01 24%

4%

12% 23%

16% !

4,3! !

! Beta! t! R2 ! F !

! .49! 6.94***! .24! 48.21***!

! ,.21! ,2.64**! .04! 6.945**!

! .35! 4.67***! .12! 21.81***!

! .48! 6.70***! .23! 44.75***!

! .39! 5.33***! .16! 28.37***!

**p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,4 4,5 4,6 4,7

VIF 10

6% 2%

! 53!
 4,4! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .49! 6.94***! .24! .24! 48.21***! 1.00!

2! ! .49! 6.26***! .24.! .00! .01! 1.21!

! ! ,.01! ,.10!

***p<.001!

4,5! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .49! 6.94***! .24! .24! 48.21***! 1.00!

2! ! .44! 4.91***! .24! .01! 1.0! 1.58!

! .09! 1.00! ! ! !

***p<.001!

4,6! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .49! 6.94***! .24! .24! 48.21***! 1.00!

2! ! .32! 3.90***! .30! .06! 12.34**! 1.48!

! .29! 3.51**! ! ! !

**p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

! 54!
4,7! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .49! 6.94***! .24! .24! 48.21***! 1.00!

2! ! .39! 4.65***! .26! .02! 4.51*! 1.45!

! .18! 2.12*! ! ! !

*p<.05! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,8

VIF 10

p<.001

26%

4,8! !!!!!!!!!!

! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

! .22! 2.25*! ! ! ! 2.02!

! .01! .10! .27! .26! 13.58***! 2.50!

! .43! 4.14***! 2.21!

! .26! 2.41*! 2.41!

*p<.05! ! ***p<.001!

! 55!
 !!!! 4,9

VIF

10

24%

F p<.01

9%

!!!

4,9! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .49! 6.94***! .24! ! 48.21***! 1.00!

2! ! .32! 3.62***! ! ! ! 1.77!

! .19! 2.03*! .33! .09! 4.72**! 2.04!

! ,.10! ,.88! ! 2.70!

! .35! 3.45**! 2.31!

! .19! 1.74! 2.51!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

! !

!!!! 4,10

! 56!
VIF 10

1 24%

F p<.05 R2

.03 !

4,10! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! ,.04! ,.35! ! ! ! 2.40!

! .40! 3.78**! .24! .24! 15.99***! 2.16!

! .17! 1.67! ! 2.08!

2! ! .22! 2.25**! ! ! ! 2.02!

! .01! .10! .27! .03! 5.05*! 2.50!

! .43! 4.14**! 2.21!

! .26! 2.40*! 2.41!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,11

VIF 10

26%

! 57!
 .01 !!!!

4,11! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .22! 2.28*! ! ! ! 1.94!

! .44! 4.63***! .26! .26! 18.22***! 1.82!

! .26! 2.58*! ! 2.17!

2! ! .01! .10! ! ! ! 2.50!

! .22! 2.25*! .27! .01! .01! 2.02!

! .43! 4.14***! 2.21!

! .26! 2.40*! 2.41!

*p<.05! ! ***p<.001!

!!!!!!!!!

!!!! 4,12

VIF

10

18%

p<.001 9%

! 58!
 4,12! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .20! 1.92! ! ! ! 2.06!

! .16! 1.53*! .18! .18! 11.19***! 1.97!

! .36! 3.24**! ! 2.30!

2! ! .43! 4.14***! ! ! ! 2.21!

! .22! 2.24*! .27! .09! 17.17***! 2.02!

! .01! 0.10! 2.50!

! .26! 2.40*! 2.41!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,13

VIF 10

24%

p<.01 3%

! 59!
 4,13! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .10! .90! ! ! ! 2.25!

! .49! 4.73***! .24! .24! 15.68***! 2.10!

! .13! 1.43! ! 1.74!

2! ! .27! 2.41*! ! ! ! 2.41!

! .22! 2.25*! .27! .03! 5.79**! 2.02!

! .01! .10! 2.50!

! .43! 4.14***! 2.21!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,14

VIF 10

31%

F p<.05

2% !

! 60!
 4,14! !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .34! 3.76***! ! ! ! 1.75!

! ,.15! ,1.33! .31! .31! 16.57***! 2.58!

! .32! 3.12**! 2.24!

! .10! 1.04! 2.15!

2! ! .32! 3.62***! ! ! ! 1.77!

! .19! 2.03*! ! ! ! 2.04!

! ,.10! ,.88! .32! .02! 4.11*! 2.70!

! .35! 3.45**! 2.31!

! .19! 1.74! 2.51!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,15

VIF 10

32%

.00 !

! 61!
 4,15 !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .30! 3.51**! ! ! ! 1.64!

! .21! 2.27*! .32! .32! 17.77***! 1.94!

! .32! 3.36**! 2.05!

! .16! 1.57! 2.35!

2! ! .32! 3.62***! ! ! ! 1.77!

! ,.10! ,.88! ! ! ! 2.70!

! .19! 2.03*! .32! .00! .77! 2.04!

! .35! 3.45**! 2.31!

! .19! 1.74! 2.51!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,16

VIF 10

27%

F p<.01

5% !

! 62!
 4,16 !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .39! 4.29***! ! ! ! 1.69!

! .14! 1.40! .27! .27! 13.95***! 1.98!

! .03! .30! 2.39!

! .25! 2.29*! 2.43!

2! ! .32! 3.62***! ! ! ! 1.77!

! .35! 3.45**! ! ! ! 2.31!

! .20! 2.03*! .32! .05! 11.92**! 2.04!

! .,.10! ,.88! 2.70!

! .19! 1.74! 2.51!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!! 4,17

VIF 10

31%

.01 !

! 63!
 4,17 !

! ! Beta! t! R2 ! R2 ! F ! VIF!

1! ! .35! 4.01***! ! ! ! 1.70!

! .13! 1.47! .31! .31! 16.95***! 1.74!

! ,.05! ,.46! 2.53!

! .38! 3.78***! 2.25!

2! ! .32! 3.62***! ! ! ! 1.77!

! .19! 1.74! ! ! ! 2.51!

! .19! 2.03*! .32! .01! 3.03! 2.04!

! ,.10! ,.88! 2.70!

! .35! 3.45**! 2.31!

*p<.05! ! **p<.01! ! ***p<.001!

!!!! 4,1

! 4,1! !

!!!!

! 64!
!!!! !

!!!!

!!!!!

! 65!
 !

!!!!

!!!!

!!!! Chall! 1996 Samuels 1994 2006

Chall 1996

Samuels 1994 2006

White 1995

!!!!

9%

9%

! 66!
26%

Bowers Swanson 1991

Cutting Carlisle Denckla

2005

!!!! 2008

!!!! 2008 1999

2011

2003

2013

2011

!!!! Klauda, S. L., & Guthrie, J. T. (2008)

! 67!
 Van!den!Broek,!Espin,!

Deno 2003 ! 42%

!!!!!

! 68!
 ! !

!!!!

4%

12% 23% 16%

6% 2%

26%

9%

!
! 69!
 !

!!!!

!!!!

! !

! 70!
 !

!! !

!!!!

!!!!

9%

! 71!
!

! 72!
 !

! 73!
! 74!
! 75!
! 76!
! 77!
! 78!
! 79!
! 80!
! 81!
! 82!
 ! !

! 83!
 ! !

!!!! 23!

47!

71!

94!

119!

143!

168!

192!

217!

240!

265!

283!

!
!
!
!
=__________ =__________
!

=__________

! 84!
 ! !

25!
! !
50!
!
75!
!
100!
!
125!
!
150!
!
175!
!
200!
!
225!
!
250!
!
275!
!
283!

=________ =________ =________

! 85!