Urbanization and The Development of Cities

6/15/2020 Urbanization and the Development of Cities | Boundless Sociology
Boundless Sociology
Population and Urbanization
Urbanization and the Development of Cities
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/urbanization-and-the-d… 1/31
The Earliest Cities
Early cities arose in a number of regions, and are thought to have

developed for reasons of agricultural productivity and economic scale.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Summarize the various beginnings of cities, from centers of

agriculture to areas of protection, and the factors they need to
be successful
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The very rst cities were founded in Mesopotamia after

the Neolithic Revolution, around 7500 BCE.
Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities,

which help preserve surplus production and create
economies of scale.
Cities reduced transport costs for goods, people, and

ideas by bringing them all together in one spot.
Key Terms
Old World: The known world before the discovery of

the Americas.
Neolithic Revolution: The Neolithic Revolution or

Neolithic Demographic Transition, sometimes called the
Agricultural Revolution, was the world’s rst historically
veri able revolution in agriculture.
urbanism: the study of cities, their geographic,

economic, political, social, and cultural environment
Early cities developed in a number of regions, from Mesopotamia to Asia

to the Americas. The very rst cities were founded in Mesopotamia after
the Neolithic Revolution, around 7500 BCE. Mesopotamian cities
included Eridu, Uruk, and Ur. Early cities also arose in the Indus Valley
and ancient China. Among the early Old World cities, one of the largest
was Mohenjo-daro, located in the Indus Valley (present-day Pakistan); it
existed from about 2600 BCE, and had a population of 50,000 or more.
In the ancient Americas, the earliest cities were built in the Andes and
Mesoamerica, and ourished between the 30th century BCE and the 18th
century BCE.
Ancient cities were notable for their geographical diversity, as well as

their diversity in form and function. Theories that attempt to explain
ancient urbanism by a single factor, such as economic bene t, fail to
capture the range of variation documented by archaeologists.
Excavations at early urban sites show that some cities were sparsely
populated political capitals, others were trade centers, and still other
cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities had large dense
populations, whereas others carried out urban activities in the realms of
politics or religion without having large associated populations. Some
ancient cities grew to be powerful capital cities and centers of
commerce and industry, situated at the centers of growing ancient
empires. Examples include Alexandria and Antioch of the Hellenistic
civilization, Carthage, and ancient Rome and its eastern successor,
Constantinople (later Istanbul).
The Formation of Cities
Why did cities form in the rst place? There is insu cient evidence to
assert what conditions gave rise to the rst cities, but some theorists
have speculated on what they consider pre-conditions and basic

mechanisms that could explain the rise of cities. Agriculture is believed
to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve surplus production
and create economies of scale. The conventional view holds that cities
rst formed after the Neolithic Revolution, with the spread of agriculture.
The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon
nomadic lifestyles and settle near others who lived by agricultural
production. Agriculture yielded more food, which made denser human
populations possible, thereby supporting city development. Farming led
to dense, settled populations, and food surpluses that required storage
and could facilitate trade. These conditions seem to be important
prerequisites for city life. Many theorists hypothesize that agriculture
preceded the development of cities and led to their growth.
A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities

for the formation of a successful city. A good environment includes clean
water and a favorable climate for growing crops and agriculture. A
strong sense of social organization helps a newly formed city work
together in times of need, and it allows people to develop various
functions to assist in the future development of the city (for example,
farmer or merchant). Without these two common features, as well as
advanced agricultural technology, a newly formed city is not likely to
succeed.
Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced
transport costs for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all
together in one spot. By reducing these transaction costs, cities
contributed to worker productivity. Finally, cities likely performed the
essential function of providing protection for people and the valuable
things they were beginning to accumulate. Some theorists hypothesize
that people may have come together to form cities as a form of
protection against marauding barbarian armies.
Preindustrial Cities
Preindustrial cities had important political and economic functions and

evolved to become well-de ned political units.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Examine the growth of preindustrial cities as political units, as

well as how trade routes allowed certain cities to expand and
grow
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Preindustrial cities were political units, like today’s

states. They o ered freedom from rural obligations to
lord and community.
In the early modern era, larger capital cities bene ted

from new trade routes and grew even larger.
While the city-states, or poleis, of the Mediterranean

and Baltic Sea languished from the 16th century,
Europe’s larger capitals bene ted from the growth of
commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic
trade.
Key Terms
lord: A titled nobleman or aristocrat
rural obligations: For people during the medieval era,

cities o ered a newfound freedom from rural
obligations. City residence brought freedom from
customary rural obligations to lord and community.
Preindustrial cities: While ancient cities may have

arisen organically as trading centers, preindustrial cities
evolved to become well de ned political units.
Cities as Political Centers
While ancient cities may have arisen organically as trading centers,

preindustrial cities evolved to become well de ned political units, like
today’s states. During the European Middle Ages, a town was as much a
political entity as a collection of houses. However, particular political
forms varied. In continental Europe, some cities had their own
legislatures. In the Holy Roman Empire, some cities had no other lord
than the emperor. In Italy, medieval communes had a state-like power. In
exceptional cases like Venice, Genoa, or Lübeck, cities themselves
became powerful states, sometimes taking surrounding areas under
their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. Similar
phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai, which enjoyed a
considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.
For people during the medieval era, cities o ered a newfound freedom
from rural obligations. City residence brought freedom from customary
rural obligations to lord and community (hence the German saying,
“Stadtluft macht frei,” which means “City air makes you free”). Often,
cities were governed by their own laws, separate from the rule of lords
of the surrounding area.
Trade Routes
Not all cities grew to become major urban centers. Those that did often
bene ted from trade routes—in the early modern era, larger capital cities
bene ted from new trade routes and grew even larger. While the city-
states, or poleis, of the Mediterranean and Baltic Sea languished from
the 16th century, Europe’s larger capitals bene ted from the growth of
commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade. By the early
19th century, London had become the largest city in the world with a
population of over a million, while Paris rivaled the well-developed
regional capital cities of Baghdad, Beijing, Istanbul, and Kyoto. But most
towns remained far smaller places—in 1500 only about two dozen places
in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants. As late as 1700
there were fewer than 40, a gure which would rise thereafter to 300 in
1900. A small city of the early modern period might have contained as
few as 10,000 inhabitants.
Industrial Cities
During the industrial era, cities grew rapidly and became centers of
population growth and production.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Discuss the problems urbanization created for newly formed

cities
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-

era cities were rife with dangers to health and safety.
Poor sanitation and communicable diseases were

among the greatest causes of death among urban
working class populations.
In the 19th century, better sanitation led to improved

health conditions.
Key Terms
industrial cities: Rapid growth brought urban problems,

and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to health
and safety. Quickly expanding industrial cities could be
quite deadly, full of contaminated water and air, and
communicable diseases.
industrial era: During the industrial era, cities grew

rapidly and became centers of population and
production.
During the industrial era, cities

grew rapidly and became centers
of population and production.
The growth of modern industry
from the late 18th century onward
led to massive urbanization and
the rise of new, great cities, rst
in Europe, and then in other
regions, as new opportunities
brought huge numbers of
migrants from rural communities
into urban areas. In 1800, only 3%
of the world’s population lived in
cities. Since the industrial era,
that gure, as of the beginning of
the 21st century, has risen to Slum in Glasgow, 1871: An example
of slum life in an industrial city.
nearly 50%. The United States
provides a good example of how
this process unfolded; from 1860 to 1910, the invention of railroads
reduced transportation costs and large manufacturing centers began to
emerge in the United States, allowing migration from rural to urban
areas.
Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife
with dangers to health and safety. Rapidly expanding industrial cities
could be quite deadly, and were often full of contaminated water and air,
and communicable diseases. Living conditions during the Industrial
Revolution varied from the splendor of the homes of the wealthy to the
squalor of the workers. Poor people lived in very small houses in
cramped streets. These homes often shared toilet facilities, had open
sewers, and were prone to epidemics exacerbated by persistent
dampness. Disease often spread through contaminated water supplies.
In the 19th century, health conditions improved with better sanitation, but
urban people, especially small children, continued to die from diseases
spreading through the cramped living conditions. Tuberculosis (spread in
congested dwellings), lung diseases from mines, cholera from polluted
water, and typhoid were all common. The greatest killer in the cities was
tuberculosis (TB). Archival health records show that as many as 40% of

working class deaths in cities were caused by tuberculosis.
The Structure of Cities
Urban structure is the arrangement of land use, explained using di erent

models.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Analyze, using human ecology theory, the similarities and

di erences between the various urban structure models, such
as grid model, sectoral model and concentric ring model,
among others
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
In the grid model of cities, land is divided by streets that

run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. This
model promotes development.
The concentric ring model describes the city as an

ecosystem in which residents sort themselves into a
series of rings based on class and occupation. This
model’s general applicability has been challenged.
Urban structure can also describe the location of the

central business district, industrial parks, or urban open
spaces.
The sectoral model says the city develops in wedge-

shaped sectors instead of rings: certain areas of a city
are more attractive for various activities, which ourish
and expand outward in a wedge.
The multiple nuclei model assumes that car ownership

granted people more mobility and led the the
development of specialized regional centers within
cities.
The irregular pattern model was developed to better

explain urban structure in the Third World. It attempts to
model the lack of planning or construction found in
many rapidly built Third World cities.
Key Terms
central business district: The central area of a city in

which a concentration of certain retail and business
activities takes place, especially in older cities with rail
transportation.
urban open space: In land use planning, urban open

space is open space areas for parks, green spaces, and
other open areas.
Human Ecology: Human ecology described the city as

analogous to an ecosystem, with natural processes of
adaptation and assimilation.
Urban Structure Models
Grid
In grid models, land is divided by streets intersect at right angles,

forming a grid. Grid plans are more common in North American cities
than in Europe, where older cities tend to be build on streets that radiate
out from a central square or structure of cultural signi cance. Grid plans
facilitate development because developers can subdivide and auction
o large parcels of land. The geometry yields regular lots that maximize
use and minimize boundary disputes. However, grids can be dangerous
because long, straight roads allow faster automobile tra c. In the 1960s,
urban planners moved away from grids and began planning suburban
developments with dead ends and cul-de-sacs.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/urbanization-and-the-… 10/31
Concentric Ring Model
The concentric ring model was postulated in 1924 by sociologist Ernest

Burgess, based on his observations of Chicago. It draws on human
ecology theories, which compared the city to an ecosystem, with
processes of adaptation and assimilation. Urban residents naturally sort
themselves into appropriate rings, or ecological niches, depending on
class and cultural assimilation. The innermost ring represents the central
business district (CBD), called Zone A.. It is surrounded by a zone of
transition (B), which contains industry and poorer-quality housing. The
third ring (C) contains housing for the working-class—the zone of
independent workers’ homes. The fourth ring (D) has newer and larger
houses occupied by the middle-class. The outermost ring (E), or
commuter’s zone, is residential suburbs.
Toronto’s Central Business District: Skyscrapers populate Toronto’s central

business district
Concentric Zone Model: The Concentric Ring Model described the city as a
series of concentric rings, each home to a di erent group and social
function.
This model’s general applicability has been challenged. It describes an

American geography in which the inner city is poor while suburbs are
wealthy—elsewhere, the converse is the norm. In new, western U.S.
cities such as Los Angeles, advances in transportation and
communication have blurred these “zones. ” Further, the model fails to
account for topographical and physical features of the landscape. Even
in Chicago, the concentric rings were semi-circles, interrupted by Lake
Michigan.
Sectoral
In 1939, the economist Homer Hoyt adapted the concentric ring model
by proposing that cities develop in wedge-shaped sectors instead of
rings. Certain areas of a city are more attractive for various activities,
whether by chance or geographic/environmental reasons. As these
activities ourish and expand outward, they form wedges, becoming city
sectors. Like the concentric ring model, Hoyt’s sectoral model has been
criticized for ignoring physical features and new transportation patterns
that restrict or direct growth.
Hoyt’s Sectoral Model of Urban Growth: In Hoyt’s model, cities grow in

wedge-shaped sectors radiating from the center.
Multiple Nuclei
The multiple nuclei model was developed in 1945 to explain city

formation after the spread of the automobile. People have greater
movement due to increased car ownership, allowing for the
specialization of regional centers. A city contains more than one center
around which activities revolve. Some activities are attracted to
particular nodes while others try to avoid them. For example, a university
node may attract well-educated residents, pizzerias, and bookstores,
whereas an airport may attract hotels and warehouses. Incompatible
activities will avoid clustering in the same area.
Irregular Pattern
The irregular pattern model was developed to explain urban structure in

the Third World. It attempts to model the lack of planning found in many
rapidly built Third World cities. This model includes blocks with no xed
order; urban structure is not related to an urban center or CBD.
Alternate Uses of “Urban Structure”
Urban structure can also refer to urban spatial structure; the

arrangement of public and private space in cities and the degree of
connectivity and accessibility. In this context, urban structure is
concerned with the arrangement of the CBD, industrial and residential
areas, and open space.
A city’s central business district (CBD), or downtown, is the commercial

and often geographic heart of a city. In North America, this is referred to
as “downtown” or “city center. ” The downtown area is often home to the
nancial district, but usually also contains entertainment and retail. CBDs
usually have very small resident populations, but populations are
increasing as younger professional and business workers move into city
center apartments.
An industrial park is an area zoned and planned for the purpose of

industrial development. They are intended to attract business by
concentrating dedicated infrastructure to reduce the per-business
expenses. They also set aside industrial uses from urban areas to reduce
the environmental and social impact of industrial uses and to provide a
distinct zone of environmental controls speci c to industrial needs.
Urban open spaces provide citizens with recreational, ecological,

aesthetic value. They can range from highly maintained environments to
natural landscapes. Commonly open to public access, they may be
privately owned. Urban open spaces o er a reprieve from the urban
environment and can add ecological value, making citizens more aware
of their natural surroundings and providing nature to promote
biodiversity. Open spaces o er aesthetic value for citizens who enjoy
nature, cultural value by providing space for concerts or art shows, and
functional value—for example, by helping to control runo and prevent
ooding.
The Process of Urbanization
Urbanization is the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities,

often motivated by economic factors.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Analyze the proces of urbanization and its e ects on

economics and the environment in society
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Urbanization may be driven by local and global

economic and social changes, and is generally a
product of modernization and industrialization.
Urbanization has economic and environmental e ects.

Economically, urbanization drives up prices, especially
real estate, which can force original residents to move
to less-desirable neighborhoods.
Environmentally, cities cause “heat islands”, where less

vegetation and open soil raise city temperatures by 2 to
10 degrees Fahrenheit.
Recently in developed countries, sociologists have

observed suburbanization and counterurbanization, or
movement away from cities, which may be driven by
transportation infrastructure, or social factors like
racism.
Key Terms
suburbanization: A term used to describe the growth of

areas on the fringes of major cities; one of the many
causes of the increase in urban sprawl.
rural ight: A term used to describe the migratory

patterns of peoples from rural areas into urban areas.
urbanization: The physical growth of urban areas as a

result of rural migration and even suburban
concentration into cities.
counterurbanization: A demographic and social

process whereby people move from urban areas to
rural areas.
gentri cation: A shift in an urban community toward

wealthier residents and/or businesses and increasing
property values; often resulting in poorer residents
being displaced by wealthier newcomers.
Urbanization and rural ight
Urbanization is the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities.

During the last century, global populations have urbanized rapidly:
13% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1900
29% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1950
One projection suggests that, by 2030, the proportion of people living in

cities may reach 60%.
Rural and Urban World Population: Over time, the world’s population has
become less rural and more urban.
Urbanization tends to correlate positively with industrialization. With the

promise of greater employment opportunities that come from
industrialization, people from rural areas will go to cities in pursuit of

greater economic rewards.
Another term for urbanization is “rural ight. ” In modern times, this ight
often occurs in a region following the industrialization of agriculture—
when fewer people are needed to bring the same amount of agricultural
output to market—and related agricultural services and industries are
consolidated. These factors negatively a ect the economy of small- and
middle-sized farms and strongly reduce the size of the rural labor
market. Rural ight is exacerbated when the population decline leads to
the loss of rural services (such as business enterprises and schools),
which leads to greater loss of population as people leave to seek those
features.
As more and more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban
growth results. The rapid growth of cities like Chicago in the late
nineteenth century and Mumbai a century later can be attributed largely
to rural-urban migration. This kind of growth is especially commonplace
in developing countries.
Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate e orts to

reduce time and expense in commuting, while improving opportunities
for jobs, education, housing, entertainment, and transportation. Living in
cities permits individuals and families to take advantage of the
opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. Due
to their high populations, urban areas can also have more diverse social
communities than rural areas, allowing others to nd people like them.
heating and cooling units. Together, these e ects can raise city
temperatures by 2 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (or 1 to 6 degrees Celsius).
Suburbanization and Counterurbanization
Recently in developed countries, sociologists have observed

suburbanization and counterurbanization, or movement away from cities.
These patterns may be driven by transportation infrastructure, or social
factors like racism. In developed countries, people are able to move out
of cities while still maintaining many of the advantages of city life (for
instance, improved communications and means of transportation). In
fact, counterurbanization appears most common among the middle and
upper classes who can a ord to buy their own homes.
Race also plays a role in American suburbanization. During World War I,

the massive migration of African Americans from the South resulted in an
even greater residential shift toward suburban areas. The cities became
seen as dangerous, crime-infested areas, while the suburbs were seen
as safe places to live and raise a family, leading to a social trend known
in some parts of the world as “white ight. ” Some social scientists
suggest that the historical processes of suburbanization and
decentralization are instances of white privilege that have contributed to
contemporary patterns of environmental racism.
In the United States, suburbanization began in earnest after World War II,
when soldiers returned from war and received generous government
support to nance new homes. Suburbs, which are residential areas on
the outskirts of a city, were less crowded and had a lower cost of living
than cities. Suburbs grew dramatically in the 1950s when the U.S.
interstate highway system was built, and automobiles became a ordable
for middle class families. Around 1990, another trend emerged known as
counterurbanization, or “exurbanization”. The wealthiest individuals
began living in nice housing far in rural areas (as opposed to forms).
Suburbanization may be a new urban form.Rather than densely

populated centers, cities may become more spread out, composed of
many interconnected smaller towns. Interestingly, the modern U.S.
Megacities Re ect Growing Urbanization Trend
Megacities Re ect Growing Urbanization Trend – YouTube: In the

developing world, huge cities with sprawling slums have developed as
agriculture and rural occupations have been supplanted by mechanized
industries.
Economic and Environmental E ects of Urbanization
Urbanization has signi cant economic and environmental e ects on

cities and surrounding areas. As city populations grow, they increase the
demand for goods and services of all kinds, pushing up prices of these
goods and services, as well as the price of land. As land prices rise, the
local working class may be priced out of the real estate market and
pushed into less desirable neighborhoods – a process known as
gentri cation.
Growing cities also alter the environment. For example, urbanization can
create urban “heat islands,” which are formed when industrial and urban
areas replace and reduce the amount of land covered by vegetation or
open soil. In rural areas, the ground helps regulate temperatures by
using a large part of the incoming solar energy to evaporate water in
vegetation and soil. This evaporation, in turn, has a cooling e ect.
However in cities, where less vegetation and exposed soil exists, the
majority of the sun’s energy is absorbed by urban structures and asphalt.
During the day, cities experience higher surface temperatures because
urban surfaces produce less evaporative cooling. Additional city heat is
given o by vehicles and factories, as well as industrial and domestic
experience has gone from a largely rural country, to a highly urban

country, to a country with signi cant suburban populations.
U.S. Urban Patterns
The U.S. Census Bureau classi es areas as urban or rural based on

population size and density.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Discuss the di erent ways governments and society de ne the

term “urban”
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Di erent agencies and individuals de ne urban in

di erent ways, but the U.S. Census Bureau ‘s de nitions
are considered standard.
The U.S. Census Bureau de nes “urban areas” as areas

with a population density of at least 1,000 people per
square mile and at least 2,500 total people.
As of December, 2010, about 82% of the population of

the United States lived within the boundaries of
urbanized area.
Key Terms
population density: The average number of people

who live on each square mile (or kilometer) of land.
Di erent international, national, and local agencies may de ne “urban” in

various ways. For example, city governments often use political
boundaries to delineate what counts as a city. Other de nitions may
consider total population size or population density. Di erent de nitions
may also set various thresholds, so that in some cases, a town of just
2,500 may count as an urban city, whereas in other contexts, a city may
be de ned as having at least 50,000 people. Other agencies may de ne
“urban” based on land use: places count as urban if they are built up
with residential neighborhoods, industrial sites, railroad yards,
cemeteries, airports, golf courses, and similar areas. Using this sort of
de nition, in 1997, the U.S. Department of Agriculture tallied over
98,000,000 acres of “urban” land.
In spite of these competing de nitions, in the United States “urban” is

o cially de ned following guidelines set by the U.S. Census Bureau. The
Census Bureau de nes “urban areas” as areas with a population density
of at least 1,000 people per square mile and at least 2,500 total people.
Urban areas are delineated without regard to political boundaries.
Because this de nition does not consider political boundaries, it is often
used as a more accurate gauge of the size of a city than the number of
people who live within the city limits. Often, these two numbers are not
the same. For example, the city of Greenville, South Carolina has a city
population under 60,000 and an urbanized area population of over
300,000, while Greensboro, North Carolina has a city population over
200,000 and an urbanized area population of around 270,000. That
means that Greenville is actually “larger” for some intents and purposes,
but not for others, such as taxation, local elections, etc.
As of December, 2010, about 82% of the population of the United States

lived within the boundaries of urbanized area. Combined, these areas
occupy about 2% of the land area of the United States. The majority of
urbanized area residents are suburbanites; core central city residents
make up about 30% of the urbanized area population (about 60 million
out of 210 million). In the United States, the largest urban area is New
York City, with over 8 million people within the city limits and over 19
million in the urban area. The next ve largest urban areas in the United
States are Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and
Boston.
CANADA
New York
Philadelphia
Atlantic
Ocean
Urban area with over

10 million inhabitants
5 to 9.9 million inhabitants
Gulf of
2 to 4.9 million inhabitants Mexico
MEXICO
American urban areas by size: This map shows major urban areas in
America.
The Rural Rebound
During the 1970s and again in the 1990s, the rural population rebounded
in what appeared to be a reversal of urbanization.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the rural rebound and how it contributes to the

suburbanization of society
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Much of the “rural” rebound was driven by

suburbanization, which is the movement of people from
cities to surrounding suburbs, ex-urbs, or edge cities.
Suburbanization may be driven by white ight.
Counterurbanization refers, broadly, to movement away

from the city, which may include urban-to-rural
migration and suburbanization.
Counterurbanization has created shrinking cities and

attempts to better control urban growth.
Key Terms
white ight: The large-scale migration of whites of

various European ancestries, from racially mixed urban
regions to more racially homogeneous suburban areas.
ex-urbs: The expression exurb (for “extra-urban”) was

coined by Auguste Comte Spectorsky in his 1955 book
The Exurbanites to describe the ring of prosperous
communities beyond the suburbs that are commuter
towns for an urban area.
counterurbanization: Counterurbanisation is a
demographic and social process whereby people move
from urban areas to rural areas.
The rural rebound refers to the movement away from cities to rural and
suburban areas. Urbanization tends to occur along with modernization,
yet in the most developed countries many cities are now beginning to
lose population. In the United States in the 1970s, demographers
observed that the rural population was actually growing faster than
urban populations, a phenomenon they labeled the “rural rebound. ”
This trend reversed in the 1980s, due in part to a recession that hit
farmers particularly hard. But again in the 1990s, rural populations
appeared to be gaining at the expense of cities. Indeed, in the last 50
years, about 370 cities worldwide with more than 100,000 residents
have undergone population losses of more than 10%, and more than
25% of the depopulating cities are in the United States.
Rather than moving to rural areas, most participants in the so-called the
rural rebound migrated into new, rapidly growing suburbs. The rural
rebound, then, may be more evidence of the importance of
suburbanization as a new urban form in the most developed countries.
Suburbanization
Suburbanization is a general term that refers to the movement of people

from cities to surrounding areas. However, the suburbanization that took
place after 1970 was di erent from the suburbanization that had
occurred earlier, after World War II. In this more recent wave of
suburbanization, people moved beyond the nearby suburbs to farther-
away towns. Sociologists have invented several new categories to
describe these new types of suburban towns; two of the most notable
are ex-urbs and edge cities.
The expression exurb (for “extra-urban”) refers to a ring of prosperous

communities beyond a city’s suburbs. Often, these communities are
commuter towns or bedroom communities. Commuter towns are
primarily residential; most of the residents commute to jobs in the city.
They are sometimes called bedroom communities because residents
spend their days away in the cities and only come home to sleep. In
general, commuter towns have little commercial or industrial activity of
their own, though they may contain some retail centers to serve the daily
needs of residents. Although most exurbs are commuter towns, most
commuter towns are not exurban.
Exurbs vary in wealth and education level. In the United States, exurban
areas typically have much higher college education levels than closer-in
suburbs, though this is not necessarily the case in other countries. They
typically have average incomes much higher than nearby rural counties,
re ecting the urban wages of their residents. Although some exurbs are
quite wealthy even compared to nearer suburbs or the city itself, others
have higher poverty levels than suburbs nearer the city. This may
happen especially where commuter towns form because workers in a
region cannot a ord to live where they work and must seek residency in
another town with a lower cost of living. For example, during the “dot
com” bubble of the late twentieth century, housing prices in California
cities skyrocketed, spawning exurban growth in adjacent counties.
White Flight
Sociologists have posited many explanations for counterurbanization,

but one of the most debated is whether suburbanization is driven by
white ight. The term white ight was coined in the mid-twentieth
century to describe suburbanization and the large-scale migration of
whites of various European ancestries, from racially mixed urban regions
to more racially homogeneous suburban regions. During the rst half of
the twentieth century, discriminatory housing policies often prevented
blacks from moving to suburbs; banks and federal policy made it di cult
for blacks to get the mortgages they needed to buy houses, and
communities used restrictive housing covenants to exclude minorities.
White ight during this period contributed to urban decay, a process

whereby a city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude.
Symptoms of urban decay include depopulation, abandoned buildings,
high unemployment, crime, and a desolate, inhospitable landscape.
White ight contributed to the draining of cities’ tax bases when middle-
class people left, exacerbating urban decay caused in part by the loss of
industrial and manufacturing jobs as they moved into rural areas or
overseas where labor was cheaper.
More recently, the concept has been extended to newer forms of

suburbanization, including migration from urban to rural areas and to
exurbs. In a similar vein, some demographers have described the rural
rebound, and the newest waves of suburbanization, as a form of ethnic
balkanization, in which di erent ethnic groups (not only whites) sort
themselves into racially homogeneous communities. These phenomena,
however, are not so clearly driven by the restrictive policies, laws, and
practices that drove the white ight of the rst half of the century.
A Suburban Neighborhood: Suburban neighborhoods often feature large,

manicured lawns.
Models of Urban Growth
Models of urban growth try to balance the advantages and

disadvantages of cities’ large sizes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Summarize the various theories of urban growth and the

implications each theory has for today’s society
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The growth machine theory of urban growth says urban

growth is driven by a coalition of interest groups who all
bene t from continuous growth and expansion. Thus,
the growth of cities is a social phenomenon.
Urban sprawl results when cities grow uncontrolled,

expanding into rural land and making walking, public
transit, or bicycling impractical.
Critics of urban life often focus on urban decay, which

may be self-perpetuating, according to the broken
windows theory.
Urban renewal attempts to counter urban decay and

restore growth.
The New Urbanism and smart growth movements both

challenge the value of urban growth and expansion,
and they try to improve urban life by keeping it on a
human scale.
Key Terms
smart growth: Smart growth programs draw urban

growth boundaries to keep urban development dense
and compact.
urban renewal: Urban renewal refers to programs of

land redevelopment in areas of moderate- to high-
density urban land use.
New Urbanism: New Urbanism is an urban design

movement that promotes walkable neighborhoods that
contain a range of housing and job types.
Cities are dynamic places—they grow, shrink, and change. Sociologists

have developed di erent theories for thinking about how urban
populations change.
Growth Machine Theory
The growth machine theory of urban growth says urban growth is driven
by a coalition of interest groups who all bene t from continuous growth

and expansion. First articulated by Molotch in 1976, growth machine
theory took the dominant convention of studying urban land use and
turned it on its head.
The eld of urban sociology had been dominated by the idea that cities
were basically containers for human action, in which actors competed
among themselves for the most strategic parcels of land, and the real
estate market re ected the state of that competition. Growth machine
theory reversed the course of urban theory by pointing out that land
parcels were not empty elds awaiting human action, but were
associated with speci c interests—commercial, sentimental, and
psychological. In other words, city residents were not simply competing
for parcels of land; they were also trying to ful ll their particular interests
and achieve speci c goals. In particular, cities are shaped by the real
estate interests of people whose properties gain value when cities grow.
These actors make up what Molotch termed “the local growth machine. ”
Urban Sprawl
Whether explained by older theories of natural processes or by growth

machine theory, the fact of urban growth is undeniable: throughout the
twentieth century, cities have grown rapidly. In some cases, that growth
has been poorly controlled, resulting in a phenomenon known as urban
sprawl. Urban sprawl entails the growth of a city into low-density and
auto-dependent rural land, high segregation of land use (e.g., retail
sections placed far from residential areas, often in large shopping malls
or retail complexes), and design features that encourage car
dependency.
Urban sprawl’s segregated land use means that the places where
people live, work, shop, and relax are far from one another, which usually
makes walking, public transit, or bicycling impractical. As a result,
residents must use an automobile. Urban sprawl tends to include low
population density: single family homes on large lots instead of
apartment buildings, single story or low-rise buildings instead of high-
rises, extensive lawns and surface parking lots, and so on.
Critics of urban sprawl argue that it creates an inhospitable urban

environment and that it encroaches on rural land, potentially driving up
land prices and displacing farmers or other rural residents. Urban sprawl
is also associated with negative environmental and public health e ects,
many of which are related to automobile dependence: increases in
personal transportation costs, air pollution and reliance on fossil fuel,
increases in tra c accidents, delays in emergency medical services
response times, and decreases in land and water quantity and quality.
Urban Decay
Some have suggested that urban sprawl is driven by consumer

preference; people prefer to live in lower density, quieter, more private
communities that they perceive as safer and more relaxed than urban
neighborhoods. Such preferences echo a common strain of criticism of
urban life, which tends to focus on urban decay. According to these
critics, urban decay is caused by the excessive density and crowding of
cities, and it drives out residents, creating the conditions for urban
sprawl.
BROKEN WINDOWS
An alternative theory suggests that density does not cause crime, and
crime does not cause people to leave the city; when people leave, city
neighborhoods are abandoned and neglected, resulting in crime and
decay. This theory, known as the “broken windows theory,” argues that
small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns,
promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay,
people likewise fail to maintain their own properties.
RESPONSES TO DECAY
Cities have responded to urban decay and urban sprawl by launching

urban renewal programs. Two speci c types of urban renewal programs
—New Urbanism and smart growth—attempt to make cities more
pleasant and livable.
Smart growth programs draw urban growth boundaries to keep urban

development dense and compact. In addition to increasing the density
of cities, urban growth boundaries can protect the surrounding farmland

and wild areas. Smart growth programs often incorporate transit-
oriented development goals to encourage e ective public transit
systems and make bicyclers and pedestrians more comfortable.
New Urbanism is an urban design movement that promotes walkable

neighborhoods with a range of housing options and job types. As an
approach to urban planning, it encompasses principles such as
traditional neighborhood design and transit-oriented development. A
neighborhood designed along New Urbanist principles would have a
discernible center (such as a square or a green) with a transit stop
nearby. Most homes would be within a ve-minute walk of the center
and would provide a variety of housing options, including houses, row
houses, and apartments to encourage the mixing of younger and older
people, singles and families, and poor and wealthy.
Urban sprawl: Chicago, seen by air, shows urban sprawl
Broken windows: Broken windows in Detroit signal urban decay
Previous Next
Privacy Policy

Urbanization and The Development of Cities - Boundless Sociology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Urbanization and The Development of Cities - Boundless Sociology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

6/15/2020 Urbanization and the Development of Cities | Boundless Sociology

Population and Urbanization

The Earliest Cities

Early cities arose in a number of regions, and are thought to have

Summarize the various beginnings of cities, from centers of

The very rst cities were founded in Mesopotamia after

Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities,

Cities reduced transport costs for goods, people, and

Old World: The known world before the discovery of

Neolithic Revolution: The Neolithic Revolution or

urbanism: the study of cities, their geographic,

Early cities developed in a number of regions, from Mesopotamia to Asia

Ancient cities were notable for their geographical diversity, as well as

The Formation of Cities

have speculated on what they consider pre-conditions and basic

A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities

Preindustrial cities had important political and economic functions and

Examine the growth of preindustrial cities as political units, as

Preindustrial cities were political units, like today’s

In the early modern era, larger capital cities bene ted

While the city-states, or poleis, of the Mediterranean

lord: A titled nobleman or aristocrat

rural obligations: For people during the medieval era,

Preindustrial cities: While ancient cities may have

Cities as Political Centers

While ancient cities may have arisen organically as trading centers,

Discuss the problems urbanization created for newly formed

Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-

Poor sanitation and communicable diseases were

In the 19th century, better sanitation led to improved

industrial cities: Rapid growth brought urban problems,

industrial era: During the industrial era, cities grew

During the industrial era, cities

tuberculosis (TB). Archival health records show that as many as 40% of

The Structure of Cities

Urban structure is the arrangement of land use, explained using di erent

Analyze, using human ecology theory, the similarities and

In the grid model of cities, land is divided by streets that

The concentric ring model describes the city as an

Urban structure can also describe the location of the

The sectoral model says the city develops in wedge-

The multiple nuclei model assumes that car ownership

The irregular pattern model was developed to better

central business district: The central area of a city in

urban open space: In land use planning, urban open

Human Ecology: Human ecology described the city as

Urban Structure Models

In grid models, land is divided by streets intersect at right angles,

Concentric Ring Model

The concentric ring model was postulated in 1924 by sociologist Ernest

Toronto’s Central Business District: Skyscrapers populate Toronto’s central

This model’s general applicability has been challenged. It describes an

Hoyt’s Sectoral Model of Urban Growth: In Hoyt’s model, cities grow in

The multiple nuclei model was developed in 1945 to explain city

The irregular pattern model was developed to explain urban structure in

Alternate Uses of “Urban Structure”

Urban structure can also refer to urban spatial structure; the

A city’s central business district (CBD), or downtown, is the commercial

An industrial park is an area zoned and planned for the purpose of

Urban open spaces provide citizens with recreational, ecological,

The Process of Urbanization