Toaz - Info Production of Urea by Aces Process PR

TOYO’S ACES Process for UREA Synthesis
This report is submitted to department of Chemical Engineering,
Wah Engineering College, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan
For the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor’s Degree In
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Session
2010-2014
Group Members
Hafiz Adeel Hassan UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-011

Muhammad Imran Salim UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-025
Noman Rasool UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-028
Muhammad Usman UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-036
Department of Chemical Engineering

Wah Engineering College
University of Wah
DEDICATION
The project is dedicated to our beloved parents, who nurtured

us from our childhood and not only prayed for our better
future but even did struggle for while getting all troubles on
their own heads.
In addition, we would also like to dedicate this project to our

honorable and respected teachers who helped us in compiling
this report.
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PREFACE
UREA is a major FERTILIZER product. Different processes are available for the production
of urea. This design report is about the “TOYO’S ACES process for Urea synthesis”. This
report is divided in different sections. First of all the introduction of ACES process is given,
which highlights the importance of this process. Different manufacturing processes for urea
are also described. Detail description of “TOYO’S ACES process for Urea synthesis”.
Afterwards material and energy balance of equipments is presented.
In preceding chapters introduction to different equipments of plant along with their designing
procedure and specification sheets are presented.
Hazop study, Instrumentation & Control and Cost Estimation for this plant are also included
in this report.
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ABSTRACT
Urea is in many ways the most convenient form for fixed nitrogen. It has the highest nitrogen
content available in a solid fertilizer (46 %).It is easy to produce as prills or granules and
easily transported in bulk or bags with no explosive hazard. It leaves no salt residue after use
on crops. Its specific gravity is 1.335, decomposes on boiling and is fairly soluble in water.
The principal raw materials required for this purpose are NH3 & CO2.Two reactions are
involved in the manufacture of urea. First, ammonium carbamate is formed under pressure by
reaction between CO2 & NH3.
CO2 + 2NH3 → NH2COONH4 ∆H= -37.4 Kcal
This highly exothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic decomposition of the
ammonium carbamate.
NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H= + 6.3 Kcal
Various processes of urea manufacture are:

1) Advanced Cost and Energy Saving (ACES) Process
2) Stamicarbon CO2 stripping process
3) Snamprogetti ammonia stripping process
4) Once through urea process
We selected the Advanced Cost and Energy Saving process for the manufacture of urea. The
preference of ACES process to other urea manufacturing processes is briefly discussed in first
chapter. Some advantages of ACES process include High CO2 conversion, efficient stripping,
maximum heat recovery, less corrosion and product quality.
Energy balance & material balance of the plant is done. The selected capacity of the plant is 6,
00,000 tons/year of urea producing 75, 583.33 kg/hr of urea with 98.5 % purity. Urea reactor
is mechanically designed. The volume of reactor is calculated & found to be 129 m3. The
length & diameter of the reactor are 25 m & 2.5 m respectively. The Reactor used is of plug
flow type.
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Advanced Cost and Energy Saving process involves a high NH3 to CO2 ratio in the reactor,
usually 4/1 and 66-68% conversion of CO2 is done. CO2 is used as stripping agent. NH3 (l) is
entered into reactor and CO2 (g) into stripper.
Uses of Urea:
• About 56 % of Urea manufactured is used in solid fertilizer.
• About 31 % of Urea manufactured is used in liquid fertilizer.
• Urea-formaldehyde resins have large use as a plywood adhesive.
• Melamine-formaldehyde resins are used as dinnerware & for making extra hard surfaces.
The wide nature of the subject and the size restrictions left many areas to be touched very
briefly, however an effort has been made to cover significant facet of the topic.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express gratitude and praise to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, The Creator of universe, who is
beneficent and merciful, guided us in difficult circumstance, who endowed us with the will to
undertake this design project. Great respect our Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH),
who taught us to learn till lap of grave.
We are highly thankful to honorable Prof. Dr. A.K Salariya who provided us with a chance
to work on such an interesting topic. His constructive suggestions, constant guidance and
friendly attitude encouraged us to work in a better manner.
We are grateful to our honorable group advisor Prof. Dr. G.M. Mamoor and group
supervisor Mr. Kashif Iqbal for their nice cooperation in our design work.
We also show appreciation to our friends who encouraged and cooperated with us throughout
our work.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO UREA
1.1 Fertilizer 2
1.2 Characteristics of Urea 4
1.3 Commercial Production of Urea 5
1.4 Fertilizers Available In Pakistan 8
1.5 Demand and Supply of Urea in Pakistan 11
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
2.1 Conventional Processes 13

2.2 Process Comparison 19
2.3 Selection of Process 20
2.4 Detail Process Description of ACES process 22
2.5 Process Flow Diagram of ACES Process 26
CHAPTER 3
MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS
3.1 Material Balance on Overall Plant 29

3.2 Reactor Balance 31
3.3 Stripper Balance 32
3.4 Balance around Medium Pressure Decomposer 34
3.5 Balance around Carbamate Condenser 35
3.6 Balance around Lower Pressure Decomposer 36
3.7 Balance around Lower Pressure Absorber 38
3.8 Balance around Medium Pressure Absorber 39
3.9 Balance around Scrubber 40
3.10 Balance around Condenser 41
3.11 Balance around Evaporator 43
3.12 Balance around Prilling Tower 45
C H A P TE R 4
E N ER G Y B A LA N C E C A LC U LA T I O N S
4.1 Specific Heat Calculations 47
4.2 Energy Balance around Reactor 49
4.3 Energy Balance around Stripper 51
4.4 Energy Balance around Scrubber 53
4.5 Energy Balance around Carbamate Condenser 53
4.6 Energy Balance around Medium Pressure Decomposer 55
4.7 Energy Balance around Low Pressure Absorber 56
4.8 Tabulated Heat Balance 57
CHAPTER 5
PROCESS DESIGN
5.1 Reactor Design 59
5.2 Specification Sheet 62
5.3 Stripper Design 63
5.5 Condenser Design 74
5.7 Evaporator Design 82
5.9 Absorber Design 88
5.9 Selection of Pump 98
5.11 Selection of Compressor 102
CHAPTER 6
MECHANICAL DESIGN
6.1 Mechanical Design of Reactor 106
6.3 Mechanical Drawing of Reactor 113
CHAPTER 7
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
7.1 Instrumentation and Control 115

7.2 Components of Control System 116
7.3 Typical Control Systems 118
7.4 Consideration of PFR in ACES Urea Plant 120
CHAPTER 8
HAZOP STUDY
8.1 Hazard and Operability Study 123

8.2 Steps Conducted In HAZOP Study 123
8.3 Safety of the Urea Plant 125
8.4 Hazard Identification 126
8.5 First Aid (Emergency Procedure) 126
CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
9.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 129

9.2 Impact of the Urea Plant on the environment 130
9.3 Emission to air 130
9.4 Emission to water 131
9.5 Emission to land 131
9.6 Elimination Methods 132
CHAPTER 10
COST ESTIMATION
10.1 Purchased Equipment Cost 135

10.2 Total Capital Investment 137
10.3 Total Product Cost 138
10.4 Profitability Analysis 140
CHAPTER 11
SIMULATION IN ASPEN HYSYS
11.1 Introduction to ASPEN HYSYS 143

11.2 Simulation of Synthesis Section
REFERENCES
References 143
CHAPTER 01: Introduction To Urea
1.1 FERTILIZER
Fertilizers restore soil fertility by supplying nutrients to the soil. These nutrients
are utilized by crops for their growth and development. Without the addition of
fertilizers, crop yield would be significantly reduced as our soils are deficient in
major nutrients, like, N, P & K. Mineral fertilizers are used to increase the
nutrient concentration of the soil and these minerals can be quickly absorbed and
used by the crops.
Urea is the most concentrated solid straight nitrogen fertilizer.

fertilizer Its prills or
granules are white in color and free flowing. Urea is readily soluble in water. It
contains 46 per cent Nitrogen
N in amide (NH2) form which is changed to
ammonium (NH4+) in the soil. Because of its high water solubility, it is well
suited for use in solution fertilizers or foliar sprays.
Urea is an organic compound with chemical formula (NH2)2CO. Urea is also

known by international nonproprietary name (INN) carbide, as established by
world health organization. Other names include Carbide Resin,
R Isourea,
Carbonyl Diamide, and Carbonyl Diamine.
Figure 1.1 Chemical structures of urea molecules
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Production of Urea by ACES process
Synthetic Urea:
It was first organic compound to be artificially synthesized from inorganic

starting materials, in 1828 by friedrich Wohler, who prepared it by reaction of
potassium cyanate with maximum sulfate. Although Wohler was attempting to
prepare ammonium cynate by foaming urea, he inadvertently discredited
vitalism the theory that the chemicals of living organisms are fundamentally
different from inanimate matter, thus starting the discipline of organic
chemistry.
This artificially urea synthesis was mainly relevant to human health because of
urea cycle in human beings. Urea was discovered: synthesis in human liver in
order to expel excess nitrogen from the body. So in past urea was not considered
as a chemical for agriculture and industrial use. Within 20th century it was found
to be a best for the iatrogenic fertilizer for the plant and become widely used as a
fertilizer. Urea was the leading fertilizer worldwide in 1990s. Apart from the
urea is being utilized in many other industries.
Urea is produced on a scale of some 100,000,000 ton per year worldwide. For
use in industry, urea is from produce synthetic ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Urea can be produce as prillers, granuls, flakes, pellets, crystal and solution.
More than 90% of world production is destined for use as a fertilizer. Urea has
the highest nitrogen content of all nitrogenous fertilizer in common use (46.7%).
Therefore, it has the lowest transportation cost per unit of nitrogen nutrient. Urea
is highly soluble in water and is therefore, also very suitable for use in fertilizer
solution (in combination of ammonium nitrate).
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1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF UREA
Urea is white odorless solid. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with water (up
to six hydrogen bonds may forms –two from the oxygen atom and one from
each hydrogen urea is very soluble)
Table 1.1 Physical Characteristics of Urea
Density 1.33 × 10 solid
Melting point 132.7°c (406 °k) decompose

Boiling point NA
Solubility in water 108 (20°c)

167 (40°c)

251 (60°c)

400 (80°c)

733 (100°c)

Vapor pressure <10pa

Bulk density 0.8
Table 1.2 Chemical Characteristics of Urea
IUPAC name Di amino methanal

Chemical formula (NH2)2CO
Molecular mass 60.07g/mole
Dipole moment 4.56 p/d
pH (100g.L-1 in water, 20ºC) ~9
4
1.3 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF UREA
Urea is commercial produced from two raw material, ammonia and carbon
dioxide. Large quantities of carbon dioxide are produced during the manufacture
of ammonia from coal or from hydrocarbon such as natural gas. This allows
direct synthesis of urea from these raw materials. The production of urea from
ammonia and carbon dioxide takes place in equilibrium reaction with
incomplete conversion of reactants.
The various urea processes are characterized by conditions under which with
urea formation take place and the way in which unconverted reactant s are
further processed. Unconverted reactant can be used for the manufacture of
other products, for example ammonium nitrate and sulfate, or they can be
recycled for complete conversion to urea in a total recycle process. Two
principal reactions take place in formation of urea from ammonia and carbon
dioxide.
The first reaction is exothermic:
2NH3 + CO2 H2N-COONH4 (ammonium carbamate)
Whereas the second reaction is endothermic
H2N-COONH4 (NH2)2CO+H2O
Both reaction combined are exothermic.
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
The urea molecule is planar and retains its molecular symmetry, due to
conjugation of one of each nitrogen “s p orbits to the carbonyl double bond”.
Each carbonyl oxygen atom accept four N-H-O hydrogen bonds, a very usual
feature for such a bond type .This dense (and energetically favorable) hydrogen
5
bond network is probably established at the cost of efficient molecular packing.

The structure is quite open, the ribbon, forming tunnels with square cross
section. Urea is stable under normal condition.
Uses of Urea:
(1) Industrial uses
• As a raw material for the manufacture of plastics specifically, urea-

formaldehyde resin.
• As a raw material for the manufacture of various glues (urea-
formaldehyde or urea-melamine-formaldehyde). The latter is waterproof
and is used for marine plywood.
• As a component of fertilizer and animal feed, providing a relatively cheap
source of fixed nitrogen to promote growth.
• As an alternative to rock salt in the deicing of roadways and runways. It
does not promote metal corrosion to the extent that salt does.
• As an additive ingredient in cigarettes, designed to enhance flavor.
• As an ingredient in some hair conditioners, facial cleansers, bath oils and
lotions.
• It is also used as a reactant in some ready-to-use cold compresses for first-
aid use, due to the endothermic reaction it creates when mixed with water.
• Used, along with salts, as a cloud seeding agent to expedite the
condensation of water in clouds, producing precipitation.
• The ability of urea to form catharses (also called host-guest complexes,
inclusion compounds, and adducts) was used in the past to separate
paraffins.
• As a flame-proofing agent.
• As a clean burning fuel for motor vehicles and stationary engines.
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(2) Laboratory uses
Urea is a powerful protein denaturant. This property can be exploited to increase

the solubility of some proteins. Urea is used to effectively disrupt the non
covalent bonds in proteins. Urea is an ingredient in the synthesis of urea nitrate.
(3) Medical uses
• Urea is used in topical dermatological products to promote rehydration of

the skin. If covered by an occlusive dressing, 40% urea preparations may
also be used for nonsurgical debridement of nails.
• See blood urea nitrogen ("BUN") for a commonly performed urea test,
and marker of renal function.
• Isotopically-labeled urea (carbon 14 - radioactive, or carbon 13 - stable
isotope) is used in the Urea breath test, which is used to detect the
presence of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori, a bacterium) in the stomach
and duodenum of humans. The test detects the characteristic enzyme urea,
produced by H. pylori, by a reaction that produces ammonia from urea.
This increases the pH (reduces acidity) of the stomach environment
around the bacteria.
Urea Demand:
Urea‘s demand in world survey of 2011 is some 170.348 million MT and it is

expected to 180 million MT in 2015. Asia would contribute 68% in this
increment India 25%, China 24% and Pakistan 5%. On the other hand, in
America the major contribution would be from Brazil (6%) and USA 6%. In
Europe notable increment is expected in Russia (4%). To fulfill all this demand,
investors are trying to install urea plants in highly populated countries where
food demand is at its peak.
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Total Demand:175.348 MT South Asia
4.90% East Asia

12%
31.50%
Cental Europe
5.90%
3%
West Europe
0.80%
East Europe &
8.10%
Cental Asia
1%
3.40% Oceania
31.60% Africa
Figure 1.2 Cross-Sectional

Cross Graph of Regional Urea demand
Pakistan is also one of these locations where urea demand exists and is
increasing day by day. We are interested in installing our new project at
Pakistan. Hence it is necessary for us to study about our competitors in Pakistan.
Moreover, we should know about
about existing Urea producing capacity of plants in
Pakistan as well as demand of urea which we have to fulfill.
1.4 FERTILIZERS AVAILABLE IN PAKISTAN
The sources of fertilizer supply in Pakistan are domestic production and imports.
Those manufactured locally include urea, calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) and
ammonium sulphate (AS) as straight nitrogen fertilizers. Single superphosphate
is the only straightt phosphate fertilizer and nitrophos is NP, a complex fertilizer.
All other fertilizers are imported. Recently the production of SSP and AS has
been stopped due to high cost of production.
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Table 1.3 Grades of Fertilizers available in Pakistan
Grade or Analysis (%)

Common name N P2O5 K2O Sulphur
Nitrogenous fertilizers
Urea 46 0 0 0
Ammonium sulphate 21 0 0 24
Calcium ammonium Nitrate (CAN) 26 0 0 0
Phosphatic fertilizers
Single Superphosphate (SSP) 0 18 0 12
Triple superphosphate (TSP) 0 46 0 1.5

Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 46 0 0
Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP) 11 52 0 2
Potassic fertilizers
Sulphate of potash (SOP) 0 0 50 18
Muriate of potash (MOP) 0 0 60 0
Complex fertilizers
Nitrophosphate (Nitrophos) 23 23 0 0
Complete NPKs 15 15 15 5
10 20 20 6.8
13 13 21 6.0
Micronutrients
Zinc sulphate (Zn 36.0 %) 0 17.8
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Urea Market Environment in Pakistan:
Figure 1.3 Urea market participation in Pakistan
Table 1.4 Urea Competitors in Pakistan and their Production Capacities
Sr. No Company Capacity(MT/year)

1. Fauji Fertilizer Company Ltd. 2.32×106
2. Engro Fertilizer corporation 2.275×106
3. Fatima Fertilizer Company Ltd. 0.45×106
4. Agri tech Ltd. 0.426×106
5. Fauji Fertilizer Bin Qasim Ltd. 0.501×106
6. Dawood Hercules Ltd 0.445×106
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1.5 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF UREA IN PAKISTAN
Overview for last 20 years of urea demand and production is given in following
graph. Pakistan has been lagging demand forever. Now days a new plant of
capacity 1.3 million ton has been installed which enabled the country to meet its
requirement. But demand is increasing very rapidly due to high population
concentration and agriculture dependence of country’s GDP. It is expected that
in 2014 demand of Pakistan will reach some 9 million MT and installed capacity
will remain only 6.9million ton. So a huge demand is there for new capacity
installing.
6
metric ton
5
Demand
4
production
3
0
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Figure 1.4 Pakistan’s Urea demand and production
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Several processes are used to urea manufacturing. Some of them are used
conventional technologies and others use modern technologies to achieve high
efficiency. These processes have several comparable advantages and
disadvantages based on capital cost, maintenance cost, energy cost, efficiency
and product quality. Some of the widely used urea production processes are:
1. Conventional Processes
2. Snamprogetti Ammonia and self stripping processes
3. Isobaric double recycle process
4. Advanced Cost and Energy Saving (ACES) process
2.1 CONVENTIONAL PROCESSES
(1) Once through Process
In this process non converted ammonia was neutralized with acid such as nitric
acid to produce ammonium salt such as ammonium nitrate as co products of
urea production. In this way, a relatively simple urea process scheme was
realized. The main disadvantages of this process are the large quantity of
ammonia salt formed as co product and the limited amount of overall carbon
dioxide conversion that can be achieved.
(1) Conventional Recycle Process
Here all of the non converted ammonia and carbon dioxide were recycled to the
urea reactor. In first generation of this process the recirculation of non converted
NH3 and CO2 was performed in two stages. The first recirculation was operated
at medium pressure (18-25 bar), the second at low pressure (2-5 bar). The first
recirculation comprises at least a decomposition heater, in which carbamate
13
CHAPTER 02: Process Selection and Description
Decomposes into gaseous NH3 evaporate simultaneously. The off gas from this
first decomposition step was subjected to rectification, from which relatively
pure ammonia at the top and a bottom product consisting of an aqueous
ammonium carbamate solution were obtain. Both products are recycled
separately to the urea reactor. Because of the detrimental effect of water on
reaction conversion, achieving a minimum CO2 recycle so achieve maximum
CO2 conversion was more important than achieving a low NH3 recycle. All
conventional processes therefore typically operate at high NH3:CO2 ratios
(4-5mole/mole) to maximize CO2 conversion per pass. Although some of these
conventional processes partly equipped with ingenious heat exchanging net
works have survived until now. Their importance decreased rapidly as the so-
called stripping process was developed.
Figure 2.1 Once Through Urea Process
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Stamicarbon (Holland) CO2 stripping process:
The novelty of the CO2 stripping process consists of the fact that the reactor
effluent is not let down to a lower pressure as in the conventional liquid recycle
urea process, but is stripped at synthesis pressure by the gaseous CO2 reactor
feed stream in a steam heated vertical heat exchanger. The high pressure stripper
operates at about 140 atm & 190 o C. The stripped urea solution still contains
about 15 % of the unconverted carbamate, & it is let down to about 3 atm for
further degassing in the steam heated low pressure decomposer at about 120 o C.
The off gas recovered is condensed with cooling water in the low pressure
condenser, operating at about 65 o C & 3 atm. The solution thus obtained is
pumped to the high pressure condenser by means of high pressure carbamate
pump. The off gas recovered from the high pressure stripper is condensed in the
high pressure condenser, which operates at about 170 o C & 140 atm.
The heat of condensation is removed on the shell side of the condenser by

vaporizing the equivalent amount of condensate. The 3.4 atm steam thus
produced can be reused in another section of the plant.
The mixture of gas & liquid issuing from the high pressure condenser is fed to
the reactor for total CO2 condensation to carbamate & subsequent conversion to
urea. The inerts are vented from the reactor through a water cooled vent
condenser. The reactor effluent, at about 185 o C & 140 atm, is fed to the high
pressure stripper as described above.
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Figure 2.2 Stamicarbon process
Snamprogetti (Italy) Ammonia and self stripping process:
This process is based on the principle of the internal carbamate recycle

technique and is commonly called the Snam NH3 stripping process. The basic
difference between the Snam process & the conventional carbamate solution
recycle urea processes is the fact that in this case the unconverted carbamate is
stripped and recovered from the urea synthesis reactor effluent solution at reactor
pressure, condensed to an aqueous solution in a steam producing high pressure
condenser, & recycle back to the reactor by gravity. Part of the liquid NH3
reactor feed, vaporized in a steam heated exchanger, is used as inert gas to
decompose & strip ammonium carbamate in the steam heated high pressure
stripper.
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The reactor operates at about 130 atm & 180-190 C and the stripper operates at
about 130 atm & 190 o C. The stripper off-gas is condensed in a vertical shell &
tube condenser, operating at about 130 atm & 148-160 o C. Low pressure steam
is produced in the high pressure carbamate condenser. The urea product
solution, leaving the stripper & still containing 2-3 % of residual unreacted
carbamate, is further degassed in a low pressure decomposition-absorption
system. The recovered ammoniacal solution of ammonium carbamate is
pumped back to the reactor.
Figure 2.3 Snamprogetti process
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ACES process:
ACES (Advanced Process for Cost and Energy Saving) process has been
developed by Toyo Engineering Corporation. Its synthesis section consists of
the reactor, stripper, two parallel carbamate condensers and a scrubber all
operated at 175 bars.
The reactor is operated at 1900⁰C and an NH3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 4:1.
Liquid ammonia is fed directly to the reactor, whereas gaseous carbon dioxide
after compression is introduced into the bottom of the stripper as a stripping aid.
The synthesis mixture from the reactor, consisting of urea, unconverted
ammonia carbamate, excess ammonia, and water, is fed to the top of the
stripper. This process consists of following sections.
1) Synthesis section
2) Purification section
3) Absorption section
4) Evaporation section
5) Condensate treatment section
6) Finishing section
Synthesis section is operated at 175 bars. It has following components:
Reactor
Stripper
Carbamate condenser
Scrubber
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2.2 PROCESS COMPARISON
Table 2.1 Comparison of different urea processes
Process Advantages Disadvantages
Conventional Process- • Simple process • Large quantity of ammonia

salt is formed as co product.
Once through process
• Overall carbon dioxide
conversion is low.
• High production cost
• High energy cost
• High environmental pollution
Conventional Processes – • High CO2 • High production cost

conversion • High energy cost
Conventional recycle
• High environmental pollution
process
Stamicarbon CO2 – • Has high urea • High production cost

stripping process yield per pass • High energy cost
• High purity
Snamprogetti Ammonia • Low consumption • High production cost

and self stripping process of low pressure • High energy cost
steam
Isobaric double recycle • Complex process

process
ACES process • Low production • High capital cost

cost
• High energy
recovery
• Low
environmental
pollution
• High efficiency
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2.3 SELECTION OF PROCESS
Among above urea manufacturing processes, ACES process is selected because

of it has following advantages compared to other processes:
(1) High CO2 Conversion and Efficient Stripping
ACES process focuses on reduced energy use. It is only possible through

combination of high one pass CO2 conversion and efficient stripping. It causes
reduction in energy consumption in lower section. This has become a basic
feature of ACES process.
(2) Maximum Heat Recovery
ACES process is proven lowest energy consumption process through following

technologies.
Heat of condensation of stripped gases is used for generation of

5kg/cm2 steam as well as to heat outlet of stripper.
Heat of condensation of HP absorber is used to evaporate water in
vacuum evaporation section.
Heat carried by gases of steam condensate stripper is consumed in
LPD.
Steam condensate is used in MPD as well as ammonia and urea
pre-heaters.
(3) High On-stream factor
ACES process enables us to restart our plant to 100% production merely in three
hours after emergency shutdown troubleshoot. This is all due to high ammonia
to carbon dioxide molar ratio which not only lowers the solidification
temperature but also makes synthesis solution to stay for two days intact.
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(4) Less Corrosion
Stripper and carbamate condensers operate at corrosive conditions. However,

Toyo Corporation has developed duplex-12 which is most stable to corrosion
under given conditions. It also reduced the amount of oxygen introduced to air.
(5) Flexibility
High molar ratio of N/C gives operational flexibility. A minor change in feed
will not affect much the given reaction. Further, two carbamate condensers also
enables us to heat urea solution to required temperature.
(6) Less Maintenance
In spite of being operated at corrosive conditions, ACES process material

selection reduces maintenance required. Scrubber and reactor are fabricated of
316L stainless steel and condenser plus stripper are manufactured of duplex
stain less steel.
(7) Pollution Control
Air from cooling tower is washed with 30% urea solution to scrub out urea dust
within dust recovery system located at top of column. There is only single point
for leaking of ammonia. This is vent of washing column from where inert are
removed. However, air is relatively low, so emission of ammonia is also low.
Evaporated water also contains small fractions of urea and ammonia which are
removed in steam condensate section. Thus drainage of urea plant finally
consists of 5ppm urea and ammonia.
(8) Product Quality
Prill’s size of ACES process is 1.7 mm, higher than 1.4mm produced by other
technologies.
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This prill size may have following advantages:
Easy product handling

High crushing strength
Less dust formation
Desirable qualities
2.4 DETAIL PROCESS DESCRIPTION OF ACES PROCESS
ACES process was introduced by TOYO corporation in1980 in replacement of

total recycle process. Since then a lot of work has been carried out on the
process. Now days it has become only cost and energy saving process due to its
high efficiency.
This production process starts with two raw materials NH3 and CO2. Ammonia is
()
fed to reactor to liquefied form at temperature of 55 C. Reactor contains
internal baffle plates to keep off from back mixing of product formed. This urea
solution is ejected out of reactor through funnel at top. This funnel is kept
dipped in solution to avoid any recycle from stripper. A stream from carbamate
condenser operated at 176C is also fed to bottom of reactor. This stream consists
of mostly ammonia, carbon dioxide. Through these two streams, N/C molar ratio
fed to reactor is 4.1 and operating conditions of reactor are 190c and 175 bars. It
gives 68% of CO2 conversion into urea through following two steps:
CO2 + 2NH3 NH4COONH2
NH4COONH2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
Remaining 32% could be converted only into carbamate due to residence time.
If more residence time is given to solution in reactor, urea decomposition may
start. This effluent with 54% urea concentration is piped to stripper under
gravitational flow.
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Stripper of Toyo Corporation has unique design of falling film accompanied

with heating plates in upper section. Plates assist in removal of access ammonia
lowering the N/C ratio to 3.1 which is ideal for stripping purpose. Moreover
carbamate is also decomposed and resulting liquefied gaseous mixture is
separated by stripping. Solution coming out of reactor is approximately 60-63%
urea and 12-14% ammonia gas. Operating conditions of stripper are 175 bars
and 180C. Ammonia and carbon dioxide from top of stripper are distributed on
the tubes of condensers. Recycle carbamate solution is also distributed there and
it absorbs gases and condense them. Feed to carbamate condenser two is kept
()
such that it heats striper bottom effluent up to 180 C. Remaining heat is used
for steam production in NO 1 carbamate condensers.
Top stream of reactor is contaminated with inert and scrubbed in scrubber by

washing it with recycle from absorption section to remove any quantities of
reactants accompanied with.
Effluent of stripper is lead towards Decomposition section. This section is

composed of two stages mentioned below.
1) MPDS (Medium Pressure Decomposition stage)

2) LPDS (Low Pressure decomposition stage)
Bottom stream of stripper is relaxed to 18 bars and then heated up to 155 oC in

2nd carbamate condenser. This solution is fed to top of MPD where flashed and
decomposed gas is separated. Urea solution flows across falling-film
Temperature is kept around 158 oC to save urea product from side reactions.
Further decomposition of carbamate takes place by heating via condensate. Top
gases of MP decomposer are sent towards absorption section.
23
Bottom effluent of MP decomposer contains 70 wt% ammonia and 30 wt% CO2.

This is fed to LPDS at decreased pressure of 2.5 bars. LP decomposer is
composed of sieve trays, packed bed and falling-film sections. Gaseous
ammonia is separated by flash and pressure force of upward coming gas. A
small portion of fresh CO2 from compressor of synthesis section is introduced
from bottom of LPD. Its purpose is to strip out the residual ammonia and carbon
dioxide completely. Carbamate is decomposed and removed as head stream.
This head stream of LPD is directed to absorption section. Exit stream of LPD
bottom is 70% urea containing and 0.4% ammonia.
Overhead streams of both stages of decomposition section are condensed and

absorbed into water coming from Condensate Treatment Section. This
carbamate solution is recycled back to scrubber’s top for washing overhead
gaseous stream of reactor.
Solution from purification section is fed to evaporation section. It incorporates

two steps:
(i) Vacuum concentrator (ii) Final concentrator
Each concentrator consists of two sections lower and upper. Solution is fed to
lower section of vacuum concentrator which is operated at 150mmHg and 77C.
Heat required for evaporation of water is obtained from absorption section
(HPA). This solution is then transmitted to upper section where vaporized water
is separated and resultant urea solution achieves concentration of 84%. Then it is
lead to final concentrator operating at 132C and 25mmHg. It gives further
rectification of product up to 97.7% accompanied with Biuret and a small
fraction of moisture content.
24
Steam from concentration section contains urea as well as ammonia

contaminants. So it is further treated in Condensate Treatment Section. This
section prominently incorporates hydrolyser and stripper. Condensate is partially
sent towards absorption section and partly towards Condensate Stripper’s top.
Steam is directly introduced from bottom. Stripped off gaseous mixture is sent
towards LPD. Rest of solution is ejected from mid of stripper and fed to
hydrolyser after heating. Effluent is returned to lower height of stripper. It
practically gives water with CO2 & NH3 fractions lower than 5ppm.
Molten urea from Evaporation Section is sent to finishing section. Solution is

sprayed into cooling tower and air is blown through the tower. It helps in
solidifying and production of prilled urea. Urea thus produced is collected on
scraper.
Table 2.2 List of ACES Urea Plants
CLIENT COUNTRY PLANT CAPACITY ON-STREAM

(MT/D)
FERTIBERIA S.L SPAIN 750 OCT. 1988
UREA FERTILIZER BANGLADESH 1,422 FEB. 1993
FACTORYLTD.
P.T.PUPUK INDONESIA 1,725 MAR. 1994
SRIWIDJAJA
P.T.PETROKIMIA INDONESIA 1,400 MAY 1994
GRESIK
P.T.PUPUK INDONESIA 1,725 FEB 1994
SRIWIDJAJA
WEIHE CHEMICAL CHINA 1,760 MAY. 1996
FERTILIZER
WEIXIAN CHINA 180 JAN.1997
CHEMICAL
FERTILIZER
PAK-AMERICAN PAKISTAN 1050 SEP.1998
FERTILIZER
ENGRO CHEMICAL PAKISTAN 1,755 OCT. 1998
PAKISTAN LTD
CHAMBAL INDIA 2,350 OCT.1999
FERTILIZERS LTD
PT.PUPUK INDONESIA 1,725 2001
ISKANDAR MUDA
25
2.5 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF ACES PROCESS
Figure 2.4 Schematic of the original ACES Process
26
Nomenclatures used in PFD:
a) Urea Reactor
b) High Pressure Ammonia Pump
c) Co2 Compressor
d) Stripper
e) High Pressure Carbamate Condensers
f) High Pressure Scrubber
g) High Pressure Carbamate Pump
h) Medium Pressure Absorber
i) Medium Pressure Decomposer
j) Low Pressure Decomposer
k) Evaporator
l) Prilling Tower
27
Pakistan is an agricultural country. Its economy mostly depends upon agricultural production.
This need is increasing exponentially with time for multiplying population. More over for
many years continually Pakistan is facing natural disasters in terms of earth quack, flood and
storm. These disasters also reduce fertility and production capacity of a country. Hence
demand of food from rest of area increases to meat necessities.
All these needs of Pakistan can be met only if some agricultural aid is provided to nation.
There would be no best assistance other than installing a urea plant. This plant is not only a
suitable for nation but also more economical for investment. Urea has best vicinity for export
from Pakistan as mostly region is agriculture dependent.
3.1 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND OVERALL PLANT
Plant capacity per day : 2000 TPD (75583.33 )
Number of working Days : 300 days

Total capacity of plant : 6
Product Composition
Urea = 98.85%wt
Biuret = 0.9%
Moisture = 0.25%
Component Amounts
.
Urea : ( ) ×75583.33kg/hr = 74714.12
Biuret : (0.9/100) × 75583.33kg/hr = 680.25
Moisture : (0.25/100)×75583.33kg/hr =188.9
29
CHAPTER 03: Mass Balance Calculations
Raw Materials
2(NH2)2CO NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
103kg Biuret is produced by : 120 kg urea
1 kg Biuret is produced by :
680 Biuret is produced by : ( ) × 680.25 = 792.52
Total urea produced = urea in product + used in Biuret production
Total urea produced = 74714.12 + 792.52
Total urea produced = 75506.64
Now, we calculate raw materials required for given production of urea.
We know:
CO2 + 2NH3 (NH2)2CO + H2O
(NH2)2CO produced : CO2 consumed : 2NH3 consumed : H2O generated
60g : 44g : 34g : 18g
1 : : :

75506.64 : 55371.54 : 42787.1 : 22651.94
Urea=7414.12
CO2=55371.54 Urea Plant of Biuret=680.15
2000.37 TPD Water=188.9
Capacity
NH3=42787.10 Water=?
30
Water in 4th stream is:
Total water produced – water in product = 4th stream
22651.94
- 188.95 = 22463.04
22463.04 is by-product of urea process.
3.2 REACTOR BALANCE
Assumptions: Raw materials are 100% pure basis.
CO2 & NH3
CO2=?
From Condenser NH3=?
Carba=?
Total=?
UREA=75506.64 (36%
To
Stripper Water=22651.99
NH3= 42787.1 kg/hr Ammonia=?
Fresh feed Carbamate=?
Stream to Stripper
We know;
! " "! #
Fraction =
!$ % &
0.36 =
% &
' .
Total flow = = 209740.66
( . )
31
Stream to Scrubber
Un-reacted CO2 = (0.1) feed CO2 = 5537.154
Total top flow = 5537.154 /0.39 = 14089.450
Un-reacted ammonia = total- Un-reacted CO2 = 8552.296
Rests of unknowns are determined after applying balance on stripper and condenser.
3.3 STRIPPER BALANCE
Assumption: all of CO2 entered from bottom of column is received out in top effluent.
From Reactor
UREA=75506.64 To Condenser
Water=22651.99
NH3=? CO2= 56% Et
Carba=? NH3=44%Et
Total= 209740.66
UREA=75506.64
CO2= 55371.54 Water=22651.99

Fresh CO2 Carba=? NH3=14%Eb
To MPD
Note that some symbols used are actually:
Et effluent from top

Eb effluent from bottom
Total flow rate of bottom effluent = Eb = 75506.64 / (54/100) = 139827.11
Given that ammonia is 14% of bottom effluent,
NH3 = (14/100) ×139827.11 = 19575.795
32
Now carbamate in Eb = total flow – sum of known individuals
Carbamate in Eb = 139827.11 – (22651.99 + 75506.64 + 19575.795) = 22092.68
In-out + generation- consumption = accumulation
209740.66 +55371.54 = 139827.11+ Et
*+
Et = 125285.095
Component balance on top effluent
*+
CO2 = 56%Et = (56/100) 125285.095 = 70159.653
*+
NH3 = 44%Et = (44/100) 125285.095 = 55125.442
CO2 generated within system = total carbon dioxide in top effluent – CO2 entered at
bottom
= 70159.653 – 55371.54
= 14788.113 CO2 generated within stripper
CO2 was produced by reaction;
NH4COONH2 = CO2 + 2NH3
CO2 generated : Carbamate Consumed : 2NH3 Produced
44g : 78g : 34g
1g : 1.773 : 0.773
14788.11 : 26215.29 : 11427.17
So,
Total carbamate in stream from reactor (Fr):
Carbamate in Fr = carbamate decomposed + carbamate in Eb
33
= 26215.29 + 22092.68 = 48307.97
So,
Ammonia in Fr = ammonia in Eb + ammonia in Et – generation of ammonia
Ammonia in Fr = 55125.442 + 19575.795 -11427.17
Ammonia in Fr = 63274.05
Total in = Total out
265112.20 = 265112.20
3.4 BALANCE AROUND MEDIUM PRESSURE DECOMPOSER
Urea=75506.64
Water=22651.99 CO2=30%Et
To MPA NH3=70%Et
NH3=19575.79
total=Et=?
Carbamate =
22092.68
Total= 139827.11 From stripper: Fs
Urea=75506.64
Water=22651.99
NH3=?
To LPD Carba=?
Total=Eb=?
Balance on stream “To LPD”
' .
Total flow rate = Eb = ,- = 117979.125
.//
Overall Balance:
34
Inflow = outflow
Fs = Et + Eb
139827.11 = Et + 117979.1
Et = 21847.98
Now components of Et are:
CO2 = 30% of Et = ( ) ×21847.98
= 6554.39
The whole quantity of CO2 is generated within decomposer
'
NH3 = 70% of Et = ( ) × 21847.98 = 15293.590
CO2 is produced by Carbamate decomposition
So,
44g : 78g : 34g
1g : 1.773 : 0.773
6554.39 : 11619.15 : 5064.76
3.5 BALANCE AROUND CARBAMATE CONDENSER
Bottom effluent = Feed + generation - consumption
Bottom effluent = 22092.68 + 0 - 11619.15
Carbamate in Eb = 22092.68 - 11619.15
Carbamate in Eb = 10473.52
35
Balance on NH3
(Bottom effluent + top effluent) = Feed + generation - consumption
Bottom effluent = 19575.79 + 5064.76-15293.590 = 9346.96
139827.11 = 139827.11
3.6 BALANCE AROUND LOWER PRESSURE DECOMPOSER
Urea = 75506.64
CO2=?
Water= 22651.99 NH3=?
NH3 = 9346.96 Total=?
To LPA=Et
Carbamate = 10473.52
Total =117979.125 From MPD=Fd
Urea=?
H2O= 22651.99
Fresh feed=Ff
To Evaporation Biuret=679.55
CO2= 6312.35
Carbamate is decomposed so
44 : 78 : 34
0.56 : 1 : 0.43
5908.14 : 10473.52 : 4565.38
Another reaction that takes place in LPD is:
36
2(NH2)2CO = NHCONHCONH2 + NH3
Biuret Formed : urea decomposed : ammonia produced
103 : 120 : 17
1 : 1.16 : 0.165
679.55 : 791.71 : 112.15
Total Ammonia generated = 4677.54
Urea Balance
Feed - effluent + generation – consumption = accumulation
75506.64 - effluent + 0 - 791.7 = 0
Effluent = 74714.92
Ammonia Balance
Feed - effluent + generation - consumption = accumulation
9346.96 – Nt + 4677.54 - 0 = 0
Nt = 14024.51
Carbon dioxide Balance
Feed - effluent + generation - consumption = accumulation
6312.35 - Ct + 5908.144 - 0 = 0
Ct = 12220.50
124291.48 = 124291.48
37
3.7 BALANCE AROUND LOWER PRESSURE ABSORBER
CO2 = 12220.50
Effluent= E NH3=?
NH3 = 14024.51
Carba=?
Total = 26245.01
From LPD = Fl Total=?
Following reaction will take place in absorber:
2NH3 + CO2 = NH4COONH2
CO2 consumed : 2NH3 consumed : Carbamate generated
44 : 34 : 78
1 : 0.773 : 1.773
12220.50 : 9443.11 : 21663.61
Ammonia Balance
Feed - effluent + generation – consumption = accumulation
14024.5101 - Ne + 0 - 9443.113865 = 0
Ne = 4581.39
26245.01 = 26245.010
38
3.8 BALANCE ON MEDIUM PRESSURE ABSORBER
NH3 = 4581.39
Carbamate = 21663.61
Total = 26245.01
CO2 =
From LPA=Fa
6554.39
NH3 =
15293.59
Total =
From MPD=Fd To scrubber= NH3=?
21847.98 Carba=?
Total=?
Reaction also takes place in MPA:
CO2 consumed : 2NH3 consumed : Carba generated
44 : 34 : 78
1 : 0.773 : 1.773
6554.39 : 5064.76 : 11619.15
Carbamate Balance
In - out - consumption + generation = accumulation
21663.61416 - Carbamate in Es - 0 + 11619.15625 = 0
Carbamate in Es = 33282.77
NH3 Balance
39
19874.98651 - NH3 in Es - 5064.760417 + 0 = 0
NH3 in Es = 14810.22
48092.99 = 48092.99
3.9 BALANCE AROUND SCRUBBER
NH3
=14810.22
Carbamate =
33282.7 From MPA=Fm
Total
=48092.9 Vent
kg/hr
Carba=?
CO2 = 5537.1 NH3=?
Total?
To condenser
NH3 = 8552.2
From reactor=Fr
Inerts=6424.5
Total: 20513.9
Reaction in Scrubber:
2NH3 + CO2 = NH4COONH2
CO2 Consumed : NH3 Consumed : Carba generated
44 : 34 : 78
1 : 0.773 : 1.773
40
5537.1 : 4278.7 : 9815.8
Carbamate in effluent = 43098.63432
NH3 in effluent = 19083.81257
Vent (top outlet flow) = 6424.5
68606.97 = 68606.97
3.10 BALANCE AROUND CONDENSER
Co2= 70159.6kg/hr
NH3 =55125.4kg/hr
Total =125285.0kg/hr
From stripper=Fs
NH3=?
CO2=?
Carbmate 43098.63 Carba=?
To reactor=Er
NH3= 19083.81
Total 62182.44
From scrubber=Fu
Assumption: efficiency of condenser is 70%.
CO2 converted to carbamate by reaction:
(70/100) 70159.6 = 49111.75
CO2 consumed : 2NH3 consumed : Carba generated
44 : 34 : 78
41
1 : 0.773 : 1.7
49111.75 : 37949.9 : 87061.7
Carbon dioxide balance
70159.65351 - CO2 in Er - 49111.75746 + 0 = 0
CO2 in Er = 21047.89
NH3 Balance
74209.25461 - NH3 in Er - 37949.9944 + 0 = 0
NH3 in Er = 36259.26
Carbamate Balance
43098.63432 - Carba in Er - 0 + 87061.75186 = 0
Carba in Er = 130160.38
187467.54 = 187467.54
42
3.11 BALANCE AROUND EVAPORATOR
Vapour =?
Urea= 74714.92 kg/hr

H2O = 22651.99 kg/hr
H2O =?
Biuret=679.55 kg/hr Biuret=679.55 kg/hr
Total= 98046.47kg/hr
Material Balance
Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x = 0.76
y = 0.902
Making urea balance:
F.x = P.y
74714.92 = P × 0.902
P(outlet) = 82832.50
Overall material balance gives:
F = P+E
98046.47 = 83274.80 + E
15213.96 = E (vapor Flow rate) top outlet
Water outlet with Urea = 7438.02 (from water balance)
43
98046.47 = 98046.47017
3.12 BALANCE AROUND PRILLING TOWER
Bottom outlet (to Prilling Tower)

Vapour = 655.5 kg/hr
Air 26C

H2O =845.23 kg/hr
Biuret=679.55 kg/hr Air (25C)

H2O =?
Material Balance Biuret=679.55 kg/hr
Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x = 0.98
y = 0.9885
Making urea balance:
F.x = P.y
44
74714.92 = P × 0.9885
P (out let bottom) = 75584.14 kg/hr
Overall material balance gives:
F = P+E
E (Vapor) = 655.57
76239.71 = 76239.71
45
4.1 SPECIFIC HEAT CALCULATIONS
2 NH3 + CO2 NH2COONH4 + HEAT -84
NH2COONH4 + HEAT NH2CONH2 + H2O +23
2NH3 + CO2 NH2CONH2 + H2O -60
Ammonia Liquid
T (ºC) 60 80 112
Cp ( ) 5.6 5.87 8.6
.
Ammonia Vapor
T (ºC) 87 127 167 207
Cp ( ) 2.2 2.3 2.37 2.44
.
CO2 (g)
T (ºC) 27 127 227
Cp ( .
0.84 0.94 1.01
Urea Vapour
T (ºC) 80 120 200
Cp ( .
1.26 1.36 1.56
Urea Liquid
T (ºC) 80 120 200
Cp ( .
) 1.4 1.6 2.1
47
CHAPTER 04: Energy Balance Calculations
Urea Solid
T (ºC) 27 77 127
Cp ( 1.56 1.8 2.04
.
Water Liquid
T (ºC) 27 127 177
Cp ( 4.18 4.26 4.39

.
Cp of the Carbamate = 2.3

.
For NH3 liquid:
Cp = a + bT + cT2
5.6 = a + 333b + 3332 oC (1)
5.87 = a + 353b + 3532 oC (2)
8.6 = a + 385b + 3852 oC (3)
From (1), (2) & (3)
a = 163.44 b = - 0.9338 c = 1.38× 10
For NH3 gas:
Cp = a + bT + cT2
2.2 = a + 360b + 3602 oC (4)
2.3 = a + 400b + 4002 oC (5)
2.44 = a + 480b + 4802 oC (6)
From (4), (5) & (6)
a = 0.4 b = 7.25×10 c = -6.25×10
48
For CO2 gas:
Cp = a + bT + cT2
0.84 = a + 300b + 3002 oC (7)
0.94 = a + 400b + 4002 oC (8)
1.01 = a + 500b + 5002 oC (9)
From (7), (8) & (9)
a = 0.36 b = 2.05×10 c = -1.5×10
For Urea:
Cp = a + bT + cT2
1.4 = a + 353b + 3532 oC (10)
1.6 = a + 393b + 3932 oC (11)
2.1 = a + 473b + 4732 oC (12)
From (10), (11) & (12)
a = 1.08 b = -2.77×10 c = 1.04×10
4.2 ENERGY BALANCE AROUND REACTOR
= 42787.1× !
(163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
= 42787.1×785.6
= 33617261.05
"#
$ = 42787.1× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
$ = 42787.1×500.13
49
$ = 21399137.89
"#
Low pressure steam load at 5 bar pressure and 151.8 ºC for ammonia heating
% ×2109 = 33617261.05
"#
% = 15939.90
"#
Medium pressure steam load at 13 bar and 191.6 ºC for ammonia heating
%$ ×1972 = 21399137.89
"#
%$ = 10851.48
"#
Urea formation heat by decomposing Ammonium Carbamate

$
∆&' = 75506.64×
∆&' = 28944.21
"#
Ammonium Carbamate formation heat

(
∆&' = 48307.97 ×
!(
∆&' = -52023.97
"#
Heat required for increasing raw materials to 190 ºC
= (42787.1+ 36259.26)× (163.44 − 0.9338 +

1.38 × 10 ) + 130160.38×2.3× (463-443) +21047.89605× (0.36 +
$)
2.05 × 10 − 1.5 × 10
= 36713240.09+5987377.764+412959.7206
= 43113577.58
"#
50
Energy required to reactor
Q = 43113577.58 + 28944.21 - 52023.97

+,
Q = 43090497.81
-.
Medium pressure steam load at 15 bar and 198.3ºC for reactor heating
% ×1947 = 43090497.81
"#
% = 22131.74
"#
4.3 ENERGY BALANCE AROUND STRIPPER
Decomposition energy of Ammonium Carbamate

(
= (48307.97-22092.68) ×
!(
= 28231.85
"#
Heat released from Urea
(1.08 − 2.77 × 10 $)
$ = 75506.64× + 1.04 × 10
$ = 75506.64 × -23.83
$ = -1799713.586
"#
Heat released from Ammonium Carbamate
= 22092.68556×2.3× (451- 463)
= -609758.1213
"#
51
Heat released from Water
= 22651.99×4.4× (451- 463)
= -1196025.072
"#
Heat absorbed by Carbon Dioxide
(0.36 + 2.05 × 10 $)
= 55371.54× (
− 1.5 × 10
= 55371.54×76.63
= 4243481.816
"#
Heat absorbed for Ammonia vaporization
= {(63274.05 – 19575.79) ×2× (463-383)} + {(55125.44)-

(63274.05-19575.79)} ×2× (463-383)
= 8820070.727
"#
Or
= 55125.44 × 2 × (463-383)
= 8820070.727
"#
Energy required for stripper
Q = 28231.85 -1799713.586-609758.1213-1196025.072+
4243481.816 + 8820070.727
+,
Q = 9486287.617
-.
Medium pressure steam load at 13bar and 191.6 ºC for heating
% ×1972 = 9486287.617
"#
% = 4810.490678
"#
52
4.4 ENERGY BALANCE ON SCRUBBER
Heat released from up flow
= 6424.525 ×1.024× (462-463)

= -6578.71 Kj/hr
Heat released from down flow
$ = {19083.81×2.48× (426-463)} + {43098.63432×2.3× (426-463)}
$ = -1751130.641 -3667693.781
$ = -5418824.422 Kj/hr
Heat absorbed by Ammonia and Ammonium Carbamate

$
= 14810.22× { $
(163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 ) }
+33282.77 × 2.3× (426-463)
= 698479.883 + 229651.1158
= 928130.99
"#
Energy loss
Q = -6578.71 -5418824.422 + 928130.99
Q = -4497272.13
"#
4.5 ENERGY BALANCE ON CARBAMATE CONDENSER
Formation energy of Ammonium Carbamate at 170 oC

(
= 130160.38 - 43098.63×
!(
= -93758.80
"#
53
Heat absorbed by Ammonium Carbamate
$ = 43098.63×2.3× (443)-(423)
$ = 1982537.179
"#
Heat absorbed by Ammonia
= 19083.81× $
(163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
= 19083.81×310.55
= 5926477.992
"#
Condensation heat and sensible heat released by Ammonia
= 55125.44× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
= 55125.44× - 473.25
= -26088115.45
"#
Heat released by Carbon Dioxide
= 70159.65× (0.36 + 2.05 × 10 − 1.5 ×

$)
10
= 70159.65 × -19.615
= -1376181.604
"#
Heat released from Carbamate condenser
Q = -93758.80 + 1982537.179 + 5926477.992 -

26088115.45-1376181.604
Q = -19649040.69
"#
54
Production of steam load at 5bar
Assume Cp of water at 145 0C - 150 0C = 4.27
%01 ×2109 +%01 ×4.29× (151.8-145) = 19649040.69
%01 = 9189.64 kg/hr
4.6 ENERGY BALANCE ON MEDIUM PRESSURE DECOMPOSER
Decomposition energy of Ammonium Carbamate
= (22092.68 - 10473.52) × (84/78)
= 12512.93
"#
Heat released from Urea
(1.08 − 2.77 × 10 $)
$ = 75506.64× + 1.04 × 10
$ = 75506.64 × -90.68
$ = -6846942.115
"#
Heat released from Ammonium Carbamate
= 22092.68×2.3× (430-451)
= -1067076.712
"#
Heat released from Water
= 22651.99 ×4.3× (430-451)
= -2045474.69
"#
55
Heat released by Ammonia
= 9346.96× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
= -165391847.3
"#
Heat absorbed for Ammonia vaporization
= 14024.5101× 200
= 2804902.01
"#
Energy loss
Q = 12512.93 -6846942.115 -1067076.712-2045474.69- 165391847.3

+ 2804902.01
+,
Q = -172533925.9
-.
4.7 ENERGY BALANCE ON LOW PRESSURE ABSORBER
Formation energy of Ammonium Carbamate at 129 C

(
= 21663.61×
!(
= -23330.04
"#
Condensation heat released by Ammonia
$ = 14024.51× (-210)
$ = -2945147.12 Kj/hr
Heat released from LP Absorber
Q = -23330.04 -2945147.12
+,
Q = -2968477.166
-.
56
4.8 TABULATED HEAT BALANCE
Total Input KJ/hr

Heating of Ammonia due to low pressure
steam 33617261.05
Heating of Ammonia due to high pressure
steam 21399137.89
Heat supplied to Reactor 43090497.81
Heat supplied to Stripper 9486287.617
Total input energy 107593184.4
Total Out put KJ/hr

Heat out from Scrubber 4497272.137
Heat out from Carbamate condenser 19649040.69
Heat out from HPD 172533925.9
Heat out from LP Absorber 2968477.166
Total Output energy 199648715.9
+,
Difference between input and output energy = 92055531.53
-.
Total heat output greater than the total heat input. So this difference is due to
heat generated in the reaction. But the amount of theoretical heat generated in
the reaction is much higher than this value. That difference between actual and
theoretical value happens because of the heat losses occurred during the process.
57
5.1 REACTOR DESIGN
Chemical reactor is the heart of the chemical reaction process. Chemical reactors are vessels
that are designed for a chemical reaction to occur inside of them. The performance of the
reactor influences overall performance of the whole urea plant in production capacity and
utilities consumption.
Reactor Selection Criteria:
Phase
Operating conditions (Temperature and pressure)
Feed condition
Rector types (batch ,continuous, plug flow)
Catalyst
Size
Table 5.1 Reactor Comparisons
Batch Reactors CSTR Plug Flow Reactors
Used for small scale Used for liquid Normally used for gas
operation. phase reactions phase reactions.
For testing new Organic chemical High pressure conditions.

processes that have industries.
not been fully No back mixing required
developed. due to reversible
reactions.
Manufacturing of
expensive products. Careful control of
residence time.
Pharmaceutical
industries.
PFR is the best choice for our process.
59
CHAPTER 05: Process Design
Design parameters:
Operating Temperature = 190 ℃ = 463 k
Operating Pressure = 175 bar = 17.5
Designing Pressure = (17.5-1) × 1.1 = 18.15
Reactions:
2 NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) NH2COONH4 (aq) ∆HR0 = -84 kJ/mol
NH2 COONH4 (aq) NH2CONH2 (aq) + H2O (liq) ∆HR0 = 23 kJ/mol
Volume of reactor:
Second reaction is slow reaction so volume of rector will depend on this reaction. For Plug
flow reactor Performance Equation is given as:
=
−
Now, Reaction Kinetics for the urea formation reaction:
= mate
Where,
!
= exp ("# )
– '.) × + ,
= 1.9 × 105 $%
-..+' ×'/.
= 3.46921 hr -1
Above Plug flow reactor Performance Equation can be written as:
=
× × (1 − )
Taking the constants out of integration term:
× 1
=
(1 − )
60
2 3
As we know that = 5 (volumetric flow rate) and conversion of carbamate to urea is 68%,
4 3
so above equation becomes:

1 ./-
=
5 (1 − )
FG
677 89 : ;6<= >?< <@= ;=6A< ; ). ).D..E)'
HI
Volumetric flow rate = = FG
B=?7><C 8 8==B 7<;=6 /+- K
J
K
Volumetric flow rate = 372.55
@;
Now, integrate the rate equation:

1 0.68
= − |ln(1 − )|
372.55 3.46921 0
.E).DD
V= –Yln (1 − 0.68)Z = 122.42 m3
..'/X)+
Apply safety factor of 20%
V (volume of reactor) = 122.42 × 1.20 = 147 m3
Length and Diameter of Reactor:

[
= 10 (For high pressure vessels)
\
]
Reactor is cylindrical and Volume of Cylinder is ^) × L
'
..+'
Volume = 147 =
'
^) × 10^
+'E
D3 =
E.-D
Diameter of the reactor (D) = 2.6 m
Length of the reactor (L) = 10D = 2.6×10 = 26 m
61
Resistance time:
5 `ab c
_ =
5 `ab d c` e ℎ
147
_ = = 0.39 ℎ = 24 bdga h
372.55
Number of Stages:
Assumptions:
Sieve trays are used
Plate spacing is 2.5m
ijklmn op qjrsmot
Number of Sieve trays = uvrmj wxrsykl
)/
Number of Trays = ).D
Number of sieve Trays = 10
2.2 SPECIFICATION SHEET
Name of equipment Reactor
Operating Pressure 17.5
Operating Temperature 463 K
Rate Constant 3.46921 hr -1
V (volume of reactor) 147 m3
Diameter of the reactor (D) 2.6 m
Length of the reactor (L) 26 m
Resistance time 24 mint
Plates used Sieve tray
Number of sieve Trays 10
62
5.3 STRIPPER DESIGN
It is a unit operation in which one or more components of liquid stream are removed by
placing them in contact with a gas stream that is insoluble in liquid stream.
Functionality in the ACES loop:
To strip ammonia (solute) in the urea synthesis effluent, where it is transferred from
the liquid phase to the gas phase, with the help of stripping agent which is carbon
dioxide here.
Selection criteria:
For using the stripper in ACES process several characteristics should be focused upon:
Flow rate of liquid and gas streams, here our flow rates are very high and also the
liquid holdup is more so we are not using the packed column.
Pressure within the column is very high; therefore our main preference should be the
use of plates within the column.
Within the choice of packing or plates the main factors governed are:
1. Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors,
corrosive systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
2. Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment.
3. Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and
its internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows:
1. Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates
without flooding.
2. For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than
plate column.
3. If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning.
In packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
63
4. Design information for plate column is more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column.
5. When large temperature changes are involved, tray column are often
preferred because thermal expansion or contraction of the equipment
components may crush the packing.
Vertical tubes have been used to provide heat from the external source (indirect
heating) within the stripper.
The efficient stripper been used by us is TRAY FALLING FILM STRIPPER.
Utilization:
In our stripper the urea synthesis effluent firstly drops on plates and then after passing through
the tray stages, fall in two passes onto the tubes via swirl plate. There the tubes are placed
vertically, where CO2 is coming from the bottom of the tubes as the stripping agent where it
strips NH3 which is been present in excess and also form from the decomposition of
ammonium carbamate (with the help of steam) with CO2 itself.
On plates presence of excess ammonia in urea synthesis effluent is even stripped off with the
help of gases coming out from the tubes.
Choice of Plate Type:
There are four main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, ballast or valve trays and the
counter flow trays. We have selected sieve tray because:
1. They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
2. Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
3. Peak efficiency is generally high.
4. Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
5. Tray geometry is available widely in literature.
64
Figure 5.1 Structure of Tray Falling Film Stripper
Design procedure for stripper:
Calculating number of tubes

Calculating tube bundle diameter
Calculating shell ID
Conforming UD
Pressure drop within the tubes
Calculating number of plates
Calculating number of Holes
Determining shell OD & Shell Thickness
Length of shell
Volume of shell
65
No of tubes:
Steam entering temp = 471.3 K
Steam condensate leaving temp = 471.3 K
Fluid temp at bottom = 451 K
Fluid temp above tubes = 463 K
LMTD = 24.49 K
Suppose;
z
Overall Heat transfer coefficient (Ud) = 0.550
{
Heat load = 2635.07 KW
|=6< [ 6B
So, Trial Area =
}~ ×[•\#
Trial area = 195.627 m2
Surface area of 1 tube = €DL
Here OD of tube (D) = 0.025 m
Length of tube (L) = 5m
Hence, surface area of 1 tube = 0.39m2
•tyrv rtjr
Number of tubes = ‚ƒtprsj rtjr op + mƒ„j
Number of tubes = 497.96 ≈ 498
Confirming UD:
As we have,
Tube OD = 0.025 m
Thickness (t) = 16 BWG
66
From this, surface per lin m S = 0.0243 m2
So, Total Surface Area (A) = no of tubes × t × S
Total Surface Area = 194 m2
†
From here; Heat Transfer Coefficient =
‡× iˆ‰•
)/.D. E
Heat Transfer Coefficient (Ud) =
+XD./)E ×)'.'X
Š
Heat Transfer Coefficient (Ud) = 0.556 ‹Œ •
As we firstly suppose our Ud to be 0.550 which tallies with Ud find above
So our taken Ud is correct.
Calculating Tube Bundle Diameter & Shell ID:

‘
•o op •ƒ„j‚ ’
Db (Tube Bundle Diameter) = Ž^ × ( •‘
) ‘
As, we are using square pitches
Pt = 1.25×OD = 0.031 m
So, for no of passes = 1
Constant (k1 ) = 0.215
n1 = 2.107
‘
'XE.X/
Db = 25× ( ) .‘“”
.)+D
Db (Tube Bundle Diameter) = 0.988 m
Now from graph in b/w bundle diameter Vs shell ID-bundle diameter (Coulson & Richardson,
ED 3; volume 6, Pg 647)
We found that,
Clearance = 73 mm
67
Putting value of tube bundle diameter we get,
Shell ID = 988.285 + 73
Shell ID = 1061.285 mm
Shell ID = 1.061 m
Pressure drop within the tubes:
Firstly finding flow area;
•vo– rtjr xjt mƒ„j

at = no of tubes ×
ko op xr‚‚j‚
For 25mm tube having 16 BWG;
Flow Area per Tube = 0.594 in2 = 0.00037 m2
. .E
at = 497.96× +
= 0.190 m2
z
As mass velocity, Gt = 6—
W = 55371.54 kg/hr
˜™ v„
Gt = 290159.2285 @;. = 59429.35168
@;.8<
‰y×šm
Re = ›
At, temperature = 360 F
œl v„
Viscosity = 0.021 cp = 0.000021 = 0.0508
.7=A 8<.@;
Re = 84814.08441
f = 0.00016 ft2/in2
Specific Gravity = 1.29
p×šm)×i×k
∆Pt =
D.))×+ ‘“ ×‰y×‚×•m
68
∆P = 0.001898798 psi
For return losses,
ž
At Gt from graph; = 1
)™
? ž
∆Pr = 4× ( ) = 3.100 Psi
7 )™
Total pressure drop within the tubes = ∆Pt+ ∆ Pr
Total pressure drop within the tubes = 3.102 Psi = 21.38kpa
Calculating number of plates:
Y1 = mol ratio of NH3 coming in gas phase 0
Y2 = mole ratio of NH3 leaving in gas phase 0.670
X1 = mol ratio of NH3 entering in liquid phase 0.542
X2 = mole ratio of NH3 leaving in liquid phase 0.291
Our equation is:
Lm(X1-X2) = Vm (Y2e-Y1)
Here Y2e=K(X1)
Ÿ >
K1 = equilibrium at top temp and constant pressure = 0.59
[
Ÿ >
K2 = equilibrium at bottom temp and same pressure = 0.39
[
‘
K = (¡1 × ¡2) = 0.486
K = 0.48
Y2e = 0.26
Putting values in above eq,we can find
69
Ÿ
= 0.952
[
Ÿ Ÿ
As, actual = 1.4 - 1.6 ( )
[ [
Taking 1.4
Ÿ
Hence ( ) actual = 1.33
[
Ÿ
Stripping factor Si = K ( [ ) = 0.648
Now taking Kresmer Equation:
Fraction strip = S Ne+1 − S (from Perry page 1180)

S Ne+1 −1
Where;
¢+ ¢)
Fraction strip = £‘ = 0.463
¢+
¤
0.463 = S Ne+1 − S
S Ne+1 −1
If Ne=1.51then,
0.46 = 0.46
By putting Ne = 1.51 above equation is proved
So, No of theoretical plates = 2
As in stripper plate efficiency tends to be in b/w 40-70% (from Perry pg 1181)
By taking efficiency = 60%
)
Actual no of plates = = 3.3 ≈ ¥
./
Shell Thickness & Outer Diameter (O.D):
Shell thickness is given by:
u¦‰
t =
)w§¨ u
70
As material of construction of stripper is duplex stainless steel, for this
Stress value (S) = 95000 kPa
Operating Pressure (P) = 17500 kPa
Design Pressure = 19248.9 kPa
Ej = 1
Allowance for corrosion (C) = 0.003 m
Put all these values in above equation
Thickness of shell = 0.119 m
Outer diameter of shell is given by:
Outer Diameter (O.D) = Inner Diameter (I.D) + thickness (t)
Outer Diameter = 1.061 + 0.119
Outer Diameter = 1.18 m
Calculating No of holes on sieve plate:

]
Cross sectional area of column = '
^)
Ac = 1.101 b)
Down corner area = cross sectional area x plate cross section
Ad = 0.165
(Plate cross section 15%, From Perry Book page 1198)
Net area used = cross sectional area of column – Ad
An = Ac - Ad = 0.936 m^2
Active area = Ac - 2Ad
Active Area = 0.770 b)
71
Hole area (Ah) = Active area x 0.1
Hole Area = 0.077 b)
Diameter of hole (Dh) = 0.0052 m (From Perry Book Page 1199)
]
Area of single hole Ai = ^)
'
Area of Single Hole = 1.96429 × 10 D

b)
©ovj rtjr
Total no. of holes =
‚yklvj novj rtjr
¬-®¯
Total no. of holes = 3924.701 ≈ ¥ª«« °®±²¯
Calculating Length of Shell
No of plates = 3
Tray spacing = 0.61 m
Distance b/w 3 plates = 1.83 m
Let plate thickness = 0.005 m
Total plate thickness = 0.005 ×3 = 0.015 m
Length of tubes = 5m
Total Shell length = 7.455 m
Upper clearance = 0.745 m (10% of total length)
Below clearance (below tubes) = 1.118 m (15% of total length)
Length of column = 9.31 m
Volume of Column:
]
Volume of column = ^) ³
'
Volume of column = 8.246 ‹¥
72
Name of equipment Stripper
Pressure in column 17500 kPa
Temperature at bottom 451 K
Temperature at top 463 K
Number of tubes 498
Tube bundle dia 0.988 m
Shell Internal dia 1.061 m
Pressure drop within tubes 21.38 kPa
Length of tubes 5m
Actual number of plates 3
No of holes per plate 3900
Plates used Sieve tray
Sieve tray material Stainless steel 316
Thickness of shell 0.122 m
Shell outer dia 1.183 m
Height of shell 9.31m
Volume of shell 8.246 m3
Material of shell Ferrite Austenic (duplex stainless

steel)
73
5.5 CONDENSER DESIGN

A condenser is a two-phase flow heat exchanger in which heat is generated from the
conversion of vapor into liquid (condensation) and the heat generated is removed from the
system by a coolant.
Types of Condensers:
Steam Turbine Exhaust Condensers / surface condensers

Plate Condensers
Air-Cooled Condensers
Direct Contact Condensers
Shell & tube type
Selection of Condenser Configuration:

Four Condenser Configurations are Possible,
Horizontal with condensation in shell side and cooling medium in the tubes.
Horizontal with condensation in tube side cooling medium in shell side.
Vertical with condensation in the shell.
Vertical with condensation in the tubes.
Horizontal shell side and vertical tube side are the most commonly used types of condensers.
In this process we have used the horizontal with condensation in shell side & cooling medium
in tube.
Process Design of Carbamate Condenser:

The ACES process has two parallel carbamate condensers. One is for low pressure steam
generation and the other is for heating urea solution for MP decomposition stage. Therefore,
each carbamate condenser size is relatively small compared to the reactor and the stripper.
Both are vertical falling film type condensers.
Carbamate Condenser functions to condense NH3 and CO2 gas from the stripper to form
ammonium Carbamate and synthesize urea by dehydration of ammonium Carbamate.
Vertical submerged design is employed for the Carbamate condenser from process view point.
74
This provides the following advantages:
High gas velocity, appropriate gas hold up and sufficient liquid depth in the bubble
column promote mass and heat transfer.
A vertical design inevitably requires smaller plot area.
Designing Steps of Condenser:
Heat Balance.
Assumed Calculations.
Calculations of Heat Transfer Coefficients.
Calculations of Pressure Drops.
Heat balance:
Formation energy of ammonium carbamate at 170 o C
∆|
Q = (Outlet to reactor) – (inlet of scrubber) (•.z )
-'
Q = (130160.3862) – (43098.63432) ( E- )
{µ
Q = -93758.80969
@;
Heat absorbed by ammonium carbamate

{µ
Cp of ammonium carbamate = 2.3
@;
Q = 43098.63432× 2.3(443 -423)

{µ
Q = 1982537.179
@;
Heat absorbed by ammonia

{µ
Q = 19083.81257× 310.55 @;
{µ
Q = 5926477.992 @;
Condensation heat and sensible heat released by ammonia

''.
Q = ¶'/. (163.44 − 0.9338 · + (1.38 × 10 . )·^2) ·
75
Q = (-473.26) (55125.44204)
{µ
Q = -26088115.45
@;
Heat released by carbon dioxide

''.
Q = ¶'/. 0.36 + 2.05 × 10 . · – (1.5×10 / )· ) dT
Q = (70159.6531) (-19.616)
{µ
Q = -1376232.812
@;
Heat released from carbamate condenser
Q = -93758.80969 +1982537.179 +5926477.992 -26088115.45 -

1376232.812
{µ
Q = -1969040.69 @;
Total heat load

•º
Q = -1969040.69
»¼
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference:
∆T1 = 38.2k
∆T2 = 25k
∆#+ ½ #)
∆TLMTD = ¾¿‘ = 31.135 K
vk ( )
¾¿
Area of Condenser:
À
A =
} ×Á•iˆ•‰
z DD {z
By using, U = 550 {
= + = 0.55 {
Q = 5699.733 KW
∆TLMTD = 31.135 K
Put all these values in equation
76
A = 318.732 m2
Outer diameter of the tube (D0) = 0.025 m
Length of the tube = 6.096 m
One tube area A = π D L = (3.14) (0.025) (6.096)
One tube area A = 0.4789 m2
No. of tubes
N Â
T = ÃÄÅ ÆÇÈÅ É¼ÅÉ
NT = 665
O.D = 0.025 m
Thickness = 16 BWG
Surface per linear ft = 0.029 m2 (0.312 ft2)
Total surface area = No of tube × Thickness× surface per linear ft
Total surface area = 308.56 m2
Equivalent Diameter:
Ì
'×Êum Ë ‰o ÎÏ
Í
Equivalent Diameter (De) = ]‰o
Pt = 0.0275 m
D0 = 0.0220 m
De = 0.172 m
Confirmation U
Q = 5699.733 KW
∆TLMTD = 31.135 K
77
Total surface area = 322.4 m2
Put all these value,
{z
U = 0.567
{
For 25 mm tube having 16 BWG;
<×89 : 6;=6 Ð=; <ÑÒ=

Flow area (At) =
? 8 Ð677=7
Flow area per tube = 0.594 in2
Nt = 665
No of passes = 1
Flow area (At) = 395.278 in2 = 2.744 ft2
(I.D)t = 0.0725 ft (0.0220 m)
Mass velocity:
z
Gt =
<
˜™
W = 9189.644561 @;
X+-X./''D/+ ÓÔ
Gt =
.)DD +-+./
= 36035.25892 »¼.‹Œ
Calculate Reynolds Number:
‰y×šm
Re =
›
Di = 0.0725 ft (0.0220 m)
µ = 0.25 cp (temperature at 151.8 o C of CO2 )
Re = 884.453
78
Total Pressure Drop within the Tube:
f = 0.0002
fG 2 Ln
(∆ P )t = 1
( ) = 4.463 × 10 D
psi
2
5 . 22 × 10 10 Dis φ t
Also for return losses
ž
From Graph, = 1
)™
? ž
∆pr = 4× 7 ( )™)
∆pr = 0.1085 psi
Total Pressure Drop = ∆pr +∆pt = 0.109 psi
Thickness of tube (t):
\
t = )(Õ ./ )
Allowable stress for Duplex- stainless steel (S) = 762 atm
+ED×+.)
t = )(E/) ./ (+ED))
t = 0.162 cm
Outer diameter of tube (d0) = di + t =0.0220 +0.00162
Outer diameter of tube (d0) = 0.024 m
Shell diameter:
No of tube at bundle diameter:
ND = [4 NT -0.333]0.50
ND = 51.75 ≈ 52
79
8 <ÑÒ=
Total no of bundle = 8 ÒÑ?B9=
= 12.89 ≈ 13
Ds = pt (ND +1)
For square pitch,
Pt = 1.25× d0 = 1.25×0.024 = 0.03
ND = 52
Ds = 2m
Equivalent diameter:
+.+
De =
Öo
× (Pt2 – 0.917 do2)
Pt = 0.0275 m
D0 = 0.0236 m
Put all these values in above equation:
De = 0.0172 m
Viscosity calculation:
NH3 (Gas) = 0.27
CO2 = 0.42
Carbamate = 0.307
NH3 (liquid) = 0.692
µ = 7.78× 10 D
Kg/m sec
Re = Gs de / µ
Re = 8400
Friction factor for shell side f =0.0025 sq ft/squ inch
80
Gs = shell side mass velocity = 38.06kg/sec.m2
L = length of tube = 20ft
No of passes = 1
De = Equivalent diameter=0.0172 m
2
fG s Ln
∆Ps =
5.22x1010 Deφ t
∆PS = 0.125 psi
5.6 SPECIFICATIONS SHEET
Name of Equipment Carbamate Condenser
Area (A) 318.732 m2
Over-all heat transfer coefficient (assumed 0.55 KW/m2. K
Over-all heat transfer coefficient (calculated) 0.567 KW/m2 k
No of tubes 665
Material of construction Duplex stain less steel
Type of Pitch Square
Baffle Cut 25%
Wall thickness 0.00162 mm
Calculated Surface Area 308.56 m2
81
5.7 EVAPORATOR DESIGN
In case of climbing film evaporator, the liquid feed enters the evaporator through bottom
header and moves upward through tubes. It receives heat from the heating media on shell side.
The vapour is generated in the tubes which start rising up pulling the liquid in the film form.
The vapour and liquid enters the vapour-liquid separator where they are separated. Vapour
moves upward to vapour nozzle while the concentrate moves down to concentrate nozzle.
This is useful during evaporation of highly viscous and fouling solutions.
Figure 5.2 Structure of climbing-film type evaporator
Features:
Cost effective construction, ideal for simple evaporation, concentration applications.

Ideal for volume reduction of dilute streams.
Can be used under recirculation mode.
Continuous operation.
Good for moderately heat sensitive products.
82
Energy Balance:
Inlet Flow Rates are:
Component Specific Heat Flow Rate Flow Rate Mole Fraction
•× ÓÔ ÓÔ
(•.‹ØÙÅ Ú) ( ) ( )
»¼ ‹ØÙÅ
Urea 107.76 74714.92 1245.2487 0.496058

Water 75.37 22651.99 1258.4439 0.501314
Biuret 149 679.5566 6.5976373 0.002628
Total
98046.47 2510.2903 1.00
•×
Cp of mixture = ∑ x Cpi = 91.63082 •.‹ØÙÅ Ú
˜Û
Q = 18401597.32 @;
Inlet T = 80 oC
Outlet Liquid T = 85 oC
Stream T = 147.165 oC
Vapour space pressure = 0.23 atm
Vapour space temperature = 63.1 oC
Outlet Flow Rates are:
Component Specific Heat Flow Rate Flow Rate Mole Fraction

•× ÓÔ ÓÔ
(•.‹ØÙÅ Ú) ( »¼ ) ( ‹ØÙÅ )
Urea 109.28 74714.92 1245.2487 0.747866

Water 75.37 7438.029 413.22385 0.248172
Biuret 149 679.5566 6.5976373 0.003962
Total
82832.51 1665.0702 1.00
{Û
Cp of mixture = ∑ xCpi = 101.0218722
{. 9= 4
˜Û
Q = mCp∆t = 14297723.37 @;
83
Heat balance:
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour + energy of
the bottom product
For steam at 147.165;
˜Û
λs1 (Heat input by steam) = 2123.2
˜™
Putting the values we get :
˜Û
Heat input (feed) = 18401597.32 @;
S1λs = S1 × 2123.2
˜™
E1 (vapour Flow rate) = 15213.960 @;
˜Û
H1 = 2614.97
˜™
˜Û
E1HE1 (heat carried by water vapour) = 39784050.84 @;
˜Û
Energy of the bottom product = 14297723.37 @;
After putting in Equation we get:
˜Û
S1λs1 = 35680176.89
@;
˜™
S1 = 16804.90622 @;
!
Economy = = 0.90
Õ+
U1value is obtained from fig-11.21(From Perry's Chemical Engineer 8th Edition page 18) At
Ümƒ
63.1 0C U1 is 270 .
nt.pm Ý
U = 5519.308 kj/hr m2 k
∆T1 = 147.165- 85 = 62.165 oC
84
w+λ‚+
A1 =
Þ+∆•+
Heat Transfer Area A1 = 103.9 b)
Assuming:
Tube Length = 6m
Tube OD inch = 0.0254 m
Tube ID [14 BWG] = 0.021 m
Minimum pitch = 1.25 x OD = 0.03175 m
One tube area A = 0.478971429 b)
No. of tubes (N): = 217.1135 ≈ 217
N0 0f passes = 1
K1 = 0.215
N1 = 2.107
Db = 0.677 m (tube bundle diameter)
Clearance = 64 mm
Shell ID = 0.74 m
] )
Down comer area = 0.5 × {Nt× ( ' ) × } = 0.055 b)
Down comer diameter = 0.264 m
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = down comer area + area

occupied by tubes
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = 0.149 b)
Tube sheet diameter = 0.436 m
85
Wall Thickness Calculation:
Material of construction : Mild steel
•
f = 0.93 x 10-
à
J = 0.85
P = 4.5 Atm
Design P = 3.905 bar = 380500
t (thickness) = 0.0017 m
Shell Outer Dia = ID + thickness
Shell Outer Dia = 0.74 + 0.0017 = 0.741 m
86
Name of equipment Evaporator
Pressure in Evaporator 4.5 atm
Steam T 420.165 k
Inlet Temperature at bottom 353 k
Out let Temperature of Liquid 358 K
Number of tubes 217
U1 œ¨
5519.308 @;.
{
Tube bundle dia 0.677 m
Heat Transfer Area 103.9 b)
Shell Internal dia 0.74 m
Length of tubes 6m
Tube OD 0.025 m
Total Area of Tube Sheet 0.149 b)
Thickness of shell 0.0017 m
Shell outer diameter 0.741 m
Material of shell Mild steel
87
5.9 DESIGN OF ABSORBER
The removal of one or more component from the mixture of gases by using a suitable solvent
is second major operation of Chemical Engineering that based on mass transfer.
In gas absorption a soluble vapors are more or less absorbed in the solvent from its mixture
with inert gas. The 'purpose of such gas scrubbing operations may be any of the following;
a) For Separation of component having the economic value.

b) As a stage in the preparation of some compound.
c) For removing of undesired component (pollution).
Types of Absor5srs:
There are two major types of absorbers which are used for absorption purposes:
Packed column
Plate column
Comparison Between Packed And Plate Column:
1) The packed column provides continuous contact between vapor and liquid phases
while the plate column brings the two phases into contact on stage wise basis.
2) SCALE: For column diameter of less than approximately 3 ft. It is more usual to
employ packed towers because of high fabrication cost of small trays. But if the
column is very large then the liquid distribution is problem and large volume of
packing and its weight is problem.
3) PRESSURE DROP: Pressure drop in packed column is less than the plate column. In
plate column there is additional friction generated as the vapor passes through the
liquid on each tray. If there are large No. of Plates in the tower, this pressure drop may
be quite high and the use of packed column could effect considerable saving.
4) LIQUID HOLD UP: Because of the liquid on each plate there may be an Urge
quantity of the liquid in plate column, whereas in a packed tower the liquid flows as a
thin film over the packing.
5) SIZE AND COST: For diameters of less than 3 ft. packed tower require lower
fabrication and material costs than plate tower with regard to height, a packed column
is usually shorter than the equivalent plate column.
88
From the previous consideration packed column is selected as the absorber, because in our
case the diameter of the column is approximately 0.8 meter which is less than 3 ft. As the
solubility is infinity so the liquid will absorb as much gases as it remain in contact with gases
so packed tower provide more contact. It is easy to operate.
Selection of Packed Column:
Continuous contacting device.
Packed columns operate over a wide range of air flow rates.
Packed columns are suitable for foaming liquids.
In packed columns two streams never reach equilibrium

Thus most packing is made of cheap, inert, fairly light materials such as clay, porcelain, or
graphite. Thin-walled metal rings of steel or aluminum are some limes used.
Common Packing’s are:
Berl Saddle.
Intalox Saddle.
Rasching rings.
Single spiral ring.
Double - Spiral ring.
Triple - Spiral ring.
Designing Steps For Absorption Column:
Determining the approximate dia of the column

Selection of column.
Selection of packing and material
Calculating the size of packing
Calculating the actual dia of column
Finding the no. of transfer units (NoG)
Determining the height of packing
Determining the height of the column
Determining the pressure
89
Design parameters:
• Column Diameter
• Area of column
• Height of packing
Flow Rates and Physical Properties:
Flow rate of un-reacted carbon dioxide in (from Reactor) = 1.53kg/sec
Flow rate of un-reacted ammonia = 2.37 kg/sec
Flow rate of carbamate (To condenser) = 11.97kg/sec
Flow rate of ammonia = 5.29kg/sec
Flow rate of carbamate in MPA = 9.24 kg/sec
Flow rate of ammonia in (MPA) = 4.11 kg/sec
Temperature of gases in T1 = 463K
Temperature of gases out T2 = 462 K
Temperature of liquid in t1 = 423 K
Temperature of liquid out t2 = 426 K
Density of gases ρg = 77.26kg/m3
Viscosity of gases µ s = 0.00014 kg/m.sec
Density of Liquid ρL = 1690 Kg/m3
Viscosity of liquid µ L = 0.00015 kg/m.sec
90
Packing Specifications:
• Packing Type = ceramic Intalox Saddles
• Packing Size dp = 1.00 inch = 0.0250 m
• Surface area of packing ‘a’ = 253.00 m2/m3
• Packing factor (Fp) = 300.00
Column Area and Diameter:
Ac = V/V*w
To find V*w
V*w = [{K4*ρg*(ρL- ρg)}/{13.1*Fp( µL /ρL )0.1}]0.5
Now we will find k4 and k4 is finding from graph against FLV
For FLV
FLV = (Lw/Gw) * (ρg/ρL) 0.5
By putting the values we get
FLV = (9.24/2.37) * (77.26/1690)0.5 = 0.83

2.37
Floading Velocity = 77.26 / 1690
9.24
Floading Velocity = 0.06
Pressure drop taken 20 mm of water/m of packing (it should b/w 15-50)
At 0.83 we find the value of k4 from figure below
91
Above Figure Generalized pressure drop correlation, adopted from a fig by the Norton Co. with
permission
For pressure drop of 20 mmH2O/m packing
K4 (y-axis) = 0.58
At flooding K4 = 0.85
Now putting the value in equation 7.2
Vw* = [{0.58*77.26*(1690 - 77.26)}/{13.1*300(.00015/1690)0.1}]0.5
Vw* = 9.66kg/m2 .sec
For Area
Putting the values in equation
Column area required
A = V/Vw* = 9.24/9.66
A = 0.95m2
Diameter of column = (4/π * A) 0.5
Diameter = [(4/3.14) * 0.95]0.5
Diameter of column = 1.10 m
92
Column area = 3.14/4 * (1.10)2
A =0.95 m2
Estimation of HOG:
By Onda’s method
HOG = HG+ (mGm/Lm)*HL
HOG = height of an overall gas phase transfer unit
HG = height of a gas phase transfer unit, m
HL = height of a liquid phase transfer unit, m
HG = Gm/KG * aW * P
HL = Lm/KL * aW * Ct
For HG
Find
aw=? , kG=? , Gm=?
For aw
L*w = liquid mass flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kg/m2s
aw = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume, m2/m3
a = actual area of packing per unit volume m3/m3
σc = critical surface tension for Ceramic= 61 mN/m
σL = liquid(ammonia solution) surface tension=0.005 mN/m
By putting the values in equation
aW/a=1-exp[-1.45*{(61*10-3/0.005)0.75}*{(12.6/253 *0.00015)0.1}*{(12.62*253/16902*9.8)}-
0.05
*{(12.62/1690*0.005*253)0.2}]
aw = 0.93*253
93
aw = 226 m2/m3
Now we find the value of KG for calculating HG
(KG/a)*(R*T/Dg) = {K5}*{(Vw/a*µg) 0.7}*{(µg/ρg*Dg)0.33}*{(a*dp)-2}
Here
K5 = 5.23[31]
Dp = packing size, m
R = 0.08314 bar m3/kmol k
T = 426 K
Kinematic viscosity of gases DV =µv/ρv
By putting the values
Dg = 1.81*10-6
By inserting the values in the equation, we get
(KG/253* 1.81*10-6)*(0.08314*426) = {5.23}*{(5.30/253*0.00014)0.7}*
{(0.00014/77.26*1.81*10-6)0.33}*{(253*0.025)-2}
KG = 5.75 * 10-5 Kmol/s.m2 bar
Now we find the value of KL for calculating HG
KL*{(ρL/µL*g).33} = {0.0051}*{(Lw/aW*µ) 2/3}*{(µL/ρL*DL)-0.5}*{(a*dp)0.4}
Here g = 9.8 m/sce2
Kinematic viscosity of amine solution DL= µL/ρL
By putting the values
DL = 0.00015 /1690
DL = 8.88*10-8 m2/sec
By putting the values in the equation (7.9), we get
KL*{(1690/0.00015*9.8)0.33} = {0.0051}*{(11.97/226*0.00015)2/3}*{(0.00015/1690*8.88* 10-8)-

0.5
}*{(253*0.025)0.4}
KL = 0.453/99.26
94
KL = 5.43*10-3 m/sec
Now we estimate the value of HOG
HOG = HG + (m Gm/Lm) * HL
For this first we calculate the value of HG and HL
HG = Gm/KG * aw * P
Gm = molar gas flow-rate per unit cross-sectional area
Gm = 5.30/17* 0.95=0.328Kmol/m2 s
Pressure = 175 bar
Now putting the value in equation
Gm = 0.328/5.75* 10-5 * 226 *175
HG =0.144m
HL = Lm/KL*aW*Ct
Lm = molar liquid flow rate per unit cross-sectional area
= 9.24/78* 0.95=0.125 kmol/m2s.
Ct = total concentration, as solution
Ct = density of liquid/molecular weight of liquid
= 1690/78
Ct = 21.67 kmole/m3
By putting the values in equation
HL = 0.125/5.43* 10-3* 226 *21.67
HL = 0.0047 m
Value of HOG:
Now value of HG and HL putting in equation
HOG = 0.144 + 0.75*0.0047
HOG = 0.145m
95
Estimation of NOG:
y1 = mole fraction of gas at inlet = 0.68
y2 = mole fraction of gas at outlet = .01
y1/y2 = 0.68/0.01= 69
Now take the value of NOG from Fig.16
Number of transfer units NOG as a function of y1/y2 with mGm /Lm as parameter
So,
NOG = 13 m
Height of packing (Z)
Z = HOG*NOG = 0.144*13
Z = 1.872 m
Allowance for internals = 0.25* D+ 1 = 1.275 m
Height of column = 1.872+1.275
= 3.14 m
96
Pressure Drop calculations:
FLV = 0.58
Vw* = 9.66kg/m2 .sec
K4 = 0.85
For these values of FLV see the value of pressure drop from fig 11.44 the pressure drop is 20mm of
water per meter of packing..
5.10 SPECIFICATION SHEET OF SCRUBBER
Equipment Name Packed scrubber
Function To absorb ammonia in carbamate solution
No-of
of transfer units 13
Height of transfer unit 0.144 m
Diameter of column 1.10 m

Height of packing section 1.872 m
Size and type of packing Ceramic intalox saddle
Total height of the column 3.14 m
Packing arrangement Dumped
Type of packing support Gas injection support
Liquid distributors Orifice type
Material of construction 316 L stainless steel
97
5.11 SELECTION OF PUMP
Pumps are used to transfer fluids from one location to another. The pump accomplishes this
transfer by increasing the pressure of the fluid and, thereby, supplying the driving force
necessary for flow. Power must be delivered to the pump from some outside source. Thus,
electrical or steam energy may be transformed into mechanical energy which is used to drive
the pump. Part of this mechanical energy is added to the fluid as work energy, and the rest is
lost as friction due to inefficiency of the pump and drive.
The different types of pumps commonly employed in industrial operations can be classified as
follows:
Reciprocating or positive-displacement pumps with valve action: piston pumps,

diaphragm pumps, plunger pumps.
Rotary positive-displacement pumps with no valve action: gear pumps, lobe pumps,
screw pumps, eccentric-cam pumps, metering pumps.
Rotary centrifugal pumps with no valve action: open impeller, closed impeller, volute
pumps, and turbine pumps.
Air-displacement systems: air lifts, acid eggs or blow cases, jet pumps, barometric
legs.
Factors influence the final choice of a pump:
Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a particular operation. The
following list indicates the major factors that govern pump selection:
1. The amount of fluid that must be pumped. This factor determines the size of pump (or
pumps) necessary.
2. The properties of the fluid. The density and the viscosity of the fluid influence the
power requirement for a given set of operating conditions; corrosive properties of the
fluid determine the acceptable materials of construction.
3. The increase in pressure of the fluid due to the work input of the pumps.
4. The head change across the pump is influenced by the inlet and downstream-reservoir
pressures, the change in vertical height of the delivery line, and frictional effects. This
factor is a major item in determining the power requirements.
98
5. Type of flow distribution. If non pulsating flow is required, certain types of pumps,
such as simplex reciprocating pumps, may be unsatisfactory. Similarly, if operation is
intermittent, a self-priming pump may be desirable, and corrosion difficulties may be
increased.
6. Type of power supply. Rotary positive-displacement pumps and centrifugal pumps are
readily adaptable for use with electric-motor or internal-combustion- engine drives;
reciprocating pumps can be used with steam or gas drives.
7. Cost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.
Selected Pump:
From above factors that influence the pump selection, we select “H.P centrifugal” for
pumping the Ammonia to the reactor.
Advantages of centrifugal pump
They are simple in construction and cheap.

Fluid is delivered at uniform pressure without shocks or pulsations.
They can be coupled directly to motor drives. In general, the higher the speed, the
smaller the pump and motor required for a given duty.
The discharge line may be partly shut off or completely closed off without damaging
the pump.
They can handle liquid with large amounts of solids.
There are no valves involved in the pump operation.
Maintenance costs are lower than for other types of pumps.
Calculations:
˜™ ˜™
Mass flow rate of Ammonia = 42787.1 @; = 11.88 7=A
˜™
Density of Ammonia at inlet temperature and pressure (150 oC & 1atm) = 618 K
˜™
Viscosity = 1.52 × 10-5 .7=A
++.-- K
Volumetric flow rate = = 0.019 7=A
/+-
99
ž 9Ñ =<;>A 89 : ;6<=
Velocity in the pipe =
89 : 6;=6
. +X . +X
Velocity in the pipe = Ì = . E-D
\
Í
Velocity in the pipe = 2.42 (Selecting 4 inch, schedule 40 pipes)

7=A
á\ž /+-× .+×).')

Reynolds Number = â
=
+.D) × + ã,
Reynolds Number = 98392
Flow is turbulent, so fanning friction factor (f) can be calculated by using:
.+)D
Fanning friction factor = 0.0014 +
"= “.K
Friction factor (f) = 0.005
8×)×ž ×[
Head losses in term of height of liquid flowing = (L=10m)
™×\
Head losses (ä8å ) = 0.186 m
Efficiency of a Pump = 78%
(From using Figure 12.17 of “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, fifth
K K
edition” at capacity of 0.019 or 68.4 )
7=A @;
Now, pump work is calculated by Using Bernoulli’s equation:
™ ∆u ž
Wp æ = ™A (Z2-Z1) + + ä8å + )™
á
˜™
ç hha ^dcc g (∆P) = ä8å × é = 115
Level difference between Discharge and suction (Z2-Z1) = 10m
After putting all the values in above Bernoulli’s Equation;
.˜™ê
Wp = 14
˜™J
100
Power = Wp × mass flow rate = 14 × 11.88
.˜™ê
Power = 166.32 = 1170 ë = 1568 hp
7=A
Pump Type Single Stage (radial) HP Centrifugal
Fluid Handle Ammonia
K
Capacity 68.4 @;
Efficiency 0.78
Pressure Developed ˜™
115
Inlet Pressure Atmospheric (1.01325 bar)
Outlet pressure 175 bar
Power Required 1568 hp
Losses due to Head 0.186 m
Density of fluid ˜™
618 K
101
5.13 SELECTION OF COMPRESSOR
Movement of gases can be accomplished by use of fans, blowers, vacuum pumps, and
compressors. Fans are useful for moving gases when pressure differences less than about 0.5
psi are involved. Centrifugal blowers can handle large volumes of gases, but the delivery
pressure is limited to approximately 50 psig. Reciprocating compressors can be employed
over a wide range of capacities and pressures, and they are used extensively in industrial
operations. Sizes of reciprocating compressors ranging from less than 1 to 3000 hp are
available, and some types can give delivery pressures as high as 4000 atm.
Steps Involved in Compressor Calculations:

Selection of Compressor Type according to requirement
Calculation of Compressor Work for Single Stage
Calculation of Discharge Temperature for Single Stage
Calculation of Compressor Work and Discharge Temperature for Two Stages
Calculation of Compressor Power for two stages
Calculation of motor Power for two stages
Important Conditions Required for Calculations:
Temperature = 25 oC = 298 K
Inlet Pressure P1 = 1.01325 bar = 101325 pa
Outlet pressure P2 = 175 bar = 17500000 pa
˜™ ˜™
Mass flow rate into the compressor = 55371.54 @; = 15.38 7=A
Molecular weight of fluid (CO2) = 44
+D..- ˜™. 9=
Molar flow rate into the compressor = ''
= 0.35 7=A
˜™
Density of CO2 = 209.9 K
+D..- K
Inlet volumetric flow rate = ) X.X
= 0.07 7=A
Selection of Compressor Type:

There are different types of compressors used in chemical and petrochemical industries,
Centrifugal and Positive Displacement Compressors are two main types. We select
“Centrifugal and Axial Compressor” for compress the CO2 before entering the stripper, due to
following reasons:
102
Both centrifugal and axial units are continuous-flow compressors. Centrifugal

compressors, in general, are used for higher pressure ratios and lower flow rates.
The pressure ratio in a single-stage centrifugal compressors used in petrochemical
industries is about 1.2 : 1
Because of the low pressure ratios for each stage, a single compressor may include a
number of stages in one casing to achieve the desired overall pressure ratio.
The operating ratio of a centrifugal compressor is between that of surge, which is the
lower flow limit of stable operation, and choke, which is the maximum flow through
the compressor at a given operating speed.
Calculations:
(1) Adiabatic Head

ç) ˜ +
ä6B = ì·+ ( ) í( )( ˜ ) − 1î
−1 ç+
Where;
ä6B = Adiabatic head in ï. ˜™
˜µ
R = Gas constant in ˜™.{ 0.189
·+ = Inlet gas temperature in K 298

4ð +.'+//
k = heat capacity ratio ( 4 ) .-//
= 1.64
ñ
P1 & P2 = Inlet and outlet pressures in kPa

Put all these values in above equation to get adiabatic head:
1.64 7500 (+./' +)
ä6B = 0.189 × 298 ( ) í( ) +./' − 1î
1.64 − 1 101.325
ä6B = 630 ï. ˜™
(2) Adiabatic Power For Single Stage Compression:

ç6B = b hh c` e × ä6B
ç6B = 15.38 × 630
ç6B = 9690 ë
103
(3) Adiabatic Discharge Temperature:

ç) ˜ +
·) = ·+ ( ) ˜
ç+
7500 +./' +
·) = 298 ( ) +./'
101.35
·) = 1600 ¡
(4) Efficiency:
75% from table 12.8 of “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, fifth edition”
Compressor Type Centrifugal
Fluid Handle Carbon Di Oxide
K K
Capacity 0.07 or 252
7=A @;
Efficiency 0.75
Pressure Developed ˜™
115
Inlet Pressure Atmospheric (101.325 kPa)
Outlet pressure 7500 kPa
Power Required 9690 kW
Inlet Temperature 298 K
Outlet Temperature 1600 K
Density of fluid ˜™
209.9 K
Heat Capacity Ratio Of Fluid 1.64

Handled (CO2)
104
CHAPTER 06: Mechanical Design
6.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR
The mechanical design of a reactor resemble with that of a pressure vessel. It is generally
accepted that any closed vessel over 150 mm diameter, subjected to a pressure difference of
more than 1 bar, should be designed as a pressure vessel.
There are two types of vessels normally:
Thin walled vessels

Thick walled vessels
Our urea reactor is designed as thin walled vessel because it satisfies the condition that the
ratio of wall thickness to wall diameter is less than 1:10.
Basic design data required by a specialist designer will include followings:

Vessel function
Process materials and services
Operating and design temperatures and pressures
Material of construction
Vessel dimensions and orientation
Types of vessel heads to be used
Opening and connections required
Specifications of heating and cooling jackets or coils
Specifications of internal fittings
Steps to be followed for designing a reactor:
Vessel dimensions
Material of construction selection
Thickness of the shell required
Type of trays required
Total pressure drop estimation
Head selection and thickness calculations
Weight of the shell calculations
Stress Calculations
106
Selection of Material of construction:
Duplex stainless steel DP28W
Alloying Elements Mass %
Cr 27.0
Ni 7.00
Mo 0.80
W 2.10
N 0.30
TOYO Engineering Co. (Designers of ACES process) and Sumitomo Metal Ind., Ltd. (SMI)
has jointly developed new duplex stainless steel DP28W for urea plant.
Excellent corrosion resistance
• Improves reliability and maintainability

• Less maintenance cost
• Prolong life of equipment and plant
Excellent passivation property
• Less passivation air injection

• Improves safety and operability
High mechanical strength
• Reduce thickness & weight of pressure parts

• Reduce required surface area of tubes
107
Thickness of reactor wall:
Operating Pressure = 175 bar = 17.5
Design Pressure = (17.5-1) × 1.1 = 18.15
t= +
Where;
t = Thickness
P = Design Pressure = 18.15
D = Diameter of Reactor = 2.6 m = 2600 mm
f = Maximum Allowable Stress = 240
C = Corrosion Allowance = 2mm
J = Joint Factor = 1 (Fully Radiography)
Put all these values in above equation:
. ×
t= × × .
+ 2 = 101.0983 mm = 0.1 m
Outer Diameter of Reactor:
O.D = I.D + 2(t) = 2.6 + 2(0.1) = 2.8 m
108
Weight of the shell:
= 240 + 0.8
Where;
= a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, internal supports etc.
= 1.08 for vessels having only a few internals
= mean diameter of vessel = I.D + t = 2.6 + 0.1 = 2.7 m
= height or length of cylindrical section of vessel = 26 m
= wall thickness in mm
Put all these values in above equation to find the weight of shell:
= 240 × 1.08 × 2.7 26 + 0.8 × 2.7 101.0983 = &''()'*. &+ ,
= &''( -,
Selection of Reactor Head:
There are basically three types of shell heads:
Hemispherical
Ellipsoidal
Torispherical
The basic features and characteristics of these head types are given in tabulated form:
109
Table 6.1 Comparisons between Different Head Types
Hemispherical Ellipsoidal Torispherical

Pressure bearing Strongest in pressure Moderate pressure Moderate pressure can
bearing (2 times P can be bear be bear
than that of
Torispherical head)
Assembly Very difficult to join Easy joining with Easy joining with shell
with shell with the shell by flanges. by flanges. Extra
help of flanges. Extra Extra sealing is sealing is not required.
sealing are required to not required.
prevent leakage.
Agitator assembly Very difficult to avoid Very easy to A bit difficult
agitator from maintain agitator maintenance than that in
fluctuations. on a constant ellipsoidal heads.
speed without
fluctuations.
Cost of forming Most expensive Less expensive Less expensive
Thickness Ratio of head PD PR
i c Cs
t= i i
t=
calculations thickness to 2 JS − 0.2 Pi 2 JS − Pi (Cs − 0.2)
cylindrical shell
thickness = 7/17
From above given criterion, we select hemispherical head for our case because of the
following reasons:
Pressure inside the tank must not be fluctuating, therefore head should be so
tightly fixed with cylindrical shell and no leakage should be there. For this
purpose, best recommendations are for hemispherical heads.
Its thickness calculations are easier than those for other two head types.
Cost of forming these types of heads is lower than that for other two head types.
Thickness of the hemispherical head:
.
= +
4/0 − 0.4.
18.15 × 2600
= + 2 = 51 33 = 4. 45 6
4 × 240 × 1 − 0.4 × 18.15
110
Thickness of the shell is 0.1 m and from above calculation it is clear that thickness of head is
half of the shell thickness.
Stress Calculations:
789:;< =>899?>8 × 7:@.AB C8@DEA> . ×

1) Longitudinal Stress = =
FG:DH<899 . I J
,
Longitudinal Stress = 233.38
66(
789:;< =>899?>8 × 7:@.AB C8@DEA>

2) Circumferential Stress =
FG:DH<899
K
Circumferential Stress = 116 .69 LL(
MN II JI .
3) Dead weight Stress = O = J.
P QR R . Q . .
Dead weight Stress = 2350075.702 pa = 2350075.702

K
Dead weight Stress = 235 LL(
× S ×FG:DH<899 × S× . I J
4) Compressive Stress = 7:@.TB C8@DEA>
=
K
Compressive Stress = 777
LL(
Selection of Vessel Support:

The method used to support a vessel depends on:
Size, shape and weight of the vessel
The design temperature and pressure
The vessel location and arrangement
Internal and external fittings and attachments
Skirt support is selected for urea reactor. Skirt Support has following advantages:
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the
vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations.
Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose
concentrated loads on the vessel shell.
111
Operating temperature 190 0C
Operating pressure 17.5
Design temperature 190 0C
Design pressure 18.5
Diameter 2.6 m
Reactor Length 26 m
Volume of reactor 147m3
Residence time 24 min
Catalyst No catalyst
Material of Construction DP28W
Thickness of wall 0.1 m
Reactor external diameter 2.8m
Number of trays 10
Type of head Hemispherical head
Thickness of head 0.05 m
Weight of shell 1992 kN
Longitudinal stress 233.38
Circumferential stress 116.69
Dead weight stress 235
112
6.3 MECHANICAL DRAWING OF REACTOR
Scaling; 3m = 1in
113
7.1 INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

A chemical plant is combination of many integrated units which are responsible for
converting raw materials into useful products. During its operation a plant has to satisfy many
operating conditions and requirements specified by designer. Such requirements ask for
continuous checking system for a chemical plant. This system guarantees the satisfaction of
operational objectives. System is composed of equipments and humane support and known as
Instrumentation and process control.
(1) Safer Plant Operation
To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.

To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and
automatic shut-down systems.
To provide inter locks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures
(2) Production Rate

To achieve the design product output.
(3) Product Quality
To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards
(4) Cost
To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.
These are not separate objectives and must be considered together. The order in which they
are listed is not meant to imply the precedence of any objective over another, other than that
of putting safety first. Product quality, production rate and the cost of production will be
dependent on sales requirements. For example, it may be a better strategy to produce a better
quality product at a higher cost.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a combination of
automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
115
CHAPTER 07: Instrumentation and Process Control
7.2 COMPONENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
(1) Process
Process is defined as series of steps which are used to produce final desired product
from available raw materials. In this discussion the process is synthesis of urea.
(2) Control
Control is defined as use of techniques for fixing the given parameters of process
around required value. Sometimes we also use term process control for same meanings.
Parameter which is to be kept fixed is measured by some output variables ranging from
temperature to time and distance measurements. This signal is forwarded to a device which
compares the two values and sends error to final control element to take action. There are
three main parts of a control system.
1. Sensor ( sensor, transducer and transmitter)
2. Controller ( processor, memory and summing circuit)
3. Final Control Element ( actuator, power control circuit )
(3) Control Loop
A control loop is a process management system which is designed to manipulate input
variable around set point. A control loop is said to be made of three or four steps listed below:
(i) Sense (ii) compare (iii) respond (iv) Action
Control loops used in industries are mainly of two types:

Feed Forward Control Loop
Feed Backward Control Loop
Feed forward control loop measures disturbances and manipulates the controlled variable
directly. While in feed backward control loop, we measure controlled variable and manipulate
the disturbances.
Classification of Controllers:
In general the process controllers can be classified as:
1. Pneumatic controllers
2. Electronic controllers
3. Hydraulic controllers
116
In the urea manufacturing, the controller and the final control element may be pneumatically
operated due to the following reasons:
The pneumatic controller is very rugged and almost free of maintenance. The
maintenance men have not had sufficient training and background in electronics, so
basically pneumatic equipment is simple.
The pneumatic controller appears to be safer in a potentially explosive atmosphere

which is often present in the urea.
Transmission distances are short. Pneumatic and electronic transmission systems are
generally equal up to about 250 to 300 feet. Above this distance, electronic systems
begin to offer savings.
Modes of Control:
The various types of control are called "modes" and they determine the type of response
obtained. In other words these describe the action of the controller that is the relationship of
output signal to the input or error signal. It must be noted that it is error that actuates the
controller. The four basic modes of control are:
1. On-off Control
2. Integral Control
3. Proportional Control
4. Rate or Derivative Control
In industry purely integral, proportional or derivative modes seldom occur alone in the control
system. The On-off controller is the controller with very high gain. In this case the error
signal at once off the valve or any other parameter upon which it sits or completely sets the
system.
Alarms and Safety Trips and Interlocks:
Alarms are used to alert operators of serious, and potentially hazardous, deviations in process
conditions. Key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible and visual
alarms on the control panels.
117
The basic components of automatic trip systems are:

A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a
preset valve is exceeded (the instrument).
A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually consisting of a system of

pneumatic or electric relays.
An actuator to carry out the required action; close or open a valve, switch off a
motor.
A safety trip can be incorporated in control loop; as shown in figure. In this system the high-
temperature alarm operates a solenoid valve, releasing the air on the pneumatic activator
closing the valve on high temperature.
Interlocks
Where it is necessary to follow the fixed sequence of operations for example, during a plant
start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations-inter-locks are included to prevent operators
departed from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the control system design,
as pneumatic and electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks.
7.3 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
Measurement is defined as the extraction from physical and chemical systems or processes of
signals, which represent parameters or variable. The performance of an automation system
can never surpass that the associated measuring devices. A basic example is a human being.
1. Temperature Measurement and Control

Temperature measurement is used to control the temperature of outlet and inlet streams in
heat exchangers, reactors, etc. Most temperature measurements in the industry are made by
means of thermo-couples to facilitate bringing the measurements to centralized location. For
local measurements at the equipment bi-metallic or filled system thermometers are used to a
lesser extent. Usually, for high measurement accuracy, resistance thermometers are used.
2. Pressure Measurement and Control
Like temperature pressure is a valuable indication of material state and composition. In fact,
these two measurements considered together are the primary evaluating devices of industrial
materials. Pumps, compressor and other process equipment associated with pressure changes
118
in the process material are furnished with pressure measuring devices. Thus pressure
measurement becomes an indication of energy increase or decrease.
Most pressure measurement in industry is elastic element devices, either directly connected
for local use or transmission type to centralized location. Most extensively used industrial
pressure element is the Bourden Tube or a Diaphragm or Bellows gauges.
3. Level Controller
Liquid levels are detected in a variety of ways. The three most common are:
Following the position of a float, that is lighter then fluid
Measuring the apparent weight of a heavy cylinder as it buoyed up more or less by the liquid
(these are called displacement meters).
Measuring the difference in static pressure between two fixed elevations, one in the vapors
above the liquid and the other under the liquid surface
The differential pressure between the two level taps is directly related to the liquid level in
the vessel.
4. Flow Measurement and Control
Flow-indicator-controllers are used to control the amount of liquid. Also all manually set
streams require some flow indication or some easy means for occasional sample
measurement. For accounting purposes, feed and product stream are metered. In addition
utilities to individual and grouped equipment are also metered. Most flow measures in the
industry are/ by Variable Head devices. To a lesser extent Variable Area is used, as are the
many available types as special metering situations arise.
These are used to control feed rate into a process unit. Orifice plates are by far the most type
of flow rate sensor. Normally, orifice plates are designed to give pressure drops in the range
of 20 to 200inch of water. Venture tubes and turbine meters are also used.
119
Figure 9.1 Vaporizer Control
7.4 CONSIDERATION OF PFR IN ACES UREA PLANT

Level Measurement
A sensor measures a level of reacting fluids inside PFR and signals to controller. If level is
below or above the given level signal is sent towards the exit stream control element at urea
solution. As a result it throttles between open-closed situations.
Temperature Measurement
In PFR operation, temperature is controlled by controlling the flow rate of water inside
reactor. This water removes heat from reactor by absorption of heat. In case that temperature
is raised inside, water inlet valve is opened and it removes higher amounts of heat from
reactor while stabilizing temperature.
Composition Measurement
A sensor for measuring composition is also introduced into system as higher N/C ratio will
cause energy load on plant. Similarly, lower ratio will cause less conversion leading towards
in-economic process.
For this reason, composition controller checks the valve on fresh ammonia stream maintain
N/C ratio around 4/1.
120
Figure 9.2 Process Control Scheme of PFR Installed in ACES Urea Plant
121
8.1 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP)

A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of systematic
qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities and can be applied to a
whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment It uses as its database the usual sort of
plant and process information and relies on the judgment of engineering and safety experts in
the areas with which they are most familiar. The end result is, therefore reliable in terms of
engineering and operational expectations, but it is not quantitative and may not consider the
consequences of complex sequences of human errors. The objectives of a HAZOP study can
be summarized as follows:
To identify areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard potential.
To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of a
hazardous incident occurring.
To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard

potential.
To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the team.
8.2 STEPS CONDUCTED IN HAZOP STUDY
Specify the purpose, objective, and scope of the study.
Select the HAZOP study team.
Collect data. The odore16 has listed the following materials that are usually
needed.
• Process description.
• Process flow sheets.
• Data on the chemical, physical and toxicological properties of all raw
materials, intermediates, and products.
• Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs).
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CHAPTER 08: HAZOP Study
• Equipment, piping, and instrument specifications.

• Process control logic diagrams.
• Layout drawings.
• Operating procedures.
• Maintenance procedures.
• Emergency response procedures.
• Safety and training manuals.
Conduct the study. When the nodes are identified and the parameters are
identified, each node is studied by applying the specialized guidewords to each
parameter. These guide words and their meanings are key elements of the HAZOP
procedure.
They are listed in Table (8.1)
Table 8.1 HAZOP Guide Words and Meanings
Guide Words Meaning

No Negation of design intent
Less Quantitative decrease
More Quantitative increase
Part of Qualitative decrease
As well as Qualitative Increase
Reverse Logical opposite of the intent
Other than Complete substitution
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8.3 SAFETY OF THE UREA PLANT
It is must to consider occupational safety and health when designing a manufacturing plant.
Safety is the major factor in any industrial process to safeguard employees, environment,
surrounding living peoples etc. Also there are legal obligations which are imposed by
government for chemical processing factories to operate and maintain.
When considering the safety, it is mainly due to the risk of urea which is the main product of
plant and ammonia; one of the main raw materials for production and risk caused by other
intermediate product.
Safety factors relevant to urea:

Stability and Reactivity
Produce biuret when expose to heat.
Urea has high solubility. So it should store under dry conditions.
It has high stability and low reactivity with normal conditions.
Flammability
Urea is non-flammable material
Flash point: Not applicable
Flammability limits: Not applicable
Auto-ignition temperature: Not applicable
The substance decomposes on heating above melting point, producing toxic gases, and reacts
violently with strong oxidants, nitrites, inorganic chlorides, chlorites and per chlorates,
causing fire and explosion hazard.
125
8.4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION

Classified as hazardous chemical according to criteria in the HS (Minimum Degrees of
Hazard) Regulations 2001
Route of entry and health hazards:
Harmful if swallowed. - It may cause irritation
Harmful if inhaled.
Causes serious eye irritation.
Harmful to terrestrial vertebrates.
8.5 FIRST AID (EMERGENCY PROCEDURE)
In the event of an emergency, remove the victim from further exposure, send for medical
assistance, and initiate the following emergency procedures:
Skin
Wash exposed area with soap and water. If irritation persists, get medical attention as
soon as possible.
Eyes
Wash eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting lids occasionally. Seek
Medical Aid.
Inhalation
Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is

difficult, give oxygen.
Ingestion
If swallowed, induce vomiting immediately after giving two glasses of water. Never
give anything by mouth to an unconscious person.
126
Fire Extinguisher
Any means suitable for extinguishing surrounding fire. Fire extinguisher should available in
any risky places in the plant.
Extinguishing media: CO2, foam, dry powder, water
Handling & Storage:
Precautionary Statements
Keep out of reach of children.

Avoid breathing vapors, or dusts.
Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
Do not eat drink or smoke when using this product.
Avoid unintended release to the environment.
Use with adequate ventilation.
Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and clothes.
Exposure Control:
Exposure Standards
Workplace Exposure Standards (WES): Particulates not otherwise classified
Inspirable dust 10mg/m3
Respirable dust 3mg/m3
Disposal Considerations
Observe local authority restrictions that may apply. Collection into sealable
Containers and dispose of in an approved land fill.
Rinse containers thoroughly prior to re-use. Otherwise render unusable, and dispose of as
waste.
127
Figure 8.1 HAZOP method flow diagrams
128
9.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
An Environment Impact Assessment is an assessment of the possible positive impact or

negative impact which the project may have on the natural environment. The purpose of the
assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider environmental impacts used to decide
whether to proceed with the project. The International Association for Impact Assessment
(IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting,
evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development
proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.
Objectives of EIA Assessment:
To ensure that proponents take primary responsibility for protection of the

environment influenced by their proposals
To ensure that best practicable measures are taken to minimize adverse impacts on the
environment, and that proposals meet relevant environmental objectives and standards
to protect the environment, and implement the principles of sustainability
To provide opportunities for local community and public participation, as appropriate,

during the assessment of proposals
To encourage proponents to implement continuous improvement in environmental

performance and the application of best practice environmental management in
implementing their proposal
To ensure that independent, reliable advice is provided to the Government before

decisions are made
129
CHAPTER 09: Environmental Impact
9.2 IMPACT OF THE UREA PLANT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

In the early part of previous decade ammonia consumption per ton of final product of 575 kg
or even higher used to be acceptable. This figure implies however a loss of some 8 kg per
tonne of final product produced (Table 9.1), which for a 2000 mtd plant would result in a loss
of 16 mtpd ammonia either in the form of urea or straight ammonia. Presently ammonia
consumptions of some 567 kg per tonne are released in the large single stream plants. Since
this figure is very close to the theoretical consumption figure, the conclusion is that losses in
steady operation are approaching the zero targets.
Table 9.1 Ammonia releases from urea plants
Early nineteen eighties 8 kg NH3/mt final product

Presently 0.7 kg NH3/mt final product
Not only ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea releases from process plants have a negative
influence on the environment but also the unnecessary use of energy is negative from an
environmental point of view and from the economic point of view as well.
9.3 EMISSIONS TO AIR

Air emissions may be categorized as either fugitive or point source emissions.
Fugitive Emissions
These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Examples of fugitive
emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilization of vapor from vats, open vessels, or
spills and materials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgeline roof-vents and open doors
of a building as well as equipment leaks, and leaks from valves and flanges are also examples
of fugitive emissions.
Point Source Emissions

These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a single point source
into the atmosphere. Above table highlights common air emissions from urea manufacturing
processes.
130
9.4 EMISSIONS TO WATER

Emissions of substances to water can be categorized as discharges to:
Surface waters (eg. lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries);
Coastal or marine waters
Storm water
Because of the significant environmental hazards posed by emitting toxic substances to water,
most facilities emitting above listed substances to waterways are required by the relevant
environment authority to closely monitor and measure these emissions. The existing sampling
data can be used to calculate annual emissions. If no wastewater monitoring data exists,
emissions to process water can be calculated based on a mass balance or using emission
factors.
9.5 EMISSIONS TO LAND
Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, and sediments.
Emissions arising from spills, leaks, and storage and distribution of materials containing listed
substances may also occur to land. These emission sources can be broadly categorized as:
Surface impoundments of liquids and slurries; and

Unintentional leaks and spills.
In general, there are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may be used to
estimate emissions from the facility. The four types are:
Sampling or direct measurement;
Mass balance;
Fuel analysis or other engineering calculations; and
Emission factors.
131
CHAPTER 09: Environmental Impact
9.6 ELIMINATION METHODS

Presently plants are equipped with the following features to keep the effluent and emission at
extremely low levels:
1. N/C ratio meter
2. Waste water treatment section
3. Absorbers
4. Special operational facilities
1. N/C ratio meter in the Synthesis section
Instead of using a gas chromatograph or a mass spectrometer in the gas phase of the synthesis
section, Nitrogen/Carbon (N/C) ratio meters are installed in the liquid phase (reactor liquid
outlet) of the urea synthesis section. The principle of this N/C meter is based on the linear
relationship between liquid density and the N/C ratio. The density is measured continuously
with a solartron meter, being an instrument in which vibrations are measured in an extremely
accurate way whereby the vibrations are a measure of the density of the reactor liquid.
This N/C ratio meter allows the process at all times to be operated at the optimum ratio to
achieve highest reactor efficiency combined with higher energy efficiency. Special procedures
are used to eliminate emissions during start-up.
2. Urea plant waste water treatment section
The process water in urea plants contains ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea. The
concentrations of these components vary within a range depending on the operating
conditions, On average, the concentrations in the process water are about 6 wt.% ammonia, 4
wt.% carbon dioxide and 1 wt.% urea.
Sources of the ammonia and urea are:
Condensate from the evaporators.
Off-gases from the recirculation section, which are absorbed in the process water.
Off-gases from the synthesis section, which are absorbed in the process water.
Flush and purge water for pumps.
Liquid drains.
The purpose of the process water treatment is to remove ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea
from the process condensate. For every tonne of urea produced, approximately 0.3 tonnes of
water are formed. This water is usually discharged from the urea concentration and
132
evaporation section of the plant. Removal of ammonia and urea from wastewaters can be a
problem as it is difficult to remove one in the presence of the other.
One method used to overcome this problem is the hydrolysis of urea to ammonium carbamate,
which is decomposed to ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases can then be stripped from
the wastewaters. Urea plants are in operation that produces wastewaters with ammonia and
urea levels below 1ppm. This water can then be used for a variety of purposes depending on
the required quality suchas cooling water or Boiling Feed Water make-up. The recovered
ammonia and carbon dioxide are returned to the process to be subsequently converted into
urea.
3. Absorbers
Absorbers are used in urea plant to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere, can be classified as
follows:
The vent from the synthesis section of the plant
The purge from the urea synthesis section contains inerts, ammonia and carbon
dioxide. To avoid ammonia emissions from this purge a low pressure absorber is installed in
purge stream. First the ammonia is washed out with a large flow of low concentrated and
cooled process water and secondly the remaining ammonia is absorbed in cooled condensate
or clean waste water.
The vent from the low pressure section of the plant
The ammonia and carbon dioxide present in the off gases of the recirculation section, the
Process Water Treatment System and the evaporation section are washed out in an
atmospheric absorber where large amounts of cooled low concentrated process water are used
to absorb all the ammonia present in off gases.
4. Special start-up, shut-down and draining facilities
A change in the start-up procedure of the urea synthesis section has reduced the impact on the
environment considerably. Presently the ability to measure the feed flows (NH3 and CO2)
very accurate in combination with the ability to measure the N/C ratio have enabled us to feed
the synthesis section from the very beginning of the start-up with the correct NH3/CO2 ratio,
thus eliminating the need, during the initial stage of start-up, to vent excess CO2 accompanied
by some NH3 into the atmosphere.
Special shut-down and draining facilities assure that non converted NH3 and CO2 are
recovered by the process after a shut-down.
133
Before the plant to be operated, specified money must be supplied to purchase and install the
equipment. The capital needed to supply the necessary plant facilities is called fixed capital
investment while that for the operation of the plant is called the working principal and sum of
two capitals is called total capital investment.
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions which will yield a profit. Since,
Net profit = total income - all expenses

It is essential that chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of cost involved in
manufacturing processes. Capital must be allocated for direct plant expenses; such as those
for raw materials, labor, and equipment. Besides direct expenses, many other indirect
expenses are incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to
be obtained. Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salaries, product
distribution costs and cost for interplant communication.
10.1 PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST

Cost in year A = Cost in year B ×
Cost of major equipments of Urea ACES plant is calculated by using CEPCI (Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index) of September 2001 and then evaluated that cost by using above
formula.
Cost index In September 2003 = 397
Cost Index in 2014 = 603
135
CHAPTER 10: Cost Estimation
Table 10.1 Purchased Cost of equipments in 2003
Per Equipment Total Cost In 2003

Sr. No. Equipment No. of
Equipment Cost In 2003 (US Dollar)
(US Dollar)
1 Autoclave 1 123,000 123,000
Reactor
2 Stripper 1 16,400 16,400
3 Condenser 2 38,300 76,600
4 Scrubber 1 7,460 7,460
5 Vacuum 2 23,900 47,800
Evaporator
6 CO2 1 10,0000 10,0000
Compressor
7 NH3 Pump 1 115,000 115,000
8 Prilling Tower 1 20,0500 20,5000
691260 $
Total
Cost in 2014 = 691260 × = 1049949 $
136
10.2 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) + Working Capital Investment
(WCI)
A. Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
Fixed Capital Investment = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost
(1) Direct Cost
Sr. No. Item % Purchased Total Cost

Equipment Cost (US Dollar)
1 Equipment Cost 100% 1049949
2 Installation 25% 262487.25
3 Instrumentation & 10% 104994.9

Control
4 Piping 25% 262487.25
5 Electrification 20% 209989.8
6 Building 30% 314984.7
7 Service Facilities 40% 419979.6
8 Land Requisition 4% 41997.96
Total 2666870.46 $
137
(2) Indirect Cost
Sr. No. Item % Purchased Total Cost

Equipment Cost (US Dollar)
1 Engineering & 10% 104994.9

Supervision
2 Construction 10% 104994.9
3 Contractor 5% 52497.45
Total $ 262487.25
Fixed Capital Investment = 26, 66870.46 + 26, 2487.25 = 52, 9357 $
B. Working Capital Cost (WCI)
WCI = 15% of FCI
WCI = 0.15(52, 9357) = 79403 $
Now, Total Capital Cost = FCI + WCI
Total Capital Cost = 52, 9357 + 79,403 = $ 56, 5760
10.3 TOTAL PRODUCT COST (TPC)
(A) Direct Production Cost
1. Operating Labor Cost = 0.10(TPC)
2. Utility Cost = 0.20(TPC)
3. Maintenance & Repair Cost = 0.04(FCI) = $ 21174.28
4. Operating & Supply Cost = 0.15(Maintenance & Repair Cost)
Operating & Supply Cost = $ 3176.142
138
5. Laboratory & Testing Cost = 0.15 (Labor Cost)
Laboratory & Testing Cost = 0.15(0.10×TPC)
6. Patents & Royalties = 0.03(TPC)
Direct Product Cost = 1+2+3+4+5+6
Direct Product Cost = 0.10(TPC) + 0.20(TPC) + 41997.96
= 6299.694 + 0.015(TPC) + 0.03(TPC)
Direct Product Cost (DPC) = 0.345(TPC) + 24350.422
(B) Fixed Charges
1. Deprecation = 0.10(FCI) = $ 52935.7
2. Local Tax = 0.015(FCI) = $ 7940.35
3. Insurance = 0.01(FCI) = $ 5293.57
Fixed Charges = 1+ 2 +3 = $ 66169.62
(C) Plant Overhead Cost
Plant Overhead Cost = 60% of Labor and Maintenance Cost
Plant Overhead Cost = 0.60 [0.10(TCP) + 21174.28]
(D) Administrative Expenses
Administrative Expenses = 25% of Labor Cost
Administrative Expenses = 0.25× [0.10 (TCP)]
(E) Distributions & Market Expenses
Distributions & Market Expenses = 10% of Total Product Cost
Distributions & Market Expenses = 0.10(TCP)
139
(F) R&D Cost
Research & Development Cost = 5% of FCI
Research & Development Cost = $ 26467.85
(G) Interest
Interest = 8% of FCI
Interest = 42348.56 $
Now, Total Product Cost (TPC) = A+B+C+D+E+F+G
Total Product Cost (TPC) = 0.345(TPC) + 24350.422+ 66169.62
0.60 [0.10(TPC) + 21174.28] +
0.25× [0.10 (TPC)] + 0.10(TPC)
26467.85+ 42348.56
TPC = 68816.41 + 0.53 (TCP)
1-0.53 TCP = 68816.41
Total Product Cost (TPC) = $ 146417.8936
10.4 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
(A) Income
Wholesale selling price per bag (50 kg) in Pakistan = 1800 Rs. = 18 $
Per kg price of Urea in Pakistan = 0.36 $
Total Income = Selling Price × Quantity of Product
Quantity of Product (Urea) = 74714.92 = 53794742
140
Total Income = 53794742 × 0.36
Total Income = $ 1.9× 10
(B) Gross Profit
Gross Profit = Total Income – Total Product Cost
Gross Profit = 1.9× 10 - 146417.8936
Gross Profit = $ 1.88 × 10
(C) Net Profit
Let the tax rate is 40 %
Taxes = 0.40 (Gross Profit) = 7541432.843
Net profit = Total Income – Taxes
Net Profit = 1.9 × 10 – 7541432.843 = $ 11 × 10
(D)Pay out Period
Pay out Period = !! "

$ %&'(&)*+,*-.
#
/,
Pay out Period = 1.33 × 156
= 6.9 ≈ 7
$ / .
#
Pay out Period = 7 years
141
11.1 INTRODUCTION OF ASPEN HYSYS
AspenTech is the world’s leading supplier of software that optimizes process manufacturing.
Aspen Tech was foundend in 1981 by Dr. Larry Evans, a professor of chemical engineering at
MIT. Larry Evans, now 69, was named one of 7 heroes of US manufacturing by FORTUNE
magazine in 1999 and was elected to the National A cademy OF Engineering in 2001 for
“leadership in the development and application of integrated systems for modeling, simulation
and optimization of industrial chemical processes.”
AspenONE software enables process industry companies to optimize their engineering,

manufacturing, and supply chain operations. As a result, AspenTech customers are better able
to increase capacity, improve margins, reduce costs, become more energy efficient, and
achieve operational excellence goals.
HYSYS is a powerful simulation engineering tool, has been uniquely created with respect to
the program architecture, interface design, Engineering capabilities, and interactive operation.
The various components that comprises HYSYS provide an extremely powerful approach to
steady state modeling.
Hysys is widely used in colleges and universities in introductory and advanced courses
especially in chemical engineering. In industry the software is used in research, development,
modeling and design. HYSYS serves as the engineering platform for modeling processes and
design from upsteam, through gas processing and cryogenic facilities, to refining chemical
processes.
143
CHAPTER 11: Simulation in HYSYS
Steps Involved In Simulation Of Aspen Urea Synthesis Section:
Following are the steps done for the simulation of synthesis section of ACES
Urea plant:
Open New File.

Add Components.
Add Fluid Package.
Add Reaction.
View of Reaction.
Select The Desired Reaction.
Add Set To Fluid Package.
Enter Simulation Environment.
Select Equilibrium Reaction And Drag It Into Main Screen.
Name The Streams.
Enter Stream Conditions (Feed)
Vapor Steam Conditions Shown.
Show Full Process with Tables.
View of Reactor and Scrubber in Simulation Environment:
144
11.2 COMPLETE SYNTHESIS SECTION
145
1. Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus, K.D., “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering “, 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 1991.
2. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson: “Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering”,
volume 6, 5th Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 2001.
3. Ludwig, E.E, “Applied Process Design, 3rd ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional Publishers,
2002.
4. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson: “Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering”,
volume 2, 4th Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 1998.
5. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Smith J.C., Harrioatt, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering”, 5th Ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., 1993.
6. Kern D.Q., “Process Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill Inc., 2000.

7. Levenspiel, O., “Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 3rd ed ,John Wily and Sons Inc.,
1999.
8. Stephanophoulos, G., “Chemical Process Control”, Prentice Hall, 2007.
9. Perry, R.H., “Perry’s R.H., “Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook”, 7th Ed.,
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1997.
10. Manual of Toyo Corporation
11. ACES21_Brochure
12. Fertilizer Manual by UN industrial developmental organization
13. Khan Eqan Ali, “Fertilizers in Pakistan, Demand, Production and Imports” March 30,
2011.
14. http://www.scribd.com/doc/13728575/Urea-Final-Report
15. http://www.stamicarbon.com/
16. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
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Toaz - Info Production of Urea by Aces Process PR

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Toaz - Info Production of Urea by Aces Process PR

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TOYO’S ACES Process for UREA Synthesis

This report is submitted to department of Chemical Engineering,

Wah Engineering College, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan

Hafiz Adeel Hassan UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-011

Department of Chemical Engineering

The project is dedicated to our beloved parents, who nurtured

In addition, we would also like to dedicate this project to our

Various processes of urea manufacture are:

2.1 Conventional Processes 13

3.1 Material Balance on Overall Plant 29

7.1 Instrumentation and Control 115

8.1 Hazard and Operability Study 123

9.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 129

10.1 Purchased Equipment Cost 135

11.1 Introduction to ASPEN HYSYS 143

Urea is the most concentrated solid straight nitrogen fertilizer.

Urea is an organic compound with chemical formula (NH2)2CO. Urea is also

Figure 1.1 Chemical structures of urea molecules

It was first organic compound to be artificially synthesized from inorganic

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF UREA

Table 1.1 Physical Characteristics of Urea

Density 1.33 × 10 solid

Melting point 132.7°c (406 °k) decompose

Vapor pressure <10pa

Table 1.2 Chemical Characteristics of Urea

IUPAC name Di amino methanal

1.3 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF UREA

The first reaction is exothermic:

2NH3 + CO2 H2N-COONH4 (ammonium carbamate)

Whereas the second reaction is endothermic

Both reaction combined are exothermic.

2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O

bond network is probably established at the cost of efficient molecular packing.

(1) Industrial uses

• As a raw material for the manufacture of plastics specifically, urea-

(2) Laboratory uses

Urea is a powerful protein denaturant. This property can be exploited to increase

(3) Medical uses

• Urea is used in topical dermatological products to promote rehydration of

Urea‘s demand in world survey of 2011 is some 170.348 million MT and it is

Total Demand:175.348 MT South Asia

4.90% East Asia

Figure 1.2 Cross-Sectional

1.4 FERTILIZERS AVAILABLE IN PAKISTAN

Table 1.3 Grades of Fertilizers available in Pakistan

Grade or Analysis (%)

Calcium ammonium Nitrate (CAN) 26 0 0 0

Triple superphosphate (TSP) 0 46 0 1.5

Urea Market Environment in Pakistan:

Figure 1.3 Urea market participation in Pakistan

Table 1.4 Urea Competitors in Pakistan and their Production Capacities

Sr. No Company Capacity(MT/year)

1.5 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF UREA IN PAKISTAN

Figure 1.4 Pakistan’s Urea demand and production

2.1 CONVENTIONAL PROCESSES

(1) Once through Process

(1) Conventional Recycle Process

Figure 2.1 Once Through Urea Process

Stamicarbon (Holland) CO2 stripping process:

The heat of condensation is removed on the shell side of the condenser by

Figure 2.2 Stamicarbon process

Snamprogetti (Italy) Ammonia and self stripping process:

This process is based on the principle of the internal carbamate recycle