Newton’s Laws

PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Section 1: Newton’s First Law

• What are Newton’s laws of motion?

Newton’s three laws of motion describe the motion of objects when forces act
upon them. The laws were first formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th
century. These laws are sufficient to describe much of what we see around us,
although we now understand that these laws are not adequate to describe the
behaviour of objects at very small scales, and have to be modified to deal with
objects travelling at speeds comparable to the speed of light.

• Suggested Film
- Newton’s Laws of Motion

Extension Question
Q1. Who was Isaac Newton?
Sir Isaac Newton was one of the most significant scientists of all time.
As well as making contributions to mathematics and optics, he also
formulated laws which described the motion of objects, including fluids.
Perhaps his greatest achievement was his theory of gravitation, which
showed that the force gravity applies to all objects everywhere in the
Universe, and explained the motion of comets and planets. He is regarded
by many as the founder of modern physics. Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727)

• What is Newton’s first law?

Newton’s first law states that an object will continue at a constant speed and in the same direction unless a force acts
upon it. This means that even if an object is travelling at high speed, no force is required to maintain the speed. A force
is only required if the object is to change the speed at which it is moving. Hence, a force is required for acceleration or a
change of direction.

Our everyday experience can appear to contradict Newton’s first law. Objects which are travelling at high speed appear to
slow down if no force is applied to keep them moving. However, this is due to friction. If no frictional force is present then
objects will continue moving at a constant speed.

• Suggested Films
- Newton’s Laws of Motion
- Body Crash

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 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

• What is meant by terminal velocity?

When an object falls we would expect it to accelerate

DIAGRAM 01: towards the Earth due to the force of gravity acting on it.
However, the object will encounter some air resistance,
and this will result in a frictional force which acts in the
opposite direction to the motion of the object and the force
due to gravity.

This frictional force becomes greater as the speed

increases. Eventually, when the object is travelling at
sufficient speed, this force will become so large that it
will be equal to the force due to gravity (although in the
opposite direction). At this point the forces are balanced,
and the resultant, overall force on the object is zero. The
object stops accelerating, and continues towards the
ground at a constant speed.

• Suggested Film
- Terminal Velocity

Extension Questions
Q2. How do parachutes work?
The terminal velocity of humans is so high, at
approximately 200km/h, that falling from a high
altitude would almost certainly be fatal. However, if air
resistance could be increased (without significantly
increasing the weight of the person who is falling) then Parachutes reduce a skydiver’s
the forces would balance at a much lower speed and the terminal velocity to a safer level
terminal velocity would be lower.

A parachute greatly increases air resistance and lowers the terminal velocity to around 30km/h, which makes a safe
landing possible.

Q3. Why do some aircraft need ejection seats?

Modern aircraft often have ejection seats, these help the pilot leave the aircraft in an emergency. Before ejection
seats, pilots had to climb out of their aircraft to ‘bail out’. Ejection seats allow the pilot to leave the aircraft even if they
are too injured to climb out, or if the aircraft is travelling at such a high speed that jumping out of the aircraft would be
impossible.

Ejection seats increase the chances of pilot survival, by throwing the pilot clear of the aircraft. They also allow ejection
from low altitudes where a parachute would not work, as there would not be enough time for the parachute to deploy
and allow the pilot’s terminal velocity to decrease and stabilise at a speed, which is likely to be survivable.

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 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Section 2: Newton’s Second Law

• What is Newton’s second law?

Newton’s second law describes the effect of a force on an object. It states that the acceleration caused by the force
is equal to the size of the force divided by the mass of the object. This means the larger the mass, the smaller the
acceleration caused by the force.

Alternatively, the law can be expressed in terms of momentum. In this form we see that • Suggested Film
the force applied is equal to the rate of change of momentum. The greater the force,
- Newton’s Laws of Motion
the larger the change in momentum per second.

• What is momentum?

The momentum of an object is given by its mass multiplied by its velocity. This is the quantity, which changes with time
when a force is exerted on an object. For this reason, as long as no external force is present, this quantity is conserved.
This means that in any collision the total momentum of all the objects before and after is the same in the absence of an
external force.

Because momentum is conserved in collisions, it is possible to calculate the velocity of an object after a collision if the
velocities and masses of all the other objects involved are known. Momentum is always conserved in the absence of an
external force, even in situations where kinetic energy is not.

• Suggested Film
- Momentum

• What is the difference between velocity and acceleration?

The velocity of an object is the rate at which its displacement, the distance
from its starting position, changes. The faster an object is travelling the
greater the distance it travels in one second. Velocity is usually measured
in metres per second (m/s). Like displacement, velocity is a vector. This
means that as well as a magnitude it also has a direction associated with it.
The terms speed and velocity are often used interchangeably, but they have
different meanings in physics. Speed is a scalar, not a vector. This means
that is does not have a direction associated with it.

Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes. It is measured in metres

The ball thrown by top cricket bowlers can
reach speeds between 75mph and 90mph
• Suggested Film
- Speed, Velocity, Acceleration
per second per second. As velocity is a vector (it has a direction associated
with it) it can change, although its magnitude remains constant. For an object
undergoing circular motion the direction of the velocity constantly changes,
but the magnitude of the velocity (the speed) stays the same. Objects, which
are acted on by a constant force, undergo uniform acceleration. Objects
near the surface of the Earth, which are allowed to fall freely, experience a
constant acceleration of approximately 9.8 metres per second per second by
the force due to the Earth’s gravity.

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Extension Question
Q4. What is jerk?
Usually acceleration is constant, but if the force on an object is changing the acceleration will also change. The rate of
change of acceleration is sometimes known as ‘jerk’ or ‘jolt’ and is used when considering the shock experienced by
objects during a violent impact. Minimising jerk when designing vehicles or rollercoasters helps to improve passenger
comfort and avoid injuries like whiplash. Jerk is measured in metres per second per second per second.

Jerk can also change over time. The rate of change of jerk is sometimes known as the ‘jounce’ but this not often
encountered.

Section 2: Newton’s Third Law

• What is Newton’s third law?

The most commonly stated form of Newton’s third law is, “for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction”. This means that if one body exerts a
force on another body the second body must exert an equal force on the first.

For example, if an apple is in free fall, the Earth is exerting a gravitational

force on the apple, causing it to accelerate towards the ground while the apple
exerts an equal force on the Earth, pulling it towards the apple. However, the
Earth has an enormous mass in comparison to the apple and so does not
accelerate noticeably.

In the absence of friction these ‘Newton pairs’ become more obvious. For
example, if an ice skater pushes another ice skater, they will experience an An apple falling from a tree inspired
equal force in the opposite direction, pushing them backwards. Newton to develop his theory of gravity

Newton’s third law explains why rockets are able to move through space. As • Suggested Film
the rocket exerts a force on its exhaust gases, they exert an equal force on the - Newton’s Laws of Motion
rocket in the opposite direction, causing it to accelerate.

Extension Question
Q5. What causes recoil?
Before a projectile is fired, the total momentum of the system containing the gun and the projectile is zero. After a
projectile is fired it has momentum. As momentum is conserved overall this must be balanced by an equal amount of
momentum in the opposite direction. This causes the gun to recoil. However, the gun has a much larger mass than
the bullet, so the velocity of the gun is much slower than that of the bullet.

• How are planes able to fly?

Planes are able to fly because their wings deflect air downwards. As a force is being exerted on the air, pushing it
downwards, an equal and opposite force is exerted on the aircraft by the air, resulting in lift. When this lift is greater than
the force of gravity pulling the aircraft downwards the aircraft is able to climb into the air.

For the plane to continue to generate lift the air must pass over the wings at high speed. For this reason planes must have
propellers or jet engines, which push the aircraft forward. If these fail and the aircraft slows it could stall, as the amount of
lift being generated is no longer enough to keep the plane in the air.

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 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Extension Question
Q6. How is wing shape important for flight?
DIAGRAM 02:
The wings of planes and the rotors of helicopters are
both shaped the same way. They have a rounded
leading edge and a sharp trailing edge. This,
combined with a top surface, which has a greater
curvature than the lower surface, is known as an
airfoil.

The angle of attack is also important for generating

lift. The wing should be angled so the leading edge is
higher than the trailing edge to deflect air downwards
and generate lift.

The area of the wing is also important. The ratio of the

weight of the aircraft to the area of the wing is known
as the wing loading. The lower the wing loading the
lower the speed required to provide sufficient lift.

Swing-wing aircraft are able to change the shape of

their wings to match the speed they are travelling at.
Long, thin wings are better for low speeds and short,
stubby wings are more appropriate at high speeds.

• Suggested Film
- How Do Planes Fly?

• How are animals able to fly??

Birds have a number of adaptations to enable them to fly. Their bodies are streamlined to make them more aerodynamic and
their bones are hollow which reduces their weight. They also have very large muscles, which let them flap their wings and
raise the bird into the air.

There are three types of animals which are able to fly: birds, insects and bats. Although many more are able to glide.

• Suggested Films
- How Do Animals Fly?
- FactPack: Acceleration

Extension Question
Q7. What is gliding?
It is possible to stay in the air without constant exertion, this is known as gliding. Most aircraft can glide to some extent
and many birds use gliding to travel long distances. Birds, which specialise in gliding, tend to have wings with a high
aspect ratio (long and thin). This lets them glide for longer distances.

Many animals which can’t fly, can glide. This includes several species of mammals and reptiles.

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 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Extension Question
DIAGRAM 03:
Q8. What is soaring?
Areas of rising air, called thermals, can be used by the
bird to provide lift, this is known as soaring. Birds which
glide for long distances, can use soaring to increase
or maintain their altitude. Thermals are of limited size,
but by turning circles within the thermal, the bird can
gain significant altitude. This technique is also used by
glider pilots.

It is also possible to soar by using the lift provided by

rising air due to the wind blowing against ridges, hills
and cliffs, and being deflected upwards.

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• Quizzes
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Basic
• What is Newton’s first law?
A – an object will stay at rest or at a
constant speed unless acted on by a
force
B – an object needs a force to keep
moving
C – every push in one direction produces
a push in the opposite direction
D – gravity pulls all objects towards
Earth
• What is Newton’s third law?
A – an object will stay at rest or at a
constant speed unless acted on by a
force
B – an object needs a force to keep
moving
C – every push in one direction produces
a push in the opposite direction
D – gravity pulls all objects towards
Earth
• What do Newton’s laws do?
A – they describe how forces affect
the motion of objects
B – they describe how heat flows
between objects
C – they describe the gravitational
attraction between objects
D – they describe why friction occurs
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PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS
Advanced
• Why do spacecraft need very little fuel?
A – because the force of gravity is weak
in space
B – because they are usually very light
C – because they move at such high
speed
D – because there is very little friction in
space
• Why do objects on Earth usually come to a
stop quickly?
A – because of gravity and friction
B – because objects always require a
force to keep moving
C – because the Earth is spinning
D – because Newton’s laws only apply
in space
• How is force calculated?
A – by adding the mass of an object to
its acceleration
B – by dividing the mass of the object by
the acceleration
C – by multiplying the mass of the
object by the acceleration
D – by dividing the acceleration of an
object by its mass
 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Basic Advanced

• Which of the following does not describe a force? • When did Isaac Newton propose his laws
of motion?
A – a push or a pull
B – responsible for starting objects A – 1687
moving B – 1784
C – responsible for stopping objects C – 1803
moving
D – 1660
D – describes the rate at which the
speed of an object changes

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 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Speed, Velocity, Acceleration

Basic Advanced

• How is speed calculated? • Speed is the rate of change of distance. How

is velocity different?
A – by dividing the distance travelled
by the time taken A – velocity is measured over a much
B – by multiplying the distance travelled longer time
by the time taken B – velocity measures the rate of change
C – by multiplying the acceleration of position
and the distance travelled C – velocity measures how quickly the
D – by multiplying the acceleration by speed changes
the time taken D – velocity is always measured in
kilometres per hour

• What is a scalar?
• What is acceleration?
A – a property of an object which
cannot be changed A – the time taken for an object to come
B – a quantity which has a direction to a stop
associated with it B – the change of speed over a period
C – a quantity which changes of time
over time C – the force which causes an object’s
D – a quantity which does not have a speed to increase
direction associated with it D – the change of velocity over a period
of time

• Which of the following is a unit of speed?

• What is the unit for acceleration?
A – newtons
B – kilogram metres per second A – metres per second

C – metres per second B – kilogram metres per second

D – metres per second per second C – newtons

D – metres per second per second

• What is a vector?

A – a quantity which does not have a • What does it mean if velocity is negative?
direction associated with it
A – the speed is decreasing
B – a quantity which has a direction
associated with it B – the object is travelling backwards
C – a quantity which changes C – the speed is increasing
over time D – the direction of the object is changing
D – a property of an object which
cannot be changed

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 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Momentum

Basic Advanced

• What is momentum? • How is momentum calculated?

A – the speed of an object before A – by multiplying the mass by

a collision the velocity
B – the average speed of the objects in B – by multiplying the distance travelled
a system by the time taken
C – the speed of an object following C – by dividing the velocity by the mass
a collision
D – by dividing the acceleration by the
D – a quantity which all moving time taken
objects have

• Why could objects in space keep

• What happens to momentum when an object travelling forever?
stops moving?
A – because there are so many outside
A – it drops to zero forces acting on them
B – because they are weightless
B – it increases
C – because they do not lose
C – it does not change
momentum due to friction
D – it decreases but never D – because they lose their
reaches zero momentum quickly

• What has momentum? • Why is momentum important?

A – all objects A – it determines the acceleration
B – all moving objects caused by a force on an object
C – only objects which have a force B – momentum cannot be transferred
acting on them from one object to another

D – all objects which are accelerating C – because the momentum of an object

never changes
D – unless a force acts, the momentum
of a system does not change

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• Answers
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Basic
• What is Newton’s first law?
A – an object will stay at rest or at a
constant speed unless acted on by a
force
B – an object needs a force to keep
moving
C – every push in one direction produces
a push in the opposite direction
D – gravity pulls all objects towards
Earth
• What is Newton’s third law?
A – an object will stay at rest or at a
constant speed unless acted on by a
force
B – an object needs a force to keep
moving
C – every push in one direction produces
a push in the opposite direction
D – gravity pulls all objects towards
Earth
• What do Newton’s laws do?
A – they describe how forces affect
the motion of objects
B – they describe how heat flows
between objects
C – they describe the gravitational
attraction between objects
D – they describe why friction occurs
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PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS
Advanced
• Why do spacecraft need very little fuel?
A – because the force of gravity is weak
in space
B – because they are usually very light
C – because they move at such high
speed
D – because there is very little friction in
space
• Why do objects on Earth usually come to a
stop quickly?
A – because of gravity and friction
B – because objects always require a
force to keep moving
C – because the Earth is spinning
D – because Newton’s laws only apply
in space
• How is force calculated?
A – by adding the mass of an object to
its acceleration
B – by dividing the mass of the object by
the acceleration
C – by multiplying the mass of the
object by the acceleration
D – by dividing the acceleration of an
object by its mass
 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Basic Advanced

• Which of the following does not describe a force? • When did Isaac Newton propose his laws
of motion?
A – a push or a pull
B – responsible for starting objects A – 1687
moving B – 1784
C – responsible for stopping objects C – 1803
moving
D – 1660
D – describes the rate at which the
speed of an object changes

12
 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Speed, Velocity, Acceleration

Basic Advanced

• How is speed calculated? • Speed is the rate of change of distance. How

is velocity different?
A – by dividing the distance travelled
by the time taken A – velocity is measured over a much
B – by multiplying the distance travelled longer time
by the time taken B – velocity measures the rate of change
C – by multiplying the acceleration of position
and the distance travelled C – velocity measures how quickly the
D – by multiplying the acceleration by speed changes
the time taken D – velocity is always measured in
kilometres per hour

• What is a scalar?
• What is acceleration?
A – a property of an object which
cannot be changed A – the time taken for an object to come
B – a quantity which has a direction to a stop
associated with it B – the change of speed over a period
C – a quantity which changes of time
over time C – the force which causes an object’s
D – a quantity which does not have a speed to increase
direction associated with it D – the change of velocity over a period
of time

• Which of the following is a unit of speed?

• What is the unit for acceleration?
A – newtons
B – kilogram metres per second A – metres per second

C – metres per second B – kilogram metres per second

D – metres per second per second C – newtons

D – metres per second per second

• What is a vector?

A – a quantity which does not have a • What does it mean if velocity is negative?
direction associated with it
A – the speed is decreasing
B – a quantity which has a direction
associated with it B – the object is travelling backwards
C – a quantity which changes C – the speed is increasing
over time D – the direction of the object is changing
D – a property of an object which
cannot be changed

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 PHYSICS • FORCES • NEWTON’S LAWS

Momentum

Basic Advanced

• What is momentum? • How is momentum calculated?

A – the speed of an object before A – by multiplying the mass by

a collision the velocity
B – the average speed of the objects in B – by multiplying the distance travelled
a system by the time taken
C – the speed of an object following C – by dividing the velocity by the mass
a collision
D – by dividing the acceleration by the
D – a quantity which all moving time taken
objects have

• Why could objects in space keep

• What happens to momentum when an object travelling forever?
stops moving?
A – because there are so many outside
A – it drops to zero forces acting on them
B – because they are weightless
B – it increases
C – because they do not lose
C – it does not change
momentum due to friction
D – it decreases but never D – because they lose their
reaches zero momentum quickly

• What has momentum? • Why is momentum important?

A – all objects A – it determines the acceleration
B – all moving objects caused by a force on an object
C – only objects which have a force B – momentum cannot be transferred
acting on them from one object to another

D – all objects which are accelerating C – because the momentum of an object

never changes
D – unless a force acts, the momentum
of a system does not change

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