Clause A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a

verb. (A clause functions as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.)

A clause contrasts with a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a
verb. The distinction between a clause and a phrase is clearer when you
see them side by side:

Anna in the morning. (This is a phrase.

sings... subject and no verb.)
es up. (This is a clause. It has a subject
erb ("wakes up").)

Easy Examples of Clauses

• During the day, Vlad slept in a coffin. (The subject of this clause is
"Vlad." The verb is "slept." "During the day" is a phrase because there
is no verb.)

• When the Moon shone, he lurked in the shadows. (The subject of the
first clause is "the Moon." The verb is "shone." The subject of the second
clause is "he." The verb is "lurked.")

• Hestalked a pretty milkmaid, who lived in the neighbouring village.

(The subject of the first clause is "He." The verb is "stalked." The
subject of the second clause is "who." The verb is "lived.")

Real-Life Examples of Clauses

There are two types of clause:

• Anindependent clause (one that can stand alone as a sentence).

• A dependent clause (one that is usually a supporting part of a sentence). In
these three quotations, the independent clauses are shown in bold and the
dependent clauses aren't.
• Eventhough I made $800 million, I am still grounded. (Boxer Floyd
Mayweather) (The independent clause could be a standalone
sentence, but the dependent clause couldn't.)

•A computer once beat me at chess but was no match for me at kick

boxing. (Louis Hector Berlioz)
• After I die, I'll be forgotten. (Anon) The opening words of the dependent
clauses above ("Even though," "but," and "After") are all subordinating
conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions link a dependent clause to an
independent clause.

How Are Clauses Used in Sentences? Clauses can play a

variety of roles in sentences. A clause can act as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb.

Noun Clauses A noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a

noun. For example (noun clauses shaded):
• I like what I see. (Like all clauses, a noun clause has a subject
and a verb. In this example, the subject of the clause is "I" and the
verb is "see.")
• I know that patience has its limits. (In this example, the subject of the
clause is "patience" and the verb is "has.") Compare the two examples
above to these:
• I like innovation.

• I know people. The words in bold are all nouns. This proves that the
shaded clauses in the first two examples are functioning as nouns.
The Composition of a Noun
Clause Let's look quickly at the definition for
"clause."

Definition of "Clause"

A clause has a subject and a verb and functions as one part of speech.
 (It follows therefore that a noun clause functions as a noun in a
sentence.)

Lots of noun clauses start with "that," "how," or a "wh"-word (i.e., "what,"
"who," "which," "when," "where," or "why"). For example:
• I know that it happened.

• I know how it happened.

• I know why it happened.

How To Check If Your Clause Is Functioning As a Noun A

great way to check whether a phrase or clause is functioning as a noun is to
have a go at replacing it with a pronoun. If you can, your phrase or clause is
functioning as a noun.
• What I say is true. (Pronoun test: "It is true." This proves that "What I
say" is functioning as a noun.)
• Show me how they work. (Pronoun test: "Show me them." This
proves that "how they work" is functioning as a noun.)

Easy Examples of Noun Clauses Here are some easy

examples of noun clauses. In each example, the noun clause is shaded,
the subject of the clause is bold, and the verb of the noun clause is
underlined.
• I know that the story is true.

• I saw how the accident happened.

• I understand why it was necessary.

• I know who said that. (Often, the opening word (i.e., "how," "that," or
the "wh"-word) is the subject of the noun clause.)
The Function of Noun Clauses Like any noun, a noun clause can
be a subject, an object, or a complement. Here are some more easy
examples of noun clauses as subjects, objects, and complements.
• Whoever smelt it dealt it. (Here, the
noun clause is a subject.)
• My command is whatever you wish. (Here, the
noun clause is a subject complement.)
•Iwill give what you said some thought. (Here, the noun clause is
an indirect object. That's pretty rare.)

Real-Life Examples of Noun

Clauses Here are some real-life examples:
• Light knows when you are looking at it. ("Light and space" artist James
Turrell) (Here, the noun clause is the direct object of the verb "knows.")
• It is a light thing for whoever keeps his foot outside trouble to advise
and counsel him that suffers. (Greek tragedian Aeschylus) (Here, the
noun clause is the object of a preposition ("for").)
• My relationships are between me and whomever I'm with, not between
me and the world. (Actress Lili Reinhart) (Here, the noun clause is the
object of a preposition ("with").)
• Liberty means responsibility. That is why most men dread it.
(Playwright George Bernard Shaw) (Here, the noun clause is a
subject complement.)

More Examples of Noun Clauses In a sentence, a noun clause

will be a dependent clause. In other words, a noun clause does not stand
alone as a complete thought.
• Ask your child what he wants for dinner only if he's buying. (Fran
Lebowitz) (This noun clause is the direct object of "ask.")
• He knows all about art, but he doesn't know what he likes. (James
Thurber, 1894-1961) (This noun clause is the direct object of
"know.")
• It is even harder for the average ape to believe that he has descended
from man. (H L Mencken, 1880-1956) (This noun clause is the direct
object of "believe.")
• I never know how much of what I say is true. (Bette Midler)
(This noun clause is an object of a preposition.)
• Man is what he eats. (Ludwig Feuerbach)
(This noun clause is a subject complement.)
• My one regret in life is that I am not someone else. (Woody Allen)
(This noun clause is a subject complement.)
Why Should I Care About Noun Clauses? Native English
speakers use noun clauses without too many snags. However, here are two
issues related to noun clauses that occasionally arise.

(Issue 1) Using a noun clause starting with "That" as a

subject grates on the ear. From a grammatical perspective, it is
perfectly acceptable to use a noun clause starting with "That" as the subject
of a sentence. However, for many, it sounds too unnatural. Look at this
example:
• That he believes his own story is remarkable. (Jerome Blattner) (Starting a
sentence with a noun clause starting "That" is acceptable, but it grates on lots
of people's ears. Many writers prefer ""The fact that...".) If it grates on your
ears, opt for "The fact that" instead of just "That." Bear in mind, however, that
"The fact that" is considered by some to be a tautology (a needless
repetition), meaning it has its own issue.

If you don't like "That" or "The fact that," then reword your sentence.
• It is remarkable that he believes his own story.
(You might prefer a compromise like this one.)

(Issue 2) Choose the right version of "who" and "whom"

at the start of a noun clause. "Who" is the subject of a verb.
"Whom" isn't. It's the same deal with "whoever" and "whomever."
• My relationships are between me and whomever I'm with.
(Here, "whomever" is the object of the preposition "with.")
• My relationships are between me and whoever is interested. (Here,
"whoever" is the subject of the verb "is." Note that the clause "whoever is
interested" is the object of the preposition "between," but that doesn't mean
that "whoever" becomes "whomever." If your "whoever" is the subject of a
verb, then "whoever," not "whomever," is correct.) If this made no sense to
you whatsoever, just go with "who" or "whoever" every time. Firstly, they're
more common, but, secondly, most grammarians
agree that "whom" and "whomever" are on their last legs in English.
They're going the same way as "hither" and "thither."
 Key Points
• Ifyou don't want to start your sentence with "That" or "The fact that,"
then reword your sentence.
• Increasingly more people are avoiding "whom" (and "whomever"). So, if
you're unsure when to use "who" and "whom," go for "who" and declare
"whom" as obsolete. (Yeah, it's time for us to advocate that line.)

Adjective Clause An adjective clause is a multiword adjective that

includes a subject and a verb.

When we think of an adjective, we usually think about a single word used

before a noun to modify its meanings (e.g., tall building, smelly cat,
argumentative assistant). However, an adjective can also come in the
form of an adjective clause. An adjective clause usually comes after the
noun it modifies and is made up of several words which, like all clauses,
will include a subject and a verb.

Examples of Adjective Clauses

Here are some examples of adjective clauses:
• The carpets that you bought last year have rotted.

• The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he
didn't commit when he had the opportunity. (US journalist Helen
Rowland, 1876-1950) (Even though this is a quotation by an American
journalist, nowadays, most writers in the US would use that instead of
which. There's more on this below.)
• Bore: a person who talks when you wish him to listen.

The Components of an Adjective Clause An adjective clause

(also called a relative clause) will have the following three traits:
• Trait 1. It will start with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or
which) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why). (This links it to the
noun it is modifying.) (Note: Quite often, the relative pronoun can be
omitted. However, with
 an adjective clause, it is always possible to put one in. There is
more on this below.)
• Trait 2. It will have a subject and a verb.
(These are what make it a clause.)
• Trait 3. It will tell us something about the noun.
(This is why it is a kind of adjective.)

The Relative Pronoun Can Be Omitted It is common for the

relative pronoun to be omitted. Look at these examples:
• The carpets which you bought last year have gone moldy.

• The film which you recommended scared the kids half to death.

• The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he didn't
commit when he had the opportunity. (Helen Rowland, 1876- 1950) This
is not always possible though:
• Bore: a person who talks when you wish him to listen. When the
adjective clause starts with a relative adverb (when, where or why), the
relative adverb cannot be omitted.
• I don't remember a time when words were not dangerous. (Libyan
author Hisham Matar) (You can often omit a relative pronoun, but you
can't omit a relative adverb. So, you can't omit when in this example.)

Why Should I Care about Adjective Clauses? There are two

common questions related to adjective clauses. (Question 1) Should I
use a comma before which? This is the by far the most common
question related to adjective clauses. The answer applies to all adjective
clauses, not just those that start with which.

So, do you offset an adjective clause with commas or not? The answer is
sometimes yes and sometimes no. The rule is this:
• Don't use commas if your clause is essential; i.e., it is required to
identify its noun. (This is called a restrictive clause.)
• Do use commas if your clause is just additional information. (This is

called a non-restrictive clause.) A Good Tip

 If you would happily put brackets around it or delete it, then use
commas.

• Here is an example of a non-restrictive clause: My brother, who

claimed to have a limp, sprinted after the bus.
(This clause is not required to identify My brother. It is just additional
information.)
• My brother (who claimed to have a limp) sprinted after the bus.
(As it's just additional information, you can put it in brackets.)
• My brother sprinted after the bus. (As it's just additional
information, you can even delete it.) Compare this to a
restrictive clause:
• The tramp who claimed to have a limp sprinted after the bus. (This
clause is required to identify The tramp. Without it, we don't know which
tramp we're talking about.)
• The tramp (who claimed to have a limp) sprinted after the bus. (This
sentence is only appropriate if we know which tramp we're talking about.)
• The tramp sprinted after the bus. (This sentence is only appropriate if we

know which tramp we're talking about.) (Question 2) What's the

difference between that and which? Which and that are
interchangeable, provided we're talking about which without a comma.

When which starts a restrictive clause (i.e., a clause not offset with commas),
you can replace it with that. In fact, Americans will insist you use that instead
of which for a restrictive clause.
• Mark's dog which ate the chicken is looking guilty. (but in America or at
least widely disliked) (Americans baulk at which without a comma. They
insist on that.)
• Mark's dog that ate the chicken is looking guilty. (This version is acceptable
for all. It will stop you getting hate mail from Americans.) For many, even
Brits, that sounds more natural with a restrictive clause. And, this is
something we can use. If all this talk of restrictive and non-restrictive clauses
is confusing, try replacing your which with that. If your sentence still sounds
good, you almost certainly want which without a comma. This trick works
because that can only be used with a restrictive clause, and – whether you
consciously know it or not – some language-processing area of your brain
does.

The "that substitution" trick also works with who, but be aware that some of
your readers might not like that used for people.
• The burglar who is suing the homeowner was booed in court.
• The burglar that is suing the homeowner was booed in court.
(Substituting who for that is a good way to test whether an adjective
clause needs commas or not, but some of your readers might not like
that being used for a person – even a burglar. So, if your clause
starting who sounds okay with that, then revert to who without
commas.) Read more about restrictive clauses.
Key Points
• If
you'd happily delete your clause, then it's not a restrictive clause, and it
should be offset with commas.
• Don't start a restrictive clause with which if you're American or writing
to Americans. Use that instead.
• Use who not that for people. Who is a bit sharper.

Adverbial
Clauses
An adverbial clause is a group of words that plays the role of an
adverb. (Like all clauses, an adverbial clause will contain a subject
and a verb.)

Easy Example of an Adverbial

Clause Here is an easy example of an adverbial
clause:
• Keep hitting the gong until I tell you to stop. Compare the example
above with the similar sentence below, which features an example with a
normal adverb.
• Keep hitting the gong hourly. (This bold text is a normal adverb, not an
adverbial clause.) In the two examples above, the adverbial clause and
the normal adverb both tell us when the gong is to be hit. Therefore, they
are both adverbs of time.

Real-Life Examples of Adverbial Clauses Below are some

more examples (including some well-known proverbs and quotations) with
adverbial clauses. These examples have been categorized according to
the type of adverbial clause (e.g., adverb of time, adverb of place).

Adverbs of Time (When?) An adverb of time states when something

happens or how often. An adverb of time often starts with one of the following
subordinating conjunctions: "after,"
"as," "as long as," "as soon as," "before," "no sooner than," "since,"
"until," "when," or "while."

Here are some examples:

• After the game has finished, the king and pawn go into the same box.
(Italian Proverb)
• I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him
in a department store, and he asked for my autograph. (Actress Shirley
Temple)
• As soon as you trust yourself, you will know how to live. (Writer Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe)

Adverbs of Place (Where?) An adverb of place states where

something happens. An adverb of place often starts with a preposition
(e.g., "in," "on," "near") or one of the following subordinating conjunctions:
"anywhere," "everywhere," "where," or "wherever."

Here are some examples:

• Anywhere the struggle is great, the level of ingenuity and inventiveness
is high. (Economist Eleni Zaude Gabre-Madhin)
• I am not afraid of the pen, the scaffold, or the sword. I will tell the
truth wherever I please. (Lobbyist Mother Jones)
Adverbs of Manner (How?) An adverb of manner states how
something is done. An adverb of manner often starts with one of the following
subordinating conjunctions: "as," "like," or "the way."

Here are some examples:

• He acts like it is a joke.

• We don't have conversations. You talk at me the way a teacher talks to a

naughty student.
• Except for an occasional heart attack, I feel as young as I ever did.
(Comedian Robert Benchley)

Adverbs of Degree or Comparison (To What Degree?)

An adverb of degree states to what degree something is done or offers a
comparison. An adverb of degree often starts with one of the following
subordinating conjunctions: "than," "as...as," "so...as," or "the...the."

Here are some examples:

• A vacuum is a hell of a lot better than some of the stuff that nature
replaces it with. (Playwright Tennessee Williams)
• He is as smart as he is tall.

• She is not so bright as she thinks she is. Sometimes, the verb in an
adverb of degree is understood (i.e., not present). For example:
• You are taller than I. (In this example, the verb "am" has been omitted.
This is permissible.)
• You are taller than I am.
(This is the full version.)
• You are taller than me. (This is the colloquial version. This version
might irk some of your grammar-savvy readers, but it is acceptable.)

Adverbs of Reason (Why?) An adverb of reason offers a reason

for the main idea. An adverb of reason often starts with one of the following
subordinating conjunctions: "as," "because," "given," or "since."

Here are some examples:

•I don't have a bank account, because I don't know my mother's maiden
name. (Comedian Paula Poundstone)
• Since you are like no other being ever created since the beginning of
time, you are incomparable. (Journalist Brenda Ueland)

Adverbs of Condition (If, Then) An adverb of condition states

the condition for the main idea to come into effect. An adverb of
condition often starts with "if" or "unless."

Here are some examples:

• If the facts don't fit the theory, change the facts. (Physicist Albert
Einstein)
• If the English language made any sense, a catastrophe would be an
apostrophe with fur. (Author Doug Larson)
• If all the rich people in the world divided up their money among
themselves, there wouldn't be enough to go around. (Novelist Christina
Stead)
Adverbs of Concession (In spite Of) An adverb of
concession offers a statement which contrasts with the main idea. An
adverb of concession often starts with one of the following subordinating
conjunctions: "though," "although," "even though," "while," "whereas," or
"even if."

Here are some examples:

• Although golf was originally restricted to wealthy, overweight
Protestants, today it's open to anybody who owns hideous clothing.
(Author Dave Barry)
• A loud voice cannot compete with a clear voice, even if it's a whisper.
(Author Barry Neil Kaufman)

Properties of an Adverbial Clause

Here are the properties of an adverbial clause:
• An adverbial clause is an adjunct. This means it can be removed
without the sentence being grammatically wrong.
• An adverbial clause is a dependent clause. This means it cannot stand
alone as meaningful sentence in its own right.
• An adverbial clause usually starts with a subordinating
conjunction (e.g., "although," "because," "if," "until," "when")
• An adverbial clause will contain a subject and a verb. (This is what
makes it a clause as opposed to a phrase.)

Why Should I Care about Adverbial Clauses? There is a

great reason to learn about adverbial clauses: comma placement.

Using commas with adverbial clauses When your adverbial

clause (or phrase for that matter) is at the front of a sentence (often called a
fronted adverbial), it is good practice to use a comma afterwards. For
example:
• Where there are too many soldiers, there is no peace. Where there are too
many lawyers, there is no justice. (Chinese philosopher Lin Yutang) When
your adverbial clause is at the back, the tendency is to omit the comma. For
example:

There is no peace where there are too many soldiers. There is no

justice where there are too many lawyers.
This "rule" works well with most adverbial clauses (which tend to be adverbs
of time, place, or condition). However, it is not a strict rule. It is best
described as guidance that is highly likely to see you right.

Let's dig a little deeper. When your adverbial clause is at the front, you are
safe to use a comma afterwards. The comma is considered useful to show
where the adverbial clause ends and the main clause starts. When your
adverbial clause is at the back of your sentence, things get a little more
complicated because it depends whether the adverbial clause is essential
(called a restrictive clause) or non-essential (called a non-restrictive clause).
When it is essential, do not use a comma.

As most adverbial clauses are essential, the ruling "do not use a comma for a
post-positioned adverbial clause (one at the back)" is nearly always safe...but
not always. For example:
• Jack didn't win because he was the best player. He won because he
paid the referee. (In this example, Jack actually won. The adverbial
clause "because he was the best player" is deemed essential to
distinguish it from the situation below.)
• Jack didn't win, because he was the worst player. (In this example, Jack
lost, as you'd expect the worst player to.) This point is covered more in the
entry on independent clauses (see Points 3 and 4).

Don't worry. There's leniency. If you think your post-positioned adverbial

clause looks better when preceded by a comma, then there's likely to be a
good reason for that (e.g., it might be non-essential, you might want a pause
for effect, you might think it aids reading). These are all good enough reasons
to use a comma. So, go for it. Enjoy the leniency. But, be careful not to
change the meaning of your sentence (as would be the case with the "why
did Jack win" example above).
Key Points
• If
your adverbial clause is fronted, use a comma.
• Don't use a comma if your adverbial clause is at the back, unless you think it
helps. (In case you missed it, these key points feature the points they're
explaining.)

Why Should I Care about Clauses?

Native English speakers can create and combine clauses and phrases without
stumbling into too many snags. However, there are two great reasons to care
about clauses.

(1) Understanding when to offset an adjective clause

with commas. The adjective clauses in these two sentences are
identical, except one is offset with commas and one isn't. They are both
punctuated correctly. So, what's going on?
• A boy who went to my school won the lottery.

• Michael Carroll, who went to my school, won the lottery. Look at the
first example. When an adjective clause is required to identify its noun
(here, "boy"), then it is not offset with commas. (Put another way, the
subject of the sentence is "A boy who went to my school.")

Look at the second example. When an adjective clause is just additional

information, then it is offset with commas. (Put another way, the subject of the
sentence is "Michael Carroll.") If you'd happily put brackets around the clause
or delete it, then it should be offset with commas.

Here are some more examples:

• You went through a phase when you dyed your hair purple. (There is no
comma because the clause is needed to identify the phase. A clause
that's necessary for identification is called a restrictive clause.)
• You went through a punk phase, when you dyed your hair purple.
(There is a comma because the phase has already been identified as
the punk phase. The clause is just additional information. A clause that's
just additional information is called a non-restrictive clause.)
• You went through a mod phase, when you started school, a punk phase
when you dyed your hair purple and a punk phase when you dyed your hair
green. (The first adjective clause is just additional information (hence the
commas), but the other two are required to identify the punk phases (hence
no commas).) Lots of writers fly by the seat of their pants when it comes to
commas, and mistakes with commas are extremely common. Therefore,
this is a key point for writers. It crops up all the time (especially with "who"
and "which"). It is covered again from slightly different perspectives in the
entries on adjective clauses, adjective phrases, relative adverbs, relative
pronouns, restrictive clauses, and non-restrictive clauses. Don't worry
though! It's the same idea across all of these topics:
The Same Idea Every
Time

If you'd happily put your clause in brackets or delete it, then use
commas because it must be non-essential.

(2) Understanding when to offset an adverbial clause

with commas. The adverbial clauses in these two sentences are
identical, except one is offset with a comma and one isn't. They are both
punctuated correctly. So what's going on?
• When the game has finished, the king and pawn go in the same
box. (Italian Proverb)
• The king and pawn go in the same box when the game has finished.
When your adverbial clause (or phrase for that matter) is at the front of a
sentence (often called a "fronted adverbial"), it is good practice to use a
comma afterwards (as in the first sentence above). When it's at the back,
the comma tends to be omitted (as in the second sentence).

This "rule" works well with most adverbial clauses (which tend to be adverbs
of time, place, or condition). Look at the commas after the fronted
adverbials in these examples:

Adverbial Clauses of
Time
• When you win, say nothing. When you lose, say less. (NFL coach
Paul Brown)
• Say nothing when you win. Say less when you
lose. Adverbial Clauses of Place
• Where there are too many soldiers, there is no peace. Where there are
too many lawyers, there is no justice. (Chinese philosopher Lin Yutang)
• There is no peace where there are too many soldiers. There is no
justice where there are too many lawyers. Adverbial Clauses of
Condition
• If you think you can, you can. If you think you can't, you're
right. (Businesswoman Mary Kay Ash)
• You can if you think you can. You're right if you think you can't.

Key Points
• If
your clause is needed to identify your noun, don't offset it with
commas.
• The only man who never makes a mistake is the man who never
does anything. (US President Theodore Roosevelt)
• If your clause is just additional information that you'd happily put in
brackets or delete, offset it with commas.
• My father, who had previously been a civil engineer, died in the
great influenza epidemic of 1918. (Physicist James Rainwater)
• If your adverbial clause is fronted, use a comma.

• Don't use a comma if your adverbial clause is at the back.