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All four types of moral judgments have been the subject of discussion
since the dawn of western philosophy in
ancient Greece. The Greeks
themselves were especially concerned with questions about virtue and
vice, and the
concept of intrinsic value may be found at work in their
writings and in the writings of moral philosophers ever
since. Despite
this fact, and rather surprisingly, it is only within the last one
hundred years or so that this concept
has itself been the subject of
sustained scrutiny, and even within this relatively brief period the
scrutiny has
waxed and waned.
Suppose that you were confronted with some proposed list of intrinsic
goods. It would be natural to ask how you
might assess the accuracy of
the list. How can you tell whether something has intrinsic value or
not? On one
level, this is an epistemological question about which
this article will not be concerned. (See the entry in this
encyclopedia on moral epistemology.) On another level, however, this
is a conceptual question, for we cannot be
sure that something has
intrinsic value unless we understand what it is for something to have
intrinsic value.
2. What Is Intrinsic Value?
The concept of intrinsic value has been characterized above in terms
of the value that something has “in itself,”
or “for
its own sake,” or “as such,” or “in its own
right.” The custom has been not to distinguish between the
meanings of these terms, but we will see that there is reason to think
that there may in fact be more than one
concept at issue here. For the
moment, though, let us ignore this complication and focus on what it
means to say
that something is valuable for its own sake as
opposed to being valuable for the sake of something else to
which
it is related in some way. Perhaps it is easiest to grasp this
distinction by way of illustration.
Suppose that someone were to ask you whether it is good to help others
in time of need. Unless you suspected
some sort of trick, you would
answer, “Yes, of course.” If this person were to go on to
ask you why acting in this
way is good, you might say that it is good
to help others in time of need simply because it is good that their
needs be satisfied. If you were then asked why it is good that
people’s needs be satisfied, you might be puzzled.
You might be
inclined to say, “It just is.” Or you might accept the
legitimacy of the question and say that it is
good that people’s
needs be satisfied because this brings them pleasure. But then, of
course, your interlocutor
could ask once again, “What’s
good about that?” Perhaps at this point you would answer,
“It just is good that
people be pleased,” and thus put an
end to this line of questioning. Or perhaps you would again seek to
explain
the fact that it is good that people be pleased in terms of
something else that you take to be good. At some point,
though, you
would have to put an end to the questions, not because you would have
grown tired of them (though
that is a distinct possibility), but
because you would be forced to recognize that, if one thing derives
its goodness
from some other thing, which derives its goodness from
yet a third thing, and so on, there must come a point at
which you
reach something whose goodness is not derivative in this way,
something that “just is” good in its
own right, something
whose goodness is the source of, and thus explains, the goodness to be
found in all the
other things that precede it on the list. It is at
this point that you will have arrived at intrinsic goodness (cf.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1094a). That which is
intrinsically good is nonderivatively good; it is good for
its
own sake. That which is not intrinsically good but
extrinsically good is derivatively good; it is good, not
(insofar as
its extrinsic value is concerned) for its own sake, but for the sake
of something else that is good and
to which it is related in some way.
Intrinsic value thus has a certain priority over extrinsic value. The
latter is
derivative from or reflective of the former and is to be
explained in terms of the former. It is for this reason that
philosophers have tended to focus on intrinsic value in
particular.
Let us now see whether this still rough account of intrinsic value can
be made more precise. One of the first
writers to concern himself with
the question of what exactly is at issue when we ascribe intrinsic
value to
something was G. E. Moore [1873–1958]. In his book
Principia Ethica, Moore asks whether the concept of
intrinsic
value (or, more particularly, the concept of intrinsic goodness, upon
which he tended to focus) is
analyzable. In raising this question, he
has a particular type of analysis in mind, one which consists in
“breaking
down” a concept into simpler component concepts.
(One example of an analysis of this sort is the analysis of the
concept of being a vixen in terms of the concepts of being a fox and
being female.) His own answer to the
question is that the concept of
intrinsic goodness is not amenable to such analysis (Moore
1903, ch. 1). In place
of analysis, Moore proposes a certain kind of
thought-experiment in order both to come to understand the
concept
better and to reach a decision about what is intrinsically good. He
advises us to consider what things are
such that, if they existed by
themselves “in absolute isolation,” we would judge their
existence to be good; in
this way, we will be better able to see what
really accounts for the value that there is in our world. For example,
if such a thought-experiment led you to conclude that all and only
pleasure would be good in isolation, and all
and only pain bad, you
would be a
hedonist.[3]
Moore himself deems it incredible that anyone, thinking clearly,
would reach this conclusion. He says that it involves our saying that
a world in which only pleasure existed—a
world without any
knowledge, love, enjoyment of beauty, or moral qualities—is
better than a world that
contained all these things but in which there
existed slightly less pleasure (Moore 1912, p. 102). Such a view he
finds absurd.
This new analysis in fact reflects a general idea that has a rich
history. Franz Brentano [1838–1917], C. D. Broad
[1887–1971], W. D. Ross [1877–1971], and A. C. Ewing
[1899–1973], among others, have claimed, in a more
or less
qualified way, that the concept of intrinsic goodness is analyzable in
terms of the fittingness of some
“pro” (i.e., positive)
attitude (Brentano 1969, p. 18; Broad 1930, p. 283; Ross 1939, pp.
275–76; Ewing 1948, p.
152). Such an analysis, which has come to
be called “the fitting attitude analysis” of value, is
supported by the
mundane observation that, instead of saying that
something is good, we often say that it is valuable, which
itself
just means that it is fitting to value the thing in question.
It would thus seem very natural to suppose that for
something to be
intrinsically good is simply for it to be such that it is fitting to
value it for its own sake.
(“Fitting” here is often
understood to signify a particular kind of moral fittingness, in
keeping with the idea that
intrinsic value is a particular kind of
moral value. The underlying point is that those who value for its own
sake
that which is intrinsically good thereby evince a kind of
moral sensitivity.)
Krister Bykvist has argued that what he calls solitary goods may
constitute a counterexample to part (a) of the
thesis (Bykvist 2009,
pp. 4 ff.). Such (alleged) goods consist in states of affairs that
entail that there is no one in
a position to value them. Suppose, for
example, that happiness is intrinsically good, and good in such a way
that
it is fitting to welcome it. Then, more particularly, the state
of affairs of there being happy egrets is intrinsically
good; so too,
presumably, is the more complex state of affairs of there being happy
egrets but no welcomers. The
simpler state of affairs would appear to
pose no problem for part (a) of the thesis, but the more complex state
of
affairs, which is an example of a solitary good, may pose a
problem. For if to welcome a state of affairs entails
that that state
of affairs obtains, then welcoming the more complex state of affairs
is logically impossible.
Furthermore, if to welcome a state of affairs
entails that one believes that that state of affairs obtains, then the
pertinent belief regarding the more complex state of affairs would be
necessarily false. In neither case would it
seem plausible to say that
welcoming the state of affairs is nonetheless fitting. Thus, unless
this challenge can
somehow be met, a proponent of the thesis must
restrict the thesis to pro attitudes that are neither truth- nor
belief-entailing, a restriction that might itself prove unwelcome,
since it excludes a number of favorable
responses to what is good
(such as promoting what is good, or taking pleasure in what is good)
to which
proponents of the thesis have often appealed.
One of the first to raise such doubts and to press for a view quite
different from the prevailing view was Axel
Hägerström
[1868–1939], who developed an account according to which
ascriptions of value are neither true nor
false (Hägerström
1953). This view has come to be called “noncognitivism.”
The particular brand of
noncognitivism proposed by
Hägerström is usually called “emotivism,” since
it holds (in a manner reminiscent
of Hume) that ascriptions of value
are in essence expressions of emotion. (For example, an emotivist of a
particularly simple kind might claim that to say “A is
good” is not to make a statement about A but to say
something like “Hooray for A!”) This view was
taken up by several philosophers, including most notably A. J.
Ayer
[1910–1989] and Charles L. Stevenson [1908–1979] (see Ayer
1946, Stevenson 1944). Other philosophers
have since embraced other
forms of noncognitivism. R. M. Hare [1919–2002], for example,
advocated the
theory of “prescriptivism” (according to
which moral judgments, including judgments about goodness and
badness,
are not descriptive statements about the world but rather constitute a
kind of command as to how we
are to act; see Hare 1952) and Simon
Blackburn and Allan Gibbard have since proposed yet other versions of
noncognitivism (Blackburn 1984, Gibbard 1990).
Let us now turn to doubts about the very coherence of the concept of
intrinsic value, so understood. In Principia
Ethica and
elsewhere, Moore embraces the consequentialist view, mentioned above,
that whether an action is
morally right or wrong turns exclusively on
whether its consequences are intrinsically better than those of its
alternatives. Some philosophers have recently argued that ascribing
intrinsic value to consequences in this way is
fundamentally
misconceived. Peter Geach, for example, argues that Moore makes a
serious mistake when
comparing “good” with
“yellow.”[6]
Moore says that both terms express unanalyzable concepts but are to
be
distinguished in that, whereas the latter refers to a natural
property, the former refers to a nonnatural one. Geach
contends that
there is a mistaken assimilation underlying Moore’s remarks,
since “good” in fact operates in a
way quite unlike that
of “yellow”—something that Moore wholly overlooks.
This contention would appear to be
confirmed by the observation that
the phrase “x is a yellow bird” splits up
logically (as Geach puts it) into the
phrase “x is a
bird and x is yellow,” whereas the phrase
“x is a good singer” does not split up in the
same way.
Also, from “x is a yellow bird” and
“a bird is an animal” we do not hesitate to infer
“x is a yellow animal,”
whereas no similar
inference seems warranted in the case of “x is a good
singer” and “a singer is a person.” On
the basis of
these observations Geach concludes that nothing can be good in the
free-standing way that Moore
alleges; rather, whatever is good is good
relative to a certain kind.
Those who make monistic proposals of the sort just mentioned are aware
that intrinsic value is sometimes
ascribed to kinds of entities
different from those favored by their proposals. They claim that all
such ascriptions
can be reduced to, or translated into, ascriptions of
intrinsic value of the sort they deem proper. Consider, for
example,
Korsgaard’s suggestion that a gorgeously enameled frying pan is
good for its own sake. Ross would
say that this cannot be the case. If
there is any intrinsic value to be found here, it will, according to
Ross, not
reside in the pan itself but in the fact that it plays a
certain role in our lives, or perhaps in the fact that something
plays
this role, or in the fact that something that plays this role exists.
(Others would make other translations in
the terms that they deem
appropriate.) On the basis of this ascription of intrinsic value to
some fact, Ross could
go on to ascribe a kind of extrinsic
value to the pan itself, in virtue of its relation to the fact in
question.
To repeat: contrary to what Ross says, the thesis that some goods are
higher than others implies that such goods
are commensurate, and not
that they are incommensurate. Some people do hold, however, that
certain values
really are incommensurate and thus cannot be compared
on any meaningful scale. (Isaiah Berlin [1909–1997],
for
example, is often thought to have said this about the values of
liberty and equality. Whether he is best
interpreted in this way is
debatable. See Berlin 1969.) This view constitutes a more radical
threat to the
computation of intrinsic value than does the view that
intrinsic betterness is not transitive. The latter view
presupposes at
least some measure of commensurability. If A is better than
B and B is better than C, then A
is
commensurate with B and B is commensurate with
C; and even if it should turn out that A is not
better than C, it
may still be that A is
commensurate with C, either because it is as good as
C or because it is worse than C. But if
A
is incommensurate with B, then A is neither better
than nor as good as nor worse than B. (Some claim,
however,
that the reverse does not hold and that, even if A is neither
better than nor as good as nor worse than B,
still A
may be “on a par” with B and thus be roughly
comparable with it. Cf. Chang 1997, 2002.) If such a case
can arise,
there is an obvious limit to the extent to which we can meaningfully
say how good a certain complex
whole is (here, “whole” is
used to refer to whatever kind of entity may have intrinsic value);
for, if such a whole
comprises incommensurate goods A and
B, then there will be no way of establishing just how good it
is overall,
even if there is a way of establishing how good it is with
respect to each of A and B.
There is a third, still more radical threat to the computation of
intrinsic value. Quite apart from any concern with
the
commensurability of values, Moore famously claims that there is no
easy formula for the determination of
the intrinsic value of complex
wholes because of the truth of what he calls the “principle of
organic unities”
(Moore 1903, p. 96). According to this
principle, the intrinsic value of a whole must not be assumed to be
the
same as the sum of the intrinsic values of its parts (Moore 1903,
p. 28) As an example of an organic unity,
Moore gives the case of the
consciousness of a beautiful object; he says that this has great
intrinsic value, even
though the consciousness as such and the
beautiful object as such each have comparatively little, if any,
intrinsic
value. If the principle of organic unities is true, then
there is scant hope of a systematic approach to the
computation of
intrinsic value. Although the principle explicitly rules out only
summation as a method of
computation, Moore’s remarks strongly
suggest that there is no relation between the parts of a whole and the
whole itself that holds in general and in terms of which the value of
the latter can be computed by aggregating
(whether by summation or by
some other means) the values of the former. Moore’s position has
been endorsed
by many other philosophers. For example, Ross says that
it is better that one person be good and happy and
another bad and
unhappy than that the former be good and unhappy and the latter bad
and happy, and he takes
this to be confirmation of Moore’s
principle (Ross 1930, p. 72). Broad takes organic unities of the sort
that
Moore discusses to be just one instance of a more general
phenomenon that he believes to be at work in many
other situations, as
when, for example, two tunes, each pleasing in its own right, make for
a cacophonous
combination (Broad 1985, p. 256). Others have furnished
still further examples of organic unities (Chisholm
1986, ch. 7; Lemos
1994, chs. 3 and 4, and 1998; Hurka 1998).
Not everyone has accepted the principle of organic unities; some have
held out hope for a more systematic
approach to the computation of
intrinsic value. However, even someone who is inclined to measure
intrinsic
value in terms of summation must acknowledge that there is a
sense in which the principle of organic unities is
obviously true.
Consider some complex whole, W, that is composed of three
goods, X, Y, and Z, which are
wholly
independent of one another. Suppose that we had a ratio scale on which
to measure these goods, and that
their values on this scale were 10,
20, and 30, respectively. We would expect someone who takes intrinsic
value
to be summative to declare the value of W to be (10 +
20 + 30 =) 60. But notice that, if X, Y, and
Z are parts of
W, then so too, presumably, are the
combinations X-and-Y, X-and-Z, and
Y-and-Z; the values of these
combinations, computed
in terms of summation, will be 30, 40, and 50, respectively. If the
values of these parts
of W were also taken into consideration
when evaluating W, the value of W would balloon to
180. Clearly, this
would be a distortion. Someone who wishes to
maintain that intrinsic value is summative must thus show not
only how
the various alleged examples of organic unities provided by Moore and
others are to be reinterpreted,
but also how, in the sort of case just
sketched, it is only the values of X, Y, and
Z, and not the values either of any
combinations of these
components or of any parts of these components, that are to be taken
into account when
evaluating W itself. In order to bring some
semblance of manageability to the computation of intrinsic value, this
is precisely what some writers, by appealing to the idea of
“basic” intrinsic value, have tried to do. The general
idea is this. In the sort of example just given, each of X,
Y, and Z is to be construed as having basic
intrinsic
value; if any combinations or parts of X,
Y, and Z have intrinsic value, this value is not
basic; and the value of W
is to be computed by appealing only
to those parts of W that have basic intrinsic value.
Two final points. First, we are now in a position to see why it was
said above (in Section 2) that perhaps not all
intrinsic value is
nonderivative. If it is correct to distinguish between basic and
nonbasic intrinsic value and also
to compute the latter in terms of
the former, then there is clearly a respectable sense in which
nonbasic intrinsic
value is derivative. Second, if states with basic
intrinsic value account for all the value that there is in the world,
support is found for Chisholm’s view (reported in Section 2)
that some ontological version of Moore’s isolation
test is
acceptable.
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Acknowledgments
Many thanks to Fred Feldman, Noah Lemos, Terry McConnell, and Toni
Rønnow-Rasmussen for helpful
comments on a previous draft.
Copyright © 2019 by
Michael J. Zimmerman
<m_zimme2@uncg.edu>
Ben Bradley
<wbradley@syr.edu>
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