DCSTOTAL (Compatibility Mode)

DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
(Common to III B.Tech I Sem CSE & IT – R07)
G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 1

UNIT – I
I: Introduction to Data communications &
Networking

Important Definitions
• In the data communications world, data generally are defined as information that is stored in
digital form.
• The word data is plural; a single unit of data is a datum.
• Information is defined as knowledge or intelligence. Information that has been processed,
organized and stored is called data.
• The fundamental purpose of a data communications circuit is to transfer digital information
from one place to another.
• Thus, data communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception and processing
of digital information.
• A network is a set of devices (sometimes called nodes or stations) interconnected by media
links.
• Data communications networks are systems of interrelated computers and computer
equipment and can be as simple as a personal computer connected to a printer or two personal
computers connected together through the public telephone network.
• In essence, there is virtually no limit to the capacity or size of a data communications
network.

Simplified Communications Model

Simplified data communications model

Simplified network models

Layered Tasks – Example of Sending a letter

Fig.a) A simplified architecture for file Fig.b) Protocol architectures and networks
transfer

Fig.a) Protocols in a simplified architecture
Fig.b) Protocol data units

Operation of a protocol architecture

Protocol architecture model

Protocol Architectures

Two point data communication circuit: Fig.a) DTE/DCE representation
Fig.b) Device representation

Pin assignments for V.24/EIA - 232

V.24/EIA – 232 Interchange Circuits

Local and Remote Loop back

V.24/EIA – 232 dial up operation

V.24/EIA – 232 dial up operation (contd.)

Example of a null modem

Simple Switching Network/Public Switched Data Network - Example

Public Circuit Switching Network

Circuit Establishment

Example of Virtual Circuit approach

Example of Datagram approach

Event timing for Circuit switching and Packet switching

LAN/MAN Topologies

Frame Transmission on a Bus LAN

Frame Transmission on a Ring LAN

CSMA/CD Operation

Token Ring Operation

Fig.a) Twisted pair star topology Fig.b) Two-level twisted pair star
topology

UNIT - I
II: SIGNALS, NOISE, MODULATION &
DEMODULATION

Note
To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.

3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital

digital.. The term analog data refers
to information that is continuous
continuous;; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states
states.. Analog data take on
continuous values
values.. Digital data take on discrete values
values..
Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Data
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

Note
Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.

Note
Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.

Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

Note
In data communications, we commonly

use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.

3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or

composite.. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave
composite wave,,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals
signals.. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves..
waves

Sine Wave
Wavelength
Time and Frequency Domain
Composite Signals
Bandwidth
Figure 3.2 A sine wave

Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

Note
Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies

Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

Note
Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.
Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.
Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.
Note
If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

Note
Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

Note
A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.

Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

Note
A single-frequency sine wave is not

useful in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.

Note
If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies;
if the composite signal is nonperiodic,
the decomposition gives a combination
of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.

Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal

Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

Note
The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.

Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal
signal..
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage
voltage.. A digital signal can have more
than two levels
levels.. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level
level..

Bit Rate
Bit Length
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
Application Layer
Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

Figure 3.17 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals

3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not

perfect.. The imperfection causes signal impairment
perfect impairment.. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the medium medium..
What is sent is not what is received
received.. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation
attenuation,, distortion
distortion,, and noise
noise..

Attenuation
Distortion
Noise
Figure 3.25 Causes of impairment

Figure 3.26 Attenuation

Figure 3.28 Distortion

Figure 3.29 Noise

Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications

is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.. Data rate depends on three factors
channel factors::
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits
Note
Increasing the levels of a signal may

reduce the reliability of the system.

5-1 DIGITAL-
DIGITAL-TO
TO--ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital-to
Digital- to--analog conversion is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data
data..

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion

Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

Note
Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

Baud rate is the number of signal
elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital

data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.

Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying

Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying

Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying

Note
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.

5-2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Analog-to
Analog- to--analog conversion is the representation of
analog information by an analog signal
signal.. One may ask
why we need to modulate an analog signal signal;; it is
already analog
analog.. Modulation is needed if the medium is
bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass channel is
available to us
us..
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation

Figure 5.15 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

Figure 5.16 Amplitude modulation

Figure 5.18 Frequency modulation

Figure 5.20 Phase modulation

UNIT – II
I: Metallic cable transmission media

Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media

7-1 GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit

from one device to another, include twisted
twisted--pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber
fiber--optic cable
cable..

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable

Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable

Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Figure 7.5 UTP connector

Figure 7.6 UTP performance

Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

Figure 7.8 BNC connectors

Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance

UNIT – II
II: Optical fiber transmission media

A bundle of Optical Fibers

A Fiber Optic Cable

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables
• An optical fiber is made up of the core (carries the light pulses), the
cladding (reflects the light pulses back into the core) and the buffer
coating (protects the core and cladding from moisture, damage, etc.).
• Together, all of this creates a fiber optic which can carry up to 10

million messages at any time using light pulses.
• Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which

permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths
(data rates) than other forms of communications.
• Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along
them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic
interference

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables
• Joining lengths of optical fiber is more

complex than joining electrical wire or
cable.
• Cost of Optical Fiber Cables is more

compared to electrical wire or cable.

Optical Fiber Communication System Block Diagram

Figure 7.10 Bending of light ray

Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

Figure 7.12 Propagation modes

Figure 7.13 Modes

Table 7.3 Fiber types

Figure 7.14 Fiber construction

Figure 7.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors

Figure 7.16 Optical fiber performance

7-2 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor
conductor.. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication..
communication

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Figure 7.18 Propagation methods

Table 7.4 Bands

Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves

Figure 7.20 Omnidirectional antenna

Note
Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.

Note
Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.

Note
Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

Characteristics of Electromagnetic waves
• Electromagnetic radiation (often abbreviated E-

M radiation or EMR) is a phenomenon that takes
the form of self-propagating waves in a vacuum or
in matter. It comprises electric and magnetic field
components, which oscillate in phase
perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to
the direction of energy propagation.

Note:
• An electromagnetic field (also EMF or EM field) is a physical field

produced by electrically charged objects. It affects the behavior of
charged objects in the vicinity of the field. The electromagnetic field
extends indefinitely throughout space and describes the
electromagnetic interaction.
• The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a

magnetic field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges,
and the magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are
often described as the sources of the field. The way in which charges
and currents interact with the electromagnetic field is described by
Maxwell's equations
Transverse Electromagnetic wave

Transmission Lines
• A transmission line is the material medium

or structure that forms all or part of a path
from one place to another for directing the
transmission of energy, such as
electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves,
as well as electric power transmission.
Types of transmission line include wires,
coaxial cables, optical fibers, electric power
lines G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 121
Metallic Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit
• The model consists of an infinite series of the elements shown in the

figure, and that the values of the components are specified per unit
length. R, L, C, and G may also be functions of frequency. These quantities
can also be known as the primary line constants to distinguish from the
secondary line constants derived from them, these being the propagation
constant, attenuation constant and phase constant.

Note:
• The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an
infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing
an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:
• The distributed resistance R of the conductors is represented by a series

resistor (expressed in ohms per unit length).
• The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field around the
wires, self-inductance, etc.) is represented by a series inductor (henries
per unit length).
• The capacitance C between the two conductors is represented by a
shunt capacitor C (farads per unit length).
• The conductance G of the dielectric material separating the two
conductors is represented by a shunt resistor between the signal wire
and the return wire (siemens per unit length).

UNIT – III
I: Digital Transmission

4-2 ANALOG-
ANALOG-TO
TO--DIGITAL CONVERSION
We have seen that a digital signal is superior to an

analog signal
signal.. The tendency today is to change an
analog signal to digital data
data.. In this section we
describe two techniques, pulse code modulation and
delta modulation
modulation..

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Delta Modulation (DM)

Figure 4.21 Components of PCM encoder

Figure 4.22 Three different sampling methods for PCM

Note
According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.

Figure 4.23 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals

Figure 4.24 Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

Figure 4.26 Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal

Figure 4.27 Components of a PCM decoder

Figure 4.28 The process of delta modulation

Figure 4.29 Delta modulation components

Figure 4.30 Delta demodulation components

UNIT – III
II: Multiplexing & T-Carriers

6-1 MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared
shared.. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link.. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
link
does traffic
traffic..
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
Figure 6.1 Dividing a link into channels

Figure 6.2 Categories of multiplexing

Figure 6.3 Frequency-division multiplexing

Note
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.

Figure 6.4 FDM process

Figure 6.5 FDM demultiplexing example

Figure 6.9 Analog hierarchy

Figure 6.10 Wavelength-division multiplexing

Note
WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

Figure 6.11 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

Figure 6.12 TDM

Note
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.

Figure 6.13 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

Note
In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.

Figure 6.15 Interleaving

Figure 6.18 Empty slots

Figure 6.19 Multilevel multiplexing

Figure 6.20 Multiple-slot multiplexing

Figure 6.21 Pulse stuffing

Figure 6.22 Framing bits

Figure 6.23 Digital hierarchy

Table 6.1 DS and T line rates

Figure 6.24 T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines

Figure 6.25 T-1 frame structure

Table 6.2 E line rates

Figure 6.26 TDM slot comparison

UNIT – IV
Wireless Communication Systems

Electromagnetic Polarization
• Electromagnetic waves are comprised of an electric and

a magnetic field at 90 degrees to each other. The
Polarization of a plane electromagnetic wave is simply
the orientation of the electric field vector in respect to
earth’s surface.
• If the polarization remains constant, it is described as

Linear Polarization. Horizontal and Vertical
Polarizations are two forms of linear Polarization.
• A wave is horizontally polarized if the electric field

propagates parallel to the earth’s surface, and the wave
is vertically polarized if the electric field propagates
perpendicular toGthe earth’s surface
V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 165
• The wave is described as having circular
polarization if the polarization vector rotates 360
degrees as the wave moves one wavelength
through space and the field strength is equal at all
angles of polarization.
• When the field strength varies with changes in
polarization, this is described as elliptical
polarization.
• A rotating wave can turn in either direction. If the
vector rotates in clockwise direction, it is right
handed, and if the vector rotates in a
counterclockwise direction, it is left handed.
Plane Waves
• Electromagnetic radiation can be imagined as a self-propagating

transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This
diagram shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from
left to right.
• The magnetic field (labeled M) is in a horizontal plane and the
electric field (labeled E) is in a vertical plane.

Types of Polarizations
• Linear Polarization Circular Polarization Elliptical Polarization

A right-handed/clockwise circularly polarized wave

A left-handed/counter-clockwise circularly polarized wave

Rays and Wavefronts
• The concepts of rays and wavefronts are aids to illustrating the effects of
electromagnetic wave propagation.
• A ray is a line drawn along the direction of propagation of an electromagnetic

wave. Rays are used to show the relative direction of propagation; however, a
ray does not necessarily represent a single electromagnetic wave.
• A wavefront shows a surface of constant phase of electromagnetic waves.
• A wavefront is formed when points of equal phase on rays propagating from

the same source are joined together. When a surface is plane, its wavefront is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

• Most wavefronts are more complicated than a simple plane
wave.
• A point source is a single location from which rays

propagate equally in all directions (i.e., an isotropic source)
• The wave front generated from a point source is simply a

sphere with radius R and its center located at the point of
origin of the waves.

Fig. a) Plane wave comprised of rays Ra, Rb, Rc, and Rd forming wavefront
ABCD
Fig. b) Wavefront from a point source

Spherical wavefront from an isotropic source

Atmospheric absorption of electromagnetic waves

Refraction at a plane boundary between two media

Electromagnetic reflection at a plane boundary of two media

Electromagnetic wave diffraction

Electromagnetic wave interference

Terrestrial propagation of electromagnetic waves

Skip distance and Free-space loss
• Skip distance is the minimum distance from a transmit

antenna that a sky wave of given frequency will be
returned to the earth.
• Free-space loss is often defined as the loss incurred by an

electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line
through vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy
from nearby objects.
• A more appropriate term for the phenomenon is spreading

loss. Spreading loss simply occurs because of the inverse
square law.
IEEE Microwave frequency bands

Advantages of microwave radio communications
• 1. Radio systems do not require a right-of-way acquisition between stations

• 2. Each station requires the purchase or lease of only a small area of land.
• 3. Because of their high operating frequencies, microwave radio systems
can carry large quantities of information.
• 4. High frequencies mean short wavelengths, which require relatively small
antennas.
• 5. Radio signals are more easily propagated around physical obstacles, such as
water and high mountains.
• 6. Microwave systems require fewer repeaters for amplification.
• 7. Distances between switching centers are less.
• 8. Underground facilities are minimized.
• 9. Minimum delay times are introduced.
• 10. Minimum cross talk exists between voice channels.
Disadvantages of microwave radio communications
• 1. The electronic circuits used with microwave frequencies are more

difficult to analyze.
• 2. Conventional components such as resistors, inductors, and

capacitors are more difficult to manufacture and implement at
microwave frequencies.
• 3. Microwave components are more expensive.
• 4. Signal amplification is more difficult with microwave frequencies.

Simplified microwave radio link: (a) transmitter; (b) receiver

Microwave repeater

16--2 SATELLITE NETWORKS
16
A satellite network is a combination of nodes, some of

which are satellites, that provides communication from
one point on the Earth to another
another.. A node in the
network can be a satellite, an Earth station, or an end
end--
user terminal or telephone
telephone..
Orbits
Footprint
Three Categories of Satellites
GEO Satellites
MEO Satellites
LEO Satellites G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 187
Figure 16.13 Satellite orbits

Figure 16.14 Satellite categories

Figure 16.15 Satellite orbit altitudes

Table 16.1 Satellite frequency bands

Figure 16.16 Satellites in geostationary orbit

Figure 16.17 Orbits for global positioning system (GPS) satellites

Figure 16.18 Trilateration

Figure 16.20 Iridium constellation

Note
The Iridium system has 66 satellites in

six LEO orbits, each at an
altitude of 750 km.

Note
Iridium is designed to provide direct

worldwide voice and data
communication using
handheld terminals, a service similar to
cellular telephony but on a global scale.

Figure 16.20 Teledesic

Note
Teledesic has 288 satellites in 12 LEO

orbits, each at an altitude of 1350 km.

UNIT – V
I: Telephone Instruments and

Signals

INTRODUCTION
Telephone networks use circuit switching

switching.. The
telephone network had its beginnings in the late
1800ss. The entire network, which is referred to as the
1800
plain old telephone system (POTS
POTS),), was originally an
analog system using analog signals to transmit voice
voice..

Standard telephone set: 500-type (or) rotary dial and
2500-type (or) touch-tone DTMF telephone set

Pulse dialing

Fig. a) Touch dial arrangement Fig. b) 1209 Hz on 697 Hz to
make the ‘1’ tone

Typical attenuation and delay characteristics of telephone
networks

Functions of the Telephone set
1. Notify the subscriber when there is an incoming call with an audible

signal, such as a bell, or with a visible signal, such as a flashing light.
2. Provide a signal to the telephone network verifying when the incoming

call has been acknowledged and answered (i.e., the receiver is lifted off
hook).
3. Convert speech energy to electrical energy in the transmitter and vice

versa in the receiver.
4. Incorporate some method of inputting and sending destination

telephone numbers from the telephone set to the central office switch
over the local loop. This is accomplished using either rotary dialers
(pulses) or touch-tone pads (frequency tones)
5. Regulate the amplitude of the speech signal the calling person outputs 206
G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT
onto the telephone line. This prevents cross talk.
6. Incorporate some means of notifying the telephone office when a
subscriber wishes to place an outgoing call (i.e., handset lifted off hook)
7. Ensure that a small amount of the transmit signal is fed back to the
speaker, enabling talkers to hear themselves speaking. This feedback
signal is sometimes called sidetone or talkback. Sidetone helps prevent
the speaker from talking too loudly.
8. Provide an open circuit (idle condition) to the local loop when the
telephone is not in use (i.e., on hook) and a closed circuit (busy
condition) to the local loop when the telephone is in use (off hook).
9. Provide a means of transmitting and receiving call progress signals

between the central office switch and the subscriber, such as on and off
hook, busy, ringing, dial pulses, touch-tone signals and dial tone.

Simplified two-wire loop showing telephone set hookup to
a local switching machine

Fig. a) TRS Connector Fig. b) Phone Switch board
1. Sleeve
2. Ring
3. Tip
4. Insulating rings

RJ – 11 Connector

Block diagram of a telephone set

Basic Telephone Call Procedures
1. Prior to the call, both telephones are not in use (on-hook). The
call begins when one subscriber lifts the receiver (off-hook); this
action is automatically signaled to the end office switch.
2. The switch responds with an audible dial tone, signaling the

subscriber that the number may be dialed.
3. The caller dials the number, which is communicated as a called

address to the switch.
4. If the called subscriber is not busy, the switch alerts that

subscriber to an incoming call by sending a ringing signal, which
causes the telephone to ring.

5. Feedback is provided to the calling subscriber by the switch:
a) If the called subscriber is not busy, the switch returns an audible ringing
tone to the caller while the ringing signal is being sent to the called
subscriber.
b) If the called subscriber is busy, the switch sends an audible busy signal
to the caller.
c) If the call cannot be completed through the switch, the switch sends an
audible "reorder" message to the caller.
6. The called party accepts the call by lifting the receiver (off-hook), which is
automatically signaled to the switch.
7. The switch terminates the ringing signal and the audible ringing tone, and
establishes a connection between the two subscribers.
8. The connection is released when either subscriber hangs up.

Call progress tones and signals

Cordless Telephone

Block diagrams of Base Unit & Handset Unit

Transmit & Receive frequencies in Portable Unit

Electronic Telephones

Paging Systems

Simplified block diagram of a standard simplex paging system

II: The Telephone Circuit

Simple Switching Network - Example

A telephone system
Local loop
Trunk Trunk
•••
End Tandem
offices offices Regional offices

Public Circuit Switching Network

Circuit Establishment

Drop Wire Distribution Point

Feeder Point Main Distribution Frame

Simplified 2-wire phone network with 2 abonents

Long distance phone network with 2-to-4 wire conversion

Chapter 16
Wireless WANs:
Cellular Telephone
and Satellite Networks
16.231
16--1 CELLULAR TELEPHONY
16
Cellular telephony is designed to provide

communications between two moving units, called mobile
stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and one
stationary unit, often called a land unit
unit..
Frequency-Reuse Principle
Transmitting
Receiving
Roaming
First Generation
Second Generation
Third Generation
16.232 G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT
Figure 16.1 Cellular system

Figure 16.2 Frequency reuse patterns

Note
AMPS is an analog cellular phone system using FDMA.

Figure 16.3 Cellular bands for AMPS

Figure 16.4 AMPS reverse communication band

Figure 16.5 Second-generation cellular phone systems

Figure 16.6 D-AMPS

Note
D-AMPS, or IS-136, is a digital cellular phone system using

TDMA and FDMA.

Figure 16.7 GSM bands

Figure 16.8 GSM

Figure 16.9 Multiframe components

Note
GSM is a digital cellular phone system using TDMA and

FDMA.

Figure 16.10 IS-95 forward transmission

Figure 16.11 IS-95 reverse transmission

Note
IS-95 is a digital cellular phone system using CDMA/DSSS and

FDMA.

Note
The main goal of third-generation cellular telephony is to

provide
universal personal communication.

Figure 16.12 IMT-2000 radio interfaces

16--2 SATELLITE NETWORKS
16
A satellite network is a combination of nodes, some of

which are satellites, that provides communication from
one point on the Earth to another
another.. A node in the network
can be a satellite, an Earth station, or an end end--user
terminal or telephone
telephone..
Orbits
Footprint
Three Categories of Satellites
GEO Satellites
MEO Satellites
LEO Satellites
Figure 16.13 Satellite orbits

Example 16.1
What is the period of the Moon, according to Kepler’s law?
Here C is a constant approximately equal to 1/100. The

period is in seconds and the distance in kilometers.

Example 16.1 (continued)
Solution
The Moon is located approximately 384,000 km above the
Earth. The radius of the Earth is 6378 km. Applying the
formula, we get.

Example 16.2
According to Kepler’s law, what is the period of a satellite

that is located at an orbit approximately 35,786 km above
the Earth?
Solution
Applying the formula, we get

Example 16.2 (continued)
This means that a satellite located at 35,786 km has a

period of 24 h, which is the same as the rotation period of
the Earth. A satellite like this is said to be stationary to the
Earth. The orbit, as we will see, is called a geosynchronous
orbit.

Figure 16.14 Satellite categories

Figure 16.15 Satellite orbit altitudes

Table 16.1 Satellite frequency bands

Figure 16.16 Satellites in geostationary orbit

Figure 16.17 Orbits for global positioning system (GPS) satellites

Figure 16.18 Trilateration

Figure 16.19 LEO satellite system

Figure 16.20 Iridium constellation

Note
The Iridium system has 66 satellites in six LEO orbits, each at

an
altitude of 750 km.

Note
Iridium is designed to provide direct worldwide voice and data

communication using
handheld terminals, a service similar to cellular telephony but on
a global scale.

Figure 16.20 Teledesic

Note
Teledesic has 288 satellites in 12 LEO orbits, each at an altitude

of 1350 km.

Chapter 7
Error Detection
and Correction
• Types of Errors
• Detection
• Correction
Figure 9-1

Figure 9-2
Single-bit error

Figure 9-3
Multiple-bit error

Figure 9-4
Burst error

Figure 9-5
Redundancy

Figure 9-6

Figure 9-7
VRC

Figure 9-8
LRC

Figure 9-9
VRC and LRC

Figure 9-10
CRC

Figure 9-11
Binary Division

Figure 9-12
Polynomial

Figure 9-13
Polynomial and Divisor

Figure 9-14
Standard Polynomials

Figure 9-15
Checksum

Figure 9-16
Data Unit and Checksum

Figure 9-17
Error Correction

Figure 9-18
Hamming Code

Figure 9-19
Hamming Code

Figure 9-19-continued
Hamming Code

Figure 9-20
Example of Hamming Code

Figure 9-21
Single-bit error

Figure 9-22
Error
Detection

Chapter -8
Data Link Protocols
• Asynchronous Protocols
• Synchronous Protocols
• Character-Oriented Protocols
• Bit-Oriented Protocols
Figure 11-1

Figure 11-2

Figure 11-3
XMODEM

Figure 11-4

Figure 11-5

Figure 11-6
Simple Frame

Figure 11-7
A Frame with Header

Figure 11-8
Multiblock Frame

Figure 11-9
Multiframe Transmission

Figure 11-10
Control Frame

Figure 11-11
Control Frames

Control Frames

Control Frames

Figure 11-12
Byte Stuffing

DCSTOTAL (Compatibility Mode)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

DCSTOTAL (Compatibility Mode)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

(Common to III B.Tech I Sem CSE & IT – R07)

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 1

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 2

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 3

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 4

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 5

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 6

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 7

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 8

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 9

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 10

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 11

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 12

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 13

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 14

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 15

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 16

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 17

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 18

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 19

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 20

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 21

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 22

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 23

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 24

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 25

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 26

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 27

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 28

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 29

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 30

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 31

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 32

To be transmitted, data must be

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 33

Data can be analog or digital

Topics discussed in this section:

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 34

Data can be analog or digital.

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 35

Signals can be analog or digital.

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 36

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 37

In data communications, we commonly

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 38

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or

Topics discussed in this section:

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 40

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 41

Frequency and period are the inverse of

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 42

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 43

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 44

Frequency is the rate of change with

Change in a short span of time

Change over a long span of

If a signal does not change at all, its

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 46

Phase describes the position of the

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 47

G V SATYA KUMAR ECE VVIT 48