As 4673 2001 Cold Formed Stainless Steel Structures

AS/NZS 4673:2001
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Australian/New Zealand Standard™
Cold-formed stainless steel structures

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AS/NZS 4673:2001
This Joint Australian/New Zealand Standard was prepared by Joint Technical
Committee BD-086, Stainless Steel Structures. It was approved on behalf of the
Council of Standards Australia on 22 June 2001 and on behalf of the Council of
Standards New Zealand on 24 August 2001. It was published on 9 November 2001.
The following interests are represented on Committee BD-086:

Association of Consulting Engineers Australia
Australasian Railway Association
Australian Industry Group
Australian Stainless Steel Development Association
Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
Institution of Engineers Australia
New Zea land S tainless Steel Development Associati on
) The University of Sydney
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te Welding Technology Institute of Australia
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4 New Zea land web sit e at www.sta ndards .co.nz and loo kin g u p t he rel evant Sta ndar d
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details of all current Standards. For more frequent listings or notification of
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A This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 00011.
AS/NZS 4673:2001
Australian/New Zealand Standard™

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S © Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
Committee BD-086, Stainless Steel Structures.
The objective of this Standard is to provide designers of stainless steel structures with
specifications for cold-formed stainless steel structural members used for load-carrying
purposes i n buildings and other structures.
Sections 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this Standard are based on ANSI/ASCE-8-90 Specification for
the Design of Cold-formed Stainless Steel Structural Members. Section 6 is based on
AS/NZS 4600 and AS/NZS 1664.1.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in notes to tables are deemed to be requirements
of this Standard.
The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.
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3 AS/NZS 4673:2001
CONTENTS
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SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS................................................................................... 5
1.3 DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................5
1.4 NOTATION...... ......................................................................................................... 11
1.5 MATERIALS............................................................................................................. 19
1.6 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS...................................................................................... 22
1.7 NON-CONFORMING SHAPES AND CONSTRUCTION ....................................... 24
SECTION 2 ELEMENTS
2.1 SECTION PROPERTIES ..........................................................................................25
2.2 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF STIFFENED ELEMENTS.............................................. 27
2.3 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS....... ................................. 31
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2.4 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNIFORMLY COMPRESSED ELEMENTS WITH
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MORE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS, OR STIFFENED ELEMENTS
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3.5 COMBINED AXIAL COMPRESSIVE LOAD AND BENDING..... ......................... 53
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1 SECTION 4 STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIES
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4.1 BUILT-UP SECTIONS.............................................................................................. 57
N 4.2 MIXED SYSTEMS.................................................................................................... 58
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SECTION 5 CONNECTIONS
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U 6.1 TESTING FOR DETERMINING MATERIAL PROPERTIES ................................. 71
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 4
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APPENDICES
A LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS ................................................................. 75
B MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................. 77
C STAINLESS STEEL PROPERTIES.... ...................................................................... 83
D STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS........ ................................................................. 101
E FLEXURAL MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE BE NDING .......................... ........................... .......................... .. 104
F FATIGUE ................................................................................................................ 105
G FIRE ........................................................................................................................ 111
H SECTION PROPERTIES ........................................................................................ 113
I UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH STRESS GRADIENT.... ............................... 117
J HOLLOW SECTION LATTICE GIRDER CONNECTIONS.................................. 118
K DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY
[STRENGTH REDUCTION] FACTOR .......................... ............................ ............ 130
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5 AS/NZS 4673:2001
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND
Australian/New Zealand Standard
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE
This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design of stainless steel structural
members cold-formed to shape from annealed or temper-rolled sheet, strip, plate or flat bar
stainless steels used for load-carrying purposes in buildings. It may also be used for
structures other than buildings provided appropriate allowances are made for dynamic
effects.
For the purpose of this Standard, steels with at least 10.5% chromium and up to 1.2%
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A circular or parabolic arch-shaped compression element having an inside radius-to-
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E Portion adjacent to flat elements and having a maximum inside radius-to-thickness ratio
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1.3.5 Braced member
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One for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 6
1.3.7 Capacity [Strength reduction] factor

A factor used to multiply the nominal capacity to obtain the design capacity.
1.3.8 Cold-formed stainless steel structural members
Shapes that are manufactured by press-braking blanks sheared from sheets, cut lengths of
coils or plates, or by roll-forming cold- or hot-rolled coils or sheets; both forming
operations being performed at ambient room temperature, that is, without manifest addition
of heat as required for hot-forming.
1.3.9 Design action effect [Design action] or design load effect [design action]
The action [effect] or load effect [action] calculated from the design actions [design forces]
or design loads.
1.3.10 Design action [Design force] or design load
The combination of the nominal actions [nominal effects] or loads and the load factors, as
specified in the relevant loading Standard.
1.3.11 Design capacity
The product of the nominal capacity and the capacity [strength reduction] factor.
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( thickness ratio greater than eight ( r i/t > 8). (See Figure 1.2.)
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1.3.15 Flat-width-to-thickness ratio
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S The initial slope of the stress-strain curve. (See Appendix B.)
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A state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design performance requireme nts.
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NOT E: Limit sta tes separate desired states [no fai lur e] from unde sired sta tes [failure].
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1.3.19.1 Limit state, serviceability

A state that corresponds to conditions beyond which specified service requirements for a
structure or structural element are no longer met.
NOT E: Requir ements are based on the int ended use and may inc lud e limi ts on deformati on,
vibratory response, degradation or other physical aspects.
1.3.19.2 Limit state, stability

A limit state corresponding to the loss of static equilibrium of a structure considered as a
rigid body.
NOT E: In New Zea land, the stabilit y limit sta te is part o f t he ult imate limit state.
1.3.19.3 Limit state, ultimate

A state associated with collapse, or with other similar forms of structural failure.
NOT E: This gene rally cor responds to the maxi mum loa d-c arr ying res ist ance of a str uct ure or
structural element but in some cases to the maximum applicable strain or deformation.
1.3.20 Load
An externally applied limit state force including self -weight.
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1.3.23 Multiple-stiffened element
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1 The capacity of a member or connection calculated using the parameters specified in this
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1.3.26 Point-symmetric section
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E A section symmetrical about a point (centroid) such as a Z-section having equal flanges.
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U The stress at a nominated plastic strain. (See Appendix B.)
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b The application of test loads to one or more structures, sub-structures, members or
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1.3.30 Segment (in a member su bjected to bending)

The length between adjacent cross-sections that are fully or partially restrained, or the
length between an unrestrained end and the adjacent cross-section that is fully or partially
restrained.
1.3.31 Secant modulus
The slope of a line from the srcin t o a point on the stress-strain curve. (See Appendix B.)
1.3.32 Shall
Indicates that a statement is mandatory.
1.3.33 Should
Indicates a recommendation.
1.3.34 Special study
A procedure for the analysis or design, or both, of the structure, agreed between the
authority having statutory powers to control the design and erection of a structure, and the
design engineer.
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1.3.35 Stiffened or partially stiffened compression element
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n A flat compression element (i.e. a plane compression flange of a flexur al member or a plane
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c Formed element at the edge of a flat compression element. (See Figure 1.4(a).)
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e Formed elements, employed in multiple stiffened segments, and located between edges of
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1.3.38 Structural performance facto r
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N A numerical assessment of the ability of a building t o survive cyclic displacements.
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U The level of force reduction available for a given system compared with an elastic structural
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S The portion between adjacent stiffeners, or between web and intermediate stiffener, or
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S 1.3.41 Tangent modulus
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I The slope tangential to the stress-strain curve. (See Appendix B.)
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1.3.42 Temper rolling
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Cold-working of annealed stainless steel by rolling to achieve increased strength.
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1.3.43 Tensile strength

The minimum ultimate strength in tension specified for the grade of steel in the appropriate
Standard.
1.3.44 Thickness
The base steel thickness ( t ), exclusive of coatings.
1.3.45 Unformed steel
Steel as received from the steel producer or warehouse before being cold-worked as a result
of fabricating operations.
1.3.46 Unformed steel properties
Mechanical properties of unformed steel, such as yield stress, tensile strength and ductility.
1.3.47 Unstiffened compression element
A flat compression element that is stiffened at only one edge parallel to the direction of
stress. (See Figure 1.3(b).)
1.3.48 Yield stress
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In the absence of a yield plateau, the yield stress is taken as the 0.2% proof stress, which is
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n NOT E: The yield str ess varies with the rolli ng dir ection, tra nsv erse or longit udinal , and is
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d (c) Element 5 is an arched element ( ri/t > 8).
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 10
FIGURE 1.3 STIFFENING MODES
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t 1.4 NOTATION
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m The symbols used in this Standard are listed in Table 1.4.
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( Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
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1 expressed in identical units.
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o The dimensional units for length and stress in all expressions or equations are to be taken as
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4 millimetres (mm) and megapascals (MPa) respectively, unless specifically noted ot herwise.
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D An asterisk placed after a symbol denotes a design action effect [design action] due to the
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design load for the strength [ulti mate] limit state.
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TABLE 1.4
NOTATION
S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e
A area of the full, unreduced cross-section ; or 3.3.3

gross cross-sectional area of a channel or Z-section
Ab grosscross-sectionalareaofthebolt 5.3.8.2
A bs tensilestressareaofthebolt 5.3.8.2
Ae effective area calculated at buckling stress fn 3.4.1

A ef effective a rea of e dge s tiffener o r i ntermediate stiffeners 2.5
Af gross cross-sectional area of the stainless steel bolt 5.3.7.2
An net area of the cross-section; or 3.2, 5.3.5
net area of the connected part at the line of bolts transverse to
the line of the applied force
Ao reducedareaofthecross-section 3.6.3
As reduced area of a stiffener; or 2.4.1, 2.6.1
) cross-sectional area of a transverse stiffener
d
te
n
ri A se effectiveareaofastiffener 2.4.1
p
n
e A st grossareaofashearstiffener 2.6.2
h
w
d A s1 , A s2 area of a member in compression consisting of the transverse 2.6.1
e
et stiffeners and a portion of t he web
n
ra
a a distancebetweentransversestiffeners 2.6.2
u
g
t Bc constant 1.5.2.4
o
n
y
c b flat width of element excluding radii; or 2.2.1.2, 2.4.1, 3.6.2
n
e
rr flat width of th e compression flange
u
c
t be effective width of uniformly compressed stiffened and 2.2.1.2, 2.3.1.2, 2.3.1.3
n
e unstiffened elements used for determining the load capacity
m
u [strength]
c
o
D
( b ed effective width of uniformly compressed stiffened and 2.2.1.3, 2.3.2.3
7
1 unstiffened elements used for determining the deflection
0
2
v b es effective width of a sub-element or element to be used in 2.5
o
N
4 design calculations
1
n b e1 , b e2 effective width of uniformly compressed stiffened element with 2.2.2.1, 2.2.2.2
o
D stress gradient
N
A
L bf flat w idt h of th e be am flange th at contacts t he bearing pla te 3.3.7
S
N
E b1 width of the compression and tension flanges, either s tiffened 2.1.3.2, 2.1.3.3, 4.1.2
E
U or unstiffened, projecting beyond the web for I-beams and
Q
N similar sections; or
R
E maximum half the distance between webs for box- or U-type
H
T sections; or
U
O sum of the flange projection beyond the web and the depth of
S
F
the lip for I-beams and similar sections; or
O flat width of th e narrowest unstiffened compression element
Y
T
I tributary to the connections
S
R b2 flat width of ele ment with inte rmedia te stiffen er exclu ding radi i 2.4.1
E
V
I
N ( continued )
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
13 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE 1.4 (continued )
C for compression members, ratio of the total bend cross- 1.5.2.4, 3.6.2
sectional area to the total cross-sectional area of the full
section; and
for flexural members, ratio of the total bend cross-sectional
area of the controlling flange to the full cross-sectional area of
the controlling flange; or
ratio of the proportionality stress to the yield stress
Cb bending coef fici ent 3.3. 3
Cm coefficientforunequalendmoment 3.5
Cs coefficient for moment causing compression or tension on the 3.3.3
shear centre side of the centroid
Cy compressionstrainfactor 3.3.2.3
Cw torsional warping constant of the cross-section 3.3.3
C 1 to C 11 , coefficient 2.4.1,
3.3.6
and Cθ
) cf amount
of
curling 2.1.3.2
d
te d depth of a section; or 2.1.3.2, 2.4.1
n
ri
p actual stiffener dimension
n
e
h df nominaldiameterofabolt 5.3.2
w
d
e dh standard
hole
diameter 5.3.2
et
n
ra dl depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of 2.1.3.4, 2.4.1
a
u the web; or
g
t
o actual stiffener dimension
n
y
c dm mean of the across points and across flats dimensions of the 5.3.8.3
n
e
rr bolt head or the nut , wh iche ver is smaller
u
c
t do outsidediameterofachord ParagraphJ3
n
e
m ds reduced effective width of a stiffener; or 2.4.1
u
c
o effective stiffener dimension
D
(
7 d se effectivewidthofastiffener 2.4.1
1
0
2
v dw depth of the compressed portion of the web 3.3.2.3
o
N
4 d1 depth of the flat portion of a web measured along the plane of 2.1.3.4
1
n the web
o
D Eo InitialYoung’smodulusofelasticity 1.3.17
N
A
L Er reducedmodulusofelasticity 2.2.1.3
S
N
E Es secantmodulusfornormalstress ParagraphB1
E
U
Q E sc seca nt modulus corre sponding to stres s in compress ion flang e 2.2.1 .3
N
R
E E st secant modulus corresponding to stress in tension flange 2.2.1.3
H
T
U Et tangent modulus in compression; or 3.4.2, Paragraph B1
O
S tangent modulus for normal stress
F
O e distance measured in the line of the applied force from centre- 5.3.3, Paragraph J3
Y
T
I line of an arc spot weld, arc seam weld or from centre of a bolt
S
R hole to the nearest edge of an adjacent weld or bolt hole, or to
E
V
I
the end of the connected part toward which the force is
N directed; or
U
y eccentricity
b
d
e ey yield
strain 3.3.2.3
s
s
e
c ( continued )
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 14
f normalengineeringstress ParagraphB1
fb perm issibl e co mpre ssive s tre ss for loca l dist ort ion 3.3 .2.4
fc stress at service load in the cover plate or sheet 4.1.2
f cr criticalbucklingstress 3.3.2.4
fn buckl ing str ess 2.6. 1

f nt′ nominal tensile strength for bolts subject to combined shear and 5.3.7.4
tension
f nt nominal tensile strength of the stainless steel bolt 5.3.8.3
f nv nominal shear strength of the stainless steel bolt 5.3.7.2
f oc flexuralbucklingstress 3.4.2
f pc offset proportional limit in compression Paragraph B1
ft tensile strength for connections with washers under bolt, bolt 5.3.5
head and nut
)
fu minimum tensile strength used in the design; or 1.5.2.2, 5.3.5, 5.3.6
d tensile or compressive strength of the connected part in the
te
n
ri direction of the applied force
p
n
e f ua tensile or compressive strength o f th e a nnealed ba se m etal 5.2.2.2
h
w
d f ut tensile strength of the connected part tr ansverse to the direction 5.3.4
e
et of the applied force
n
ra
a f uv tensilestrengthofunformedsteel 1.5.2.4
u
g
t fv shear stress resulting from the design shear force 5.3.7.4
o
n
y
c f wy lower yield stress value of a beam web ( f y) or of a stiffener 2.6.1
n
e
rr section ( f ys )
u
c
t f xx tensile strength obtained from all-weld-metal tensile test 5.2.3.2
n
e
m fy minimum tensile or compressive yield stress used in design; or 1.5.2.2, 5.3.5, Paragraph B1
u
c
o yield stress of web steel; or
D
( yield stress of stiffener; or
7
1 specified yield stress in longitudinal compression or tensile
0
2
v strength of the connecte d part in the direction of the applied
o
N force; or
4 offset yield stress in compression
1
n
o f ya 1.5.2.4
average design yield stress of the steel in the full section of
D
N compression members or full flange sections of flexural
A
L members
S
N
E f yc tensile yield stress of bends; or 1.5.2.4, 6.1.4
E
U compressive yield stress
Q
N
R f yf yield stress of flat portions; or 1.5.2.4, 6.1.5.1
E
H
T yield stress of unformed steel if tests are not made; or
U yield stress of flat coupons of formed members
O
S
F
f ys yieldstressofstiffenersteel 2.6.1
O
Y f yt minimumtensileyieldstress 1.5.3
T
I
S f yv tensile yield stress of unformed steel; or 1.5.2.4, Appendix B
R
E specified shear yield stress
V
I
N
U
f* design stress in the compression element calculated on the basis 2.2.1.2
y
b of the effective design width
d
e
s ( continued )
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
15 AS/NZS 4673:2001
*
f av average d esign s tress in t he full, unreduced f lange w idth 2.1.3.2
f d* design compressive stress in the element being considered 2.2.1.3

base d on the effe cti ve s ecti on at the load for which defle ctio ns
are determined
f1* , f 2* web stresses calculated on the basis o f the effective section or 2.2.2.1
on the full section
f 3* stress in edge stiffener with stress gradient for which load 2.3.2.2
capacities are determined
Go initial
shear
modulus 3.3.3
Gs secantmodulusforshearstress ParagraphB1
Gt tangentmodulusforshearstress ParagraphB1
g distance measured along the length of the connected face of t he Paragraph J2.1
chord, between the toes of the adjacent members
ho depth of the chord in the plane of the lattice girder Paragraph J3
) Ia adequate second moment of area of a stiffener, so that each 2.4.1
d
te component element behaves as a stiffened element
n
ri
p
n
Ib second moment of area of the full, unreduced cross-section 3.5
e about the bending axis
h
w
d Is second moment of area of a full stiffener about its own 2.4.1
e
et
n centroidal axis parallel to the element to be stiffened
ra
a I sf second moment of area of the full area of a multiple-stiffened 2.5
u
g
t element, including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own
o
n
y centroidal axis
c
n
e
rr Iw warpingconstantforacross-section ParagraphH1
u
c Ix second moment of area of the cross-section about it s centroidal 4.3.3.3
t
n
e axis perpendicular to the web
m
u
c I xy produ ct o f se cond mome nt o f a rea of the full sect ion about its 4.3.3.3
o
D
( centroidal axes and perpendicular to the web
7
1
0 I yc second moment of area of the compression portion of a section 3.3.3
2
v about the centroidal axis of the full section parallel to the web,
o
N using the full unreduced section
4
1
n J St. Venant torsion constant of the cross-section 3.3.3
o
D
N k plat e buckli ng coef fici ent ; or 2.2.1.2, 3.4.2
A
L effective length factor
S
N
E kf total population variation due to fabrication 6.2.2.3
E
U
Q km total population of variation due to material 6.2.2.3
N
R ks shearstiffenercoefficient 2.6.2
E
H
T
U k sc coefficient of variation of structural characteristic 6.2.2.3
O
S kst stiffenertypecoefficient 2.6.2
F
O
Y kt effective length factor for twisting; or 3.3.3, 6.2.2.2
T
I
S
factor to allow for variability of structural units
R
E kv shearbucklingcoefficient 2.6.2
V
I
N
U k x, k y effective length factors for bending about the x - and y- axes, 3.3.3
y
b respectively
d
e
s ( continued )
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 16
k′ coefficient used to d etermine *

N ib where neither flange is 4.3.3.3
connected to the sheeting or connected to the sheeting with

concealed fasteners
l actual length of an axially loaded compression member; or 1.3.18, 3.3.3
unbraced length of a member in compression
lb actuallengthofbearing 3.3.6
l eb effectivelengthintheplaneofbending 3.5
l st lengthoftransversestiffener 2.6.1
lt unbraced length of the compression member for twisting 3.3.3
lw lengthofthefullsizeoftheweld 5.2.2.3
l x, l y unbraced lengths of the compression member for bending about 3.3.3
the x - and y-axes, respectively
Mb nominalmembermomentcapacity 2.2.1.2
Mbx , Mby nominal member moment capacities about the x - and y - axes, 3.5
) respectively
d
te
n
ri Mc critical
moment 3.3.3
p
n
e Ml d nominal flexural capacityofthemember 3.3.2.4
h
w
d Mm mean value of the measured yield stress to the nominal yield Appendix K
e
et stress of the finished product
n
ra
a Mmax. absolute value of the maximum moment in the unbraced 3.3.3
u
g segment
t
o
n
y Ms nominalsectionmomentcapacity 2.2.1.2
c
n
e
rr My momentcausinginitialyield 2.2.1.2
u
c
t M3 absolute value of the moment at quarter point of the unbraced 3.3.3
n
e segment
m
u
c
o M4 absolute value of the moment at centre-line of the unbraced 3.3.3
D
( segment
7
1
0 M5 absolute value of the moment at th ree-quarter point of the 3.3.3
2
v
o unbraced segment
N
4 M* design
bending
moment 3.3.1
1
n
o
D
M x* , M y* design bending moment about the x - and y -axes, respectively 3.5
N
A m constant; or 1.5.2.4, 3.3.6, 4.1.1, 4.3.3.3
L
S non-dimensiona l thickness; or
N
E distance from the shear centre of one channel to the mid-plane
E
U of its web; or
Q
N distance from the concentrated load to the brace
R
E
H
T Nc nominal member capacity of a member in compression 2.6.1
U
O Ne elastic
buckling
load 3.5
S
F Nf nominal tensile capacity of the connected part 5.3.5
O
Y
T
I Ns nominal section capacity of a member in compression 2.6.1
S
R Nt nominal section capacity of a member in tension 3.2
E
V
I
N Nw nominal tensile or compressive capacity of a butt weld or a 5.2.1.2, 5.2.3.3
U
y resistance spot weld, welded from one or both sides
b
d
e design concentrated load or r eaction; or 2.6.1, 3.4.1
s
s
N*
e design axial force, tensile or compressive
c
c
A ( continued )
COPYRIGHT
17 AS/NZS 4673:2001
N f* designtensile forceintheconnectedpart 5.3.5
N ft* designtensileforceonabolt 5.3.7.4

* design force to be resisted by intermediate beam brace 4.3.3.3
N ib
* design tensile or compressive force normal to the area of a butt
Nw 5.2.2.2, 5.2.4.3
weld or on a resistance spot weld
n constant Paragraph
B1
q intensityofthedesignloadonabeam 4.1.1
Rb nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction for one solid 3.3.6, 3.3.7
web connecting top and bottom flanges; or
nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction in the
absence of bending moment
Rd design capacity of members and connections 1.6.2.2, 6.2.2.7
Rf structuralresponsefactor 1.6.3
R min. minimumvalueofthetestresults 6.2.2.7
)
d
te Rt target test loads for the number of units to be tested 6.2.2.2
n
ri
p Ru nominal capacity of members and connections 1.6.2.2
n
e
h
w
R* design concentrated load or reaction in the presence of bending 3.3.7
d moment
e
et
n Rb* designconcentratedloadorreaction 3.3.6
ra
a
u
g r radius of gyration of the full, unreduced cross-section 3.4.2
t
o
n
y r cy radius of gyration of one channel about its centroidal axis 4.1.1
c
n para llel t o t he web
e
rr
u rf ratio of the force transmitted by the bolt or bolts at the section 5.3.5
c
t
n considered, divided by the tensile force in the member at that
e
m section
u
c
o ri inside
bend
radius 1.3.4
D
(
7
1 ro pola r radiu s of gyra tion of th e cr oss- sect ion about the shea r 3.3.3
0
2 centre
v
o
N r x, r y radii of gyrat ion of the cross-sect ion about th e centroi dal axes 3.3.3
4
1
n r1 radius of gyration of an I-section about the axis perpendicular 4.1.1
o
D to the direction in which buckling occurs for the given
N
A conditions of end support and intermediate bracing
L
S
N S slenderness
factor 2.4.1
E
E
U Sp structural performance factor; or 1.6.3, 3.6.2
Q
N pla stic se ction modul us
R
E *
H
T S designactioneffects[designactions] 1.6.2.2
U s spacing in line of the stress of welds and bolts, connecting a 4.1.2
O
S cover plate or sheet in compression, to a non-integral stiffener
F
O or another element
Y
T
I
S
sf spacing of bolts transverse to the line of the force; or 5.3.5
R width of the connected part, in the case of a single bolt
E
V
I
N sg vertical distance between two rows of connections nearest to 4.1.1
U
y the top and bottom flanges
b
d s max. maximum longitudinal spacing of welds or other connectors 4.1.1
e
s
s joining two chann els to form an I -section
e
c
c
A ( continued )
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 18
sw weld
spacing 4.1.1
t nominal base steel thickness of any element or section 1.5.2.8, 2.1.3.1, 2.2.1.2,
exclusive of coatings; or 2.6.1, 5.2.2.2, 5.3.4
thickness of the uniformly compressed stiffened elements; or
base thickne ss o f beam web; or
thickness of the thinnest welded part; or
thickness of the thinnest connected part
t thicknessoftheflange 2.1.3.2
f
tp thickness of the plate under the bolt head or the nut 5.3.8.3
ts thicknessofthestiffenersteel 2.5
tw thickness of a web; or 2.1.3.4, 5.2.3.2
effective throat
Vb nominal bearing capacity per bolt of the connected part, where 5.3.6
bolt s ha ve wash ers unde r bo th bold head and nut
Vf nominalshearcapacityperbolt 5.3.4
) V fv nominal shear capacity of a stainless steel bolt 5.3.7.2
d
te
n
ri VM coefficient of variation of the ratio of the measured yield stress Appendix K
p
n to the nominal yield str ess of the finished product
e
h
w Vv nominalshearcapacityofthebeam 3.3.4
d
e
et Vw nominal shear capacity of a butt, fillet, 5.2.2.3, 5.2.3.2, 5.2.3.3,
n
ra or resistance weld, welded from one or both sides; or 5.2.4.2
a
u nominal shear force transmitted by the weld
g
t
o
n
y V* design
shear
force 3.3.2.3
c
n
e designbearingforceatabolt 5.3.6
rr Vb*
u
c
t
n designshearforceperbolt 5.3.4
e Vf*
m
u
c
o Vfv* design shear force for bolts loaded in shear 5.3.7.2
D
(
7
1 design shear force on a butt, fillet or resistance weld; or 5.2.2.3, 5.2.3.2, 5.2.3.3,
0
2 Vw*
v design longitudinal or transverse shear force on a fill et weld 5.2.4.2
o
N
4 w 1, w 2 leg
sizes
of
the
weld 5.2.3.2
1
n xo distance from the shear centre of the cross-section to the 3.3.3
o
D centroid along the principal x-axis, taken as negative
N
A
L Zc elastic section modulus of the effective section calculated at a 3.3.3
S
N stress Mc/ Z f in the extreme compression fibre
E
E
U Ze effective section modulus calculated with the extreme 3.3.2.2
Q
N compression or tension fibre at f yc or f yt , respectively,
R
E whichever initiates yield
H
T
U Zf elastic section modulus of the full, un reduced cr oss-section 3.3.2 .4
O
S α
F
reduction
factor 2.5
O
Y αnx , α ny momentamplificationfactor 3.5
T
I
S ε normal
strain Paragraph
B1
R
E
V
I εy offsetyield
strain Paragraph
B1
N
U
y εp offsetproportionallimitstrain ParagraphB1
b
d
e η pla sticit y bu ckling stress 3.3 .2. 4
s
s
e
c ( continued )
c
A
COPYRIGHT
19 AS/NZS 4673:2001
θ angle between the plane of the web and the plane of the bearing 3.3.6
surface
λ ov overlap Paragraph
J2.3
λ, λ1, λ2 slendernessratio 2.2.1.2,3.3.2.3
µ structuralductilityfactor 1.6.3
ν Poisson’sratioinelasticrangeof0.3 3.3.2.4
ρ quantity for load capacity [strength]; or 1.5.2.4, 2.2.1.2

effective width factor
φ capacity[strengthreduction]factor 1.6.2.2
φb capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending 3.3.1
φc capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in 2.6.1
compression
φd capacity [strength reduction] factor for local distortion 3.3.2.4
φo reference
value Appendix
K
)
d
te φt capacity [stre ngth reduction] factor for members in tension 3.2
n
ri
p φv capacity [strength reduction] factor for shear 3.3.5
n
e
h φw capacity [strength reduction] factor for bearing 3.3.6
w
d
e ψ 2.2.2.1
et stress ratio f 2* / f1*
n
ra
a
u
g
o
t 1.5 MATERIALS
n
y
n
c 1.5.1 Selection of stainless steel grade
e
rr
u
c 1.5.1.1 Factors to be considered
t
n
e The selection of the most appropriate grade of stainless steel shall take into account the
m
u
c
o
mechanical properties, effect of welding on mechanical properties and corrosion resistance,
D
( the environment of the application, the surface finish and appearance, and the maintenance
7
1 of the structure. Detailed consideration needs to be given to design for corrosion resistance
0
2
v
o
when a material is selected for use in a corrosive environment.
N
4 1.5.1.2 Corrosion resistance
1
n
o
D An appropriate grade of stainless steel shall be selected in accordance with the corrosion
N
A
L
resistance required for the environment in which the structural members are to be used and
S in accordance with the fabrication, strength and finish requirements for the specific
N
E
E application.
U
Q NOT E: For ini tia l guid ance on grade selection for corr osi on resistance, see App endix C.
N
R
E
H
T 1.5.1.3 Surface finish and appearanc e
U
O Consideration shall be given to restitution of the surface after fabrication, and to
S
F maintenance during service.
O
Y NOT E: A variety of surf ace finish es i s desc rib ed in Appe ndi x C.
T
I
S
R
E
1.5.1.4 Cosmetic applications
V
I
N In cosmetic applications, the possible minor changes in surface appearance that might take
U
y place as a result of dirt deposits, which in adverse circumstances can create crevices and
b
d
e
s
lead to surface micro-pitting, shall also be taken into account. A suitable corrosion-resistant
s
e
c grade of stainless steel shall be used to ensure that only superficial surface attack takes
c
A place within the desi gn life of the component.
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 20
1.5.1.5 Maintenance
If necessary, a suitable cleaning regime shall be specified to maintain the surface
appearance.
1.5.2 Stainless steels
1.5.2.1 Applicable stainless steel grades
Structural members or steel used in manufacturing shall comply with AS 1449,
ASTM A167, ASTM A176, ASTM A240, ASTM A276, ASTM A480, ASTM A666,
EN 10088 and JIS G4305, as applicable.
1.5.2.2 Other stainless steel grades

Clause 1.5.2.1 shall not be interpreted to exclude the use of other steels, the properties and
suitability of which shall be determined in accordance with Clause 1.5.2.6. The yield stress
(f y) and tensile strength ( f u) used in design shall be determined in accordance with
Section 6. The steel shall conform to the chemical and other mechanical requirements, and
shall have been subjected by either the producer or purchaser to analyses, tests and other
controls as prescribed by one of the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 or in accordance with
Clause 1.5.2.6.
)
d 1.5.2.3 Availability of stainless steel grades and product forms
te
n
ri Not all grades are readily availabl e in all product forms. Appendi x C describes the
p
n
e
h
commonly available grades and tempers of stainless steel by product form.
w
d 1.5.2.4 Strength increase resulting from cold-forming ( ferritic stainless steels )
e
et
n
ra The increase in yield stress due to cold-forming or temper-rolling, or both, may be partly or
a
u completely lost by processes such as welding, annealing or other heat treatment carried out
g
t
o
n
y after forming (see Clause 1.5.2.5).
c
n The equations given in this Clause are only applicable to the ferritic stainless steels
e
rr
u
c
type 409, type 430, type 439 and to type 1.4003 (EN 10088) steel. The increase in strength
t
n
e
due to cold for ming for the austenitic stainless steels type 201, type 301, type 304 or
m type 316, shall be determined by a rational method or b y tests.
u
c
o
D
( Strength increase resulting from cold-forming shall be permitted by substituting the average
7
1 design yield stress ( f ya) of the full section for f y . Such increase shall be limited to
0
2
v
o
Clauses 3.3 (excluding Clause 3.3.3.2), 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 and 4.4. The limitations and methods
N for determining f ya shall be as follows:
4
1
n
o (a) For axially loaded compression members and flexural members whose proportions are
D
N such that the quantity ( ρ) for load capacity [strength] is unity, as determined in
A
L accordance with Clause 2.2 for each of the component elements of the sections, the
S
N
E average design yield stress ( f ya) shall be determined on the basis of one of the
E
U following:
Q
N
R (i) Full section tensile tests (see Section 6).
E
H
T (ii) Stub column tests (see Section 6).
U
O
S
F (iii) Calculated as follows:
O
Y
T
I
f ya = Cf yc + (1 − C ) f yf . . . 1.5.2.4(1)
S
R
E where
V
I
N
U f ya = average des ign y ield str ess o f the s teel in the f ull s ection o f
y
b
d compression members or full flange sections of flexural members
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
21 AS/NZS 4673:2001
C = for co mpression me mbers, rati o of the tota l bend cro ss-sectional

area to the total cross-sectional area of the full section; and for
flexural members, ratio of the total bend cross-sectional area of the
controlling flange to the full cross-sectional area of the controlling
flange
f yc = tensile yi eld st ress of b ends
Bc f yv
= m
. . . 1.5.2.4(2)
(r i / t )
Equation 1.5.2.4(2) is applicable only if—

(A) f uv /f yv is greater than or equal to 1 .2;
(B) r i/t is less than or equal to 7; and
(C) the min imum include d angl e is les s than or equa l to 120 °.
B c = constant
2
 f uv   f uv 
= 1.486  − 0.210 
)
d
  − 0.128 . . . 1.5.2.4(3)
te
n  f yv   f yv 
ri
p
n
e f yv = tens ile yi eld st ress of unfo rmed ste el
h
w
d
e
e ri = inside b end ra dius
t
n
ra m = constant
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
= 0.123  f uv  − 0.068 . . . 1.5.2.4(4)
n
e
rr  f yv 
u
c
t
n f uv = tensile strength of unformed steel
e
m
u
c
f yf = yield stress of the flat portions (see Clause 6.1.5); or
o
D
(
yield stress of unformed steel if tests are not made
7
1
0
2
(b) For axially loaded tension members, f ya shall be determined by either Item (a)(i) or
v Item (a)(iii). The value of C shall be calculated as fo r compression members.
o
N
4
1 1.5.2.5 Effect of welding and heat treatment
n
o
D The increase in yield stress due to cold-forming or temper-rolling, or both, may be partly or
N
A completely lost by processes such as welding, annealing or other heat treatment carried out
L
S
N after forming.
E
E
U The effect of any welding and heat treatment on the mechanical properties of a member
Q
N shall be determined on the basis of tests on specimens of the full section containing the
R
E
H weld within
T
U structural usetheofgauge length. Any
the member. necessary
In the absenceallowance for testing,
of specified such effect
the shall be made
annealed in the
properties
O
S shall be used.
F
O
Y Surface finishing of the weld is normally required to restore full corrosion resistance.
T
I
S Surface finishing shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6.
R
E NOT E: For initia l g uidance o n the effect o f we ldi ng and heat trea tment, see Appendix C.
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 22
1.5.2.6 Ductility
Stainless steels not specifically conforming to the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 shall
comply with one of the following requirements:
(a) The ratio of tensile strength to yield stress in both longitudinal and transverse
directions shall be not less than 1.08.
(b) The total elongation shall be not less than 10% for a 50 mm gauge length, or 7% for a
200 mm gauge length.
(c) The elongation shall be determined in accordance with Section 6.
1.5.2.7 Acceptance of steels

Certified mill test reports, or test certificates issued by the mill, shall constitute sufficient
evidence of compliance with the Standards referred to in this Standard.
1.5.2.8 Delivered minimum thickness
The minimum thickness of the cold-formed stainless steel product in the structure shall not
at any location be less than 95% of the thickness ( t ) used in its design, except at bends and
corners where the thickness may be less due to cold-forming effects.
) 1.5.2.9 Unidentified steel
d
te
n
ri Unidentified steel may only be used when sufficient samples have been subjected by either
p
n
e the producer or purchaser to analyses, tests and other controls as prescribed by one of the
h
w Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 or in accordance with Clause 1.5.2.6.
d
e
et
n 1.5.3 Design stresses
ra
a
u
g The minimum yield stress ( f y) used in design shall be the proof stress determined at a plastic
t
o
n
y
c
strain of
tensile 0.2%. (The
strength f u) minimum tensile
used in design yield
shall notstress ( f than
yt )
be greater or compressive
the higher ofyield stress ( f yc ), and
the following:
n
e
rr
u
c
(a) The specified minimum values given in the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1.
t
n
e (b) The values given in Appendix B.
m
u
c
o
D
(c) The values determined by tests in accordance with Section 6.
(
7
1
0
1.5.4 Fasteners
2
v
o 1.5.4.1 Bolts, nuts and washers
N
4
1 Bolts, nut s and washers complying with ASTM A 193, ASTM A 276, ASTM F 593 or
n
o
D
ISO 3506 may be used. A manufacturer’s test report, test certificate or letter of
N conformance, shall constitute sufficient evidence of compliance with the Standard used.
A
L
S NOT E: App endix D descri bes the commo nly availa ble grades and temp ers of sta inl ess steel
N
E
E fasteners.
U
Q
N 1.5.4.2 Welding consumables
R
E
H
T All welding consumables shall comply with AS/NZS 1554.6.
U
O
S
F 1.6 DESIGN REQUIREM ENTS
O
Y 1.6.1 Loads and load combinations
T
I
S
R A structure and its components shall be designed for the loads and load combinations as
E
V
I
N specified in the appropriate limit state loading Standard.
U
y
b 1.6.2 Structural analysis and design
d
e
s
s
NOT E: Guidance on the applicabi lity of elasti c str uctura l anal ysi s to contin uou s bea ms and
e
c
c
frames is given in Appendix E.
A
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23 AS/NZS 4673:2001
1.6.2.1 General
The following types of limit states shall be considered for the design of structures and its
components:
(a) The ultimate and stability limit states.
(b) The serviceability limit state.
1.6.2.2 Ultimate limit state
The structure and its component members and connections shall be designed for the
ultimate limit state as follows:
(a) All members and connections shall be proportioned so that the design capacity ( Rd) is
not less than the design action effect [design action] ( S*), i.e.—
S* ≤ Rd
(b) The design action effects [design actions] ( S*) resulting from the ultimate limit state
design loads shall be determined by an elastic structural analysis unless—
(i) member strength is established by testing in accordance with Section 6; or
(ii) it is ensured that any plastic hinges have adequate strength and ductility to
perform thei r intende d purpose, in which case the forces and moments may be
)
d determined by a plastic analysis.
te
n
ri (c) The design capacity ( Rd) shall be determined by either—
p
n
e (i) the nominal capacity ( Ru) in accordance with Sections 2 to 5, and the capacity
h
w
d [strength reduction] factor ( φ), i.e.—
e
et
n
ra
Rd = φRu; or
a
u (ii) testing in accordance with Section 6.
g
t
o
n
y 1.6.2.3 Stability limit state
c
n
e
rr The structure as a whole (and any part of it) shall be designed to prevent instability due to
u
c overturning, uplift or slidin g as specified in the appropriate loading Standard.
t
n
e
m
u
1.6.2.4 Serviceability limit state
c
o
D
( The structure and its components shall be designed for the serviceability limit state by
7
1
0
controlling or limiting deflection, vibration, bolt slip and corrosion, as appropriate.
2
v
o 1.6.2.5 Fatigue
N
4 NOT E: Guidance on the des ign of stainless ste el str ucture s f or fatigu e i s g ive n i n Ap pend ix F.
1
n
o
D 1.6.2.6 Fire
N
A NOT E: Guidance on the des ign of stainless ste el str ucture s f or fir e i s g ive n i n Ap pendix G .
L
S
N
E 1.6.3 Earthquake
E
U
Q Where applicable, the following shall be considered for earthquake design:
N
R
E (a) For Australia All structures shall be designed for the loads and load combinations
H
T specified in AS 1170.4. If stainless steel members are used as the primary earthquake
U
O resistance element then the structural response factor ( R f) shall be less than or equal
S
F to 2.0 unless specified otherwise.
O
Y
T
I (b) For New Zealand All structures shall be designed for the loads and load
S
R combinations specified in NZS 4203 but subject to the following limitations:
E
V
I
N
(i) For the ultimate limit state, the structural ductility factor ( µ) shall be less than
U
y or equal to 1.25, unless a greater value (but not greater than 4.0) is justified by
b
d
e
a special study. The structural ductility factor ( µ) depends upon the structural
s
s
e
form, the ductility of the material and structural damping characteristics.
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 24
(ii) For the serviceability limit state, the structural ductility factor ( µ) shall be equal
to 1.0.
(iii) The structural performance factor ( S p ) shall be equal to 0.67, unless a lower
value (but not less than 0.4) is determined as appropriate by a special study.
The structural performance factor ( S p ) depends on the material, form and period
of the earthquake resisting system, damping of the structure and the interaction
of the structure with the ground.
1.6.4 Durability
A structure shall be designed to perform its required functi ons during its expected life.
NOT E: For fur ther i nformatio n, see Appen dix C.
1.7 NON-CONFORMING SHAPES AND CONSTRUCTION

This Standard shall not be interpreted to prevent the use of alternative shapes or
constructions not specifically prescribed in this Standard. Such alternatives shall comply
with Section 6.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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25 AS/NZS 4673:2001
SECTION 2 ELEMENTS
2.1 SECTION PROPERTIES

2.1.1 General
Properties of sections, such as cross-sectional area, second moment of area, section
modulus, radius of gyration, and centroid, shall be determined in accordance with
conventional methods by division of the section shape into simple elements, including
bends.
Properties shall be based on nominal dimensions and nominal base steel thickness.
2.1.2 Design procedures
2.1.2.1 Full section properties
Properties of full, unreduced sections shall be based on the entire simplified shape with the
flats and the bends located along the element mid-lines, unless the manufacturing process
warrants consideration of a more accurate method.
) To calculate the stability of members, a simplified shape, where the bends are eliminated
d
te
n
ri
and the section is represented by straight mid-lines, may be used when calculating the
p
n following properties:
e
h
w (a) Location of shear centre (see Paragraph H1 of Appendix H).
d
e
et
n (b) Warping constant (see Paragraph H1 of Appendix H).
ra
a
u (c) Monosymmetry section constant (see Paragraph H2 of Appendix H).
g
t
o
n
y 2.1.2.2 Effective section properties
c
n
e
rr For the design of cold-formed stainless steel members with slender elements, the area of t he
u
c sections shall be reduced at specified locations.
t
n
e
m
u
The reduction of the area is required to—
c
o
D
( (a) compensate for the effects of shear lag (see Clause 2.1.3.3); and
7
1
0 (b) compensate for local instabilities of elements in compression (see Clauses 2.2 to 2 .5).
2
v
o
N 2.1.2.3 Location of reduced width
4
1
n
o
The location of reduced width shall be determined as follows:
D
N (a) For the design of uniformly compressed stiffened elements, the location of the lost
A
L
S portion shall be taken at the middle of the element (see Figures 2.2.1 a nd 2.4.1(b)).
N
E
E (b) For the design of stiffened elements under a stress gradient or where only a part of the
U
Q
N
element is in compression, e.g. the webs, the location of the lost portion shall be as
R shown in Figure 2.2.2.
E
H
T
U (c) For unstiffened elements, under either a stress gradient or uniform compression, the
O
S lost portion shall be taken at the unstiffened edge as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Where the
F
O unstiffened element is subjected to both tension and compression across its width, the
Y
T
I lost portion may be taken as set out i n Appendix I.
S
R
E (d) For the design of elements with an edge stiffener, the location of the lost portion shall
V
I
N be as shown in Figure 2.4.2.
U
y
b
d 2.1.2.4 Effective section for determin ing deflection
e
s
s
e
c
The effective second moment of area used to determine deflection may be obtained in
c
A accordance with Clause 2.2.1.3.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 26
2.1.3 Dimensional limits

2.1.3.1 Maximum flange flat-width-to-thickness ratios
The maximum overall flat-width-to-thickness ratios ( b / t ), disregarding intermediate
stiffeners and taking t as the nominal base thickness of the element exclusive of coatings,
shall be as follows:
(a) For stiffened compression element having one longitudinal edge connected to a web
or flange element and the other stiffened by—
(i) simpl e lip .................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ....... 50; and
(ii) any other kind of stiffener having I s > Ia and d l/ b < 0.8 in accordance
with Claus e 2.4.3 ................ ................. ................. ................. ................. .....90.
(b) For stiffened compression element with both longitudinal edges connected to other
stiffen ed elements ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ..........400.
(c) For unstiffened compression element and elements with an edge stiffener having
Is < Ia and dl/b ≤ 0.8 in accordance with Clause 2.4.3 ................. ................. ...........50.
NOT E: Unstiffe ned compre ssion elements with b / t ratios greater than 30 and stiffened
compression elements with b / t ratios greater than 75 are likely to develop noticeable
)
d deformation at the full design load, without affecting the ability of the member to carry the
te
n
ri design load. Stiffened elements with b / t ratios greater than 400 can be used with adequate
p
n design capacity [strength] to sustain the design loads; however, substantial deformations of
e
h such elements usually will invalidate the design equations of this Standard.
w
d
e
et 2.1.3.2 Flange curling
n
ra
a
u
Where the flange of a flexural member is unusually wide and it is desired to limit the
g
o
t maximum amount of curling or movement of the flange toward the neutral axis, the
n
y
c
maximum width ( b1) of the compression and tension flanges, either stiffened or unstiffened
n projecting beyond the web for I-be ams and simi lar sections or the maximum half distance
e
rr
u (b1) between webs for box- or U-type beams, shall be determined from the following
c
t
n Equation:
e
m
u
c
o 0.061 t f dE o 100 c f
D
(
7
b1 = 4 . . . 2.1.3.2
1 f *av d
0
2
v
o
N where
4
1
n tf = thickness of t he f lange
o
D
N d = depth of the section
A
L
S
N E o = initia l Young ’s modulus of elast icity (given in App endix B)
E
E
Q
U f av* = avera ge des ign stre ss in the fu ll, unred uced f lange wi dth (se e Note 1)
N
R
E cf = amount of curling (see Note 2)
H
T
U NOT ES:
O
S 1 Where members are designed by the effective design width procedure, the average stress
F
O equals the maximum stress multiplied by the ratio of the effective design width to the actual
Y
T
I width.
S
R
E 2 The amount of curling that can be tolerated will vary with different kinds of sections and
V
I
N should be established by the designer. Amount of curling in the order of 5% of the depth of
U
y
b
the section is usually not considered excessive.
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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27 AS/NZS 4673:2001
2.1.3.3 Shear lag effects (usually short spans supporting concentrated loads)
Where the span of the beam ( l ) is less than 30 b1 and the beam carries one concentrated load,
or several loads spaced greater than 2 b 1 , the effective design width of any flange, whether
in tension or compression, shall be limited to t he values given in Table 2.1.3.3.
For flanges of I-beams and similar sections stiffened by lips at the outer edges, b1 shall be
taken as the sum of the flange projection beyond the web and t he depth of the lip.
TABLE 2.1.3.3
MAXIMUM RATIO OF EFFECTIVE

DESIGN WIDTH TO ACTUAL WIDTH
FOR SHORT WIDE FLANGE BEAMS
l/ b1 Ratio l/ b1 Ratio
30 1.00 14 0.82
25 0.96 12 0.78
20 0.91 10 0.73
)
d
te 18 0.89 8 0.67
n
ri
p
n 16 0.86 6 0.55
e
h
w NOTE : l is the full span for simple beams; or
d
e distance between inflection points for continuous
et
n beam s; or twice the length of cantilever beams.
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
n
c 2.1.3.4 Maximum web depth-t o-thickness ratio
e
rr
u
c The maximum web depth-to-thickness ratio ( d1/ t w ) of flexural members shall not exceed the
t
n
e following:
m
u
c
o
(a) For unreinforced webs d1/t w .................. ................. ................. ................. ............200.
D
(
7
1
(b) For webs with transverse stiffeners complying with Clause 2.6.1—
0
2
v
o
(i) if using bearing stiffeners only d 1/ t w ............... .................. ................. .. 260; and
N
4 (ii) if using bearing stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners d1/ t w .........................300;
1
n
o
D where
N
A
L
S
d1 = depth o f the fla t portion of t he web m easured alo ng the pla ne of the w eb
N
E
E t w = thickness of web
U
Q
N Where a web consists of two or more sheets, the ratio d 1/ t w shall be calculated for each
R
E sheet.
H
T
U
O 2.2 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF STIFFENED ELEMENTS
S
F
O
Y
2.2.1 Uniformly compressed stiffened elements
T
I
S 2.2.1.1 General
R
E
V
I
N For uniformly compressed stiffened elements, the effective widths for section or member
U
y capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance with Clauses 2.2.1.2
b
d
e
and 2.2.1.3, respectively.
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 28
2.2.1.2 Effective width for capacity calculations

For determining the section or member capacity [strength], the effective widths ( b e) of
uniformly compressed stiffened elements shall be determined from either one of the
following Equations, as appropriate:
For λ ≤ 0.673 be = b . . . 2.2.1.2(1)
For λ > 0.673 b e = ρb . . . 2.2.1.2(2)
where
b = flat wid th of e lemen t exclu ding ra dii (se e in Fig ure 2.2 .1(a) )
ρ = effective wid th f actor
 1 − 0.22 
 
=  λ  . . . 2.2.1.2(3)
≤ 1.0
λ
The slenderness ratio ( λ) shall be determined as follows:
 1.052   b   f* 

λ=     . . . 2.2.1.2(4)
)
d
 k   t   Eo 

te
n
ri
p where
n
e
h k = plate buck ling co efficient
w
d
e
e = 4 for stiffe ned elem ents supp orted by a web on each long itudina l edge ( k values
t
n
ra
for different types of elements are given in the appli cable clauses)
a
u
g t = thickn ess of the uniform ly compr essed sti ffened eleme nts
t
o
n
y
c
f * = design stress in the compression element ca lculated on the basis of the e ffective
n
e
design width (see Figure 2.2.1(b))
rr
u E o = initia l Young’s m odulus of e lastic ity given i n Append ix B.
c
t
n
e
m
Alternatively, the plate buckling coefficient ( k ) for each flat element may be determined
u
c
o from a rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole section as a plate assemblage
D
( subjected to the longitudinal stress distribution in the section prior to buckling.
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O FIGURE 2.2.1 STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH UNIFORM COMPRESSION
S
F
O
Y For determining the nominal section or member capacity of flexural members, the design
T
I
S stress ( f * ) shall be taken as follows:
R
E
V
I
N (a) Where the nominal section moment capacity ( M s) is based on initiation of yielding as
U
y specified in Clause 3.3.2.2, and the initial yielding of the element being considered is
b
d *
e in compression, then f shall be equal to f yc. If the initial yielding of the section is in
s
s *
e tension, then f of the element being considered shall be determined on the basis of
c
c
A
the effective section at M y (moment causing initial yield).
COPYRIGHT
29 AS/NZS 4673:2001
(b) Where the nominal section moment capacity ( M s) is based on inelastic reserve
capacity as specified in Clause 3.3.2.3, then f * shall be the stress of the element
being considered at Ms. The basis of the effective section shall be used to determine
Ms.
(c) Where the nominal member moment capacity ( Mb) is based on lateral buckling as
specified in Clause 3.3.3, then f * shall be equal to M c / Z f as described in Clause 3.3.3
in determining Z c .
For compression members, f * shall be taken equal to f n determined in accordance with
Clause 3.4.
2.2.1.3 Effective width for deflection calculations
For determining the deflection, the effective widths ( b ed ) shall be determined from either
one of the following Equations, as appropriate.
For λ ≤ 0.673 bed = b . . . 2.2.1.3(1)
For λ > 0.673 bed = ρb . . . 2.2.1.3(2)
The effective width factor ( ρ) shall be determined from Equations 2.2.1.2(3) and 2.2.1.2(4),
)
d
except that f d* shall be substituted for f * , where f d* is the design compressive stress in the
te
n
ri
element being considered based on the effective section at the load for which deflections
p
n are determined, and the reduced modulus of elasticity ( E r) shall be substituted for Eo in
e
h
w
Equation 2.2.1.2(4).
d
e
et E st + E sc
n
ra
Er = . . . 2.2.1.3(3)
a 2
u
g
t
o where
n
y
c
n Est = secant modulus corre sponding to stress in tension flange
e
rr
u
c
t
Esc = secant modulus corr esponding to stress in com pression flange
n
e
m The values of E st and Esc shall be obtained from Appendix B, as appropriate.
u
c
o
D
(
2.2.2 Effective widths of webs and stiffened elements with stress gradient
7
1
0
2
2.2.2.1 Effective widths for capacity calculations
v
o
N For determining the section or member capacity, the effective width ( be1 ) (see Figure 2.2.2)
4
1 shall be determined from the following Equation:
n
o
D be
N
A
be1 = . . . 2.2.2.1(1)
L 3 −ψ
S
N
E
E The effective width ( be2 ) (see Figure 2.2.2) shall be determined from Equation 2.2.2.1(2) or
U
Q Equation 2.2.2.1(3), as appropriate.
N
R
E
H
T For ψ ≤ −0.236: be2 = be . . . 2.2.2.1(2)
U 2
O
S
F where ( be1 + be2 ) shall not be greater than the compression portion of the web calculated on
O
Y
T
the basis of effective section.
I
S
R
E
For ψ > − 0.236 be2 = b e − be1 . . . 2.2.2.1(3)
V
I
N where
U
y
b
d be = effective width determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2 with f 1*
e
s
s *
e
c substituted for f and with k determined as follows:
c
A
k = 4 + 2(1 − ψ) 3
+ 2(1 − ψ) 2.2.2.1(4)
. .
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 30
ψ = stress ratio
f 2*
= . . . 2.2.2.1(5)
f 1*
f 1* , f 2* = web stresses calculated on the basis of the effective section

(see Figure 2.2.2)
f1* is compression (+) and f 2* can be either tension ( − ) or compression. In case f1* and f 2*
are both compression, f1* shall be greater than or equal to f 2* .

For determining the deflection, the effective widths ( b e1 ) and ( b e2 ) shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 2.2.2.1 except that f d1* and f d2* shall be substituted for f 1* and f 2* .
The calculated stresses f 1* and f 2* (see Figure 2.2.2) shall be used to determine f d1* and
*
f respectively. Calculations shall be based on the effective section for the
d2 , load for which
deflections are determined.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c FIGURE 2.2.2 STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH S TRESS G RADIENT AND WEBS
c
A
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31 AS/NZS 4673:2001
2.3 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS

2.3.1 Uniformly compressed unstiffened elements
2.3.1.1 General
For uniformly compressed unstiffened elements (see Figure 2.3.1), the effective widths for
section or member capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance
with Clauses 2.3.1.2 and 2.3.1.3, respectively.
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective widths ( b e) of uniformly
compressed unstiffened elements shall be determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
with the exception that k shall be taken as 0.5 and b shall be as shown in Figure 2 .3.1.
For determining the deflection, the effective widths ( b e) shall be determined in accordance
with Clause 2.2.1.3 except that f d* shall be substituted for f * and k is equal to 0.5.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y FIGURE 2.3.1 UNSTIFFENED ELEMENT WITH UNIFORM COMPRESSION
c
n
e
rr
u 2.3.2 Unstiffened elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient
c
t
n
e 2.3.2.1 General
m
u
c
o For unstiffened elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient, the effective widths for
D
(
7 section or member capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance
1
0 with Clauses 2.3.2.2 and 2.3.2.3, respectively.
2
v
o
N 2.3.2.2 Effective width for capacity calculations
4
1
n
o
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective widths ( b e) of unstiffened
D compression elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient shall be determined in
N
A
L
S
accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2 with f * equal to f 3* as shown in Figures 2.3.2 and 2.4.2,
N
E and k equal to 0.5. Values of the plate buckling coefficient ( k ) given in Appendix I may be
E
U used in lieu of 0.5.
Q
N
R Alternatively, the plate buckling coefficient ( k ) for each flat element may be determined
E
H
T from a rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole section as a plate assemblage
U
O subjected to the longitudinal stress distribution in the section prior to buckling.
S
F
O 2.3.2.3 Effective width for d eflection calculations
Y
T
I
S
For determining the deflection, the effective widths ( b ed ) of unstiffened compression
R
E elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient shall be determined in accordance with
V
I *
N Clause 2.2.1.3 except that f d3 shall be substituted for f * and k is equal to 0.5. Values of the
U
y
b plat e buckling coeffi cient ( k ) given in Appendix I may be used in lieu of 0.5.
d
e
s Alternatively, the plate buckling coefficient ( k ) for each flat element may be determined
s
e
c
c from a rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole section as a plate assemblage
A
subjected to the longitudinal stress distribution in the section prior to buckling.
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 32
FIGURE 2.3.2 UNSTIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS SUBJECT

TO A STRESS GRADIENT
)
d
te
n
ri
p 2.4 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNIFORMLY COMPRESSED ELEMENTS WITH
n
e AN EDGE STIFFENER OR ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER
h
w
d
e 2.4.1 Notation
et
n
ra For the purpose of this Clause—
a
u
g
o
t As = reduced area of the stif fener. A s shall be used in calculating the overall effective
n
y section properties. The centroid of the stiffener shall be considered located at the
c
n
e
rr centroid of the full area of the stiffener, and the second moment of area of the
u stiffener about its own centroidal axis shall be that of the full section of the
c
t
n stiffener
e
m
u
c Ase = effective area of the stiffen er
o
D
(
7 = dse t( forstiffenershowninFigure2.4.2) ...2.4.1(1)
1
0
2
v
o
b = flat width of e lemen t excludi ng radii (s ee Figu res 2.4.1( a) and 2.4. 2(a))
N
4 b2 = flat w idth of e lemen t with int ermediate s tiffene r exclud ing rad ii
1
n
o (see Figure 2.4.1(a))
D
N
A
L
C1, = coefficients (s ee Fi gure 2.4. 2(b))
S
N C2
E
E
U d, dl = actua l stiffene r dimension (see Figure 2.4.2 (a))
Q
N
R ds = reduc ed effec tive width of the stiffene r (see Figure 2.4.2 (a)). The valu e of ds
E
H
T calculated in accordance with Clause 2.4.3, shall be used in calculating the overall
U
O effective section properties
S
F
O dse = effec tive width of the sti ffene r calcula ted in accord ance with Clau se 2.3.1 (se e
Y
T
I
Figure 2.4.2(a))
S
R
E Ia = adequ ate sec ond mom ent of area of the sti ffener, so that eac h compon ent elem ent
V
I
N beha ves as a stiffened ele ment
U
y
b Is = second mome nt of area of th e full sti ffene r about its ow n centro idal axis pa rallel
d
e to the element to be stiffened
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
33 AS/NZS 4673:2001
d 3 t sin 2θ
= (for stiffener shown in Figure 2.4.2) . . . 2.4.1(2)
12
k = plate bucklin g coefficient
S = slenderness factor
Eo
= 1.28 . . . 2.4.1(3)
f*
For edge stiffeners, the round corner between the stiffener and the element to be stiffened
shall not be considered as part of the stiffener.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m FIGURE 2.4.1 ELEMENTS WITH INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 34
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr FIGURE 2.4.2 ELEMENTS WITH EDGE STIFFENER
u
c
t
n 2.4.2 Elements with an intermediate stiffener
e
m
u
c
o
2.4.2.1 General
D
(
7
1
For uniformly compressed elements with an intermediate stiffener, the effective widths for
0
2 section or member capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance
v
o with Clauses 2.4.2.2 and 2.4.2.3, respectively.
N
4
1
n 2.4.2.2 Effective width for capacity calculations
o
D
N For determining the section or member capacity, the effective widths ( b e) of uniformly
A
L compressed elements with an intermediate stiffener shall be determined for the following
S
N
E cases:
E
U
Q b2
R
N (a) Case I: ≤S
E t
H
T
U Ia = 0 (no interme diate stiffe ner is require d)
O
S
F be = b . . 2.4.2.2(1)
O
Y
T
I A s = Ase . . 2.4.2.2(2)
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
35 AS/NZS 4673:2001
b2
(b) Case II: S < < 3S
t
50 
 b2 

Ia
=  t  − 50 . . . 2.4.2.2(3)
t4 S
b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
where
k = 3  I s 
+1≤ 4 . . . 2.4.2.2(4)
 I a 
 
As = Ase  I s  ≤ Ase . . . 2.4.2.2(5)
 Ia 
A se shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2.
b2
)
d
(c) Case III: ≥ 3S
te t
n
ri
p
n   b2  
e
h  128  t  
w
d
Ia
=    − 285 . . . 2.4.2.2(6)
e
e
t t4  S 
n
ra
 
a
u  
g
t
o
n
y
c
b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
n
e
rr
where
u
c 1/ 3
t
n  Is 
e
m
k 3   +1 ≤4 . . . 2.4.2.2(7)
u
c
o
 Ia 
D
(
7  Is 
 I  ≤ Ase
1 Ase
0
2
As . . . 2.4.2.2(8)
v
o
 a
N
4
1 A se shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2.
n
o
D 2.4.2.3 Effective width for deflection calculations
N
A
L
S
N
E with Clause 2.4.2.2, except that f d* shall be substituted for f *.
E
U
Q
N
2.4.3 Elements with an edge stiffener
R
E
H
T 2.4.3.1 General
U
O For uniformly compressed elements with an edge stiffener, the effective widths for section
S
F or member capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance with
O
Y Clauses 2.4.3.2 and 2.4.3.3, respectively.
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective widths ( b e) of uniformly
y compressed elements with an edge stiffener shall be determined for the foll owing cases:
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 36
b S
(a) Case I: ≤
t 3
Ia = 0 (no edge sti ffener i s req uired)
be = b . . . 2.4.3.2(1)
ds = dse (forsimplelipstiffener) ...2.4.3.2(2)
A s = Ase (forotherstiffenershapes) ...2.4.3.2(3)
S b
(b) Case II: < <S
3 t
Ia  (b / t ) ku 3
4
= 399  −  . . . 2.4.3.2(4)
t  S 4 
n = 0.5
Is
C2 = ≤1 . . . 2.4.3.2(5)
Ia
)
d
te
C1 = 2 − C2 . . . 2.4.3.2(6)
n
ri
p b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, where k shall be determined
n
e as follows:
h
w
d
e
e
t
k = C 2n (k a − ku ) + ku . . . 2.4.3.2(7)
n
ra
a
u
k u = 0.43
g
t
o
n
y For simple lip stiffener with 140 ° ≥ θ ≥ 40° and dl/ b ≤ 0.8, where θ is as shown in
n
c Figure 2.4.2:
e
rr
u
c
k a = 5.25 − 5 (d l b ) ≤ 4.0 . . . 2.4.3.2(8)
t
n
e
m d s = C 2 ds . . . 2.4.3.2(9)
u
c
o
D
(
For stiffener shape other than simple lip :
7
1
0
2
k a = 4.00
v
o
N A s = C 2Ase ≤ Ase ’ . . . 2.4.3.2(10)
4
1
n b
o
D
(c) Case III: ≥S
N t
A
L
S
115 (b t )
= 
N Ia
E
E
t4  S  + 5 . . . 2.4.3.2(11)
U
Q
N
R C 1, C2, be, k, ds , As shall be calculated in accordance with Case II with n equal to
E
H
T 0.333.
U
O
S 2.4.3.3 Effective width for d eflection calculations
F
O
Y
T
I
S with Clause 2.4.3.2, except that f d* shall be substituted for f * .
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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37 AS/NZS 4673:2001
2.5 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF EDGE-STIFFENED ELEMENTS W ITH ONE OR

MORE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS, OR STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH
MORE THAN ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER
For determining the effective width ( b e ), the intermediate stiffener of an edge-stiffened
element or the stiffeners of a stiffened element with more than one stiffener shall be
disregarded unless each intermediate stiffener has the f ollowing minimum I s :
 b 2  0.119E  
I s, = 3.66t 4    −  o 
≥ 18.4t 4 . . . 2.5(1)
min.
  t   f y  
 
where
Is = second mom ent of are a of the ful l stiffen er about it s own cent roidal ax is
parallel t o the e lement to be stiffened
b
= width- to-thick ness ra tio of the la rger sti ffene d sub-e lement.
t
In addition, the following shall be considered:
(a) Where the spacing of intermediate stiffeners between two webs is such that for the
)
d sub-element between the stiffeners, be is less than b as determined in accordance with
te
n
ri
Clause 2.2.1.2, only t wo intermediate stiffeners, those nearest each web, shall be
p
n considered effective.
e
h
w (b) Where the spacing of intermediate stiffeners between a web and an edge stiffener is
d
e
e
t
such that for the sub-element between the stiffeners, be is less than b as determined in
n
ra
accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, only one intermediate stiffener, that nearest the web,
a
u
g
shall be considered effective.
t
o
n
y (c) Where intermediate stiffeners are spaced so closely that for the elements between the
n
c stiffeners, b e is equal to b as determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, all the
e
rr
u
stiffeners may be considered effective. In calculating the flat-width-to-thickness ratio
c
t
n
of the entire multiple-stiffened element, such element shall be considered as replaced
e
m by an equi valent element without i nter mediate stiffeners whose width ( b 2 ) shall be the
u
c full width between webs or from web to edge stiffener, and whose equivalent
o
D
(
7
thickness of the stiffener ( t s) shall be determined from the following Equation:
1
0
2
v 12 I sf
o
N
ts =3 . . . 2.5(2)
4 b2
1
n
o
D
where Isf is the second moment of area of the full area of the multiple-stiffened
N element, including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own centroidal axis. The
A
L
S
N
second moment of area of the entire section shall be calculated assuming the
E equivalent element to be located at the centroidal axis of the multiple stiffened
E
U
Q element, including the intermediate stiffener. The actual extreme fibre distance shall
N
R be used in calculating the section modulus.
E
H
T
U
(d) If b/t is greater than 60, the effective width ( be) of the sub-element or element shall be
O determined from the following Equation:
S
F
=  be  − 0.1  − 60 
O bes b
Y
T
. . . 2.5(3)
I
S
t t t 
R
E
V
I where
N
U
y
b
b/t = flat- width r atio o f the sub-e lement or eleme nt
d
e
s
bes = effective w idth of the sub -elem ent or elem ent to be use d in design
s
e
c
calculations
c
A be = effective wid th determ ined in ac corda nce with Cla use 2.2.1 .2
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 38
To calculate the effective structural properties of a member having compression sub-

elements or element subjected to the above reduction in effective width, the area of
stiffeners (edge stiffener or intermediate stiffeners) shall be considered reduced to an
effective area as follows:
b
(i) For 60 < < 90: Aef = αAs . . . 2.5(4)
t
where
=  3 −  − 1 1 − bes  b 
2bes
α     . . . 2.5(5)
 b  30  b  t 
For
b
≥ 90 : b 
Aef =  es  As
(ii) . . . 2.5(6)
t b
In Equations 2.5(4) and 2.5(6), A ef and As apply only to the area of the stiffener section,
exclusive of any portion of adjacent elements.
The centroid of the stiffener shall be considered at the centroid of the full area of the
stiffener, and the second moment of area of the stiffener about its own centroidal axis shall
) be that of the full section of the stiffener.
d
te
n
ri
p
n 2.6 STIFFENERS
e
h
w 2.6.1 Transverse stiffeners
d
e
et
n Transverse stiffeners attached to beam webs at points of concentrated loads or reactions
ra
a
u
shall be designed as compression members. Concentrated loads or reactions shall be applied
g
o
t directly into the stiffeners, or each stiffener shall be fitted accurately to the flat portion of
n
y the flange to provide direct loadbearing into the end of the stiffener. Means for shear
c
n transfer between the stiffener and the web shall be provided in accordance with Section 3.
e
rr
u
c The design concentrated loads or reactions ( N*) shall satisfy the following:
t
n
e
m
(a) N* ≤ φcNs . . . 2.6.1(1)
u
c
o
D (b) N* ≤ φcNc . . . 2.6.1(2)
(
7
1 Where
0
2
v φc = capacity [st rength re duction ] facto r for membe rs in comp ressio n
o
N
4 = 0.85
1
n
o Ns = nomin al sect ion capa city of a mem ber in com press ion (see Cl ause 3.4)
D
N
A
L
= f wy As1
S
N Nc = nomin al mem ber cap acity of a me mber in co mpression (se e Clause 3. 4)
E
E
U = f nAs2
Q
R
N f wy = lower yi eld s tress va lue o f the b eam web ( f y) or of the stiffener
E
H
T
U
section ( f ys)
O
fn = buckling st ress (see Clause 3. 4)
S
F A s1 , As2 = area o f a memb er in com press ion consi sting of the tran svers e stiffe ners
O
Y and a portion of the web
T
I
S
R A s1 = 18 t2 + As
E
V
I (for transverse stiffeners at interior support and under . . . 2.6.1(3)
N
U concentrated load)
y
b
d = 10 t2 + As
e
s
. . . 2.6.1(4)
s (for transverse stiffeners at end support)
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
39 AS/NZS 4673:2001
A s2 = b 1t + As
(for transverse stiffeners at interior support under . . . 2.6.1(5)
concentrated load)
= b 2t + As
. . . 2.6.1(6)
(for transverse stiffeners at end support)
t = base thickness of beam web
As = cross -sectional area of tra nsverse stiffe ners
  ls t  
b1 = 25 t  0.0024 t  + 0.72 ≤ 25 t . . . 2.6.1(7)
  l s t  + 0.83 ≤ 12 t
b2 = 12 t  0.0044   . . . 2.6.1(8)
 t  
l st = length of transverse stiffener
The b/t s ratio for the stiffened and unstiffened elements of cold-formed steel transverse
stiffeners shall not exceed 1.28 E o / f y s and 0.37 E o / f y s , respectively, where f ys is the
)
d yield stress and t s is the thickness of the stiffener st eel.
te
n
ri
p 2.6.2 Shear stiffeners
n
e
h
w Where shear stiffeners are required, the spacing shall be such that the design shear force
d
e
e shall not be greater than the design shear capacity ( φv Vv) specified in Clause 3.3.4, and the
t
n ratio a/ d1 shall not be greater than [260/( d 1 / t )]2 and 3.0.
ra
a
u
g
t
The actual second moment of area ( I s,min. ) of a pair of attached shear stiffeners, or of a
o
n
y single shear stiffener, with reference to an axis in the plane of the web, shall have a
c minimum value as follows:
n
e
rr
u
c
t
 d1  a   d  4
n
e
I s , min. = 5d 1t 3  − 0.7   ≥  1  . . . 2.6.2(1)
m
u
 a  d1   50 
c
o
D
( The gross area of shear sti ffeners ( Ast ) shall be not less than—
7
1
0
2  
v
o   a 2 
N
4
 1 − ks  
 a  d  
1
=  −  1
n
o
Ac  ψ k st d 1 t . . . 2.6.2(2)
 2   d1  a   
2

 + 1 +  a 
D
N
A   
L
S
N
  d1   d1  
E
E
U where
Q
N
R ks = shear stiffener coeffici ent
E
H
T 1.53 Eo k v
U
O
S
F
=  d1 
2
if k s ≤ 0 .8 . . . 2.6.2(3)
O fy  
Y
T
t 
I
S
0.00248  k v E o 
R
E
V
I 
N =  d1   fy  if k s > 0 .8 . . . 2.6.2(4)
U
y   
b
d
e
t 
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 40
ψ = yield stress of web

yield stress of stiffener
kst = stiffener type coefficient

= 1.0 for stiffeners in pairs
= 1.8 for single-angle stiffeners
= 2.4 for single-plate stiffeners
k v = shear buckling coefficient
5.34 a
= 4.00 + 2
if ≤ 1.0 . . . 2.6.2(5)
a d1
 
 d1 
4.00 a
= 5.34 + 2
if > 1.0 . . . 2.6.2(6)
a d1
 
 d1 
)
d
te a = distan ce betwe en transv erse stiffe ners
n
ri
p 2.6.3 Non-conforming stiffeners
n
e
h
w The design capacities of members with transverse stiffeners that do not comply with
d
e Clause 2.6.1 or 2.6.2, such as stamped or rolled-in transverse stiffeners, shall be determined
et
n
ra by test s in accordance with Se ction 6.
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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41 AS/NZS 4673:2001
SECTION 3 MEMBERS
3.1 GENERAL
Section properties used for the determination of structural performance, moment capacity of
beams or capacity of axia l members in compression , shall b e those calculated in accordance
with Section 2.
Both full and effective section properties, where applicable, shall be required. Full section
propert ies shall be used for the determinati on of buc kling moments or stresses. Effective
section properties shall be used for the determination of section and member capacities.
3.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TENSION

The design tensile force ( φ tN t) for axially loaded tension members shall be determined as
follows:
φ t = 0.85
) Nt = An f y . . . 3.2
d
te
n where
ri
p
n
e
h
φ t = capacity [st rengt h reduc tion] fa ctor for m embers in tens ion
w
d N t = nomina l section c apaci ty of t he member in te nsion
e
et
n
ra A n = net ar ea of the c ross-s ectio n, obtain ed by dedu cting from the gross area of the
a
u
g sectional area of all penetrations and holes, including fastener holes
t
o
n
y
c
f y = yield stres s used in desig n (see Appendix B)
n
e
rr When mechanical fasteners are used in connections for tension members, the design tensile
u
c
t strength shall also be limited by Clause 5.3.5.
n
e
m
u
c 3.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING
o
D
(
7 3.3.1 Bending moment
1
0
2
v
o
The design bending moment ( M *) of a flexural member shall satisfy the follo wing:
N
4
1 (a) M* ≤ φ bM s
n
o
D (b) M ≤ φ bM b
*
N
A
L where
S
N
E
E φ b = capacity [stre ngth reduc tion] factor for bending
U
Q
N = 0.90 f or sections with s tiffene d compress ion fl anges
R
E
H
T = 0.85 o r sections w ith uns tiffene d compression f langes
U
O Ms = nomin al sectio n momen t capacity ca lcula ted in accor dance with Clause 3.3. 2
S
F
O M b = nomin al membe r moment ca pacity calcula ted in accor dance w ith Clause 3.3 .3
Y
T
I
S 3.3.2 Nominal section moment capacity
R
E
V
I
N
3.3.2.1 General
U
y The nominal section moment capacity ( M s ) shall be calculated either on the basis of
b
d
e
s
initiation of yielding in the effective section specified in Clause 3.3.2.2 or on the basis of
s
e
c the inelastic reserve capacity specified in Clause 3.3.2.3.
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 42
3.3.2.2 Based on initiation of yielding

The nominal section moment capacity ( M s) shall be determined as follows:
Ms = Z e f y . . . 3.3.2.2
where Z e is the effective section modulus calculated with the extreme compression or
tension fibre at f yc or f yt respectively, whichever initiates yield.
3.3.2.3 Based on inelastic reserve capacity
The inelastic flexural reserve capacity may be used if the following conditions are met:
(a) The member is not subject to twisting or to lateral, torsional, distortional or flexural-
torsional buckling.
(b) The effect of cold-forming is not included in det ermining the yield stress ( f y).
The ratio of the depth of the compressed portion of the web ( d w ) to its thickness ( t w ) does
not exceed the slenderness ratio ( λ 1 ).
The design shear force ( V *) does not exceed 0.35 f y times the web area ( d1 t w ).
The angle between any web and the vertical does not exceed 30 °.
)
d
te The nominal section moment capacity ( M s ) shall not exceed either 1.25 Z e f y, where Z e f y shall
n
ri
p be determined in accor dance with Clause 3.3.2.2 or that causing a maximum compression
n
e
h
strain of Cye y ,
w
d where
e
et
n
ra C y = compression stra in factor
a
u
g
o
t e y = yield strain
n
y
c fy
n
e
rr = . . . 3.3.2.3(1)
u Eo
c
t
n
e
m NOT E: The re is no limi t f or the maxi mum ten sil e s train.
u
c
o The compression strain factor ( Cy) shall be determined as follows:
D
(
7
1 (i) For s tiff ened compression e lements withou t int ermediate stiffeners:
0
2
v
o
N
For b/t ≤ λ 1: Cy = 3 3.3.2.3(2)
. . .
4
1
n For λ 1 < b/ t < λ 2: Cy = 3 − 2[(( b/t) − λ1)/( λ 2 − λ1)] .3.3.2.3(3)
o
D
N For b/ t ≥ λ 2: Cy = 1 3.3.2.3(4)
. . .
A
L
S 1.11
N
E λ1 = . . . 3.3.2.3(5)
E f yc / E o
U
Q
N
R 1.28
E
H
T λ2 = . . . 3.3.2.3(6)
U f yc / E o
O
S
F
O (ii) For uns tiffened c ompression el ements:
Y
T
I
S
Cy = 1
R
E
V
I
(iii) For mu ltiple- stiffen ed com press ion elem ents and c ompre ssion el ements with edg e
N
U stiffeners:
y
b
d
e
Cy = 1
s
s
e
c
c
A
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43 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Where applicable, effective design widths shall be used in calculating section properties.
Ms shall be calculated considering equilibrium of stresses, assuming an ideally elastic-
plastic stress-strain curve that is the same in tension as in compr ession, small deformation
and that plane sections remain plane during bending. Combined bending and bearing shall
be in accordance with Clause 3.3.7.
3.3.2.4 Local distortion
Where local distortions in flexural members under nominal service loads shall be limited,
the design flexural capacity ( φ d M ld) shall be determined as follows:
φd = 1.0
M ld = Z f f b . . . 3.3.2.4(1)
Where
φd = capacity [s trengt h reduc tion] fa ctor fo r loca l distortio n
M ld = nominal flex ural capa city o f the mem ber
Zf = elastic sec tion mod ulus of the f ull, unre duced c ross-s ectio n
fb = permissible co mpressive stre ss for local disto rtion, det ermin ed as follows :
)
d
te (a) If small, barely perceptible amounts of local distortions are
n
ri permissible—
p
n
e
h (i) for stiffened compression elements:
w
d
e
e
t
f b = 1.2f cr . . . 3.3.2.4(2)
n
ra (ii) for unstiffened compression elements:
a
u
g
o
t f b = f cr . . . 3.3.2.4(3)
n
y
n
c (b) If no local distortions are permissible—
e
rr
u
c
(i) for stiffened compression elements:
t
n
e f b = 0.9f cr . . . 3.3.2.4(4)
m
u
c (ii) for unstiffened compression elements:
o
D
(
7 f b = 0.75f cr . . . 3.3.2.4(5)
1
0
2
v
o
f cr = critical buc kling s tress
N
4
1 π 2 kηE o
n = . . . 3.3.2.4(6)
12 (1 − ν 2 ) (b t )
o 2
D
N
A
L η = plasticity reduction factor
S
N
E
E = E t / Eo for stiffened compression elements
U
Q
N for unstiffened compression elements
R = Es E o
E
H
T
U ν = Poiss on’s ra tio in the elastic range equal to 0.3
O
S
F 3.3.3 Nominal member moment capacity
O
Y
T
I
The design strength of the laterally unbraced segments of doubly or singly symmetric
S
R sections subjected to lateral buckling ( φ b Mb ) shall be determined as follows:
E
V
I
N φb = 0.85
U
y
b  Mc 
d
e
s Mb = Z c   . . . 3.3.3(1)
s
e
c
 Zf 
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 44
where
Z c = elasti c sect ion modu lus of the ef fectiv e secti on calcu lated a t a stress Mc / S f in
the extreme compression fibre
Z f = elasti c section mo dulus of th e full, u nreduc ed sec tion for the ex treme
compression fibre
Mc = critical moment
Mc shall be calculated as follows, with a maximum value of M y:
(a) For doubly symmetric I-sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to the
web ( x -axis)—
 E t   dI yc 
Mc = π E o C b   2
2
. . . 3.3.3(2)
 E o   l 
Alternatively, Mc can be calculated using Equation 3.3.3(4).
(b) For point-symmetric Z-sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to the
web ( x -axis)—
)
d
te
n  E t   dI yc 
Mc = 0.5π E o C b   2
2
ri . . . 3.3.3(3)
 E o   l 
p
n
e
h
w
d Alternatively, Mc can be calculated as half the value using Equation 3.3.3(4).
e
et
n (c) For singly symmetric sections, where the x -axis is assumed to be the axis of
ra
a
u symmetry—
g
t
o
n
y
c
(i) for bending about the symmetry axis, where the x -axis is the axis of symmetry
n oriented such that the shear centre has a negative x - coordinate—
e
rr
u
c
t
n
Mc = C b ro A σ eyσ t . . . 3.3.3(4)
e
m
u Alternatively, Mc can be calculated using Equation 3.3.3(2) for doubly
c
o
D
( symmetric I-sections.
7
1
0 (ii) for bending about the centroid axis perpendicular to the symmetry axis—
2
v
o
N
4 Mc = C s C b Aσ ex  j + Cs j2 + ro2 (σ t / σ ex )  . . . 3.3.3(5)
1
n
 
o
D
N where
A
L
S My = moment caus ing initi al yield at the ex treme c ompression f ibre
N
E
E of the full section
U
Q
N = Zf fy . . . 3.3.3(6)
R
E
H
T
U
l = unbr aced length of the member
O
S
Iyc = second moment of are a the com press ion porti on of the se ction
F about the centroidal axis of the full section parallel to the web,
O
Y
T
using the full unreduced section
I
S
R
E
Cs = + 1 for the moment causing compression on the shear centre side
V
I
N
of the centroid
U
y
b Cs = − 1 for the moment causing tension on the shear centre side of
d
e
s
the centroid
s
e
c
c
A
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45 AS/NZS 4673:2001
 π 2 Eo   E t 
σex =    . . . 3.3.3(7)
 (k x l x /rx )2   E o 
 π 2 Eo   E t 
σey =    
2  . . . 3.3.3(8)
 (k y l y /ry )   E o 
 1   2 
σt =  2  Go J +  π E o C2w   E t  . . . 3.3.3(9)
 Ar    (k t l t )   E o 
o
   
A = area of the ful l, unr educed c ross-section
Et/ Eo = plasti city r educt ion factor given in App endix B
Cb = bending coefficient
12.5M max.
= . . . 3.3.3(10)
2.5M max. + 3M 3 + 4 M 4 + 3M 5
) C b is permitted to be conservatively taken as unity for all cases.
d
te
n
For cantilevers or overhang where the free end is unbraced, Cb
ri
p shall be taken as unity. For members subject to combined axial
n
e
h
load and bending moment (see Clause 3.5), Cb shall be taken as
w
d unity.
e
et
n M max. = absolu te value of the maxim um moment in th e
ra
a unbraced segment
u
g
t
o
n
y M3 = absolu te value of the moment at the quart er poin t of
n
c the unbraced segment
e
rr
u
c M4 = absolu te value of the mo ment at the c entre -line o f the
t
n unbraced segment
e
m
u
c
o
M5 = absolu te valu e of the moment at th e thre e-qua rter po int
D
( of the unbraced segment
7
1
0
2 d = depth of the section
v
o
N ro = polar ra dius of gy ration of th e cros s-sec tion abou t the shea r
4
1
n centre
o
D
N
A
L
= rx2 + ry2 + xo2 . . . 3.3.3(11)
S
N
E
E
r x, r y = radii of gy ration of the cross -section abo ut the ce ntroida l axes
U
Q
N
Go = init ial sh ear mod ulus (se e App endix B)
R
E
H
T
U
k x, k y = effec tive length facto rs for bending about the x - and y -axes,
respectively
O
S
F kt = effective l ength fa ctor for tw isting
O
Y
T
I l x, l y = unbra ced le ngths of t he com press ion mem ber fo r bending about
S
R the x - and y axes, respectively
E
V
I
N lt = unbrac ed len gth of th e compress ion me mber for twis ting
U
y
b xo = distan ce fro m the shear centre of the c ross-s ection to the
d
e
s
s
centroid along the principal x -axis, taken as negative
e
c
c
A J = St. Venant torsion const ant of the cross -section
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 46
Cw = torsion al warping consta nt of the cross-s ection

1
j = (∫ A x 3 dA + ∫ A xy 2 dA) − xo . . . 3.3.3(12)
2I y
3.3.4 Shear
The design shear force ( φ v Vv ) at any cross-section shall be calculated as follows:
φv = 0.85
3
Vv = 4.84E o t w (Gs G o ) . . . 3.3.4(1)

d1
In no case shall the design shear force ( φ vV v) be greater than 0.95 d 1t w f yv,
where
φv = capacity [stren gth reduction] facto r for shear
Vv = nominal she ar capacity of th e beam
) tw = thickness of web
d
te
n Gs/ Go = plasti city reduc tion factor give n in Appen dix B
ri
p
n
e
h
d1 = depth of the flat po rtion of th e web m easur ed along t he plan e of the we b
w
d f yv = speci fied shear yield stres s given in Appe ndix B
e
et
n
ra When the web consists of two or more sheets, each sheet shall be considered as a separate
a
u
g element carrying its share of the shear force.
t
o
n
y For beam webs with transverse stiffeners satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.1, the
c
n nominal shear capacity ( V v) shall be calculated as follows:
e
rr
u
c 3
t
n 0.904k v E o t w (Gs /G o )
e
m
Vv = . . . 3.3.4(2)
u
c
d1
o
D
(
7 where k v is the shear buckling coefficient and shall be determined in accordance with
1
0 Clause 2.6.2.
2
v
o
N 3.3.5 Combined bending and shear
4
1
n
o
For beams with unstiffened webs, the design bending moment ( M *) and the design shear
D
N
force ( V *) shall satisfy—
A
L 2 2
S
N  M*   V* 
E
E
  +   ≤ 1.0 . . . 3.3.5(1)
Q
U  φbM s   φ vV v 
N
R
E
For beams with transverse web stiffeners, the design bending moment ( M *) shall satisfy—
H
T
U M* ≤ φ bM b . . . 3.3.5(2)
O
S *
F The design shear force ( V ) shall satisfy—
O
Y
T
I V* ≤ φ vV v . . . 3.3.5(3)
S
R * *
E M V
V
I
N
If > 0.5 and > 0.7 ; then M * and V* shall satisfy—
U φb M s φ bV v
y
b
d
e
s
s  M *   V * 
e
c 0.6  + ≤ 1.3 . . . 3.3.5(4)
 φ b M s   φ v Vv 
c
A
COPYRIGHT
47 AS/NZS 4673:2001
where
φb = capacity [st rength r educt ion] fa ctor for b ending ( see Cla use 3.3. 1)
φv = capacity [st rength r educt ion] fac tor shea r (see C lause 3.3 .4)
Ms = nomin al sect ion mom ent capa city abou t the centro idal axes de termi ned in
accordance with Clause 3.3.2
Vv = nomin al shea r capac ity when she ar alone ex ists dete rmine d in accord ance
with Clause 3.3.4
M b = nomin al mem ber mom ent capa city whe n bending a lone exist s determin ed in
accordance with Clause 3.3.3
3.3.6 Bearing
This Clause applies to webs of flexural members subject to concentrated loads or reactions,
or the components thereof, acting perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member and
in the plane of the web under consideration, and causing compressive stresses in the web.
To avoid failure of unstiffened flat webs of flexural members having a flat width ratio
)
(d1/ t w) less than or equal to 200, the design concentrated loads and reactions (R ) shall
*
b
d satisfy—
te
n
ri
p . . . 3.3.6(1)
n
e
Rb* ≤ φ w Rb
h
w
d where
e
et
n φ w = capacity [stren gth reduction] facto r for bearing
ra
a
u
g
t = 0.70 for single unstif fened webs and I-sections
o
n
y R b = nomina l capa city for conce ntrat ed load o r react ion for one s olid we b
c
n
e
rr connecting top and bottom flanges
u
c
t
n The values of R b for stiffened and unstiffened flanges, and for the appropriate type and
e
m posi tion of load s, are given in Table 3.3.6. Webs of flexural members for whic h d1 / t w is
u
c
o greater than 200 shall be provided with means of transmitting concentrated loads and
D
(
7 reactions directly into the webs.
1
0
2 The equations in Table 3.3.6 apply, if—
v
o
N
4
1
(a) l b/t w ≤ 210 and lb/d1 ≤ 3.5;
n
o
D
(b) r i/ t w≤ 6 for beams; and
N
A
L (c) r i/ tw ≤ 7 for decking and cladding;
S
N
E where
E
U
Q l b = actua l length of bea ring. For the ca se of two equa l and opposite co ncentrate d
N
R
E
loads distributed over unequal bearing lengths, the smaller value of l b shall be
H
T taken
U
O
S t w = thickness of web
F
O
Y r i = inside b end ra dius
T
I
S
R For two or more webs, R b shall be calculated for each individual web and the results added
E
V
I to obtain the nominal concentrated load or reaction for the multiple web. Where two webs
N
U of a beam are inclined in opposite directions, the Rb equations may be applied to such webs
y
b only if they are restrained against spreading.
d
e
s
s For built-up I-sections, or similar sections, the distance between the web connector and
e
c
c beam flange shall be kept as small as practicable .
A
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Accessed by UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND on 14 Nov 2017 (Document currency not guaranteed when printed)
TABLE 3.3.6
NOMINAL VALUES OF R b
I-sections or similar sections

Shapes with single webs
(See Note 1)
Type and position of loads
Stiffened, partially stiffened and unstiffened
S ti ffe n e d or p a r ti a l l y s t i f fe n e d f l a ng e s U n s t i ff e n e d fl a n g e s
flanges
Opposing loads
End reaction 2
t C3C4Cθ (2.28 - 0.0042 ()d1 t )( (1 + 0.01 lb t ) 2
t C3C4Cθ (1.51 - 0.002(d)1 t )()(1 + 0.01 lb t ) 2
(
t f y cb 0.01 + 0.00125 lb t )
spaced greater (see Note 3)
than 1.5 d1 Interior
(see Note 2) reaction t 2C1C2Cθ (3.71 - 0.005 (d) 1 t ) )(1 + 0.007 lb t ) t 2C1C2Cθ (3.71 - 0.005 (d)1 t ) ()1 + 0.007 lb t ) (
t 2 f yC5 (0.88 + 0.12m) 0.015 + 0.00325 lb t )
(see Note 4)
C
O
Opposing loads
spaced less than
End reaction t 2C3C4Cθ (1.68 - 0.004 (d)1 t )()(1 + 0.01 lb t ) t 2C3C4Cθ (1.68 - 0.004 (d)1 t )()(1 + 0.01 lb t ) (
t 2 f yC8 (0.64 + 0.31m ) 0.01 + 0.00125 lb t
P
Y or equal to
R Interior
IG
H
1.5 d 1
reaction t 2C1C2Cθ (5.32 - 0.016 ()d1( t ) ()1 + 0.0013 lb t ) t 2C1C2Cθ (5.32 - 0.016 ()d1 t ) ()1( + 0.0013 lb t ) (
t 2 f yC7 (0.82 + 0.15m ) 0.015 + 0.00325 lb t )
(see Note 5)
T (see Note 4)
NOTE S:
1 I-sections made of two channels connected back-to-back, or similar sections that provide high degree of restraint against rotation of the web, such as I-sections made
by welding two angles t o t he chann el.
2 At locations of one concentrated load or reaction acting either on top or bottom flange, if clear distance between bearing edges of this and adjacent opposite
concentrated loads or reactions is greater than 1.5 d1.
3 For end reactions of beams or concentrated loads on end of cantilevers if distance from edge of bearing to end of beam is less than 1.5 d1.
4 For reactions and concentrated loads if distance from edge of bearing to end of beam is greater than or equal to 1.5 d1.
5 At locations of two opposite concentrated loads or of concentrated load and opposite reaction acting simultaneously on top and bottom flanges, if clear distance
bet ween thei r ad jace nt bear ing edge s is l ess than or e qual to 1 .5 d 1 .
6 If l b/ t > 60, the factor (1 + 0.01 ( l b/ t )) may be increased to (0.71 + 0.015 ( l b / t )).
7 If l b/ t > 60, the factor (1 + 0.07 ( l b/ t )) may be increased to (0.75 + 0.011 ( l b / t )).
49 AS/NZS 4673:2001
The following applies to the equations given in Table 3.3.6:

φ w = capacity [stren gth reduction] facto r for bearing
Rb = nomina l capac ity for conc entra ted load or rea ction for one we b connec ting top
and bottom flanges
C1 = (1.22 − 0.22 k)k if f y ≤ 631 MPa . . . 3.3.6(2)
= 1.69 if f y > 631 MPa
C2 = (1.06 − 0.06( ri/t))1 ≤ .0 3.3.6(3)
. . .
C3 = (1.33 − 0.33 k)k if f y ≤

4 59
MPa 3.3.6(4)
...
= 1.34 if f y > 459 MPa
C4 = (1.15 − 0.15( ri/t)) ≤1 .0b utnotlessthan0.50 ...3.3.6(5)
C5 = (1.49 − 0.53 k0) ≥ .6 3.3.6(6)
. . .
 d1 t 
C6 = 1 +   if d1/ t 1≤ 50 3.3.6(7)
...
 750 
)
d = 1.20 if d1/ t > 150
te
n
ri C7 = 1/ k if d1/ t 6≤ 6.5 3.3.6(8)
...
p
n
e
h 1.10 − d 1 t   1 
w
d =    if d1/ t 6> 6.5 3.3.6(9)
...
e
e  665   k 
t
n
ra
a
u  0.98 − d 1 t   1 
g
t
C8 =    . . . 3.3.6(10)
o 865 k
n
n
y
c   2 
e
rr
Cθ = 0.7 + 0.3 
θ 
u
c
 . . . 3.3.6(11)
t
n
 90 
e
m
u
c
fy = speci fied y ield s tress in long itudina l compress ion
o
D
( d1 = depth of the fla t portion of th e web me asure d along the plane o f the web
7
1
0
2 k = f y/228 3.3.6(12)
. . .
v
o
N m = non- dimensiona l thic kness
4
1
n
o = t/1.91 3.3.6(13)
. . .
D
N
A
L
lb = actua l le ngth of b earing
S
N For the case of two equal and opposite concentrated loads distributed over unequal bearing
E
E
U lengths, the smaller value of l b shall be taken.
Q
N
R ri = inside b end ra dius
E
H θ
T
U
= angle b etween the pl ane of th e web a nd the plan e of the bea ring surf ace. θ
O shall be within the following limits:
S
F
O
Y
90 ° ≥ θ ≥ 45 °
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 50
3.3.7 Combined bending and bearing

Unstiffened flat webs of shapes subjected to a combination of bending and reaction or
concentrated load shall be designed as follows:
(a) Shapes having single unstiffened webs shall satisfy—
 R*   M * 
1.07   +   ≤ 1.42 . . . 3.3.7(1)
 φ w Rb   φ b M s 
(b) At the interior supports of continuous spans, the above interaction is not applicable to
deck or beams with two or more single webs, where the compression edges of
adjacent webs are laterally supported in the negative moment region by continuous or
intermittently connected flange elements, rigid cladding, or lateral bracing, and the
spacing between adjacent webs does not exceed 250 mm.
(c) Back-to-back channel beams and beams with restraint against web rotation, such as
I-sections made by welding two angles to a channel, shall sati sfy—
 R*   M * 
0.82   +   ≤ 1.32 . . . 3.3.7(2)
 φ w Rb   φ b M s 
)
d
te
n
If d1/t w ≤ 2.33 f y E o and λ≤ 0.673, the nominal concentrated load or reaction strength
ri
p
n may be determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.6.
e
h
w In Items (a) and (b), the f ollowing applies:
d
e
et
n R* = desig n conce ntrate d load or rea ction in the pr esence of bendi ng mome nt
ra
a
u Rb = nomina l capa city for con centr ated lo ad or rea ction in the ab sence of bendi ng
g
t
o
n
y moment determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.6
c
n
e M* = desig n bending m oment a t, or imme diate ly adjac ent to, the po int of applic ation of
rr
u
c
the design concentrated load or reaction ( R *)
t
n
e Ms = nomina l section m oment capaci ty about the ce ntroida l axes dete rmine d in
m
u
c
o
accordance with Clause 3.3.1, excluding Clause 3.3.3
D
(
7
1
bf = flat widt h of the be am fla nge whic h conta cts the b earin g plate
0
2
v tw = thickness of the web
o
N
4
1
λ = slend ernes s ratio (see Claus e 2.2.1.2 )
n
o
D
N 3.4 CONCENTRICALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS
A
L
S 3.4.1 General
N
E
E
U
This Clause applies to members in which the resultant of all loads acting on the member is
Q an axial load passing through the centroid of the effective section calculated at the stress
N
R
E
(f n). The design compressive axial force ( φ c Nc ) shall be calculated as follows:
H
T
U (a) φc = 0.85
O
S
F (b) Nc = Ae f n . . . 3.4.1(1)
O
Y
T
I where
S
R
E
V
φ c = capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in compression
I
N
U N c = nominal member capacity of the member in compression
y
b
d
e A e = effective area calculated at buckling stress fn
s
s
e
c
c
f n = the least of the flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling stress
A determined in accordance with Clauses 3.4.2 to 3.4.5
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51 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Where local distortions in compression members under service loads shall be limited, the
design compressive axial force ( φ d Nld) shall be determined as follows:
φd = 1.0
N ld = Af b . . . 3.4.1(2)
where
fb = permissible c ompressiv e stress es dete rmined in accord ance wi th
Clause 3.3.2.4
Angle sections shall be designed for the design axial force ( N*) acting simultaneously with
*
a moment equal to N l /1000 applied about the minor principal axis causing compression in
the tips of the angle legs.
NOT E: The sle nder ness rat io (le / r ) of all compression members should not be greater than 200,
except that during construction only, le / r should not be greater than 300.
3.4.2 Sections no t subject to torsional or flexural-torsional buckling

For doubly symmetric sections, closed cross-sections and any other sections that can be
shown not to subject to torsional or flexural-torsional buckling, the flexural buckling stress
) (f oc ) shall be determined as follows:
d
te
n
ri π 2 Et
p
n
f oc = ≤ fy . . . 3.4.2(1)
e
h (kl r )2
w
d
e where
et
n
ra E t = tange nt modul us in comp ressio n corre spondin g to the buck ling stre ss given in
a
u
g Appendix B
t
o
n
y
c k = effective len gth fac tor
n
e
rr
u
c
l = unbraced leng th of the m ember
t
n
e r = radius of gyra tion of t he full, unredu ced cross- section
m
u
c
o Alternatively, the design compressive axial force can be calculated as follows:
D
(
7
1
0
φ c = 0.9
2
v N c = Ae f n . . . 3.4.2(2)
o
N
4
1 where
n
o
D
N
fy
A
L fn =
≤ fy
. . . 3.4.2(3)
S
N
φ + φ2 − λ2
E
E
U
Q 1
R
N
φ = (1 + η + λ2 ) . . . 3.4.2(4)
E 2
H
T
U
η = α ((λ − λ1 ) − λ o )
O β
S . . . 3.4.2(5)
F
O
Y
T fy
I
S  kl 
R λ =   . . . 3.4.2(6)
E
V
I
r π 2 Eo
N
U
y
b Values for α , β, λo and λ1 shall be as given in Table 3.4.2, and values for E o shall be as
d
e
s
s
given in Appendix B.
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 52
TABLE 3.4.2
VALUES OF α , β , λ 0 AND λ 1
FOR TYPES 304, 304L, 316, 316L, 4 09, 1.4003, 430 AND S31803
Types
Property
3 0 4 ,3 1 6 3 4 0 L ,3 1 6 L 409 1.4003 430 S31803
α 1.59 1.59 0.77 0.94 1.04 1.16

β 0.28 0.28 0.19 0.15 0.14 0.13
λo 0.55 0.55 0.51 0.56 0.59 0.65

λ1 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.27 0.33 0.42
NOTES:
1 In frames where lateral stability is provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls,
attachment to an adjacent structure having adequate lateral stability, or floor slabs
or roof decks secured horizontally by walls or bracing systems parallel to the plane
of the frame, and in trusses, the effective length factor ( k ) for compression
members, which do not depend upon their own bending stiffness for lateral stability
of the frame or truss, should be taken as equal to the unbraced length ( l ), unless
)
d analysis shows that a smaller value may be used.
te
n
ri 2 In a frame that depends upon its own bending stiffness for lateral stability, the
p
n effective length ( kl ) of the compression members shou ld be determined by a rational
e
h method and should not be less than the actual unbraced length.
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u 3.4.3 Doubly symmetric or point-symmetric sections sub ject to torsional buckling
g
t
o
n
y
c
For doubly or point-symmetric sections subject to torsional buckling, f n shall be taken as the
n
e
smaller of f n calculated in accordance with Clause 3.4.2 and f n calculated as follows:
rr
u
c
t f n = σt . . . 3.4.3(1)
n
e
m
 1   
 2  Go J + π E o C2 w   E t 
2
u
c
o =  Ar   . . . 3.4.3(2)
D
 o  (k l )   Eo 
(
7 t t 
1
0
2
v where σt is specified in Clause 3.3.3.
o
N
4 3.4.4 Singly symmetric sections subject to flexural-torsional bu ckling
1
n
o For sections subject to flexural-torsional buckling, f n shall be taken as the smaller of fn
D
N calculated in accordance with Clause 3.4.2 and f n calculated as follows:
A
L
S
N
E
1  σ + σ − (σ + σ ) 2 − 4 βσ σ 
E fn = . . . 3.4.4(1)
U 2β  ex t ex t ex t

Q
N
R
E
Alternatively, a conservative estimate of f n can be obtained using the following equation:
H
T
U σ t σ ex
O fn = . . . 3.4.3(2)
S
F
σt + σ ex
O
Y
T
I where
S
R 2
E
V  xo 
I
N β = 1 −   . . . 3.4.3(3)
U
y
b
 ro 
d
e σt , σ ex , ro and xo shall be as specified in Clause 3.3.3.
s
s
e
c
c
A
For singly symmetric sections, the x -axis shall be assumed to be the axis of symmetry.
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53 AS/NZS 4673:2001
3.4.5 Non-symmetric sections

For shapes whose cross-sections do not have any symmetry, either about an axis or about a
point, f n shall be determined by a rational analysis.
Alternatively, compression members composed of such shapes may be tested in accordance
with Section 6.
3.5 COMBINED AXIAL COMPRESSI VE LOAD AND BENDING
The design axial compressive load ( N*), and the design bending moments ( M x* and M y* )
about the x - and y -axes of the effective section, respectively, shall satisfy the following:
N* C mx M x* C my M y*
(a) + + ≤ 1.0 . . . 3.5(1)
φc Nc φ b M bx α nx φ b M byα ny
*
N* M x* My
(b) + + ≤ 1.0 . . . 3.5(2)
φ c N s φ b M bx φ b M by
)
If N */ φ c Nc ≤ 0.15, the following may be used in lieu of Items (a) and (b):
d
te * *
n
ri N *
M M y
p
n
+ +x
≤ 1.0 . . . 3.5(3)
e φ c N c φ b M bx φ b M by
h
w
d
e where
et
n
ra Nc = nomin al mem ber ca pacity o f the memb er in comp ressio n determ ined in
a
u
g
t
accordance with Clause 3.4
o
n
y
c
C mx, C my = coefficie nts for une qual en d moment whos e value sh all be tak en as
n
e
rr
follows:
u
c
t
n
(i) For compressio n members in frames subject to join t tra nslatio n
e
m (side-sway):
u
c
o
D
(
C m = 0.85
7
1 (ii) For re strained com pression me mbers in fra mes b raced ag ains t joint
0
2
v
o
translation and not subject to transverse loading between their
N
4 supports in the plane of bending:
1
n
o C m = 0.6 − 0.4 ( M1/M2) 3.5(4)
. . .
D
N
A
L
M 1/ M2 is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the
S
N unbraced in the plane of bending. M 1 / M 2 is positive if the member
E
E is bent in reverse curvature and negative if it is bent in single
U
Q curvature.
N
R
E (iii) For compressio n members in frame s braced again st join t
H
T
U translation in the plane of loading and subject to transverse loading
O
S between their supports, the value of Cm may be determined by
F
O rational analysis. However, in lieu of such analysis, the following
Y
T
I
values may be used:
S
R
E (A) For members whose ends are restrained:
V
I
N
U C m = 0.85
y
b
d
e
(B) For members whose ends are unrestrained:
s
s
e C m = 1.0
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 54
M bx , M by = nomin al member moment ca pacity abo ut the x - and y- axes, respectively,

determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.3
φb = capacity [ streng th reduction ] factor for be nding
= 0.90 for b eam se ctions w ith stiffe ned and par tially stif fened compre ssion
flanges
= 0.85 for b eam se ctions w ith unstif fened compr ession f langes; or
= 0.85 for laterally un braced beam
φc = capacity [st rength re duction ] facto r for membe rs in comp ressio n
= 0.85
Ns = nomin al sec tion cap acity of th e memb er in com pressi on determ ined in
accordance with Clause 3.4, with f n equal to f y
α nx, α ny = moment amplif ication factors
 N* 
= 1 −   . . . 3.5(5)
 Ne 
)
d
te Ne = elastic bucklin g load
n
ri
p
n
e = λ2 E o I b /l eb
2
. . . 3.5(6)
h
w
d Ib = second mome nt of area o f the full, un reduc ed cross -section abou t the
e
et
n bending axis
ra
a
u l eb = effective le ngth i n the pl ane o f bend ing
g
t
o
n
y
c 3.6 TUBULAR MEMBERS
n
e
rr
u 3.6.1 General
c
t
n
e
m
This Clause applies to rectangular, square and circular hollow sections. For circular hollow
u
c
o
sections, the ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness ( d o/ t ) shall not be greater than
D
( 0.881 E o/f y.
7
1
0
2 3.6.2 Bending
v
o
N The design bending moment ( φ b Ms ) shall be determined using —
4
1
n
o φb = 0.9.
D
N
A
L
The nominal member moment capacity ( M s ) shall be determined as follo ws:
S
N (a) Rectangular and square h ollow sections :
E
E
U
Q (i) For compact sections that satisfy b/t = λ1 —
N
R
E 1.11
H
T λ1 = . . . 3.6.2(1)
U f ye / E o
O
S
F
O where b is the flat width of the compression flange, and for which the
Y
T
I compressed portion of the web to its thickness is no t greater than λ 1 , M s shall be
S
R calculated as follows:
E
V
I
N Ms = f y S p . . . 3.6.2(2)
U
y
b where S p is the plastic section modulus.
d
e
s
s (ii) For non-compact sections ( b / t > λ1 ), the design bending moment ( φ b M s ) shall be
e
c
c determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.1.
A
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55 AS/NZS 4673:2001
(b) Circular hollow sections :

(i) For compact sections satisfying do / t ≤ 0.078 Eo/ fy —
Ms = f y S p . . . 3.6.2(3)
(ii) For non-compact sections satisfying 0.078 Eo/fy < d o/t < 0.31Eo/ fy —
Ms = f y Z f . . . 3.6.2(4)
(iii) For slender sections satisfying 0.31 Eo / f y < do/ t < 0.881Eo/ fy —
Ms = K c f yZ f . . . 3.6.2(5)
where
f y = speci fied yield stres s, given in Appendi x B
Z f = elast ic sec tion mod ulus of the full, unre duced c ross- secti on
(1 − C ) E o / f y 0.178 C
Kc = + . . . 3.6.2(6)
(3.226 − λ)(c d) o / t 3.226 − λ c
C = ratio of the propor tionali ty stre ss to the yie ld stre ss
) (see Appendix B)
d
te
n = f p /f y
ri
p
n Eo f y
e
h λc = limiting value of , based on specified ratio C
w
d
e
(d o t )
et
n
ra
= 3.048 C
a
u
g 3.6.3 Compression
t
o
n
y This Clause applies to members in which the resultant of all design loads and design
c
n
e
rr bending moments acting on the member is equival ent to a single force in the direction of
u
c
t
the member axis passing through the centroid of the section.
n
e
m The design axial load ( φ c N c ) shall be determined as follows:
u
c
o (a) Rectangular and square h ollow sections φ c Nc shall be determined in accordance with
D
(
7
1
Clause 3.4.1.
0
2
v
o
(b) Circular hollow sections φ c Nc shall be determined as follows:
N
4
1
(i) For compact sections, where A e equals A as given in Equation 3.6.3(3), φ c Nc
n shall be determined in accordance with Clause 3.4.1.
o
D
N (ii) For slender sections, where A e is less than A as given in Equation 3.6.3(3), φcNc
A
L
S shall be determined as follows:
N
E
E φ c = 0.8
U
Q
R
N Nc = f n Ae . . . 3.6.3(1)
E
H
T where
U
O
S f n = flexur al buck ling str ess de termined in accordanc e with
F
O Clause 3.4.2
Y
T
I
S Ae = effective a rea a t buc klin g str ess f n
R
E
1 − 1 − (Et / E
2
V
I
N
)o ( [1 −) Ao / A ] A . . . 3.6.3(2)
U
y
b Ao = reduced area of t he cross-section
d
e
s
s
e = Kc A ≤ A for (d o / t ) ≤ 0.881 E o / f y . . . 3.6.3(3)
c
c
A
A = area of the ful l, unre duced cr oss-section
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 56
3.6.4 Combined compression and bending

Combined compression and bending shall satisfy the provisions of Clause 3 .5.
3.6.5 Shear
The design shear capacity of rectangular hollow sections shall satisfy the provisions of
Clause 3.3.4.
NOT E: Design shear requir ements for c irc ular hollow sec tio ns are not pro vided in thi s Sta ndar d.
3.6.6 Combined shear and bending
Combined shear and bending in rectangular hollow sections shall be determined as follows:
(a) For compact sections as specified in Clause 3.6.2(a), the design bending and shear
capacities shall not be reduced b y the presence of combined actions.
(b) For slender sections, the combined bending and shear capacity shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 3.3.5.
NOT E: Design req uirements for shear and bending for cir cul ar hol low sec tio ns are not pro vid ed
in this Standard.
3.6.7 Welded connections

)
d
te The design capacity of welded connections in rectangular and circular hollow sections shall
n
ri
p be deter mined in accordanc e with Appendix J.
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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57 AS/NZS 4673:2001
SECTION 4 STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIES
4.1 BUILT-UP SECTIONS

4.1.1 Sections composed of two channels
The maximum longitudinal spacing of welds ( s max. ) or other connectors joining two
channels to form an I-section shall be determined as follows:
(a) For compression members—
lrcy
s max. = . . . 4.1.1(1)
2 r1
where
l = unbra ced leng th of the member in com pression
r cy = radius of gyration of one cha nnel about its c entroidal axis parallel to the
web
)
d
te
n
r1 = radius of gyration of the I-section about the axis pe rpendicular to the
ri
p direction in which buckling occurs for the given conditions of end
n
e
h
support and intermediate bracing.
w
d (b) For flexural members—
e
et
n
ra l
a
u
g
s max . = . . . 4.1.1(2)
t 6
o
n
y
n
c 2 sg N *
e
rr ≤ . . . 4.1.1(3)
u
c
mq
t
n
e
m
where
u
c
o l = span of beam
D
(
7
1 sg = vertical distance between two row s of connections nearest to the top
0
2
v
o
and bottom flanges
N
4 N = desig n tensile forc e of the connec tion (see Sec tion 5)
1
n
o
D q = intens ity of the d esign loa d on the be am
N
A
L
S
m = distance from the shear c entre of one channel to the m id-plane of its
N web (see Appendix H).
E
E
U
Q The intensity of the design load ( q) shall be obtained by dividing the magnitude of the
N
R design concentrated loads or reactions by the length of bearing. For beams designed for a
E
H
T
U
uniformly distributed load, q shall be equal to three times the intensity of the uniformly
O
distributed design load. If the length of bearing of a concentrated load or reaction is less
S
F than the weld spacing ( s w), the design tensile force of the welds or connections closest to
O
Y
the load or reaction shall be determined as follows:
T
I
S
R mRb*
E
V
I
N* = . . . 4.1.1(4)
N
2s g
U
y
b
d
where Rb* is the design concentrated load or reaction.
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 58
The maximum longitudinal spacing of connections ( s max. ) depends upon the intensity of the
load applied directly at the connection. Therefore, if uniform spacing of connections is used
over the whole length of the beam, it shall be determined at the point of maximum local
load intensity. In cases where this procedure may result in uneconomically close spacing,
either of the following methods may be adopted:
(i) The connection sp acing m ay be v aried a long the b eam in ac cordance with th e
variation of the load intensity.
(ii) The r einforc ing co ver p late s may be w elded to the fl anges at po ints wher e
concentrated loads occur. The design shear force of the connections joining these
plates to the flanges shall then be used for N * and s g shall be taken as the depth of the
beam.
4.1.2 Spacing of connections in compression elements
The spacing ( s) in the line of stress of welds and bolts connecting a cover plate or sheet in
compression, to a non-integral stiffener or another element shall not be greater than—
(a) that which is required to transmit the shear between the connected parts on the basis
of the design shear force per connection specified in this Clause;
(b) 1.11 t E t /f c , where t is the thickness of the cover plate or sheet, E t is the tangent
) modulus in compression and f c is the stress at service load in the cover plate or sheet.
d
te
n
ri
(c) three times the flat width ( b 1 ) of the narrowest unstiffened compression element
p
n
e
tributary to the connections, but not less than 1.03t E o /f y if b/t < 0.50 E o /f y , or
h
w
d
e
1.24t E o /f y if b/t ≥ 0.50 E o /f y , unless closer spacing is required by Item (a) or
et
n Item (b).
ra
a
u
g
t
In the case of intermittent fillet welds parallel to the direction of stress, the spacing shall be
o
n
y taken as the clear distance between welds plus 12 mm. In all other cases, the spacing shall
c be taken as the centre-to-centre distance between connecti ons.
n
e
rr
u
c
This Clause does not apply to cover sheets that act only as sheeting material, and shall not
t
n
e
be considered as l oad-carryin g elements.
m
u
c
o 4.2 MIXED SYSTEMS
D
(
7
1
0
The design of members in mixed systems using cold-formed stainless steel components in
2
v conjunction with other materials shall conform to this Standard and to the relevant material
o
N Standard.
4
1
n
o
D 4.3 LATERAL RESTRAINTS
N
A
L 4.3.1 General
S
N
E Restraints shall be designed to restrain lateral bending or twisting of a loaded beam or
E
U column, and to avoid local buckling at t he points of attachment.
Q
N
R 4.3.2 Symmetrical beams and columns
E
H
T Restraints and restraint systems, including connections, shall be designed in accordance
U
O
S
with the strength and stiffness requirements.
F
O 4.3.3 Channel and Z-section beams
Y
T
I 4.3.3.1 General
S
R
E The requirements for bracing to restrain twisting of channels and Z-sections used as beams
V
I
N
U
and loaded in the plane of the web, apply onl y if—
y
b (a) the top flange is connected to the deck or sheeting material in such a manner as
d
e effectively to restrain lateral deflection of the connected flange; or
s
s
e
c (b) neither flange is connected.
c
A
If both flanges are connected, further bracing is not required.
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59 AS/NZS 4673:2001
4.3.3.2 Bracing when one flange is connected

Channels and Z-sections, which are used to support attached covering material and loaded
in a plane parallel to the web, shall be designed taking into account the restraining effects
of covering materials and fasteners. Provisions shall be made for the forces from each beam
which accumulate in the covering material. These forces shall be transferred from the
covering material to a member or assembly of sufficient strength and stiffness to resist
these forces.
The design of braces shall be in accordance with Clause 4.3.3.3. In addition, tests in
accordance with Section 6 shall be performed to ensure that the type or spacing, or both, of
the braces selected is such that the strength of the braced beam assembly tested in
accordance with Section 6 is greater than or equal to its no minal flexural strength.
4.3.3.3 Neither flange connected to sheeting
Each intermediate brace, at the top and bottom flange, shall be designed to resist a
horizontal design force (N ib* ) determined as follows:
For uniformly distributed loads, N ib is equal to 1.5 k ′ times the design load within a
*
(a)
distance 0.5 l b each side of the brace, where l b is the distance between the centre-line
of braces.
)
d
For concentrated loads, N ib is equal to 1.0 k ′ times each design concentrated load
*
te (b)
n
ri
p within a distance 0.3 l b each side of the brace, plus 1.4 k ′ [1 − ( m/ l b )] times each design
n
e
h concentrated load located farther than 0.3 l b but not farther than 1.0 l b from the brace,
w
d where m is the distance from the concentrated load to the brace.
e
et
n For channels:
ra
a
u m
g
t k′ = . . . 4.3.3.3(1)
o
n
y
c
d
n
e
For Z-sections:
rr
u
c Ixy
t
n k′ = . . . 4.3.3.3(2)
e
m Ix
u
c
o where
D
(
7
1
0
k′ = coefficient used to determine N ib* where neither flange is connected to the
2
v
o sheeting or connected to the sheeting with concealed fasteners
N
4
1 I xy = produc t of secon d momen t of area of the f ull sect ion about its cen troida l axes
n
o para llel and perp endicular to the web
D
N
A I x = second mome nt of area of the c ross- sectio n about its cen troida l axis
L
S perpendicular to the web
N
E
E Braces shall be designed to avoid local buckling at the points of attachment to the member.
U
Q
N Where braces are provided, they shall be attached in such a manner to effectively restrain
R
E
H
T the section against lateral deflection of both flanges at the ends and at any intermediate
U brac e points.
O
S
F
When all loads and reactions on a beam are transmitted through members that frame into
O the section, in such a manner as to effectively restrain the section against torsional rotation
Y
T
I
S
and lateral displacement, no additional braces will be required except those required for
R
E strength in accordance with Clause 3.3.3.
V
I
N
U 4.3.3.4 Laterally unbraced box beams
y
b
d
e
For closed box-type sections used as beams subject to bending about the major principal
s
s
e
axis, the ratio of the laterally unsupported length to the distance between the webs of the
c
c
A
section shall not be greater than 0.086 Eo / f y .
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 60
SECTION 5 CONNECTIONS
5.1 GENERAL
Connections shall be designed to transmit the design action effects derived for the structure
at that connection, or joint, from analysis in accordance with accepted principles of
structural mechanics.
Connections and joints shall be proportioned so as to be consistent with the assumptions
made in the analysis of the structure and comply with this Section. Consideration shall be
given to load paths and eccentricity.
There are a number of suitable fastening systems to join stainless steel structural members
or component parts such as welding, bolting, screwing, riveting, clinching, pinning or
structural adhesive. These systems may be used singly or in combination
This Section applies to welded and bolted connections.
Design capacities of specific connections may be obtained by prototype testing in
accordance with Section 6.
)
d
te 5.2 WELDED CONNECTION S
n
ri
p
n 5.2.1 General
e
h
w
d
e
This Clause applies to welded connections for cold-formed stainless steel structural
et
n members in which the weld is produced by the electric arc welding or resistance welding
ra process.
a
u
g
t
o
n
y The design capacity ofAS/NZS
arc welds determined in accordance with this Clause applies only to
c welds complying with 1554.6.
n
e
rr
u The design capacity of resistance welds determined in accordance with this Section applies
c
t only to welds complying with AWS C1.1.
n
e
m
u For members made from material other than in the annealed condition, allowance shall be
c
o
D
( made for design strength reduction near welds.
7
1
0 The effect of any welding on the mechanical properties of a member shall be determined on
2
v
o the basis of tests on specimens of the full section containing the weld within the gauge
N
4
1
length. Any necessary allowance for such effect shall be made in the structural use of the
n member. In the absence of specified testing, the annealed properties shall be used.
o
D
N Surface finishing of the weld is normally required to restore full corrosion resistance and
A
L
S
N
shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6.
E
E NOT ES:
U
Q 1 With the exception of 1.4003 (EN 10088), most grades of ferritic and martensitic stainless
N
R steels are not suitable for use in welded connections. Information regarding applicability for
E
H
T such uses should be sought from the steel manufacturer or supplier.
U
O
S
2 Austenitic stainless steels used at temperatures above − 30°C do not require toughness testing
F of welds.
O
Y 3 For other stainless steels, see AS 1210 for guidance on toughness testing of structural welds.
T
I
S
R
E
5.2.2 Butt welds
V
I
N
U
5.2.2.1 General
y
b
d This Clause applies to butt welds between stainless steel structural elements loaded in
e
s tension, compression or shear, welded from one or both sides, provided that an effective
s
e
c throat of matching weld greater than or equal to the thickness of the thinnest material is
c
A
provide d throughout t he weld.
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61 AS/NZS 4673:2001
5.2.2.2 Tension or compression

A butt weld subjected to a tensile or co mpressive force shall satisfy—
N w* ≤ φN w . . . 5.2.2.2
where
N w* = design tensile or compressive force normal to the area of the butt weld
φ = capacity [strength reduction] factor of a butt weld for tensile or compressive
force
= 0.6
Nw = nominal tensile or compressive capacity of a butt weld, welded from one or
both sides
= l w t f ua
lw = length of weld
t = thickness of the thinnest welded part
)
d f ua = tensile or compressive strength of the annealed base metal
te
n
ri 5.2.2.3 Shear
p
n
e
h
w
A butt weld subjected to a shear force shall satisfy—
d
e
et
n
V w* ≤ φVw . . . 5.2.2.3(1)
ra
a
u
g
where
t
o
n
y
c
Vw* = design shear force
n
e
rr φ = capacity [strength reduction] factor of a butt weld for shear
u
c
t
n
e
= 0.6
m
u
c Vw = nominal shear capacity of a butt weld, welded from one or both sides
o
D
(
7
= l w t (0.6 f ua ) . . . 5.2.2.3(2)
1
0
2
v
lw = length of the full size of the weld
o
N
4 5.2.3 Fillet welds
1
n
o 5.2.3.1 General
D
N
A This Clause applies to fillet welds in lap or T joints between stainless steel structural
L
S
N elements, loaded either longitudinal (parallel) or transverse to the line of the weld.
E
E
Q
U 5.2.3.2 Longitudinal loading
N
R
E
A fillet weld subjected to a longitudi nal shear force shall satisfy—
H
T
U
O
V w* ≤ φVw . . . 5.2.3.2(1)
S
F where
O
Y
T
I
S
Vw* = design longitudinal shear force on a fillet weld
R
E
V
I
φ = capacity [strength reduction] factor of a fillet weld
N
U
y = 0.55
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 62
Vw = nominal longitudinal shear capacity of a fillet weld, determined as follows:

(a) For l w/ t < 30
 0.009l w  
Vw = 0.7 −   t l w f ua . . . 5.2.3.2(2)
  t 
(b) For l w/ t ≥ 30
Vw = 0.43tl w f ua . . . 5.2.3.2(3)
In addition, the value of V w shall not be greater than—

Vw = 0.75t w l w f xx . . . 5.2.3.2(4)
where
tw = effective thr oat
= 0.707 w 1 or 0.707 w2 , whichever is smaller
w1, w2 = leg sizes of the weld
)
f xx = tensile strength obtained from all-weld-metal tens ile test.
d
te NOT E: Tab le B2 of Appe ndi x B giv es value s o f f xx for manual metal arc welding (MMAW).
n
ri
p
n 5.2.3.3 Transverse loading
e
h
w
d A fillet weld subjected to a transverse shear force shall satisfy—
e
et
n
ra
V w* ≤ φVw . . . 5.2.3.3(1)
a
u
g
o
t where
n
y
n
c V w* = design transv erse shear forc e on a fille t weld
e
rr
u
c
t
φ = 0.55
n
e
m
u
Vw = nomina l trans verse shear capacity of a fillet weld
c
o
D
( = tl w f ua . . . 5.2.3.3(2)
7
1
0
2 In addition, the value of φ Vw shall not be greater than—
v
o
N
4
φVw = 0.65t w l w f xx . . . 5.2.3.3(3)
1
n
o
D
5.2.4 Resistance spot welds
N
A
L 5.2.4.1 General
S
N
E This Clause applies to Types 301, 304 and 316 stainless steel sheets joined by electric
E
U
Q resistance single impulse spot welding or pulsation spot welding.
N
R 5.2.4.2 Shear
E
H
T
U A resistance spot weld subjected to a shear force shall satisfy—
O
S
F
O
V w* ≤ φVw . . . 5.2.4.2
Y
T
I
S where
R
E
V
I Vw* = desig n shear force on a resis tance spot weld
N
U
y
b
φ = capacity [str ength re duction ] facto r of a resista nce spot we ld for shea r
d
e = 0.60
s
s
e
c
c
A
Vw = nomin al shear capac ity of a resis tance spot weld (see Table s 5.2.4 (1)
and 5.2.4(2)), as appropriate.
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63 AS/NZS 4673:2001
5.2.4.3 Tension
A resistance spot weld subjected to a tensile force shall satisfy—
N w* ≤ φN w . . . 5.2.4.3
where
N w* = design tensile force on a resistance spot weld
φ = capacity [strength reduction] factor of a resistance spot weld for tensile force
= 0.60
Nw = nominal tensile capacity of a resistance spot weld, taken conservatively as
25% of the nominal shear capacity given in Table 5.2.4(A) for single impulse
spot welding, or Table 5.2.4(B) for pulsation spot welding, for the appropriate
thickness of the thinnest outside sheet.
5.2.5 Tubular connections
The design capacity of welded connections in rectangular, square and circular hollow
sections shall be determined in accordance with Appendix J.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
TABLE 5.2.4(A)
h
w
d NOMINAL SHEAR CAPACITY ( V w) OF SINGLE IMPULSE SPOT WELDS
e
et
n
ra Thickness of thinnest outside V W per spot weld
a
u kN
g sheet
t
o
n
y mm A nne ale d 1 / 4H a r d 1 / 2 Hard
c
n
e
rr 0.152 0.27 0.31 0.40
u
c
t 0.203 0.44 0.58 0.67
n
e
m 0.254 0.67 0.76 0.93
u
c
o 0.305 0.85 0.93 1.11
D
(
7
1 0.356 1.07 1.11 1.42
0
2
v 0.406 1.25 1.33 1.69
o
N
4 0.457 1.42 1.60 2.09
1
n
o 0.533 1.64 2.09 2.22
D
N 0.635 2.22 2.67 3.02
A
L
S 0.787 3.02 3.56 4.13
N
E
E 0.864 3.56 4.09 4.89
U
Q
N 1.016 4.45 5.65 6.23
R
E
H
T 1.118 5.34 6.45 7.56
U 1.222 6.45 7.56 8.89
O
S
F 1.422 7.56 8.90 10.90
O
Y 1.575 8.67 10.68 12.90
T
I
S
R 1.778 10.68 12.45 15.79
E
V
I
N 1.981 12.01 15.12 17.79
U
y 2.388 15.79 18.68 23.57
b
d
e 2.769 18.68 22.24 28.47
s
s
e
c 3.175 22.24 26.69 33.80
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 64
TABLE 5.2.4(B)
NOMINAL SHEAR CAPACITY ( V w ) OF PULSATION SPOT WELDS
Thickness of thinnest outside V W per spot weld

sheet kN
mm 1 / 4H a r d 1 / 2H a r d
3.962 33.8 44.48

4.75 43.37 54.71
5.156 47.15 57.82

6.35 57.82 75.62
NOTE: The rang e of thickne sses give n for puls atio n spot welding is not int ended to
indicate that single-impulse spot welding cannot be used for welding these thicknesses.
5.3 BOLTED CONNECTIONS

5.3.1 General
)
d
te This Clause applies to bolted connections in cold-formed stainless steel structural members
n
ri proportioned in accordance with this Standard.
p
n
e
h
w
Bolts, washers and nuts shall be installed and tightened so as to achieve the design
d performance intende d for the connecti on.
e
et
n
ra 5.3.2 Holes
a
u
g
o
t Standard holes for bolts shall be used for joining members unless otherwise specified.
n
y Standard holes shall not be greater than the values given in Table 5.3.2.
c
n
e
rr Oversized or slotted holes not greater than the sizes given i n Table 5.3.2 may be used,
u
c provided all bolts are loa ded in shear and the length of such a slotted hole is normal to the
t
n
e direction of the applied shear force.
m
u
c
o Larger holes may be used, provided backup plate washers of appropriate size and thickness
D
(
7
1
are used. Backup plate washers shall have a standard hole to suit the bolt t hat is to be used.
0
2
v Where a holing and washer arrangement for a bolted connection does not comply with the
o
N requirements of this Clause, its performance may be established by testing in accordance
4
1
n with Section 6.
o
D NOT E: Gui dance on ste el backup pla te washers spe cified in AS 4100 and NZS 3404 .2 is
N
A
L
applicable to stainless steel backup plate washers.
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N TABLE 5.3.2
R
E
H
T MAXIMUM SIZE OF BOLT HOLES
U
O
S Nominal bolt Standard hole Oversized
F Short-slotted hole Long-slotted hole
O diameter diameter hole diameter
Y dimension dimension
T
I (df ) (dh) ( dh)
S
R
E mm mm mm mm mm
V
I
N
U < 12 df + 1. 0 f +
d2 .0 d f (+ 1.0) by ( d f 6+ .0) d(f + 1.0) by 2.5 d f
y
b ≥ 12
d
d f + 2. 0 f +
d3 .0 d f (+ 2.0) by ( d f 6+ .0) d(f + 2.0) by 2.5 d f
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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65 AS/NZS 4673:2001
5.3.3 Spacing and edge distance

In addition to the requirements of Clause 5.3.4, the minimum distance between centres of
bolt holes shall provide sufficient clearance for bolt heads, nuts, washers and the wrench,
but shall not be less than 3df. Also, the distance from the centre of any standard hole to the
end or other boundary of t he connecting member shall not be less than 1.5 d f.
For oversized and slotted holes, the distance between the edges of two adjacent holes and
the distance from the edge of the hole to the end or other boundary of the connecting
member in the line of force shall not be less than [e − (d h 2)] , where e is the distance
measured in the line of the applied force from the centre of a standard hole to the nearest
edge of an adjacent hole or to the end of t he connected part.
The clear distance between the edges of two adjacent holes shall not be less than 2 d f and the
distance between the edge of the hole and the end of the member shall not be less than df.
5.3.4 Tear out capacity of the connected part
For lapped joints between structural members in which bolts are loaded in shear, both the
spacing between bolts and the edge distance from a bolt in the line of the applied force shall
be such that in a connected part—
)
d
te
Vf* ≤ φVf . . . 5.3.4(1)
n
ri
p
n where
e
h
w
d Vf* = design shear force per bolt
e
et
n
ra
φ = 0.70
a
u
o
g
t Vf = nominal shear capacity per bolt
n
n
y
c = te f ut . . . 5.3.4(2)
e
rr
u
c
t = thickness of the thinnest connected part
t
n
e f ut = tensile strength of the connected part transverse to the direction of the applied
m
u force.
c
o
D
(
7 5.3.5 Net section tensile capaci ty of the connected part
1
0
2 For lap joints between structural members in which bolts are loaded in shear, both the
v
o
N spacing between bolts and the edge distance from a bolt transverse to the line of the applied
4
1 force shall be such that in a connected part—
n
o
D
N N f* ≤ φN f . . . 5.3.5(1)
A
L
S
N
E
E where
U
Q
R
N N f* = design tensile force in the connected part
E
H
T
U
φ = 0.70
O
S
F
Nf = nominal tensile capacity of the connected part
O
Y
T
I
= An f t . . . 5.3.5(2)
S
R
E
V
An = net area of the connected part at the line of bolts transverse to the line of the
I
N applied force
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 66
ft = tensile strength for connections with washers under both bolt head and nut,
determined as follows:
(a) For single shear connections:
ft = (1.0 − rf + (2.5rf d f /sf ) ) f u ≤ fu . . . 5.3.5(3)
(b) For double shear connection:

ft = (1.0 − 0.9rf + (3rf d f /s f ) ) f u ≤ fu . . . 5.3.5(4)
rf = ratio of the force transmitted by the bolt or bolts at the section considered,
divided by the tensile force in th e member at that section. If r f is less than 0.2,
it may be taken as zero
sf = spacing of bolts transverse to the line of the force, or in the case of a single
bolt, the width of the connected part
fu = tensile strength of the connected part in the direction of the applied force.
*
In addition, N f shall not be greater than 0.85 A n f y , where f y is the specified yield stress in
tension of the connected part.
) 5.3.6 Bearing capacity of the connected part
d
te
n
ri For lapped joints between structural members in which bolts are loaded in shear, the design
p
n bearing force Vb at a bolt shall be such that in a connected part—
e
h
w
e
d
e Vb* ≤ φV b . . . 5.3.6(1)
t
n
ra where
a
u
g
o
t φ = 0.65
n
y
n
c Vb = nominal bearing capacity per bolt of the connected part, where bolts have
e
rr
u
washers under both bolt head and nut, determined as follows:
c
t
n (a) For single shear connections:
e
m
u
c
o Vb = 2 .0 d f t f u . . . 5.3.6(2)
D
(
7
1 (b) For double shear connection:
0
2
v
o
N
Vb = 2.75d f t f u . . . 5.3.6(3)
4
1
n
o
fu = compressive strength of the connected part in the direction of the applied force.
D
N
A
5.3.7 Stainless steel b olts to ASTM Standards
L
S
N 5.3.7.1 General
E
E
U The design capacity of bolts determined in accordance with Clause 5.3.7 applies to bolts
Q
N complying with ASTM A 193/A 193 M, ASTM A 276 and ASTM F 593.
R
E
H
T The design capacity described in this Clause is based on the provisions of ANSI/ASCE-8-
U
O 90.
S
F
O The nominal shear strength ( f nv ) and the nominal tensile strength ( f nt ) for stainless steel
Y
T
I
bolts complying with ASTM Standards s hall be obtained from Table 5.3.7, as appropriate.
S
R
E 5.3.7.2 Bolts in shear
V
I
N
U
y
The design shear force (V ) for bolts loaded in
*
fv shear shall satisfy—
b
d
e
s
V *
fv ≤ φVfv . . . 5.3.7.2(1)
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
67 AS/NZS 4673:2001
where
φ = 0.65
V fv = nominal shear capacity of the stainless steel bolt
= Af f nv . . . 5.3.7.2(2)
A f = gross c ross- secti onal a rea of the sta inless s teel bo lt
f nv = nomin al shea r streng th of the st ainle ss ste el bolt give n in Tabl e 5.3.7.
5.3.7.3 Bolts in tension
The design tensile force (N ) shall satisfy—

*
ft
N ft* ≤ φN ft . . . 5.3.7.3(1)
where
φ = 75
Nft = Af f nt . . . 5.3.7.3(2)
)
d f nt = nomin al tens ile stre ngth of the s tainle ss stee l bolt given i n Table 5. 3.7
te
n
ri The pull-over (pull-through) capacity of the connected part at the bolt head, nut or washer
p
n shall be considered where bolt tension is concerned.
e
h
w
d
e
The increase in pull-out force resulting from bending moments or prying forces transmitted
et
n into the bolt from various adjacent structural components shall be taken into account.
ra
a
u
g
5.3.7.4 Bolts in combined shear and tension
t
o
n
y
c
For a bolt subjected simultaneously to a design shear force (Vfv*) and a design tensile force
n
e
rr
u
(N ) , the design tensile force (N ) shall satisfy—
*
ft
*
ft
c
t
n
e
m
N ft* ≤ φN ft′ . . . 5.3.7.4(1)
u
c
o where
D
(
7
1
0 φ = 0.75
2
v
o
N N *
ft = Af f nt′ . . . 5.3.7.4(2)
4
1
n
o f nt′ shall be determined as follows:
D
N
A
L
(a) Threads in the shear plane—
S
N
E f nt′ = 1.25 f nt − 2.4 f v ≤ f nt . . . 5.3.7.4(3)
E
U
Q (b) No t hrea ds in the shear pla ne—
N
R
E
H
T
U
f nt′ = 1.25 f nt − 1.9 f v ≤ f nt . . . 5.3.7.4(4)
O where
S
F
O f nt′ = nomin al tens ile stre ngth for bo lts subje ct to com bined sh ear an d tensio n
Y
T
I
S f nt = nomin al tensile streng th giv en in Table 5.3.7
R
E
V
I
N
fv = shear stress resulting from the design shear force (V )
*
fv
U
y
b
d Vfv*
e
s
= ≤ f nv . . . 5.3.7.4(5)
s
e
Af
c
c
A
f nv = nominal shear strength given in Table 5.3.7
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 68
TABLE 5.3.7
NOMINAL SHEAR AND TENSILE STRENGTHS FOR STAINLESS STEEL BOLTS
COMPLYING WITH ASTM STANDARDS
Nominal shear strength Nominal tensile

Diameter ( f nv ) strength
( df ) (see Note 1) ( f nt )
Type of stainless steel MP a (see Note 1)
No threads in Threads in
mm MP a
shear plane shear plane
201
All 311 232 386
(see Note 2)
304, 316
All 311 232 386
(see Note 3)
304, 316
1 ≤ 2.7 372 279 465
(see Notes 5)
304, 316
1 ≤ 9.1 517 388 646
(see Note 7)
)
d
te 304, 316
n
ri
6.4 ≤ d3f ≤ 8.1 290 217 362
p (see Note 4)
n
e 304, 316
h 6.4 ≤ d1f ≤ 5.9 393 295 491
w (see Note 6)
d
e
et 304, 316
n 19.1 ≤ d3f ≤ 8.1 331 248 414
ra (see Note 6)
a
u
g 430
t
o All 248 186 310
n
y (see Note 2)
c
n 430
e
rr 6.4 ≤ d3f ≤ 8.1 290 217 362
u (see Note 4)
c
t
n
e NOTE S:
m
u
c 1 Reduction of the nominal strength given in this Table is required for d f < 12.7 mm. For d f <
o
D
( 12.7 mm, the value shall be reduced to 0.9 f nv for nominal shear strength and to 0.9 f nt for nominal
7
1 tensile strength.
0
2
v 2 Condition A in ASTM A 276, hot-finished or cold-finished.
o
N
4 3 Condition A in ASTM A 276, hot-finished and Class 1(solution-treated) in ASTM A 193/A 193M,
1
n hot-finished.
o
D 4 Condition A in ASTM F 593, machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock or hot-formed
N
A and solution-annealed. The minimum tensile strength is based on tests on the machined specimen.
L
S
N 5 Condition A in ASTM A 276, cold-finished.
E
E
U 6 Condition CW in ASTM F 593, headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of
Q
N cold work. Sizes 19.05 mm diameter and larger may be hot-worked. The minimum tensile strength
R
E is based on tests on the machined specimen.
H
T
U 7 Condition B (cold-worked) in ASTM A 276 cold-finished and Class 2 (solution-treated and strain-
O hardened) in ASTM A 193/A 193M.
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
5.3.8 Stainless steel bolts to ISO 3506
V
I
N
U
5.3.8.1 General
y
b
d The design capacity of bolts determined in accordance with Clause 5.3.8 applies only to
e
s bolts and nuts complyi ng with ISO 3506, with washers of austenitic stainless steel
s
e
c complying with ISO 7089 or ISO 7090, as appropriate.
c
A
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69 AS/NZS 4673:2001
The design capacity described in this Clause is based on the provisions of ENV 1993-1-1
and ENV 1993-1-4.
For items resisting shear or tension through the threaded portion with cut threads, such as
anchor bolts or tie rods fabricated from round stainless steel bars where the threads are cut
by the steelwork fabricator and not by a spec iali st bolt manufacturer , the relevant values
given in Table 5.3.8 shall be reduced by multiplying t hem by a factor of 0.85.
The nominal yield stress ( f ny ) and the nominal tensile strength ( f nt ) for stainless steel bolts
complying with ISO 3506 shall be obtained from Table 5.3.8, as appropriate.
The specified properties shall be verified by a recognized quality control system, with
samples from each batch of fasteners.
TABLE 5.3.8
BOLTS COMPLYING WITH ISO 3506
Property class to Nominal yield Nominal tensile

Material groups ISO 3506 Range of sizes stress (f ny ) strength (f nt )
)
d (see Note 1) MP a MP a
te
n
ri Austenitic and
p
n 50 M ≤ 39 210 500
e austenitic ferritic
h
w
d ≤ M20
e 70 450 700
et (see Note 2)
n
ra ≤ M20
a 80 600 800
u
g (see Note 2)
t
o
n
y NOTES:
c
n
e
rr 1 In addition to the various steel types specified in ISO 3506 under property classes 50, 70 and 80, other
u steel types to EN 10088-3 may also be used.
c
t
n
e 2 For bolts of property classes 70 and 80 with lengths greater than 8 diameters or with sizes larger than M20,
m
u the values of the mechanical properties shall be obtained from the bolt manufacturer.
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
5.3.8.2 Bolts in shear
N
4
1 The design shear force ( Vfv* ) shall satisfy—
n
o
D
N
A
Vfv* ≤ φVfv
L
S
N
E
Where
E
Q
U
φ = 0.44
N
R
E V fv = Ab f nt if the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of t he bolt; or
H
T
U
O
S
= Abs f nt if the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of t he bolt
F
O A b = gross cr oss-sectional are a of the bo lt
Y
T
I
S A bs = tensile stress area of the bolt
R
E
V
I f nt = nomin al tens ile stre ngth of the s tainle ss stee l bolt given i n Table 5. 3.8
N
U
y
b
The shear strength of a bolt in a lapped joint shall be the lesser of the shear capacity of the
d
e bolt ( φ V fv ) or the bearing capacity per bolt ( φ V b ), specified in Clause 5.3.6.
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 70
5.3.8.3 Bolts in tension

The design tensile force ( N ft* ), inclusive of any force due to pryi ng action, shall satisfy—
N ft* ≤ φ N ft
where
φ = 0.67
Nft = Abs f nt
= nomina l tensil e streng th of the st ainles s steel bo lt given in T able 5.3 .8

nt
The tensile capacity of a bolt in a joint shall be the lesser of the tensile capacity of the bolt
(φ Nft ) or the pull through (punching shear) resistance of the bolt head and nut ( N pt* )
calculated as follows:
N pt* = 0.44φ d m t p f u
where
)
dm = mean of the across points and across flats dimensions of the bolt head or the
d
te nut, whichever is smaller
n
ri
p
n
e
tp = thickness of the plate under the bolt head or the nut
h
w 5.3.8.4 Bolts in combined shear and tension
d
e
et
n A bolt subjected simultaneously to a design shear force ( Vfv* ) and a design tensile force
ra
a *
u
g (N ft ) shall satisfy—
t
o
n
y
c Vfv* N ft*
n
e
rr
+ ≤ 1.0
u
0.44Vfv 0.94 N ft
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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71 AS/NZS 4673:2001
SECTION 6 TESTING
6.1 TESTING FOR DETERMINING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

6.1.1 Design based on measu red values of yield stress
Where the design is based on measured values of yield stress as determined from mill
certificates or in accordance with Clauses 6.1.2, 6.1.3, 6.1.4 and 6.1.5.2, the capacity
[strength reduction] factors ( φ ) shall be reduced by 6%. Alternatively, the reduction in
capacity [strength reduction] factor may be determined in accordance with Appendix K
when statistical values of the mean and coefficient of variation of the ratio of measured
to nominal yield stress is available, as it may apply to production runs of specific
product s.
6.1.2 Testing of unformed steel
Where the stainless steels specified in Clause 1.5.2.2 are used or the yield stress of
stainless steel is required for the purpose of Clause 6.1.4, unformed stainless steel
tensile properties shall be determined by tests in accordance with AS 1 391.
)
d
te Test specimens shall be taken from positions located one quarter of the coil width from
n
ri
p either edge near the outer end of the coil or other location to determine the lowest
n
e
h
strength of the material in the coil. At the option of the manufacturer, the test specimens
w
d may be cut longitudinally or transversely and may be tested in tension or compression,
e
et provided the manufacturer demonstr ates that such tests reli ably indicate the yield stress
n
ra of the section when subjected to the kind of stress under which the member is to be
a
u
g
t
used.
o
n
y 6.1.3 Compression testing
c
n
e
rr
u
Compressive mechanical properties may be obtained from coupon or stub column tests.
c
t
n
Compressive coupon tests shall be in accordance with ASTM E9. For coupon tests of
e
m unformed steel, test specimens shall be taken as specified in Clause 6.1.2.
u
c
o
D
(
Stub column tests shall be made on flat-end specimens whose length shall not be less
7 than three times the largest dimension of the section but no more than 20 times the least
1
0
2
v
radius of gyration. If tests of ultimate compressive strength are used to determine yield
o
N stress for quality control purposes, the length of the section shall be not less than
4
1 15 times the least radius of gyration. In making the compression tests, the specimen in
n
o the testing machine shall be centred so that the load is applied concentrically with
D
N
A
respect to the centroidal axis of the section.
L
S NOT E: For fur ther inf ormati on reg ard ing comp ression testing u sin g coup ons or stub columns ,
N
E reference may b e made to ASTM E9, and to Technical Memor anda Nos 2 and 3 o f the
E
U Column Research Council, ‘Notes on Compression Testing of Materials’, and ‘Stub-Column
Q
N Test Procedure’, reprinted in the Column Research Council Guide to Stability Design Criteria
R
E for Metal Structures, Fifth Edition, 1998. Where tangent or secant moduli are to be derived
H
T
U from compression tests, reference is made to ASTM E111.
O
S
F 6.1.4 Testing of full sections
O
Y This Clause applies only to the determination of the mechanical properties of a fully
T
I
S formed section for the purposes specified in Clause 1.5.2.4. It shall not be interpreted as
R
E
V
I forbidding the use of test procedures instead of the usual design calculations.
N
U
y The procedure shall be as follo ws:
b
d
e (a) Determine the tensile yield stress ( f yt ) in accordance with AS 1391 or the compressive
s
s
e yield stress ( f yc) by coupon testing in accordance with ASTM E9.
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 72
(b) Determine the compressive yield stress ( f yc) by means of compression tests as
specified in Clause 6.1.3.
(c) Where the principal effect of the loading to which the member will be subjected in
service is to produce bending stresses, determine the yield stress for the flanges. In
determining the yield stress, carry out tests on specimens cut from the section. Each
such specimen shall consist of one complete flange plus a portion of the web of such
flat width ratio so that the section is fully effective.
(d) For acceptance and control purposes, make two full section tests from formed
material lots. Material lots shall be considered as parcels, as defined in the relevant
Standard’s material specification in the Clauses on selection and preparation of test
samples for mechanical testing.
(e) Use either tension or compression tests for routine acceptance and control purposes,
pro vided it is demonstr ated that such tests reli ably indicate the yield stress of the
section when subjected to the kind of stress under which t he member is to be used.
6.1.5 Testing of flat coupo ns of formed members
6.1.5.1 Assessment of strength increase
)
d Tests for determining material properties of flat coupons of formed members and
te
n
ri
material properties of unformed steel for the purpose of assessing strength increase
p
n resulting from cold-forming as specified in Clause 1.5.2.4 shall be made as follows:
e
h
w (a) The yield stress of flats ( f yf) shall be established by means of a weighed average
d
e
et of the yield stresses of standard tensile coupons taken longitudinally from the
n
ra major flat portions of a cold-formed member. The weighted average shall be the
a
u
g sum of the products of the average yield stress for each major flat portion times
t
o
n
y its cross-sectional area, divided by the total area of the major flats in the cross-
n
c section.
e
rr
u (b) Where th e actual y ield stre ss of th e unf ormed ste el ex ceeds th e spe cified
c
t
n minimum yield stress, the yield stress of the flats ( f yf) shall be adjusted by
e
m
u
c
multiplying the test values by the ratio of the specified minimum yield stress to
o
D
(
the actual yield stress of the unformed steel.
7
1 6.1.5.2 Design properties
0
2
v
o Tests for determining material properties of flat coupons of formed members for the
N
4 purpose of esta blishing design properties of the formed members as specified in
1
n
o Clause 1.5.2.2 shall be made as follows:
D
N
A
L
(a) The te st sp ecimens sh all be take n long itud inally f rom a m ajor fla t port ion of the
S
N section midway between corners (excluding the corners) or midway between a
E
E corner and a free edge (excluding the corner).
U
Q
N (b) The te st sp ecimen shal l be tak en fro m the fl at por tion w ith the l east stre ngth
R
E increase from cold-forming.
H
T
U
O (c) The minimum yield stress ( f y) and the minimum tensile strength ( f u) used in
S
F design shall be determined in accordance with AS 1391.
O
Y
T
I
S 6.2 TESTING FOR ASSESSMEN T OR VERIFICATION
R
E
V
I 6.2.1 General
N
U
y
b
The methods of test specified in this Clause apply to prototype units of complete
d structures, parts of structures, individual members or connections for design verification
e
s
s as an alternative to calculation. The methods do not apply to the testing of structural
e
c
c
A models nor to the establishment of general design criteria.
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73 AS/NZS 4673:2001
6.2.2 Static tests for strength or serviceability

6.2.2.1 Test specimens
The prototype test specimens shall be identical nominally to the class of units for which
structural verification is required. The materials and fabrication of the prototype
specimens shall comply with the relevant specifications used in production. Any
additional requirements of a manufacturing specification shall be complied with. The
method of assembly used shall simulate that which is used in production.
6.2.2.2 Test loads
The target test loads ( Rt) for the number of units to be tested shall be equal to the design
action effects [design actions] ( S *) for the relevant strength or serviceability
requirements, multiplied by the appropriate factor ( k t) to allow for variability of
structural units, given in Table 6.2.2, i.e. R t is equal to k t S *.
The design action effects [design actions] shall be determined in accordance with
AS 1170.1, AS 1170.2, AS 1170.3, AS 1170.4 or NZS 4203, as appropriate.
) TABLE 6.2.2
d
te
n
ri FACTORS ( k t) TO ALLO W FOR VARIABILITY OF STRUCTURAL UNITS
p
n
e
h
w No. of units to Coefficient of variation of structural characteristicsk(sc)
d
e be tested
et 5% 10% 15% 20 % 25% 30%
n
ra
a 1 1.20 1.46 1.79 2.21 2.75 3.45
u
g
t 2 1.17 1.38 1.64 1.96 2.36 2.86
o
n
y
c 3 1.15 1.33 1.56 1.83 2.16 2.56
n
e
rr
u
4 1.15 1.30 1.50 1.74 2.03 2.37
c
t
n 5 1.13 1.28 1.46 1.67 1.93 2.23
e
m
u 10 1.10 1.21 1.34 1.49 1.66 1.85
c
o
D
( 100 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4 6.2.2.3 Coefficient of variation of structural characteristics
1
n
o
D The coefficient of variation of structural characteristics ( k sc ) refers to the variability of
N
A
L
the total population of the production units. This includes the total population variation
S due to fabrication ( k f) and material ( k m). It can be approximated as follows:
N
E
E
U
Q k sc = k f2 + k m2 . . . 6.2.2.3
N
R
E 6.2.2.4 Test requirements
H
T
U
O Loading devices shall be calibrated and care shall be taken to ensure that no
S
F unintentional restraints on the specimen are applied by the loading systems. The
O
Y distribution and duration of the forces applied in the test shall represent those forces to
T
I
S which the structure is deemed to be subjected. For short-term static test, the test load
R
E shall be applied at a uniform rate such that t he test duration shall be not less than 5 min.
V
I
N
U Deformations shall, as a minimum, be recorded at the following times:
y
b
d
e (a) Prior to the application of the test load.
s
s
e
c
c
(b) After the test load has been applied.
A
(c) After the removal of the test load.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 74
6.2.2.5 Criteria for acceptance

Criteria for acceptance shall be as f ollows:
(a) Acceptance for static strength.
(b) All test units shall be capable of resisting the target test load.
(c) Acceptance for serviceability.
(d) All test units shall be capable of sustaining the target test load while remaining
within the limiting serviceability value appropriate for the required performance
level and the elastic recovery (after the removal of the test load) is 95% complete.
6.2.2.6 Test report
The report of the test of each unit shall contain, in addition to the test results, a clear
statement of the conditions of testing, including the method of loading and of measuring
deflection, together with any relevant data. The report shall also contain a statement as
to whether the units tested satisfy the acceptance criteria.
6.2.2.7 Design capa city of specific products and assemblies
)
The design capacity ( Rd ) of a specific product or a specific assembly may be established
d
te by prototype testing of that specific product or assembly. The desi gn capacity ( Rd ) shall
n
ri satisfy—
p
n
e
h
w R 
d
e
Rd ≤  min.  . . . 6.2.2.7
et
n
 kt 
ra
a
u
g
where R min. is the minimum value of the test results and k t is as given in Table 6. 2.2.
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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75 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX A
LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

(Normative)
The following documents are referred to in this Standard:
AS
1170 Minimum design loads on structures
1170.1 Part 1: Dead and live loads and load combinations
1170.2 Part2: Windloads
1170.3 Part3: Snowloads
1170.4 Part 4: Earthquakeloads
1210 Pressurevessels
1391 Methods for tensile testing of metals
1449 Wrought alloy-steels—Stainless and heat-resisting steel plate, sheet and
strip
) 4100 Steelstructures
d
te
n
ri
4100 Supp 1 Steel structures — Commentary (Supplement to AS 4100 — 1998)
p
n
e
AS/NZS
h
w 1554 Structuralsteel welding
d
e
e 1554.1 Part 1: Welding of steel structures
t
n 1554.5 Part 5: Welding o f s teel s tructures subject t o h igh l evels o f f atigue
ra
a
u
g
loading
t
o 1554.6 Part 6: Welding stainless steels for structural purposes
n
y
n
c NZS
e
rr 3404 Steelstructures Standard
u
c
t 3404.2 Part 2: Commentary to the steel structures Standard
n
e
m
u
4203 Code of practice for general structural design and design loadings for
c
o buildings (Volume 1 Code of pract ice; Volume 2 Commentary)
D
(
7
1
ASTM
0
2 A167 Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-resisting Chromium-
v
o Nickel Stee l Pl ate, Shee t and Strip
N
4
1 A176 Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium-
n
o
D
Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip
N
A
L
A193 Standard Specification for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting
S
N Materials for High-Temperature Service
E
E
U A240 Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting Chromium and Chromium-
Q
N
Nickel Stai nless Steel Pla te, Sheet and Strip for Pressure Ve ssels
R
E A276 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes
H
T
U A480 Standard Specification for General Requirements for Flat-Rolled
O
S Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip
F
O
Y A666 Standard Specification for Annealed or Cold-Worked Austenitic
T
I
S Stainless Steel Sheet, Strip, Plate and Flat Bars
R
E E9 Standard Test M ethods of Compression Testing of M etallic Materials at
V
I
N Room Temperature
U
y
b E111 Standard Specification for Young’s modulus, tangent modulus and
d
e
s
s
chord modulus
e
c
c F593 Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Bolts, Hex Cap Screws and
A
Studs
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 76
ANSI
ANSI/AWS D1.3 Structural Weld ing Cod e—Sheet Stee l
ANSI/ASCE -8-90 Speci ficat ion for the Design of Cold-Forme d Stainless Ste el Structura l
Members
ANSI/AWS
C1.1 Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding
EN
10088 StainlessSteels
10088-1 Part 1: List of Stainless Steels
10088-2 Part 2: Technical D elivery C onditions f or S heet/Plate a nd S trip f or
General Purposes
10088-3 Part 3: Technical De livery Co nditions fo r Se mi-Finished Pr oducts,
Bars, Rods and Sections for General Purposes
ENV
1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
1993-1-4 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
)
d
Part:1-4: General rules—Supple mentary ru les for st ainless s teels
te
n ISO
ri
p
n 3506 Mechanical properties of corrosion-resistant stainless-steel fasteners
e
h
w 3506-1 Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs
d
e
e 3506-2 Part2:N uts
t
n 3506-3 Part 3: Set screws and similar fasteners not under tensile stress
ra
a
u 7089 Plain washers—Normal series—Product grade A
g
t
o
n
y 7090 Plain washers, chamford—Normal series—Product grade A
c
n
e
rr JIS
u G4305 Cold-rolled stainless steel plates, sheets and strip
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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77 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX B
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(Normative)
B1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS

The stress-strain relationships for annealed and cold-rolled stainless steels are non-linear
and anisotropic and this shall be considered in design. (See Figure B1.)
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2 FIGURE B1 TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR STAINLESS STEEL
v
o
N
4
1 The stress-strain relationship for stainless steels can be expressed analytically by the
n
o Ramberg-Osgood equation as follows:
D
N
A n
L
f  f 
S
N
E
ε = + 0.002 
 . . . B1(1)
E Eo  fy 
U
Q
R
N where
E
H
T ε = normal strain
U
O
S f = norm al engineering stress
F
O
Y E o = initial e lastic m odulus
T
I
S
R n = constant
E
V
I
N log ε y ε p
U
= . . . B1(2)
log ( f yc f pc )
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
εy = offset yield strain
c
A
= 0.002
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 78
εp = offset proportional limit strain

= 0.0001
fy = offset yield stress in compression
f pc = offset proportional limit in compression
The tangent and secant moduli to be used for design can be calculated as follows:
Et = tangent modulus for normal stress
df
= dε
f y Eo
= n -1
 f  . . B1(3)
fy + 0.002nEo  

 fy 
Es = secant modulus for normal stress
) f
d = . . . B1(4)
te ε
n
ri
p
n
e
Eo
h =
w  f n -1  . . . B1(5)
1 + 0.002E o  
d
e
et
n  f yn 
ra  
a
u
g
t Gt = tangentmodulusforshearstress ..B1(6)
o
n
y
n
c df v
e
rr
=
u
dγ
c
t
n
e = f yv Go
m
u n −1
c
o  fv 
D
( f yv + 0.003Go  
7
1  f yv 
0
2

v
o
N Gs = secant m odulus f or sh ear str ess
4
1
n
o
fv
D
=
N γ
A
L
S
N = Go
E
E
U  f vn -1 
Q 1 + 0.003Go 
N  f yvn 
R
E  
H
T
U Mechanical properties of cold-formed stainless steels for design calculation are given in
O
S Tables B1(A) to B1(E).
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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79 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE B1(A)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR LONGITUDINAL TENSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 185 195 185 200
Yield stress fy MPa 205 205 205 280 275 430
Ramberg–Osgo od parameter n — 7.5 7.5 11 9 8.5 5.5
Proportional limit fp MPa 140 140 155 180 195 245
Ultimate strength fu MPa 520 485 380 435 450 590
TABLE B1(B)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR LONGITUDINAL COMPRESSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
) 316 316L
d
te
n Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 185 210 185 195
ri
p
n Yield stress fy MPa 195 195 205 260 275 435
e
h
w Ramberg–Osgo od parameter n — 4 4 9.5 7.5 6.5 5
d
e
et Proportional limit fp MPa 90 90 150 170 170 245
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y TABLE B1(C)
c
n
e
rr
u
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR TRANSVERSE TENSION
c
t
n
e 304, 304L,
m 409 1.4003 430 S31803
u
c 316 316L
o
D
(
7 Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 200 220 200 205
1
0
2 Yield stress fy MPa 205 205 240 320 310 450
v
o
N Ramberg–Osgo od parameter n — 5.5 5.5 16 11.5 14 5
4
1
n Proportional limit fp MPa 118 118 200 215 250 245
o
D Ultimate strength fu MPa 520 485 380 460 450 620
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q TABLE B1(D)
N
R
E MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR TRANSVERSE COMPRESSION
H
T
U
O 304, 304L,
S 409 1.4003 430 S31803
F 316 316L
O
Y Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 200 230 200 205
T
I
S
R Yield stress fy MPa 205 205 240 285 310 445
E
V
I
N Ramberg–Osgo od parameter n — 7 7 16 11.5 15 5.5
U
y Proportional limit fp MPa 135 135 200 220 255 265
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 80
TABLE B1(E)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR SHEAR
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus G GPa 75 75 75 75 75 75

Yield stress f yv MPa 115 115 130 130 165 255
Ramberg–Osgo od parameter n — 6 6 13 10 11 5.5
B2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WELDS

Many different welding processes may b e used to j oint stainless steels. Table B2 gives
tensile properties which can be used for mechanical design of welds made by the manual
metal arc (MMAW) welding process.
Other welding processes such as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW) are frequently used with corrosion resistance
)
d
productivity.
te
n
ri Welding consumables for these processes are available, which give tensile str engths at least
p
n
e
equivalent to the tensile strengths given in Table B2.
h
w
d Consult suppliers of welding consumables for design properties of weld deposits made by
e
et these processes.
n
ra
a
u AS/NZS 1554.6 specifies methods for the selection of welding consumables, details of
g
t welded connections, qualifications of procedures and personnel, workmanship, quality of
o
n
y welds and inspections.
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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81 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE B2
TENSILE PROPERTIES OF DEPOSITED WELD METAL
FOR ALL-WELD-METAL SPECIMENS COVERED ELECTRODES
FOR MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW)
Minimum tensile strength Minimum elongation

Designation Heat treatment
MP a %
E209-XX 690 15 None

E219-XX 620 15 None
E240-XX 690 15 None
E307-XX 590 30 None

E308-XX 550 35 None
E308H-XX 550 35 None
E308L-XX 520 35 None

E309Mo-XX 550 35 None
)
d
te
E308MoL-XX 520 35 None
n
ri
p
n
e E309-XX 550 30 None
h
w
d E309L-XX 520 30 None
e
et
n E308Nb-XX 550 30 None
ra
a
u
g
t E309Mo-XX 550 30 None
o
n
y
c E309MoL-XX 520 30 None
n
e
rr E310-XX 550 30 None
u
c
t
n
e
m E310H-XX 620 10 None
u
c
o E310Nb-XX 550 25 None
D
(
7 E310Mo-XX 550 30 None
1
0
2
v
o
N E312-XX 660 22 None
4
1
n E316-XX 520 30 None
o
D E316H-XX 520 30 None
N
A
L
S
N E316L-XX 490 30 None
E
E
U E317-XX 550 30 None
Q
N E317L-XX 520 30 None
R
E
H
T
U E318-XX 550 25 None
O
S
F E320-XX 550 30 None
O
Y E320LR-XX 520 30 None
T
I
S
R
E
V
I E330-XX 520 25 None
N
U E330H-XX 620 10 None
y
b
d E347-XX 520 30 None
e
s
s
e ( continued )
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 82
TABLE B2 (continued )
Minimum tensile strength Minimum elongation

Designation Heat treatment
MP a %
E49 690 25 None

E383 520 30 None
E385 520 30 None
E410 450 20 (See

Note
1)
E410NiMo 760 15 (See
Note
2)
E430 450 20 (See
Note
3)
E630 930 7 (See

Note
4)
E16-8-2 550 35 None
E2209-XX 690 20 None
E2553-XX 760 15 None
NOTES:
)
d 1 Specimen shall be heated to between 840 ° C and 870 ° C, held for 2 h, furnace-cooled at a rate
te
n not greater than 55 K/h to 595 ° C and air-cooled to ambient temperature.
ri
p
n 2 Specimen shall be heated to between 595 °C and 620 ° C, held for 1 h, and air-cooled t o
e
h ambient temperature.
w
d 3 Specimen shall be heated to between 760 ° C and 790 ° C, held for 2 h, furnace-cooled at a rate
e
et
n not greater than 55 K/h to 55 ° C and air-cooled to ambient temperature.
ra
a
u 4 Specimen shall be heated to between 1025 ° C and 1050 ° C, held for 1 h, air-cooled to less
g
o
t than 15 ° C, and then precipitation-hardened at 610 ° C to 630 ° C, held for 4 h, and air-cooled
n
y to ambient temperature.
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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83 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX C
STAINLESS STEEL PROPERTIES

(Informative)
C1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix gives general guidance only on the use of stainless steels in structures.
Specialist advice should always be obtained in relation to specific applications to ensure
that all relevant factors have been properly accounted for.
Figure C1 shows schematically the processes that are used to produce cold-formed
structural members. The steel thickness in these members is generally limited by the
capacity of cold-forming equipment to about 6 mm.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N NOTE: BA (2R) fini sh designat ions are in accordan ce wit h ASTM A480/ AS14 49, wit h EN 10088 designat ion
U
y shown in parentheses.
b
d
e
s
s FIGURE C1 PRODUCTION PROCESSES AND SURFACE FINISHES
e
c
c FOR COLD-FORMED STAINLESS STEEL STRUCTURES
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 84
C2 STAINLESS STEEL GRADES

C2.1 Introduction
There are many grades of stainless steel, as defined in various national and international
standards. Many of these steels are effectively equivalents, the slight differences in
specification between different specifying authorities generally being negligible.
Stainless steels can be classified into five groups in accordance with their microstructure,
which results primarily from their chemical composition. Each group has different
properties, particularly in respect of strengt h, corrosi on resistance and ease of fabrication.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
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u
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e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4 FIGURE C2 CLASSIFICAT ION OF STAINLESS STEELS
1
n BY THEIR CHROMIUM AND NICKEL CONTENT
o
D
N
A
L
S C2.2 Classification of stainless steels by microstructures
N
E
E
U The five groups can be summarized as follows:
Q
N
R (a) Austenitic stainless steels These are the most commonly used stainless steels. They
E
H
T have an austenitic microstructure at room temperature, stabilized by relatively high
U amounts of nickel (greater than 7%). Cast austenitic stainless steels may contain
O
S significant amount of ferrite. Austenitic stainless steels have high ductility, are easily
F
O formed, are readily weldable, and offer good corrosion resistance. Their strengths are
Y
T
I
S
reasonable when compared to carbon steel, but they can only be hardened, i.e. made
R stronger, by cold-working, not by heat treatment. Considerable strength levels can be
E
V
I
N achieved in austenitic stainless steels by cold working. Austenitic stainless steels are
U
y available in all product forms. Steels of this group are the most common in structures,
b
d
e
particularl y grades 304 and 316 and thei r low carbo n variants, 304L and 316L. These
s
s
e
steels are based on 18% chromium and 8% nickel, 316 being slightly leaner in
c
c chromium but with an addition of 2% molybdenum to give higher resistance to
A
localized corrosion.
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85 AS/NZS 4673:2001
The low carbon ‘L’ variants of grades 304 and 316 contain a maximum of 0.03%
carbon. This greatly reduces their susceptibility to sensitization by the heat of
welding (see Paragraph C6.3.5). The use of ‘L’ grades generally gives no significant
advantage for section thicknesses less than about 6 mm.
(b) Ferritic stainless steels The ferritic stainless steels contain relatively little nickel
and have a ferritic microstructure, as do plain carbon and carbon manganese steels.
They are readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Strength in the annealed
condition is similar to austenitic grades, but ductility, formability and weldability are
not as good as in the austenitic steels. Although generally not as corrosion resistant as
the austenitic
austenitic grades,
grades, theytheir
canresistance to stress
be hardened corrosion
by cold cracking
working, not byisheat
superior. As with
treatment, but
the strength achieved is much less than for the austenitic grades. It is generally
difficult to produce reliable structural welds in ferritic stainless steels. An exception
are a group of corrosion resistant steels containing ~12% chromium, conforming to
1.4003 (EN 10088), which are widely used in mildly corrosive environments for non-
decorative applications in machinery and rail wagons for minerals; however,
specialist assessment of suitability for specific application and fabrication processes
is still required.
)
d (c) Mart ensitic stainless steels These steels can be hardened by heat treatment. They are
te
n readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Great strengths can be achieved.
ri
p
n
e
Toughness may not be adequate for structural application and should be considered in
h
w design. They are not normally used structurally in welded fabrication. They are used
d
e
e for bolts, connecting nodes and as wear components.
t
n
ra (d) Duplex (austenitic-ferritic) stai nless steels These steels have a mixed microstructure
a
u
g
t
of austenite and ferrite, and combine some of the best properties of the austenitic and
o
n
y ferritic groups. They are readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Compared to
c
n the austenitic group, they have higher mechanical strengths, slightly inferior
e
rr
u weldability, lower formability and similar or higher corrosion resistance especially
c
t with respect to stress corrosion cracking. They can be hardened by cold-working.
n
e
m
u
Several of the grades in this group have higher alloy content and hence better
c
o corrosion resistance than the most common austenitic grades, 304 and 316. The most
D
(
7 common duplex grade in structures is UNS S31803 (1.4462 in EN 10088), which
1
0 contains 22% chromium, 5% nickel and 3% molybdenum.
2
v
o
N (e) Precipitation hardening stainless steels These offer the highest strengths, obtained
4
1 by suitable heat treatments, which precipitate second phase particles whic h increase
n
o
D
strength. They are readily available in cast rolls and vast forms. Very high strength
N levels, with yield stress greater than 1000 MPa, may be obtained in some grades.
A
L
S
N
Precipitation hardening stainless steels may have an austenitic or ferritic matrix. They
E are not normally used in welded fabrications, as they require heat treatment and
E
U
Q surface finishing after welding. The most common grade of precipitation hardening
N
R stainless steel is UNS S17400, also known as grade 630.
E
H
T Further information on the various groups and types of stainless steels may be found in
U
O standard t exts (e.g. Ref. 1 given i n Paragraph C9). Table C1 gi ves t he availability of
S
F stainless steel products by grade.
O
Y
T
I C2.3 Effect of product form
S
R
E This Appendix applies mainly to the wrought forms of the selected alloys. Cast forms
V
I
N generally have corrosion resistance equivalent to the wrought forms, but several differences
U
y
b exist. One of the more important is that the microstructure of cast austenitic stainless steels
d
e
s generally contains more ferrite than the wrought form. This facilitates the casting process
s
e
c and weld repair, and also increases the resistance to stress corrosion cracking
c
A (see Paragraph C7.3.7). Cast steels also differ in mechanical properties, physical properties
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 86
and chemical composition. Because of the formation of larger grain sizes and other
differences in microstructure, mechanical properties of cast steels exhibit a wider range and
may be inferior to wrought steels. Cast stai nless steels are often manufactured for a specific
application, and properties may vary to suit the application. Note that Standards are
available for cast stainless steels and should be referred to.
TABLE C1
AVAILABILITY OF STAINLESS STEEL PRODUCTS BY GRADE
Plate, sheet and coil Circular and Hot-rolled

Rod and Welded
Grade rectangular hollow angles and Fasteners
Ho t - ro l le d Co l d - ro l le d bars tubes
sections shapes
304 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
304L ✔ — — ✔ — — —
310 ✔ ✔ ✔ — — — ✔
316 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
)
d
te 316L ✔ — — — — — —
n
ri
p
n 409 — ✔ — ✔ — — —
e
h
w 1.4003 ✔ ✔ — — — — —
d
e
et
n 430 — ✔ — — — — —
ra
a
u S31803 ✔ ✔ ✔ — — — —
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u C3 EFFECT OF ALLOYI NG ELEMENTS IN ST AINLESS STEELS
c
t
n
e Chromium is the alloying element by which stainless steels are defined, a minimum of
m
u
c
o
about 10.5% chromium is required. The principal function of chromium is to confer
D
( corrosion and high temperature oxidation resistance; both properties arise from the strong
7
1 affinity of chromium with oxygen. When in contact with aqueous media, chromium
0
2
v
o
contributes to the development of a chromium rich passive layer on the surface. In high
N
4
temperature environments, chromium contributes to the formation of a protective, slow
1
n growing chromium-rich oxide layer on the surface.
o
D
N Nickel is added to stai nle ss steels mainly to counter act the tendency of chromium to
A
L stabilize the ferritic crystal structure. Nickel promotes the for mation of the more ductile and
S
N
E weldable austenitic crystal microstructure, and about 8% of nickel is required to ensure a
E
U fully austenitic microstructure in the most common stainless steels, which contain about
Q
N 18% chromium. Higher levels of nickel may be added to promote resistance to stress
R
E
H
T corrosion cracking.
U
O Molybdenum is added in small amounts (up to about 7%) to stainless steels principally to
S
F improve the resistance to corrosion. It is particularly effective in improving resistance to
O
Y pitting and crevi ce corrosion. Molybde num also inc rease s the high temperature strength of
T
I
S austenitic grades, and increases room temperature strength and tempering resistance of
R
E martensitic grades.
V
I
N
U Carbon is always present in stainless steels. The carbon content is controlled for an
y
b optimum balance of strength to which it contributes, and corrosion resistance and
d
e
s
s
weldability, which it may impair if present at excessive levels. Some grades intended for
e
c
c service at high temperatures or for high strength or wear resistance may have a minimum
A
level of carbon.
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87 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Nitrogen behaves i n a simi lar way to carbon i n st ainless steels, although the s ame content of
nitrogen is less damaging than carbon to corrosion resistance and weldability.
Elements such as titanium, niobium and tantalum may be added, particularly to the
austenitic and ferritic grades, to reduce susceptibility to sensitization and hence
intergranular corrosion particularly in the welded condition. This approach to the
improvement of corrosion properties has largely been superseded in the austenitic grades by
limitation of the carbon content to a maximum of 0.03%. This can be readily achieved by
modern steelmaking equipment, and is sufficiently low to avoid sensitization even in
welded heavy sections of the austenitic grades.
Elements such as sulphur, selenium and calcium may be added to improve machinability,
although this may be at the expense of corrosion and oxidation resistance. The deleterious
effect of calcium is less than that of sulphur.
C4 SURFACE FINISH
In many applications, surface finish and appearance are important. Manufacturers offer a
range of standard finishes, from mill finish through dull finishes to bright polish. They may
also offer proprietary textured finishes. Mill finishes result from the operations used to
)
d
produce th e product form, while decorative finishes are a ppli ed a fter wards. Mill finishes are
te often difficult to repair after damage or fabrication, while decorative finishes can generally
n
ri
p be match ed satisfactorily.
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e
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w The most common mill and decorative finishes on cold-formed structural sections are 2B
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e and No. 4 respectively. 2B finish results from the sequence of operations used to produce
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n the section (see Figure C1). No. 4 is produced by a further surface finishing operation,
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a
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g
using abrasive grit with a particle size of about 120 to 150 grade. It may be applied either to
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o the flat product used to manufacture cold-formed sections, or to the cold-for med sections.
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n It should be noted that although the various finishes are standardized, variability in
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rr
u processing introduces differences in appearan ce between manufacturers and even within a
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t single producer. Bright finishes are frequently used in architectural applications and it
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should be noted that bright finishes will exaggerate any out-of-flatness of the material,
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o particularl y on panel surf aces. Rigi dize d, embossed, text ured, patterned, or profiled sheets
D
(
7 with a rigid supporting frame will alleviate this tendency.
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v Stainless steel may also be given colour, either chemically, or by painting.
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N
4 Consult stainless steel suppliers for the full range of finishes available.
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D C5 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN VALUE OF PROPERT IES
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L
S C5.1 Basic stress-strain behaviour
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U The stress-strain behaviour of stainless steels differ from that of carbon steels, such as
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N
grade 300 structural steel, in a number of respects (see Figure C3).
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E
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T C5.1.1 Non-linearity
U
O
S
The most important difference between stainless and carbon steels is in the shape of the
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O
stress-strain curve. Carbon steel typically exhibits linear elastic behaviour up to the yield
Y
T
stress and a plateau before strain hardening is encountered, while stainless steel has a more
I
S
R
rounded r esponse with no well-defined yield stress (see Figure B1 of Appendix B).
E Therefore, stainless steel ‘yield’ stresses are generally quoted as a proof strength defined
V
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N for a particular offset permanent strain, typically 0.2% strain, as shown in Figure B1.
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c NOTE: Structural steel strain hardens at larger strains than show.
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n FIGURE C3 TYPICAL INITIAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES FOR STAINLESS STEELS
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AND GRADE 300 ST RUCTURAL STEEL (FOR LONGITUDINAL TENSION)
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C5.1.2 Non-symmetry of tensile and compressive behaviour
v
o
N Stainless steel may exhibit quite different stress-strain behaviour in tension and
4
1 compression.
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o
D This is especially the case for austenitic grades, where the compressive yield stress is often
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A substantially lower than the tensile yield str ess, particularly in the temper-rolled condition.
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E C5.1.3 Anisotropy
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U
Q Stainless steel often has different stress-strain behaviour for test coupons aligned parallel
N
R
E
and transversely to the rolling direction; i.e. it may be anisotropic. For the austenitic grades
H
T transverse tensile tests tend to be weaker than longitudinal tests. This is recognized by
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O product codes, where tran sverse coupons are normally specified for proving t ests; howe ver,
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F for duplex grades the transverse tensile strength is greater than the longitudinal strength (by
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Y about 5%).
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R Thus, when non-linearity, non-symmetry and anisotropy are considered, material behaviour
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I is characterized by four stress-strain curves. This leads to relatively complex design. This
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U subject is covered in detail in Appendix B.
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C5.2 Factors affecting stress-strain behaviour

There are factors that can change the form of the four basic curves for any given grade of
stainless steel. These factors are to some extent interdependent and include the following:
(a) Cold working Strength is increased by cold work ing, such as during cold-forming
operations including roller levelling/flattening. The reduction in ductility associated
with the increase in strength is normally unimportant as the initial ductility is high,
especially in the austenitic stainless steels. All stainless steel products should meet
minimum ductility requirements, as specified in product Standards.
The 0.2% proof strength is typically increased by about 50% in cold-formed corners
of cross-sections. However, the effect is localized and the increase in member
capacity is dependent on the location of the corners within the section; e.g. in a beam
little benefit would be obtained for corners close to the neutral axis. The strength
enhancement more than offsets any effect due to thinning of the material at cold-
worked corners.
Cold working, which is normally applied unidirectionally, affects the four basic
curves to different extents, though all curves are enhanced.
) Subsequent welding of the member will partially anneal the heat-affected zone,
d
te reducing the strength increase arising from cold working. Hence, if members are to be
n
ri
p welded, annealed or heat treated, the increase in strength resulting from cold-forming
n
e
h
can only be used if tests of the structural elements are conducted in accordance with
w
d Section 6.
e
et
n (b) Strain -rate sensitivity, creep and cyclic stressing Strain-rate se nsitivity is more
ra
a pronounced in stai nless steels than in carbon steels; that is, a proportionally greater
u
g
t strength can be realized at fast strain rates for stainless steel than for carbon steel.
o
n
y Conversely, the effects of strength reduction at very low loading rates, including the
c
n
e
rr effects of room temperature creep under static loading, should be recognized.
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n
For strain rates differing by two orders of magnitude, over the range used in tensile
e
m coupon testing, there is no evidence that the relationship between the four basic
u
c curves is altered.
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7 Since strength limit states normally correspond to short-term overload conditions,
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0
2 creep need only be considered for high levels of long-term serviceability loads. Creep
v
o
N may be manifested by increased beam deflection. If long-term deflection is an issue,
4
1 it is tentatively recommended to restrict the long-term serviceability stresses to
n
o 0.6 σ0.2 , where σ 0 .2 is the actual 0.2% proof stress of the material. For very long-term,
D
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A
say 100 years, an even lower figure may be applicable, say 0.5 σ 0. 2.
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S
N At high levels of cyclic stressing, stainless steel may exhibit ratcheting, with the
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E
U
strain incrementing, though at a decreasing rate, on each cycle. This phenomenon will
Q only rarely be a consideration for structural applications and to a large extent it is
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R accounted for in the partial factors of safety.
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H
T
U (c) Effects of temperature The auste nitic grades a re used f or cryogenic applica tions,
O
S where they remain tough and ductile. They also retain higher strengths than carbon
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O steel at elevated temperatures; however, the design of structures subject to long-term
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I exposure at cryogenic or elevated temperatures is outside the scope of this Standard.
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V
Nevertheless, the short-ter m properties may be of importance, for instance when
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N considering fire resistance. For further information on the design of fire, see
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y Appendix G.
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C6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Typical room temperature physical properties of some grades in the annealed condition are
given in Table C2. Physical properties may vary slightly with product form and size but
such variations are usually not of critical importance to t he application.
In structures, an important physical property is the coefficient of linear expansion (CLE).
The CLE of austenitic grades is considerably higher than that for carbon steel
(12 × 10 −6/ 0 C). The effects of differential thermal expansion should be considered in design
and fabrication.
The austenitic grades are usually considered non-magnetic, but may show low levels of
ferromagnetism (magnetic susceptibility greater than or equal to 1.003) due to the presence
of delta ferrite or martensite. The former is usually present in castings and weld metals, the
latter may be induced by cold work, such as levelling or forming strains, or at sheared
edges. Where non-magnetic properties are important, care should be exercised in selecting
appropriate grades and welding consumables, or a post-weld heat treatment applied. It is
recommended to obtain further advice for non-magnetic applications.
)
TABLE C2
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TYPICAL ROOM TEMPERATURE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME
p
n STAINLESS STEELS IN THE ANNEALED CONDITION
e
h
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d Mean coefficient of linear Thermal Specific Electrical
e Density
et
n Grade UNS No expansion conductivity heat resistivity
ra
a
u
g
kg/m3 × 10−6 / oC W / m .oK J / k g .o K nΩ .m
t
o
n
y 0 – 100 o C 0 – 315 o C 0 – 540 o C 100o C 500 o C
c
n
e
rr 303 S30300 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
u
c
t 304 S30400 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
n
e
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u 304L S30403 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
c
o
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(
7 310 S31000 8000 15.9 16.2 17.0 14.2 18.7 500 780
1
0
2
v 316 S31600 8000 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
o
N
4 316L S31603 8000 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
1
n
o
D 321 S32100 8000 16.6 17.2 18.6 16.1 22.2 500 720
N
A
L
S 409 S40900 7800 11.7 12.0 12.4 24.9 — 460 —
N
E
E 1.4003 S41003 7800 10.8 11.3 12.0 31.0 32.0 480 570
U
Q
N 410 S41000 7800 9.9 11.4 11.6 24.9 28.7 460 570
R
E
H
T 430 S43000 7800 10.4 11.0 11.4 26.1 26.3 460 600
U
O
S — S318 03 7800 13.7 14.7 — — 19.0 — 480
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C7 DURABILITY — CORROSION
C7.1 Introduction
In most stainless steel structural applications, corrosion resistance is of primary importance,
for appearance, minimal maintenance or long-term durability. Hence, corrosion resistance is
often the main consideration in choosing a grade. Because stainless steels are usually used
in corrosion conditions that are challenging, appropriate design of the structure may be
required, to minimize or eradicate corrosion. If careful consideration is given to this aspect
of design, in addition to the mechanical considerations required for other materials, long
and economic lives can be achieved, often in service conditions that would give limited life
or more expensive maintenance, replacement or repair requirements for other materials.
Stainless steels are generally very corrosion resistant and will perform satisfactorily in most
environments. The limit of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel depends on a
number of factors but in general the higher the alloy content, particularly chromium and
molybdenum, the higher the resistance, and cost.
Careful selection of the appropriate grade for a given application is, therefore, of economic
importance. The maintenance and repair schedules should also be resolved at the design
stage.
)
d
te As with all metals, stainless steel can be subject to corrosion under specific conditions and
n
ri
p details of the major individual types of corrosion are given in the following section. It
n
e
h
should be emphasized that the presence of moisture, including that due to condensation, is
w
d necessary for corrosion to occur. For atmospheric corrosion, the t ime of wetness is a critical
e
et variable for the extent of corrosion experienced. There is a critical relative humidity of the
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ra atmosphere, below which condensation will not form on the metal surface, and hence
a
u
g
t
corrosion cannot take place. The actual critical relative humidity will change, depending on
o
n
y the surface condition of the metal. The presence of dust particles and other contamination
c on the surface will reduce the critical relative humidity, usually t o about 50 to 70%.
n
e
rr
u In some cases, the corrosion mechanism itself may not be as significant as consequences
c
t
n arising from it. For example, corrosion pitting would directly limit the life of pipework, but
e
m
u
c
may not be a problem in a structure unless the pits also affect fatigue life. Where stainless
o
D
(
steels are used for their appearance, minor corrosion can produce stains, which constitute
7 failure in a structure of unimpaired integrity.
1
0
2
v The existence of corrosion mechanisms does not imply that the stainless steels are unduly
o
N
4 restricted in use, or that they are ‘delicate’ materials, but simply that these sophisticated
1
n
o
materials demand intelligent use in order to avoid certain well-known conditions, and to get
D the most out of their very considerable advantages. In nearly all cases, grade selection and
N
A the design of the structure are the keys to good performance, and appropriate selection and
L
S
N features will eradicate or minimize corrosion. With intelligent use, stainless steels can give
E
E long and economic lives, often in service conditions that would give limited life or more
U
Q
N
expensive maintenance and repair requirements for other materials.
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E
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T C7.2 Mechanism of corrosion resistance
U
O The corrosion resistance of stainless steels results from a passive surface film, which, with
S
F adequate access to oxygen or oxidizing agents, is self-healing when damaged. This film is
O
Y rich in chromium, and the corrosion resistance is strongly related to the chromium content
T
I
S of the steel. The addition of nickel and other alloying elements can substantially enhance
R
E the protection offered by the film. In particular, a few percent of molybdenum improves the
V
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N pitting r esistance (see Paragraph C7.3.3) of t he steel .
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d Corrosion initiates when the passive film is damaged, by electro-chemical attack or by
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s mechanical damage. Corrosion resistance is promoted by conditions that facilitate repair of
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c the passive film,
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C7.3 Types of corrosion and performance of steel grades

C7.3.1 General (uniform) corrosion
The passive chromium-rich surface film makes general corrosion much less severe in
stainless steels than for carbon steels. General corrosion on stainless steels normally takes
the form of surface staining rather than bulk substrate dissolution .
This form of corrosion is not a problem for most austenitic and duplex grades in onshore
structural appli cations and for grades 316 and duplex S31803 in marine applications.
Ferritic grades should not be used in environments where they can become wet unless they
are protected by painting, or surface staining can be tolerated.
Where stainless steel is used aesthetically in exposed locations, routine maintenance by
washing is normally sufficient to retain the surface finish.
Stainless steels are resistant to many chemicals; they are often used for their containment.
For these applications, reference should be made to tables in manufacturers’ literature, or
the advice of a competent corrosion engineer should be sought (see Paragraph C8).
C7.3.2 Abrasion corrosion
)
Where there is flow of abrasive particles across a stainless steel surface, the rate of removal
d
te of the passive film may exceeds its re-formation. Erosion-corrosion results, and loss rates of
n
ri the steel can be relatively high. However, the corrosion resistance and strength of stainless
p
n
e
h
steels are higher than many other materials, and they are especially useful where problems
w have been encountered with abrasion corrosion of other materials.
d
e
et
n C7.3.3 Pitting corrosion
ra
a
u Pitting corrosion occurs as localized pits. It results from local breakdown of the passive
g
t
o
n
y layer, normally by chloride ions, although the other halides, sulphates and other anions can
n
c have a similar effect.
e
rr
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c
Since the chloride ion is by far the most common cause of pitting, coastal and marine
t
n
e
environments are rather aggressive. Besides the chloride content, the probability of a
m particular mediu m causi ng pitting depe nds on factors such as the temperat ure, acidity or
u
c
o alkalinity and the presence of the oxidizing agents needed to maintain the passive film. In
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most structural applications, the extent of pitting is likely to be only superficial and
0
2 reduction in section negligible.
v
o
N Stainless steels containing molybdenum have higher resistance to this form of corrosion
4
1
n and, where pitting cannot be tolerated, are recommended for aggressive marine, coastal, and
o
D industrial areas.
N
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L The pitting resistance of a stainless steel is dependent on its chemical composition.
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N
E Chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen all enhance the resistance to pitting.
E
U
Q An approximate measure of pitting resistance is given by the pitting index or pitting
N
R resistance equivalent (PRE) defined as follows:
E
H
T (a) PRE = wt% Cr + 3.3(wt% Mo) + 30(wt% N) for austenitic stainless steels.
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O
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F (b) PRE = wt% Cr + 3.3(wt% Mo) + 16(wt% N) for duplex stainless steels.
O
Y The PRE of a stainless steel is a useful guide to its ranking with other stainless steels, but
T
I
S has no absolute significance.
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V
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N The 12% chromium ferritic steels, and the austenitic grades that do not contain
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y molybdenum have lower PRE and are not suitable for architectural applications in marine
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environments except for internal structural components effectively shielded from sea spray
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and mist. These grades may also show unacceptable levels of pitting in severe industrial
c
c atmospheres. Austenitic grades containing molybdenum (316, 316L) or duplex grades are
A
preferred.
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C7.3.4 Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion occurs in the same environments as pitting corrosion. Corrosion initiates
more easily in a crevice than on a free surface because the diffusion of oxidants necessary
for maintaining the passive film is restricted. The severity of a crevice is greatly dependent
on its geometry; the narrower the crevice, the more severe the restriction of diffusion of
oxidants. Corrosion conditions are more severe, and chlorides may concentrate in the
crevice.
Crevices may result from a metal to metal joint, a gasket, biofouling, deposits and surface
damage such as deep scratches. Every effort should be made to eliminate crevices, although
it is often not possible to eliminate them entirely. In particular, intermittent or partial
penetration welds shoul d be avoided.
There are similar equations to those for pitting corrosion relating crevice corrosion
resistance to the contents of the alloying elements chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen,
and the ranking of grades for resistance to crevice corrosion is similar to pitting corrosion.
C7.3.5 Intergranular corrosion (sensitization)
Where parts of the microstructure are depleted of chromium, the protective passive layer
) can prove ineffective. This can occur when precipitates form, usually in the range of
d
te sensitization temperatures 450 to 850 o C, which could be due to the heat of welding, or due
n
ri
p to service in that temperature range.
n
e
h Sensitization depends on carbon content and time, and occurs as a result of diffusion of
w
d chromium atoms to chromium carbide precipitate particles. These form preferentially at
e
et
n grain boundaries, and in the early stages of formation the grain boundaries are surrounded
ra
a by a layer of material of lower chromiu m cont ent. On exposur e to corr osive envi ronments,
u
g
t these chromium-depleted zones may suffer preferential attack, and intergranular corrosion
o
n
y results.
c
n
e
rr
u
Intergranular corrosion has been avoided by using steels containing small additions of
c
t
n
elements which are stronger carbide formers than chromium, preventing the formation of
e
m chromium carbides. Titanium, niobium and tantalum have been commonly used. This
u
c approach may still be used for steels that are used in the sensitization temperature range;
o
D
(
7
however, with modern steel making plant, carbon levels in austenitic stainless steels are
1
0
2
generally low, 0.05% or less, and sensitization due to welding is rarely encountered when
v proper advi ce fr om the steel supplier is obtaine d and followed.
o
N
4
1 The low carbon ‘L’ grade versions of austenitic stainless steels are limited to 0.03% carbon
n
o maximum, and are even less susceptible to sensitization. They are used where plate
D
N
A
thicknesses of about 6 mm or greater give thermal conditions during welding, which induce
L
S sensitization.
N
E
E
U
Prolonged holding times at elevated temperatures can eventually lead to sensitization in ‘L’
Q grades. Thus, these grades should not be used continuously at temperatures greater than
N
R about 425°C if full corrosion resistance is to be retained.
E
H
T
U Intergranular corrosion (sensitizaton) is a complex subject, and a specialist’s advice
O
S should be sought regarding stabilization and sensitization issues, as they affect both
F
O austenitic and non-austenitic stainless steels.
Y
T
I
S C7.3.6 Galvanic corrosion
R
E
V
I When two dissimilar metals are in contact and are connected by an electrolyte, i.e. an
N
U electrically conducting liquid such as water, rain or condensation, a current flows from the
y
b anodic metal to the cathodic or nobler metal through the electrolyte. As a result, the less
d
e
s
s noble metal corrodes.
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 94
This form of corrosion may occur when stainless steel is joined to carbon or low alloy
steels. It may also occur, though to a much smaller degree, between different types of
stainless steel. For welded joints, it is important to select welding consumables to give weld
metal that is at least as noble as the parent material. In corrosive environments such as
heavy industrial atmospheres, marine atmospheres, and where immersion in brackish or sea
water may occur, martensitic and ferritic bolts should be avoided for joining austenitic
stainless steels unless suitably insulated.
Galvanic corrosion need not be a problem with stainless steels, though sometimes its
prevention can require prec auti ons which at first sight might seem surprising. Galvanic
corrosion can be avoided by preventing current flow by —

(a) insulating dissimilar metals, i.e. breaking the metallic path; or
(b) pre venting electrolyte bridging, i.e. breaking the ele ctrolytic path by paint or other
coating.
The risk of corrosion attack is greatest if the area of the more noble metal, e.g. stainless
steel, is large compared with the area of the less noble metal, e.g. carbon steel. Special
attention should be paid to the use of paints or other coatings on the carbon steel. If there
are any small pores or pinholes in the coating, the small area of bare carbon steel will
) provide a very large cathode/anode area ratio, and severe pitting of the carbon steel may
d
te
n
ri
occur. This will be most severe under immersed conditions. For this reason, it is preferable
p
n to paint the stainless steel; any pores will lead to small area ratios. In practice, it is normal
e
h to paint the carbon steel for protection from general corrosion, and to continue the paint
w
d over the weld metal and a strip of stainless steel to prevent galvanic corrosion.
e
et
n
ra
In some industries, e.g. petrochemical industries, all parts of the structure may need to be
a
u
g
earthed to inhibit spark formation. Necessarily, there can be no electrical isolation at the
t
o
n earthing or
connection.
y
c wetness immersionIfaregalvanic corrosion
envisaged, is a potential
consideration may be problem,
given toi.e. if long
special periods of
thickening of
n
e
rr the carbon steel to allow for galvanic corrosion in the vicinity of the earthing connection.
u
c
t
n
Solutions containing dissolved copper salts, such as copper corrosion products, should not
e
m be allowed to contact stai nless steel, as the y will tend to auto -plate copper ont o the surface,
u
c occluding the self-repair of the passive film.
o
D
(
7
1
C7.3.7 Stress corrosion cracking
0
2
v Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) results from the joint action of tensile stresses in the steel
o
N and a specific corrosive environment, in conditions where neither singly would cause
4
1 cracking. The stresses may be applied or they may be internal or residual, and they need not
n
o
D
be high in relation to the proof stress. Inte rnal stresses may result from cold working,
N
A welding or thermal gradients in service. They may also arise from the wedging action of
L
S corrosion products growing in a crack.
N
E
E SCC is a delayed failure process, in which cracking initiates after an incubation time.
U
Q
N
Propagation of the cracks is fast. SCC is rarely encountered at room temperature for
R o
E austenitic stainless steels, but may occur at temperatures above about 60 C in environments
H
T having high chloride concentrations. Nevertheless, SCC has been known to occur at
U
O
S
temperatures below 60 o C, e.g. in swimming pool atmospheres. SCC can be caused by
F
O
concentration due to evaporation of solutions with low chloride concentrations, which,
Y
T
hence, may occur at the liquid/air interface; however, SCC is unlikely to be significant in
I
S
R
many structural applications.
E
V
I In most media, the resistance to SCC of duplex stainless steels is superior to austenitic
N
U stainless steels of about the same alloy content, e.g. expressed as PRE. This relative
y
b immunity is due to the mixture of austenite and ferrite in the microstructure. Ferrite is much
d
e
s
s less susceptible to SCC than austenite. Careful selection of consumables and welding
e
c
c procedures is needed to ensure the appropriate microstructural mix in the weld metal for
A
retention of SCC resistance.
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95 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Shot peening, which imparts residual compressive stresses in the surface layer of the steel,
is beneficial in reducing or preventing SCC. Clearly, any subsequent process that relieves
these residual compressive surface stresses will remove the benefit. Note that shot-
containing iron or steel should be avoided, to prevent surface contamination and subsequent
corrosion of the stainless steel.
Resistance to SCC is of particular interest in the selection of high-strength stainless steels
for fasteners. SCC should be considered when quench-hardened martensitic stainless steels
or precipitation-hardening stainless steels are used in marine or industrial locations in
which chlorides are present. The martensitic steels are liable to stress corrosion failure in a
wide variety of corrosive media if heat treated to strengths greater than about 1050 MPa.
Below this strength level, they are very resistant to cracking.
Ferritic stainless steels have good resistance to stress corrosion cracking but are not
immune.
C7.3.8 Effect of welding on corrosion resistance
Welding and other fabrication processes can have adverse effects on the corrosion
resistance of stainless steels, through mechanisms such as pitting, sensitization, galvanic
action, stress corrosion cracking and the like. Specialist advice should be sought regarding
) the effects of fabrication processes on corrosion resistance for specific applications.
d
te
n
ri C7.4 Corrosion in selected environments
p
n
e
h C7.4.1 Air
w
d
e The effects of atmospheres on stainless steels vary. Rural atmospheres, uncontaminated by
et
n
ra industrial fumes or coastal salt, are very mildly corrosive to stainl ess steels, even in areas of
a
u
g high humidity. Industrial and marine atmospheres are considerably more severe. Ambient
t
o
n temperatures also have steel,
a very304(L),
strong effect.
n
y
c grades of stainless 316(L)Table
and C3 gives the
S31803, most
used in common structural
atmospheric service
e
rr environments.
u
c
t
n
e
The most common causes of atmospheric corrosion are particles of metallic iron or steel
m contamination, arising from fabrication and transport operations, and chlorides srcinating
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o from the sea, from industrial processes or from calcium chloride in cement. Deposited
D
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particles, alth ough inert, may absorb weak acid solutions of sulf ur dioxide from the
0
2 atmosphere, which may locally break down the passive film, or may occlude the surface,
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o preventing se lf-repair of the passive layer.
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4
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n The general appearance of exposed stainless steel is affected by surface finish, the smoother
o
D the better, and whether or not regular washing down is carried out, either intentionally or by
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rain.
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E
E It is commonly assumed that stainless steels will not corrode in atmospheric conditions, and
U
Q the occurrence of corrosion is taken to indicate imminent failure; however, the general
N
R atmospheric corrosion rates of the 18% chromium grades are at least one thousand times
E
H
T slower than for carbon steels, so the useful properties of the stainless are maintained for an
U extended period, albeit with an impaired appearance. Even in aggressive marine and
O
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F industrial conditions, where pitting corrosion of stainless steels but not of carbon steels
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Y
takes place, the life of membranes (roofs, gutters) of stainless steel is several times that of
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 96
TABLE C3
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SELECTING GRADES OF STAINLESS STEEL
L oc at i on Rural Urban I n dus t r i al S ea si de
G rade I L M H I L M H I L M H I L M H
430 O ∆ ∆ ∆ OXXX ∆ X X X ∆ X X X
304(L) O O O O O O O ∆ O ∆ ∆ ∆ O ∆ ∆ ∆
316(L) O O O O O O O O O O O ∆ O O ∆ ∆
S31803 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
NOTES:
1 I: Indoors.
2 L: Least corrosive conditions within each location (low temperature, low humidity).
3 M: Medium, typical of each location.
4 H: Highly corrosive conditions within each location (high temperature, high humidity, air pollution).
5 O: Suitable.
6 ∆: Unsuitable; however, usable if a smooth surface finish material is used and washed frequently .
) 7 X: Unsuitable.
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e Sea water, including brackish water, contains high levels of chloride and may be very
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d corrosive. In particular, pitting corrosion of grade 304(L) may occur under particles
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et deposited in pipes, which obstruct the maintenance of the passive surface layer. This may
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ra occur in stagnant conditions, or when stream velocities are below about 1.5 m/s.
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g Grades 304(L) and 316(L) can also suffer attack at crevices, whether resulting from design
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y details or from fouling organisms such as barnacles.
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Satisfactory performance may be obtained from a grade of lesser resistance, for example, by
u draining a pipeline while not o perating.
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e Salt spray may be more aggressive than immersion, as high chloride concentrations may
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develop by evaporation.
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0 steel is used with other metals in sea water.
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N C7.4.3 Other waters
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n The austenitic stainless steels usually perform satisfactorily in distilled, potable or boiled
o
D water. Where acidity is high 316(L) may be required, otherwise 304(L) is usually sufficient.
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A 316(L) may also be more suitable where there are minor amounts of chloride present, to
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S
N avoid possible pitting and crevice corrosion problems. River water needs special
E
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U
consideration; biological and microbiological activity can cause pitting in austenitic
Q stainless steels within a comparatively short time, particularly where anaerobic bacteria
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R metabolize sulfur species to produce the reducing sulfuric and sulfurous acids.
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T The possibility of erosion-corrosion should be considered for waters containing abrasive
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C7.4.4 Chemical environments
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b Charts published by manufacturers showing results of corrosion tests in various chemicals
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s should be used with caution. Although giving a guide to the resistance of a particular grade,
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c service conditions such as temperatures, pressures, concentrations, and the like, vary and
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will generally differ from the test conditions. Impurities, temperature fluctuations and the
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97 AS/NZS 4673:2001
degree of aeration can have a marked effect on results. It is also essential to consider all
part s of the operational cycle, incl uding cleanin g practices and downtimes in selecting
grades for severe corrosion service.
C7.5 Design for corrosion control
Careful attention to detailing is also important for realizing the full serviceability of
stainless steels. Anti-corrosion requirements should be considered in planning and in
design.
The following check list should be considered:
(a) Avoid dirt entrapment by (see Figure C4) —
(i) orienting angle and channel profiles to minimize dirt retention;
(ii) providi ng drainage holes, sufficientl y large to pre vent blockages;
(iii) avoiding horizontal surfaces;
(iv) specifying a small slope on nominally horizontal gusset stiffeners;
(v) using tubular and bar sections;
(vi) sealing tubes with dry gas or air where harmful condensates may form; and
)
d
(vii) specifying smooth finishes.
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t (iv) dressing/profiling welds to a smooth finish; and
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c (v) pre venting biofouling.
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u (c) Reduce the likelihood of stress corrosion cracking in those specific environments
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c (i) minimizing fabrication stresses by careful choice of welding sequence; and
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2 use of iron/steel shot).
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4 (d) Reduce likelihood of pitting by —
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o (i) removing weld spatter and associated surface oxide;
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(ii) pickling welds to remove high temperature oxides by using a pickling bath or
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N paste, cont aining a mi xture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids;
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E NOT E: Welds that are not cleaned up will have i nferior c orrosion res ist ance.
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N (iii) avoiding pick-up of carbon steel particles (e.g. use workshop areas and tools
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T dedicated to stainless steel, protect from carbon steel lifting gear, jigs and
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I (e) Reduce the likelihood of galvanic corrosion by (see Figure C5) —
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(i) electrically insulating unlike metals from each other;
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(iv) using metals that are close to each other in electrical potential.
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Not all ite ms on the chec k list will give the best detail from a structural stre ngth point of
view, and neither are the items intended to be applied to all environments. In particular, in
environments of low corrosivity or where regular maintenance is carried out, many will not
be required .
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d the design loads and should be non-porous.
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FIGURE C5 DESIGN DETAILS TO AVOID GALVANIC CORROSION
A AT BOLTED CONN ECTION S
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C8 GRADE SELECTION
C8.1 Introduction
The selection of the correct grade of stainless steel should take into account the
environment of the application, the fabrication route, surface finish and the maintenance of
the structure. The maintenance is usually minimal, and no more onerous than for other
metals in decorative applications; merely washing down the stainless steel, even naturally
by rain, will ma rkedly assist in e xtending t he servi ce life.
The first step is to characterize the service environment, including reasonably anticipated
deviations from the main design conditions. In categorizing atmospheric environments,
special attention should be given to highly localized conditions such as proximity to
chimneys venting corrosive fumes. Possible future developments or change of use should
also be considered. The surface condition of the steel and the temperature, and the
anticipated stress, could also be i mportant parameters. Candidate grades can then be chosen
to give satisfactory corrosion resistance in the environment.
The selection process should consider which possible forms of corrosion might be
significant in the operating environment in accordance with Paragraph C6, which outlines
the broad principles underlying the corrosion of stainless steels, and indicates conditions
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d where the use of stainless steels should be free of undue risk and complication. It is also
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n intended to illustrate general points of good practice, as well as the circumstances where
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w advice should be sought. In many cases, the steels can still be successfully used.
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et The suitability of grades is best evaluated from experience of stainless steels in similar
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ra applications and environments, and scrutiny of structures on neighbouring sites is
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warranted.
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y Caution should be exercised when considering the use of ‘free-machining’ stainless steels
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rr for fasteners. The addition of sulfur in the composition of these steels, commonly
u designated 303 in the austenitic class, reduces their corrosion resistance, especially in
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ISO 3506, grade A1 materials (see Appendix D).
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C8.2 Grade selection
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2 There are many grades of stainless steel. Paragraphs C8.2.1 to C8.2.8 refer to some of the
v
o
N more common grades, which are readily available in some product forms, particularly the
4
1 flat products from which cold-formed products are usually made. Further information on
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o other grades is available from the references listed in Paragraph C9, or from steel suppliers.
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Because of the range of factors that can affect grade selection, specialist advice should
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S always be obtained for specific applications and fabrication processes.
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C8.2.1 Ferritic grade 409
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N Ferritic grade 409 is suitable for use in mildly corrosive environments, where some staining
R
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H and thickness loss than
due 2to corrosion can be tolerated. It is generally
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U thicknesses greater mm, and is not weldable for structural purposes. not
The available in
main use of
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S this grade is in automotive exhaust systems and in i ndustrial equipment.
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Y C8.2.2 Ferritic grade EN 10088 1.4003
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R Ferritic grade EN 10088 1.4003 is widely available, and can be used in mildly corrosive
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I environments, where some staining due to corrosion can be tolerated. It is available in a
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U range of thicknesses, and is weldable for structural purposes where proper procedures are
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C8.2.3 Ferritic grade 430

Ferritic grade 430 is widely available, and is used primarily for decorative purposes in dry,
indoor environments, and in white goods. It cannot be welded reliably for structural
purposes, and is only a vailabl e in thinner gauges, up to about 1.6 mm, and usually in BA or
No. 4 finish.
C8.2.4 Austenitic grade 304
Austenitic grade 304 is the most widely used stainless steel, giving the best combination of
strength, corrosion resistance, ductility, fabricability and cost. It is the most widely
available in different product forms. This grade can be used in most atmospheric locations
(see Table C2), and i n many applications with water of chloride content up to about
200 ppm. It may be susceptible to SCC in the presence of chloride at temperatures in excess
of about 60 oC. Grade 304 is readily weldable, requiring no preheat, postheat or post-weld
heat treatment. The lower carbon grade 304L may be preferred where sensitization issues
are of concern.
C8.2.5 Austenitic grade 316
Austenitic grade 316 is also widely available, and is used where the corrosion resistance of
) grade 304 is inadequate, particularly in the presence of chloride. The molybdenum content
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te improves resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion, but the SCC performance of grade 316
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p is similar to that of grade 304. The lo wer carbon grade 316L may be preferred where
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sensitization issues are of concern.
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d C8.2.6 Austenitic grade 301
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et
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ra Austenitic grade 301 is a slightly leaner austenitic grade, which can be temper rolled to
a
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g high strengths. It is used particularly in transport applications, and in wear applications
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y where a combination of high strength and ductility gives good resistance to abrasive wear.
c The higher strength tempers are available only in limited thicknesses, and generally on mill
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enquiry only.
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n C8.2.7 Martensitic grade 420C
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o Martensitic grade 420C is used for wear components, as it can be heat-treated to very high
D
( hardness and strength. It is difficult to weld, and is rarely welded structurally.
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2 C8.2.8 Duplex grade S31803
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o
N Duplex grade S31803 is the most corrosion resistant of the commonly used grades, due to
4
1
n the high chromium (22%) and molybdenum (3%) contents. It is also significantly higher in
o
D strength than the austenitic grades in the annealed condition, and may be used in lighter
N
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sections, to offset the higher cost. This grade is especially useful in higher chloride, high
S
N stress environments where there is a risk of SCC with the austenitic grades, and where there
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E is a risk of pitting and crevice corrosion. The grade is widely available, although mainly in
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Q flat products.
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T C9 REFERENCES
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S 1 Properties and selection, Irons, steels and hi gh-performance alloys, Metals Handbook ,
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O 10th Edition, Volume 1, American Society for Metals, Ohio, 1990.
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S 2 Australian stainless reference manual , 3rd Edition, Australian Stainless Steel
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Development Association, Brisbane, 1998.
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U 3 WTIA Technical Note 13—Stainless steels for corrosive environments, WTIA,
y
b Sydney, 1983.
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APPENDIX D
STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS

(Informative)
D1 INTRODUCTION
Fasteners are available in a wide range of forms, meeting several Australian and overseas
Standards.
The most widely available fasteners meet ISO 3506, designated A2 and A4, which
corresponds to grades 304 and 316 respectively. Care should be exercised in the use of
grade A1(303) as it has markedly inferior corrosion resistance compared to grade A2(304).
Other grades available include the following:
(a) SS2343 Known as ‘Moly plus’ in E urope. This g rade has hi gh s trength, g reater
than 800 MPa tensile strength, with greater than 2.5% molybdenum and
less than 0.03% carbon.
)
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(c) 321 Some sizes of imperial continuously threaded rod are available, a s well as
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w some imperial sizes of bolts.
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et (d) 301,431, 420 Commonly used fo r smal ler item s where s pring str ength is re quired ,
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ra e.g. circlips, crinkle washers, rolled spring pins and spiral pins.
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t Fasteners have also been made to order in other grades, but are generally not stocked.
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t D2.1 General
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c Metric and imperial sizes that are made to different standards and identification marks for
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( these fasteners, while sometimes similar, may not be the same. Most fasteners available
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1 include the manufacturer’s identification mark and the steel grade.
0
2
v Metric fasteners are usually identified in accordance with ISO 3506, including steel grade,
o
N
4 propert y class and manufacture r’s identifica tion mark; however, this is a European
1
n
o
specification and should be used as a guide only, as it does not describe all fasteners.
D
N Most imperial fasteners are made for the large American market and carry a manufacturer’s
A
L
S identification and the AISI steel grade, e.g. 304 or 316. A recent common practice is to use
N
E the UNS number instead of the AISI, e.g. S31600 or S30400.
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Markings generally occur only on hexagon bolts, set screws, socket cap screws and
R hexagonal nuts of M5 diameter and greater.
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U Fasteners without markings should not immediately be dismissed as unsuitable. Standards
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S may not require such stringent controls or the supplier may be able to furnish a
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O manufacturer’s certificate with the goods to indicate their grade and authenticity.
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T
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S In most cases, it is sufficient only to specify the grade of stainless steels; however, for
R
E critical applications, a compliance certificate or letter of conformance is recommended. Full
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y may be an extra charge associated with these more detailed reports. Certificates should be
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requested at the point of inquiry and stated on the purchase order. It is normal practice to
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provide goods without certi ficates or letters of conf orma nce.
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D2.2 Identifying stainless steel fasteners to IS O 3506

Hexagon bolts and screws, and hexagon socket head cap screws of size M5 and greater,
shall be marked with steel grade, property class and manufacturer’s identification. Hexagon
nuts of size M5 or greater shall be marked with steel grade and property class if necessary,
and with the manufacturer’s identification where possible.
Fasteners not marked or marked only with the stainless steel grade are assumed to
correspond with the lowest stainless steel property class.
For example, screws marked A2-70 have a tensile strength of 700 MPa. Unmarked screws
or those marked A2 or A4 are assumed to be class A2-50 having a tensile strength of
500 MPa (see Figures D1 and D2).
The selection of the steels is at the manufacturer’s discretion, provided the steels used
correspond with the permitted composition and guarantee —
(a) the required physical and mechanical properties; and
(b) an equivalent corrosion resistance.
Alloys specified in ISO 3506 and their equivalent common grade designations are given in
Table D1.
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FIGURE D2 MARKING OF NUTS AND ALTERNATIVE MARKING PRACTICE
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TABLE D1
EQUIVALENT ALLOYS
S t ai nl e s s st e e l g r ade s E qui v ale nt all oy s A p p r o x i ma t e c o mp o s i t i o n
A1 303 18%
Cr,
8%Ni,
0.25%
S
A2 302,304,304L,321,347 18%Cr,8%Ni
A4 316,316L,317,317L 18%Cr,8%Ni,2-3%Mo
C1 410,
420 12%
Cr
C3 431 16%
Cr,
1.5%
Ni
C4 416 12%
Cr,
0.12%
C
F1 430 Cr17%
The flow chart shows stainless steel grades suitable for use in accordance with ISO 3506.
The manufacturer, however, has the option to use other stainless steels provided they meet
the requirements of ISO 3506.
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APPENDIX E
FLEXURAL MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE

BENDING
(Informative)
E1 GENERAL
If the geometrical properties of flexural members are based on the effective design width
accounting for flange curling and such a member is subjected to positive and negative
bending moments, e.g. in the case of a continuous beam or a rigid frame, Para graphs E2
and E3 may apply, subject to the limitations specified in Paragraph E4.
E2 LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY [STRENGTH]

The bending moments and the support reactions may be determined assuming constant
section beams or frames, provided that the ratio of section moduli for positive and negative
)
bending moments does not exceed the values specifi ed in Paragraph E4. The maximum
d
te design bending moments ( M *) so determined should not exceed the nominal member
n
ri moment capacity ( Mb) times φb calculated in accordance with Paragraph E1 for positive or
p
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e negative bending moment, as appropriate.
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Deflections may be determined assuming constant section beams or frames, and are based
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u E4 LIMITATIONS
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m For the purpose of Paragraphs E2 and E3, the ratios of geometrical properties of a member
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c for positive and negative bending moments, determined in accordance with this Standard,
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should not exceed the following:
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0
2 (a) Section moduli:
v
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4 (i) Continu ous beams............................ ................. ................. ................. ......1.35.
1
n
o (ii) Rigid frames ................ ................. ................. ................. ................. .........1.25.
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(b) Second moment of area:
S
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E (i) Continu ous beams............................ ................. ................. ................. ......1.20.
E
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Q (ii) Rigid frames ................ ................. ................. ................. ................. .........1.16.
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R
E For the purpose of this Paragraph, the section property with the greater value should be
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T taken as the numerator of the ratio.
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F For members with ratios outside the limits specified in this Paragraph, a rational analysis
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APPENDIX F
FATIGUE
(Informative)
F1 GENERAL
The information in this Appendix pertains to the high cycle fatigue properties of structural
stainless steel used at or near room temperature, and not in a corrosive environment. It only
applies to grades of stainless steel listed in Clause 1.5.2.1.
Euro Inox Design Manual (Ref. 1) and Eurocode 3 (Ref. 2) are two Standards which make
recommendations for the fatigue of stainless steel. Euro Inox Design Manual and
Eurocode 3 utilize well established fatigue rules for carbon steels and apply them, with
some restrictions, to stainless steels. The fatigue provisions of Euro Inox Design Manual,
and in particular Eurocode 3 are similar to AS 4100 (Ref. 3) or NZS 3404 (Ref. 14). It is,
therefore, recommended that AS 4100 be used for the fatigue design of st ainless steel
structures, within the limits of appli cability specified in Paragraphs F2, F3, F4 and F5.
)
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h Fatigue is the process by which cracks are initiated and propagate through a structure under
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cyclical loading until failure. Failure may occur through the component becoming
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n unserviceable because of the size of the resulting fatigue cracks, or alternatively because
ra
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the component catastrophically fails, i.e. fractures. Fatigue failures may occur without
g
o
t warning and may seriously compromise the capacity of a structure to carry its design load.
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y A further consideration is that fatigue failure will initiate from seemingly minor details in
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control of all aspects of the design, fabrication and use of a structure throughout its service
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life.
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o
Generally, fatigue failure of structural steelwork does not occur since the loadings are
D
( largely static. Usually the dead load of a structure is large relative to its live load and so the
7
1 normal strength design is governed by this dead load. In this case the cycling live load
0
2
v
o
stresses would be small and fatigue failure probably would not occur. It is important for the
N designer to identify when significant cyclical loading are applied to the structure and design
4
1
n for fatigue accordingly. Significant cyclical loadings may be applied to members supporting
o
D lifting appliances, rolling loads or vibrating machinery, or for wind-induced oscillations
N
A
L
(Ref. 1).
S
N
E Fatigue is normally broken into two regimes depending on the magnitude of the applied
E
U stresses. Structural steelwork is normally fatigue loaded in the high cycle regime, whereby
Q 4
N the applied stresses are low, and the life of the structure is greater than about 10 stress
R
E cycles. This is the regime covered by Euro Inox Design Manual and Eurocode 3, as well as
H
T
U AS 4100. In the high cycle regime, the bulk of the structure behaves elastically, and the
O
S fatigue design is carried out with references to a stress-life diagram (S-N diagram). At
F
O higher stresses there is significant plasticity adjacent to the crack or stress concentration
Y
T
I and the strain-life diagram ( ε -N diagram) provides a more discriminating measure of the
S
R fatigue history of a structure. Low cycle fatigue is not normally relevant to structural steel
E
V
I work and is not considered in Euro Inox Design Manual, Eurocode 3 and AS 4100.
N
U
y
b
For high cycle fatigue in an unwelded component, cracks are usually initiated at stress
d concentrations. The magnitude of the stress concentrations in an unwelded component are
e
s
s usually such that this crack initiation phase occupies a large fraction of the component’s
e
c
c
A life. The fatigue life of an unwelded component depends on the applied maximum principal
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 106
stress range, the magnitude and orientation of the stress concentrating feature, thickness,
material, material strength, and the presence and sign (tension or compression) of any mean
stress. The compressive part of any applied stress state (mean plus applied range) is not
damaging in unwelded components and is ignored in a fatigue assessment.
Fatigue of welded components differs fundamentally from fatigue of unwelded components
(Ref. 4). The differences can be attributed to the following:
(a) The presence of a high tensile residual stress state (high mean stress), typically of
yield magnitude in the welded component.
(b) The high stress concentration factor adjacent to the weld.
(c) The presence of weld defects.
(d) The insensitivity of crack propagation rate on mean stress for structural steels.
Unless special precautions are taken to reduce the high stress concentration around the weld
in a welded component, the initiation phase of crack growth is typically short. There also
may be pre-existing crack like weld defects in the structure. Normally the bulk of the
fatigue life of a welded component is spent on pr opagating a crack to failure.
)
The presence of the high tensile residual stresses of yield magnitude means that when a load
d
te is superimposed, the stress range seen by the component effectively cycles from the yield
n
ri stress downwards by an amount equal to the applied stress range. This means t hat any mean
p
n
e
h
component of an applied stress range may be ignored, and that even fully compressive
w stress ranges are as damaging as the equivalent fully tensile stress ranges. A further factor
d
e
et is that the crack propagation rate is largely insensitive to the applied mean stress.
n
ra
a
u
Another consideration is that in high cycle fatigue of welded structures, the strength of the
g
o
t material is largely irrelevant. Ref. 4 indicates that the S-N curves of welded components up
n
y to around 800 MPa UTS are similar. This is in direct contrast to the situation in an
c
n unwelded component, where the fatigue life improves with increasing strength. Most
e
rr
u structural fatigue Standards contain provisions for fatigue of components with specified
c
t
n yield strengths up to about 700 MPa.
e
m
u
c
o The relevant carbon steel high cycle fatigue Standards such as Euro Inox Design Manual,
D
( Eurocode 3 and AS 4100 take the above into account when formulating their
7
1 recommendations. Design for fatigue using these Standards requires identification of the
0
2
v
o
relevant fatigue detail classification. Various types of welded joints are classified into
N
4 groups according to their capability of resisting fatigue loads. Each of these groups are
1
n assigned a unique S-N curve, and this then becomes the fatigue detail classification for the
o
D detail or group of details. These detail classifications have been selected based on a large
N
A number of fatigue tests on typical welded details. Since this is the case, the fatigue detail
L
S
N classifications typically include the following effects:
E
E
U (i) Local st ress c oncentration.
Q
N
R
E
(ii) Typical defects present.
H
T
U (iii) Metallurgical effects such as weld metal composition and parent plate composition.
O
S
F (iv) Direction of a pplied lo adings.
O
Y
T
I
(v) Failure location.
S
R
E (vi) Residual stress effects.
V
I
N
U (vii) Joint preparation and some joint fabrication qualit y issues.
y
b
d
e
Typically the relevant fatigue Standards also provide guidance on the following:
s
s
e (A) Reduction in fa tigu e stre ngth due to pl ate t hick ness effe cts.
c
c
A
(B) Treatment o f var iable am plit ude c ycles ( Miner’s rule ).
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107 AS/NZS 4673:2001
(C) Endurance (co nstant am plitude) lim it.

(D) Limit ations or restr ictions on fatigue in corros ive enviro nments.
(E) Limit ations or restric tions o n fatigue at hig h or low se rvice tempe rature s.
(F) Maximum m aterial str ength lim itations.
(G) Fatigue str ength enh ancement (if a ny) du e to str ess re lief.
(H) Definit ion o f failur e and rel evant safety fa ctors.
The relevant high cycle fatigue Standards also specify that the fatigue stress analysis should
be elastic onl y, with no allowance made for load redistribution effects through yielding.
Other effects that cause load redistribution are usually taken into account, (e.g. shear lag).
It should be noted that the highest fatigue strengths, or the highest fatigue detail
classifications, are obtained when the effects of stress concentrations and weld defects are
minimized. It is instructive to consider potential crack initiation sites and whether the
applied loading would open a crack that initiates. A further consideration is that the fatigue
life is a strong function of the applied loading. A small reduction in stress range will result
in a large increase in fatigue life.
Given the large numbers of variables that are taken into account when testing for and
)
d formulating fatigue recommendations for carbon steel structures, it is surprising that Euro
te
n Inox Design Manual and Eurocode 3 treat stainless steel high cycle fatigue in a similar
ri
p
n
e
manner, and utilize similar S-N curves to carbon steels. Communication with research
h
w groups in Europe has indicated that stainless steel fatigue research is ongoing and more
d
e
e extensive fatigue data for stainless steel should be available shortly.
t
n
ra Controlling fatigue failure requires control of all details of design, fabrication and use of a
a
u
g
t
component, and even seemingly minor details may act as crack initiation sites causing
o
n
y fatigue failure. In this context it should be noted that stainless steel structures are
c
n sometimes fabricated differently to carbon steel structures. The low thermal conductivity
e
rr
u and high coefficient of thermal expansion of austenitic stainless steels, compared with
c
t carbon steels, results in differing welding techniques to control distortion, compared with
n
e
m
u
the equivalent carbon steel fabrication. Often much more attention is paid to minimizing the
c
o amount of welding by using discontinuous welds, which may mean a differing fatigue detail
D
(
7 classification for a stainless steel weldment compared with the equivalent carbon steel
1
0 component. Stainless steels are often utilized for corrosive conditions, while carbon steel
2
v
o fatigue Standards exclude fatigue assessment in corrosive conditions, or alternatively
N
4
1
severely derate the fatigue detail classification. Fatigue assessment of stainless steel
n structures in corrosive conditions is precluded from Euro Inox Design Manual, Eurocode 3
o
D and AS 4100.
N
A
L
S
N F3 FATIGUE DESIGN IN ACCORDANCE WITH E URO INOX
E
E
U
Q The Euro Inox Design Manual stainless steel fatigue recommendations (Ref. 1) are based o n
N
R a limited range of stainless steel fatigue tests which were then compared with carbon steel
E
H
T curves from BS 5400 (Ref. 6), and the Offshore Installations Guide (Ref. 7). This
U comparison indicated that some joints in stainless steel were inferior in fatigue to a similar
O
S
F joint in carbon steel. The recommendation of Euro Inox Design Manual was the n that all
O
Y
details in stainless steel be derated one fatigue detail classification from the equivalent
T
I
S detail in carbon steel.
R
E
V
I Communication with European fatigue researchers indicates that the current perception is
N
U that the fatigue properties of stainless steel are not inferior to carbon steel. For this reason
y
b Eurocode 3 does not derate the stainless steel fatigue detail classification.
d
e
s
s
e
Euro Inox Design Manual also contains data on crack propagation rates in stainless steels. It
c
c is noted that the crack propagation rates in stainless steels are similar to crack propagation
A
rates in carbon steels.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 108
F4 FATIGUE DESIGN IN ACCORDANCE WITH E UROCODE 3

Eurocode 3 (Ref. 2) uses carbon steel fatigue curves from Eurocode 3 Part 1-1 (Ref. 8), but
does not derate the fatigue detail classification when transitioning from a carbon steel joint
to a stainless steel joint. Eurocode 3’s fatigue recommendations are based on the ECCS
fatigue Standard (Ref. 5). The ECCS’s fatigue requirements are also the basis for the
fatigue requirements of AS 4100. In general, the fatigue pro visions of AS 4100 and
Eurocode 3 are similar.
The major difference between AS 4100 and Eurocode 3 is that Eurocode 3 gives more
extensive guidance on selection of safety factors for fatigue loading. AS 4100 nominates
capacity factors for redundant and non-redundant structural elements based on the
probability of global structural collaps e because of failure of the weld in question. The
capacity factors specified in AS 4100 are also used to account for variations in in-service
inspection procedures as well as highly variable loading histories, i.e., where Miner’s Rule
may not apply. Eurocode 3 uses ‘partial safety factors’ on the loading and fatigue strength
to account for the same variables that AS 4100 specifies. The relevant partial safety factors
are the inverse of the equivalent capacity factor. The partial safety factors for fatigue
strength used in Eurocode 3 are contained in Table F1. The partial safety factors for the
applied fatigue loads are set to 1.0, i .e., no factor is applied to the loading.
)
d
te National Application Documents (NADs) are the mechanism whereby various member
n
ri
p countries of the Eurocode organization convert Eurocodes back into national Standards. The
n
e Eurocode 3 NAD for Finland (Ref. 12) utilizes the above partial safety factors for fatigue of
h
w
d stainless steels with the following conditions:
e
et
n (a) Building structures must not use partial safety factors from the ‘fail-safe component’
ra
a column.
u
g
t
o
n
y (b) Where no periodic inspections are carried out, the appropriate partial safety factor is
c 1.6.
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m TABLE F1
u
c
o
D
( PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH
7
1 IN ACCORDANCE WITH EUROCODE 3
0
2
v
o
N ‘Fail-safe’ Non ‘fail-safe’
4 Inspection and access
1 components components
n
o
D Periodic inspection and
N
A maintenance. Accessible 1.00 1.25
L
S joint d etai l
N
E
E Periodic inspection and
U
Q maintenance. Poor 1.15 1.35
N accessibility
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F F5 FATIGUE IN ACCORDAN CE WIT H AS 4100 WITH APPLICATI ON TO
O
Y STAINLESS STEEL
T
I
S
R The fatigue design of stainless steel structures should comply with the provisions of
E
V
I
N AS 4100 (Ref. 3). All limitations that are specified in AS 4100 or AS 4100 Supp. 1
U
y (Ref. 11) are to be foll owed. When designing for fatigue of stainless steel structures in
b
d
e
accordance with AS 4100, the following are to be considered:
s
s
e (a) No corrosion or immersion The fatigue rec ommendations of AS 4100 are restricted
c
c
A to mildly corrosive conditions, where ‘mildly corrosive’ is defined as equivalent to
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109 AS/NZS 4673:2001
protected stee lwork in a normal atmospheric envi ronment. Since stai nless stee l is
typically used unprotected, this requirement should be modified. The design of
stainless steel in fatigue-loaded applications is restricted to grades of stainless steel
appropriate to withstand the corrosive conditions. Note that AS 4100 does not apply
to stress corrosion cracking.
(b) High cycle fatigue only AS 4100 does not apply for stress cycles less than
10 5 cycles, or stress ranges greater than 1.5 σ y. The maximum design stress is limited
to σ y. Note that the stress evaluation must be based on elastic analysis or on measured
load histories.
(c) Thermal fatigue AS 4100 only applies to structures that operate at temperatures
lower than 150 ° C.
(d) Welding AS 4100 requires that detail categories 112 and lower be performed to
AS/NZS 1554.1 (Ref. 9), category SP. For detail category 125, AS 4100 requires
welding to AS/NZS 1554.5 (Ref. 10). AS/NZS 1554, Parts 1 and 5 are carbon steel
welding Standards. Fatigue design of stainless steel structures in accordance with
AS 4100 should have equivalent weld defect acceptance and weld inspection criteria
as specified in AS/NZS 1554, Parts 1 and 5. Accordingly, in dynamic load situations
) where AS 1400 requires detail category 112 or l ower, weld imperfections should meet
d
te the requirements of category 1B in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6. Where detail
n
ri
p categories greater than 112 are applicable, weld surface imperfections should meet
n
e the requirements of Class A in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6 and weld internal
h
w
d imperfections should meet the requirements of AS/NZS 1554.5. In some
e
et circumstances, it may be appropriate or necessary to carry out a fracture mechanics
n
ra assessment in accordance with BS 7910, provided any defects present do not
a
u
g
t
adversely affect the corrosion resistance of the structure, or conflict with the surface
o
n
y finish requirements of the component.
c
n
e
rr (e) Capacity [strength reduction] factor for the weld fatigue The capacity factor in
u
c
t
AS 4100 for the weld fatigue strength equals 1.0 assuming the following criteria are
n
e met:
m
u
c (i) The detail is located on a redundant load path, in a position where failure at that
o
D
(
7
point alone will not lead to overall collaps e of the structure.
1
0
2 (ii) The stress history is estimated by conventional methods.
v
o
N
4 (ii) The load cycles are not highly irregular.
1
n
o (iii) The detail is accessible for, and subject to, regular inspection.
D
N
A The capacity factor is reduced if any of Items (e)(i) to (iii) do not apply. A capacity
L
S
N factor of 0.7 or lower is nominated if the detail is located on a non-redundant load
E
E
U
path. Further guid ance on the sele ctio n of capacity factors lower than 0.7, given the
Q above criteria, may be made with reference to the partial safety factors of Eurocode 3
N
R and the relevant NAD’s (e.g. Ref. 12).
E
H
T
U (f) Thickness correction for plates thicker than 25 mm ECCS (R ef. 5) recommends
O
S caution when applying the fatigue rules to plates thicker than 25 mm, since at the
F
O time of publication of ECCS, only a limited range of fatigue tests had taken place on
Y
T
I plates thi cker than 25 mm. These tests were limited to transversely welded details in
S
R joi nts between equal thickne ss pla tes. ECCS gives guidance on the applicability of
E
V
I fracture mechanics for resolving such situations.
N
U
y It may be that there are some situations where the use of the standard S-N curve approach to
b
d fatigue is not adequate, and a fracture mechanics approach may be more applicable. In this
e
s
s
e
c
situation the requirements from ECCS (Ref. 5) may be followed.
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 110
Situations that may require consideration of fracture mechanics include the following
(Ref. 5):
(i) When the remainin g fatigu e life of a cracked stru cture is assessed.
(ii) When fitness fo r pu rpose is a ssessed.
(iii) When pla te thickne sses is gre ater than 25 mm and the re is doubt as to the
applicability of the fatigue curves.
(iv) When th e effect of v arying one or m ore ge ometry or str ess para meters is be ing
considered for a given detail.
(v) When in-servic e inspection intervals are bein g fixed.
(vi) When a n unus ual str ess dir ectio n, not c ompar able w ith any detai l categ ory, is b eing
assessed.
F6 REFERENCES
1 Euro Inox Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel , Nickel Development
Institute, 1994.
)
d
te 2 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures , Part 1-4: General rules —Supplementary rules
n
ri for stai nless steels , CEN, 1996.
p
n
e
h
w
3 AS 4100—1998, Steel Structures , Standards Australia, 1998.
d
e
et 4 Gurney T. R., Fatigue of Welded Structures , Cambridge University Press, 1978.
n
ra
a
u
5 Recommendations for the Fatigue Design of Steel Structures, ECCS — Technical
g
o
t Committee 6 — Fatigue, European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, 1985.
n
y
n
c 6 BS 5400, Part 10:, ‘ Steel, concrete and composite bridges , Part 10: Code of practice
e
rr for fatigue’, British Standards Institution, 1980.
u
c
t
n
e
7 Offshore Installations: Guidance on design, construction and certification, Health and
m
u Safety Executive , 4 th Edition, 1990.
c
o
D
( 8 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures , Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
7
1
0 buildings , CEN, 1992.
2
v
o 9 AS/NZS 1554.1: Structural steel welding , Part 1: Welding of steel structures ,
N
4
1
Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 2000.
n
o
D
10 AS/NZS 1554.5: Structural Steel Welding , Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject
N
A to high levels of fatigue loading , Australian Standards/Standards New Zealand, 1995.
L
S
N 11 AS/NZS 1554.6: Structural steel welding , Part 6: Welding stainless steels for
E
E
U structural purp oses , Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 1994.
Q
N
R 12 AS 4100: Steel structures , Standards Australia, 1998.
E
H
T
U
13 AS 4100 Supplement 1 — 1999, Steel Structures — Commentary , Standards Australia,
O 1999.
S
F
O 14 NZS 3404.1: Steel structures Standard , Part 1: Steel structures Standard , Standards
Y
T
I New Zealand, 1997.
S
R
E 15 NZS 3404.2: Steel structures Standard , Part 2: Commentary to the Steel Structures
V
I
N Standard , Standards New Zealand, 1997.
U
y
b
d 16 Draft National Application Document for prestandard Eurocode 3: Design of steel
e
s structures, Part 1-4: General rules — Supplementary rules of stainless steels, National
s
e
c
c Building Code of Finland, 1998.
A
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111 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX G
FIRE
(Informative)
G1 GENERAL
At this stage, Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand is not in a position to provide
design rules for determination of the period of structural adequacy (PSA) for stainless steel
structures.
This Appendix outlines the approach to the design of steel building elements required to
have a fire resistance level (FRL), currently adopted by some overseas Standards.
G2 PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS

It has long been recognized that some stainless steels retain their mechanical properties, e.g.
stiffness and strength, at elevated temperatures better than carbon steels. For this reason,
)
d stainless steel elements in buildings may be able to achieve a required FRL with less fire
te
n protection than would be require d for the equivalent carbon steel element, or in some cases
ri
p with no fire protection.
n
e
h
w Fire tests may be used to determine the PSA for a specific element, provided the test
d
e accurately reflects the conditions in the actual structure; however, fire tests are expensive
et
n
ra and hence may only be feasible for large projects.
a
u
g The use of calculation methods to determine the PSA for carbon steel elements is well
t
o
n
y established in several Standards, such as AS 4100 and Eurocode 3; however, this is not the
c
n
e
case in relation to stainless steels, in that the advantages of stainless steel are not yet
rr
u
c
formally recognized in Standards such as Eurocode 3.
t
n
e Research in Finland and the UK has focused on the fire performance of some of the more
m
u commonly used austenitic stainless steels. The results of this research has resulted in
c
o
D
( recommendations for the fire design of stainless steel elements in the current draft of the
7
1
0
Finnish national application document for Eurocode 3 and is expected to be more formally
2
v incorporated into the relevant section of Eurocode 3 when it is upgraded from a pre-
o
N Standard (ENV) to a Standard ( EN).
4
1
n
o
D G3 OTHER STANDARDS
N
A
L This Standard has been mainly based on ANSI/ASCE-8-90, Specification for the Design of
S
N
E Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members , which contains no guidance on the fire
E
U design of stainless steel members.
Q
N
R ENV 1993-1-4: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 1-4 : General rules—
E
H
T
U
Supplementary rules for stainless steel states that for structural fire design, reference should
O be made to ENV 1993-1-2, which is Eurocode 3—Design of steel structures ,
S
F Part 1-2: General rules, Structural fire design . However, this Part of Eurocode 3 applies to
O
Y the fire design of carbon steel. Reference is also made in ENV 1993-1-4 to EN 10088
T
I
S Stainless steels, which is the stainless steel materials Standard, for information on the
R
E properties of stainless steels at elevated temperat ures.
V
I
N
U The current draft of the National Application Document for Finland, for use in conjunction
y
b with Eurocode 3, contains specific data for the reduction factors for stainless steels at
d
e
s
s
elevated temperatures, for a range of austenitic stainless steels. This data, in conjunction
e
c
c
with ENV 199-1-2, enables the relevant calculations for the fire design of stainless steel
A
members to be carried out.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 112
Pending the release of EN 1993-1-4 , the Draft National Application Document for
prestandard SFS-ENV 1993-1-4 , forming part of the National Building Code of Finland,
used in conjunction with ENV 199-1-2, appears at this stage to contain the most specific
guidance on the fire design of stainless steel members manufactured from certain specific
grades of austenitic stainless steel.
G4 POST-FIRE PERFORMANCE
Where temperatures in the range of 350 to 850°C are experienced, various precipitates may
form, which may adversely affect corrosion resistance, i.e. sensitization or toughness, due
to embrittlement.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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113 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX H
SECTION PROPERTIES
(Normative)
H1 SHEAR CENTRE DISTAN CE ( m), TORSION CONSTANT ( J ) AND WARPING

CONSTANT ( I w)
Values of m , J and I w for certain sections are shown in Fi gure H1.

For I w of sections other than those given in Figure H1, I w shall be taken as zero for box
sections.
H2 MONOSYMMETRY SECTION CONSTANTS

Monosymmetry section constants are calculated as follows:
β
x
=
l
Ix
(∫ A x 2 yd A + ∫ A y3 d A )− 2 y o . . . H2(1)
)
d
te
p
n
n
ri
βy =
l
Iy
(∫ A xy 2 d A + ∫ A x3 d A )− 2 x o . . . H2(2)
e
h
w
d Where the x- axis is the axis of symmetry (see Table H1) —
e
et
n
ra
a
βx =0 . . . H2(3)
u
g
t
o β β β
n
n
y
c
βy = w
+ I yf + L
− 2 xo . . . H2(4)
e
rr
u NOT ES:
c
t
n
e 1 For doubly symmetric sections, β x = 0 and β y = 0.
m
u
c
o
2 In the calculation of βy using the value of x o , determined from Table H1, x o and x- are to be
D
( taken as negative.
7
1
0
2 Where the y -axis is the axis of symmetry, interchange x and y in the equations for the x -axis
v
o of symmetry and Table H1.
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 114
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R FIGURE H1 SHEAR CENTRE DISTANCE, TORSION CONSTANT AND WARPING
E
V
I
N
CONSTANT FOR CERTAIN SECTIONS
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
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115 AS/NZS 4673:2001
NOTES TO FIGURE H1:

3
1 For all open section: J = ∑ bt .
3
wf t 3
2 For members cold-formed from a single steel sheet of uniform thickness:J = where wf is the feed width of
3
the flat sheet.
3 For the box and rectangle sections,Iw is negligibly small in comparison toJ.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
TABLE H1
CERTAIN MONOSYMMETRIC SECTIONS—CENTROID AND SHEAR-CENTRE DISTANCES AND MONOSYMMETRY
SECTION CONSTANTS
Section x– xo βw βf βL
l ( + x) 4 (−)
t b x
4 +
b2 b2 3 b2 1 3 12  
3
t x a + t(x ) a
+ 0
a + 2b a + 2b 6b + a l a 2 t  b + x
12
4  ( ) 2 (−) x 2 
C
O
P
Y
R
IG
H
bt (b + 2c )
l  4
t (b + x )4 − x  +() ( 2)ct x +( b )3 + 23 t x+b
+ bt
T
b ( b + 2c) 1 2  
A 12 I x t x a 3 + t ( x )3 a  a  3  a  3 
l 2  2
a + 2b + 2c
(6 ca2 + 3ba2 − 8 c3 ) 12
( ) ()
2
a t b+ x − x   + c  −   
4    2   2  
l 
3 2
4 4  2 ct x b t x b
b (b + 2c) bt (b + 2c ) bt 1 12 t  b + x
( ) (−) x  + ( ) +( )+3 +
+ t x a3 + t ( x )3 a 3 3
 a  −  a − c  
A 12 I x l 2  2
a t (b + x) (−) x 
a + 2b + 2c 12 2
(6 ca 2 + 3 ba 2 − 8 c 3 ) 4    2   2  
LEGEND:
s.c. = shear centre
c.g. = centre of gravity
117 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX I
UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH STRESS GRADIENT

(Normative)
TABLE I1
PLATE BUCKLING COEFFICIENTS ( k ) AND EFFECTIVE WIDTHS ( be )
Stress distribution
Effective width (be )
(compressive positive)
For 1 > ψ ≥ 0:
be = ρ b
)
d
te
n
ri For ψ < 0:
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n ρb
ra be = ρ bc =
a 1 −ψ
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr ψ = f 2* / f1* +1 0 −1 +1 ≥ ψ ≥ −1
u
c
t Plate buckling coefficient ( k ) 0.43 0.57 0.85 0.57
0.21
– ψ + 0.07 ψ2
n
e
m
u
For 1 > ψ ≥0:
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o be = ρ b
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A For ψ < 0:
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R ρb
E
H
T be = ρ bc = 1− ψ
U
O
S
F
O
Y ψ = f 2* / f1* ψ > −1 −1
T
I
+1 1> > ψ 0 0 > 0
S
R
E
Plate buckling coefficient ( k ) 0.43 0.578 1.70 1.70 − 5 ψ + 17.1 ψ2 23.8
V
I
N
ψ + 0.34
U
y
b * *
d NOTE : f 1 and f 2 are web stresses calculated on the basis of the full section.
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 118
APPENDIX J
HOLLOW SECTION LATTICE GIRDER CONNECTIONS

(Normative)
J1 GENERAL
This Appendix provides rules to determine the static design capacity of uniplanar joints in
lattice structures composed of rectangular, square or circular hollow sections, or
combinations of these hollow sections with open sections.
The static design capacities of the joints are expressed in terms of maximum design axial
resistances for the brace members.
This Appendix applies to both, hot-rolled and col d-formed hollow sections.
The welds shall be designed to have sufficient capacity and ductility to allow redistribution
of non-uniform stress distributions and to allow redistribution of secondary bending
moments.
)
d
te The nominal wall thickness of hollow sections shall be greater than or equal to 2.5 mm but
n
ri
p less than or equal to 25 mm, unless special measures have been taken to ensure that the
n
e through thickness properties of the material will be adequate.
h
w
d
e
e The joint capacity [strength reduction] factor ( φ ) shall be taken as 0.9.
t
n
ra
a
u
g
J2 DEFINITIONS
t
o
n
y The definitions below apply to this Appendix.
c
n
e
rr J2.1 Gap ( g )
u
c
t The distance measured along the length of the connecting face of the chord, between the
n
e
m
u
toes of the adjacent members (see Figure J1).
c
o
D
( J2.2 Uniplanar joint
7
1
0
2
A connection between members that are situated in a single plane and which transmit
v primarily axial f orces.
o
N
4
1 J2.3 Overlap ( λ ov)
n
o
D q
N
A
L
λov =   × 100% (see Figure J1)
S
N
 p
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
119 AS/NZS 4673:2001
FIGURE J1 GAP AND OVERLAP JOINTS
)
d
te
n
ri J3 FIELD OF APPLICATION
p
n
e
h This Appendix may be used only where all of the followin g conditions are satisfied:
w
d
e (a) Members shall have compact cross-sec tions as specified in Clauses 3.6.2 and 3.6.3 for
et
n
ra rectangular and circular hollow sections respectively.
a
u
g (b) The angles between the chords and the brace members, and between adjacent brace
t
o
n members shall not be less than 30
n
y
c °.
e
rr (c) Moments resulting from eccentricities may be neglected in calculating the resistance
u
c of the joint, pr ovided that the eccentricities are within the following li mits:
t
n
e
m
u
(i) − 0.55 do ≤ e ≤ 0.25 d o
c
o
D
( (ii) − 0.55 ho ≤ e ≤ 0.25 h o
7
1
0 where
2
v
o
N e = eccentricity as shown in Figure J2
4
1
n
o
do = diameter of the chord
D
N
A
ho = depth of the chord, in th e plane of the lattice girder
L
S
N (d) Members at a joint shall have their ends prepared in such a way that their
E
E cross-sectional shape is not modified.
U
Q
R
N (e) In gap-type joints, the gap between the brace members shall not be less than ( t1 + t2),
E
H
T to ensure that the clearance is adequate to form satisfactory welds.
U
O (f) In overlap joints, the overlap shall be sufficient to ensure that the interconnection of
S
F the brace members is adequate for satisfactory shear transfer from one brace to the
O
Y other.
T
I
S
R (g) Where overlapping brace members have different thicknesses, the thinner member
E
V
I shall overlap the thicker member.
N
U
y (h) Where overlapping brace members are of different strength grades, the member with
b
d the lower yield stress shall overlap the member with the hi gher yield stress.
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 120
)
FIGURE J2 ECCENTRICITY OF JOINTS
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w J4 ANALYSIS
d
e
et
n The axial force distribution in a lattice girder may be determined on the assumption that the
ra members are connected by pinned joints.
a
u
g
t
o
n
y Secondary provided
momentsthat
in the—joints caused by the actual bending stiff ness of the j oints may be
c neglected,
n
e
rr
u (a) the joint geometry is within the range of validity given in Tables J6.1, J7.1 or
c
t Table J8.1, as appropriate; and
n
e
m
u (b) the ratio of the length of the system to the depth of the members in the plane of the
c
o
D
( girder is not less than —
7
1
0 (i) 12 for chord members; and
2
v
o
N (ii) 24 for chord members.
4
1
n
o
Eccentricities that are within the limits specified in Paragraph J3 may be neglected.
D
N The joints are predominantly statically loaded.
A
L
S
N
E J5 WELDS
E
U
Q
N
In welded connections, the connection shall be established around the entire perimeter of
R
E the hollow section by means of butt or fillet welding, or combinations of both. In partially
H
T overlapping joints, the hidden part of the connection need not be welded.
U
O
S The design resistance of the weld per unit length of the perimeter shall not be less than the
F
O design tensile resistance of the cross-section of the member per unit length of the perimeter.
Y
T
I For Class B fillet weld, this requirement can be met provided the t hroat thickness ( t t)
S
R satisfies the following:
E
V
I
N
U tt  fy 
y
b
≥ 1.875  . . . J5(1)
d t1  f uw 
e
s
s
e
c
c
The requirement of this Paragraph may be waived where smaller weld sizes can be justified
A
with regard to the resistance and to the deformation capacity or rotation capacity, or both.
COPYRIGHT
121 AS/NZS 4673:2001
J6 WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS

The design internal axial forces, in both the brace members and in the chords, shall not be
greater than the design resistances of the members determined in accordance with Section 3.
In addition, for brace members, the design internal axial forces shall not be greater than the
resistances of the joints.
Provided that the geometry of the joints is within the range of validity given in Table J6.1,
the design resistances of the joints shall be determined using the equations given in
Table J6.2.
For joints outside the range of validity given in Table J6.1, a detailed analysis shall be
made. This analysis shall take account of the secondary moments in the joints caused by the
bending stiffness of the joints.
TABLE J6.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS
BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
)
d
te
n
0.2 ≤ d i/ do ≤ 1. 0
ri
p
n
5 ≤ d i/2 tI ≤ 25
e
h 5 ≤ d o /2 t o ≤ 25
w
d
e
e 5 ≤ d o /2 t o ≤ 20
t
n (for X-joints)
ra
a
u
g
λov ≥ 25 %
t
o
n
y g ≥ t 1 + t2
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N
4
1
n
o
D
N
A
L
S
N
E
E
U
Q
N
R
E
H
T
U
O
S
F
O
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 122
TABLE J6.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS
BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
Design resistance
Type of joint
(i = 1 or 2)
Chord plastification
f yoto2
ϕN l n = ( 2.8 + 14.2β 2 )γ 0.2kp  0.9
ϕ 

sinθ1  
Chord plastification
)
d
te f yoto2  5.2  ϕ 
n   kp  
ri ϕN l n =
p sinθ1  (1 − 0.81β )   0.9 
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a Chord plastification
u
g
t
o
n
y
c  
f yoto2
n
e
rr ϕN l n = 1.8 + 10.2  d1   kpkg  ϕ 
sinθ1   do    0.9 
u
c   
t
n  sinθ1 
e
m ϕN 2 n =   N1n
u
c
o
 sinθ 2 
D
(
7
1
0
2 T, Y and X joints, and K, N and KT joints with a gap Punching shear
v
o
N  
 f yo 
4
1 When di ≤ d o − 2to ϕN l n =   toπd i  1 + sin2 θ i   ϕ 
n  3   2sin θ i   0.9 
o
D
N
A where
L
S
N kp = 1.0 for n p ≤ 0 (tension)
E
E
U
Q kp = 1 − 0.3 np 1 + np for n p ≤ 0 (compression)
N
R
E For kp ≤ 1. 0
H
T
U
O  0.024 γ
1.2 
S kg = γ 0.2 1 +  (see Figure J3)
F
O
 exp (0.5g / t o ) − 1.33) + 1 
Y
T
I
S
R
E
V
I
N
U
y
b
d
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
123 AS/NZS 4673:2001
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d FIGURE J3 VALUES OF FACTOR ( k g )
e
et
n
ra
a
u J7 WELDED JOINTS BETW EEN HOLLOW SECTION BRACE ME MBERS AND
g
t
o SQUARE/RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
n
y
c
n J7.1 General
e
rr
u
c
t
The design internal axial forces, in both the brace members and in the chords, shall not be
n
e greater than the design resistances of the members determined in accordance with Section 3.
m
u
c In addition, for brace members, the design internal axial forces shall not be greater than the
o
D
(
7
resistances of the joints.
1
0
2 J7.2 Square or circular brace members and square chords
v
o
N
4 Provided that the geometry of the joints is within the range of validity given in Table J7.1,
1
n
o
the design resistances of the joints shall be determined using the equations given in
D Table J7.2.
N
A
L
S For joints outside the range of validit y given in Table J7.1, see Paragraph J7.3.
N
E
E J7.3 Rectangular sections
U
Q
N The design capacities of joints between rectangular hollow sections, and of joints between
R
E
H
T square hollowcriteria,
sectionsasoutside the range of validity given in Table J7.1, shall be based on
U the following applicable:
O
S
F (a) Plastic failure of the chord face or the chord cross-section.
O
Y
T
I (b) Crack initiation leading to rupture of the bracings from the chord (punching shear).
S
R
E (c) Cracking in the welds or in the bracings (effective widths).
V
I
N
U (d) Chord wall bearing of local bucklin g under the compression bracing.
y
b
d
e (e) Local buckling in the compressive areas of the members.
s
s
e
c
c
(f) Shear failure of the chord.
A
The modes of failure relevant to Items (a) to (f) are given in Figure J4.
COPYRIGHT
TABLE J7.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN SQUARE OR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION B RACE MEMBERS
AND SQUARE HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
Joint parameters (i = 1 or 2, and j = overlapped brace)
bi di b1 + b2
or or
Type of joint 2b1
di ti ti bo
bi
bo or bo to bi and ti Gap or overlap
bj tj
C o mp r e s s i o n Te nsion
bi bo
T, Y or X joint 0.25 ≤ ≤ 0.85 10 ≤ ≤ 35 — —
bo to
bi
≤ 1.25 Eo
bi   b  ti Fχi g
≥ 0.5 (1 − β )
C K gap joint ≥ 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.01 o  a bo
O bo   t o  and
P bo b1 + b2
Y
and bi 15 ≤ ≤ 35 0.6 ≤ ≤ 1.3 but
g
≥ 1.5 (1 − β )
R
IG
≤ 35 bi to 2b1
bo
N g ap j oint bi ti ≤ 35
H
T
≥ 0.35 ti and g ≥ t1 + t2
bo
ti
≤ 1.0
K overlap joint bi bi Eo bo tj
≥ 0.25 ≤ 1.1 ≤ 40 25% ≤ λ ov ≤ 100%
N overl ap j oin t bo ti Fχi to bi
≥ 0.75
bj
Circular brace 0.4 ≤ di ≤ 0.8 di ≤ 1.5 Eo di ≤ 50 As above but replace b 1 with d 1

member bo ti Fχi ti
NOTE : Outside thes e parame ter rang es, the resi sta nce of the join t m ay be deter mine d a s for a j oint with a r ectan gular chord sect ion (se e Pa ragr aph F7. 3).
124
125 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J7.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN SQUARE
OR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS
AND SQUARE HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
Design resistance
Type of joint
(i = 1 or 2, j = overlapped brace)
Chord face yielding β ≤ 0.85
f yo t o2  2β 
+ 4 (1 − β ) 0.5  k n  
ϕ
ϕN ln =
(1 − β )sinθ i  sinθ 1   0.9 
Chord face yielding β ≤ 1. 0
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n 8.9 f yo t o2  b1 − b2  0.5 ϕ 
e
h
ϕN ln =  2b  γ k n  0.9 
w sinθ i  o   
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y Effective
width 25% ≤ λ ov < 50 %
c
n  λov (2h − 4t ) + b + b   ϕ 
e
rr ϕN ln = f yi ti  50 i i eff e.ov 
u   0.9 
c
t
n
e Effective
width 50% ≤ λ ov < 80 %
m
u
c
+ be.ov ]  
o ϕ
D
( ϕN ln = f yi ti [2hi − 4ti + beff
7
1
 0.9 
0
2
v Effective width λ ov ≥ 80 %
o
N
= f yi ti [2hi − 4ti + bi + be.ov ]  
4 ϕ
1 ϕN ln
n
o  0.9 
D
N Circularbraces —Multipletheabovedesignresistancesby π/4.
A
L
S — Repla ce b 1 and h 1 with d 1.
N
E
E — Repla ce b 2 and h 2 with d 2.
U
Q
N Functions
R
E
H n but k ≤
T
U For n ≤ 0 (tension): k n = 1. 0 For n ≥ 0 on):
(compressi kn = 1.3 - 0.4
1.0 n
O β
S
F
O  10   f yo to 
  10  f yi t j 
Y
T beff =   bi but beff ≤ bi beff =    bi but be.ov ≤ bi
I
S  bo to   f yiti 
 
 bj t j  f yiti 

R
E
V
I
N
NOTE : Only the over lapping brac e needs to be checked. The bra ce member effi cien cy, i.e . the desi gn resi stan ce of
U the joint divided by the design plastic resistance of the brace, for the overlapped brace should be taken as less than
y
b
d or equal to the o verlapping brace.
e
s
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 126
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
t
n
e
m
u
c
o
D
(
7
1
0
2
v
o
N FIGURE J4 MODES OF FAILURE — RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
4
1
n
o
D
N J8 WELDED JOINTS BETW EEN HOLLOW SECTION BRACE ME MBERS AND
A
L I-SECTION CHORDS
S
N
E
E The design internal axial forces in the brace members and in the chords shall not be greater
U
Q than the design capacity of the members determined in accordance with Section 3.
N
R
E In addition, the design internal axial forces in the brace members shall also not be greater
H
T
U than the design capacities of the joints.
O
S
F In gap-type joints, the tensile design capacities ( φ tNto ) of the chords allowing for shear force
O
Y transferred between the brace members by the chords and neglecting the relevant secondary
T
I
S moments shall be determined as follows:
R
E
V
I Vo*
N
U
(a) For ≤ 0.5 : . . . J8(1)
y ϕ vVvo
b
d
e
s
s N to = f yo Aoφ t . . . J8(2)
e
c
c
A
ϕt = 0.85
COPYRIGHT
127 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Vo*
(b) For 0.5 < ≤ 1.0: . . . J8(3)
ϕ uVno
  2V *  
2
N to = f yo  Ao − Avo  − 1  . . . J8(4)

  φ vVv  
ϕt = 0.85
where φv and V v shall be determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.4 and A vo is the
web area of the chord transferring the shear force.

Provided that the geometry of the joints is within the range of the validity given in
Table J8.1, the design capacities of the joints shall be determined using the equations given
in Table J8.2.
For joints outside the range of validity given in Table J8.1, a detailed analysis shall be
made. This analysis shall take account of the secondary moments in the joints caused by the
bending stiffness of the joints.
)
d
te
n
ri
p
n
e
h
w
d
e
et
n
ra
a
u
g
t
o
n
y
c
n
e
rr
u
c
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COPYRIGHT
TABLE J8.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS B ETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS AND I-SECTION CHORDS
Joint parameter (i = 1 or 2 and j = overlapped brace)
bi hi d i
Type of joint bj , ,
hi dw bo ti ti ti
bi bi tw to
C o mp r e s s i o n T e ns i on
dw ≤ 1.2 Eo
hi tw f yo
X joint 0.5 ≤ ≤ 2.0 —
bi and hi Eo
C dw ≤ 400 mm ≤ 1.1 hi
≤ 35
O ti f y1
P ti
Y T joint bi
R
IG
bo
≤ 0.75 Eo ≤ 1.1 Eo bi
≤ 35
H Y joint hi to f yo ti f y1 ti
dw
T
bi
= 1.0 — ≤ 1.5 Eo di
K gap joint tw f yo di
≤ 1.6
Eo ≤ 50
ti
N ga p j oin t and ti f y1
K overlap joint hi bd
dw ≤ 400 mm
0.5 ≤ ≤ 2.0 ≥ 0.75
N o verlap j oin t bi bi
129 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J8.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION
BRACE MEMBERS AND I-SECTION CHORDS
T y p eo fj o i n t D e s i g nr e s i s t a n c e( i = 1 or 2 and j = overlapped brace)

Chord web yielding
f yo t w bw ϕ 
ϕN1n =  
sin θ 1  0.9 
Effective width
= 2 f y1 t1beff  
ϕ
ϕN1n
 0.9 
Chord web stability Effective width check not required if —

f yo t w bw  ϕ  g
ϕN1n =   (a) ≥ (20 − 28β ) ;
sin θ 1  0.9  tf
(b) β ≤ (1.0 − 0.03γ ) ;
) Effective width d1
d (c) 0.75 ≤ ≤ 1.33 for CHS; and
te
= 2 f y1 t 1beff  
ϕ d2
n ϕN1n
ri
p  0.9  b1
n 0.75 ≤ ≤ 1.33 for RHS.
e (d)
h b2
w
d
e Chord shear
et
n f yo A v
ra =  ϕ 
a ϕN1n  
u
g 3 sin θ 1  0.9 
t
o
n
y Effective width 25% ≤ λ ov < 50 %
c
n
e  λ ov  ϕ 
rr
u
ϕN1n = f yit i  50 (2hi − 4t i ) + beff + be.ov   0.9 
c
t
  
n
e Effective width 50% ≤ λ ov < 80 %
m
u
c
+ be.ov ]  
o ϕ
D
(
ϕN1n = f yit i [2hi − 4t i + bi
7  0.9 
1
0
2 Effective width λ ov ≥ 80%
v
o
+ be.ov ]  
N ϕ
4 ϕN1n = f yit i [2hi − 4t i + bi
1
n  0.9 
o
D Functions
N
A For RHS:
L
S
N hi
E
E
(a) bw = + 5 (tf + r ) Av = Ao − (2 −) a b(otf +) tw + 2r tf
U
sin θ1
Q
N  1  0.5
R
E (b) bw ≤ 2ti + 10 (tf + r ) For RHS brace: a=  2 2

H 1 + ( 4 g 3tf
T
U
O For CHS: ) 
S
F di
O (a) bw = + 5 (tf + r )
Y sin θ1 For CHS brace: a =0
T
I
S
R
(b) bw ≤ 2ti + 10 (tf + r )
E
V 
I f yo   10   f yjt j 
N
U beff = tw + 2r + 7  
 tf but beff ≤ bi be.ov =  




 bi but be.ov ≤ bi
y  f yi   bj t j   f yi ti 
b
d
e NOTE : Only the over lapping bra ce needs t o be checked. The brac e membe r effi cien cy, i.e. the design resi stan ce of the joint
s
s
e divided by the design plastic resistance of the brace, for the overlapped brace should not be greater than the overlapping
c
c
A brac e.
COPYRIGHT
AS/NZS 4673:2001 130
APPENDIX K
DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY [STRENGTH REDUCTION] FACTOR

(Normative)
This Appendix applies to situations where statistical data is available for the mean ( M m) and
coefficient of variation ( V M ) of the ratio of measured yield stress to nominal yield stress. It
provides the reducti on in capac ity [strength redu ctio n] factor ( φ ), which shall be applied
when the design is based on the measured yield stress.

Where the design shall be based on the mean value of measured yield stress, Mm shall be
taken as unity.
Where applied to the production of cold-formed members, where the yield stress is
enhanced by the forming process and the nominal yield stress of the finished product shall
be used for desi gn, M m and V M are the mean and coefficient of variation of the ratio of
measured yield stress to nominal yield stress of the finished product respectively.
When VM is less than or equal to 0.15, the reduced capacity [strength reduction] factor shall
)
d be determined by substituting the stat istical values of Mm and V M into —
te
n
ri
p Mm
n
e
φ = (1 + cVMo
)(2 1 − )cVM2 φ o ≤ φo . . . K1(1)
h M mo
w
d
e
et where φ o is the capacity [strength reduction] factor given in thi s Standard, and—
n
ra
a
u M mo = 1.1
g
t
o
n
y
c
V Mo = 0.1
n
e
rr
c = 5.0 for members
u
c
t
n
c = 6.5 for fasteners
e
m The capacity [strength reduction] factor ( φ ) shall not be greater than the reference value
u
c
o (φ o).
D
(
7
1 When V m is greater than 0.15, the reduced capacity [strength reduction] factor shall be
0
2
v
o
determined by substituting the statistical values of M m and VM into —
N
4 Mm
exp  β  V Mo + VFo2 + VPo2 + VQo2  φ o ≤ φ o
1
n φ =  
2
+ VFo2 + VPo2 + VQo2 − V M2 . . . K1(2)
o
D
M mo 
N
A
L
S
where φo is the capacity [strength reduction] factor, and —
N
E
E M mo = 1.1
U
Q
N V Mo = 0.1
R
E
H
T
U
F mo = 1.0
O
S
V Fo = 0.05
F
O
Y
V Po = 0.15
T
I
S
R
V Qo = 0.21
E
V
I
N
β = 3.0 for members
U
y
b β = 4.5 for fasteners
d
e
s The capacity [strength reduction] factor shall not be greater than the reference value ( φ o).
s
e
c
c
A
COPYRIGHT
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AS/NZS 4673:2001

Australian/New Zealand Standard™

Cold-formed stainless steel structures

The following interests are represented on Committee BD-086:

Australian/New Zealand Standard™

Cold-formed stainless steel structures

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

Australian/New Zealand Standard

Cold-formed stainless steel structures

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.3.7 Capacity [Strength reduction] factor

1.3.19.1 Limit state, serviceability

1.3.19.2 Limit state, stability

1.3.19.3 Limit state, ultimate

1.3.30 Segment (in a member su bjected to bending)

1.3.43 Tensile strength

FIGURE 1.3 STIFFENING MODES

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

A area of the full, unreduced cross-section ; or 3.3.3

Ae effective area calculated at buckling stress fn 3.4.1

TABLE 1.4 (continued )

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

TABLE 1.4 (continued )

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

fn buckl ing str ess 2.6. 1

TABLE 1.4 (continued )

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

f d* design compressive stress in the element being considered 2.2.1.3

TABLE 1.4 (continued )

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

k′ coefficient used to d etermine *

connected to the sheeting or connected to the sheeting with

TABLE 1.4 (continued )

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

N f* designtensile forceintheconnectedpart 5.3.5

N ft* designtensileforceonabolt 5.3.7.4

TABLE 1.4 (continued )

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

TABLE 1.4 (continued )

S y mb ol Desc ription C l a u sre e f e r e n c e

ρ quantity for load capacity [strength]; or 1.5.2.4, 2.2.1.2

1.5.2.2 Other stainless steel grades

C = for co mpression me mbers, rati o of the tota l bend cro ss-sectional

Equation 1.5.2.4(2) is applicable only if—

1.5.2.7 Acceptance of steels

1.7 NON-CONFORMING SHAPES AND CONSTRUCTION

2.1 SECTION PROPERTIES

2.1.3 Dimensional limits

MAXIMUM RATIO OF EFFECTIVE

2.2.1.2 Effective width for capacity calculations

f 1* , f 2* = web stresses calculated on the basis of the effective section

2.2.2.2 Effective width for deflection calculations

2.3 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS

FIGURE 2.3.2 UNSTIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS SUBJECT

2.5 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF EDGE-STIFFENED ELEMENTS W ITH ONE OR

To calculate the effective structural properties of a member having compression sub-

ψ = yield stress of web

kst = stiffener type coefficient

3.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TENSION

3.3.2.2 Based on initiation of yielding

Cw = torsion al warping consta nt of the cross-s ection

Vv = 4.84E o t w (Gs G o ) . . . 3.3.4(1)

I-sections or similar sections