Epithermal Gold/Silver Deposits

This text is based mostly on the Economic Geology Notes by Ron Morton and the notes by Jeff
Hedenquist. See the references at the end of the text and the references for the figures.

Definition: The term epithermal was used by Lindgren in 1913 to refer to those hydrothermal ore
deposits that formed in a relatively near surface environment. Today we know this is from about 50
meters down to 1,500 meters below the surface with temperatures between 100 and 4000C and low
pressures. Surface expressions of these near surface deposits are hot springs. Most geologists think of
epithermal deposits as being mainly continental and associated with subaerial geothermal systems,
however volcanogenic massive sulfide and sedimentary exhalative deposits are certainly in the
epithermal group.

Ore Minerals, Production, Size: Ore elements associated with epithermal gold/silver deposits include
gold, silver, antimony, arsenic, and mercury. The correspondent minerals are native gold and silver,
argentite, tennatite, enargite, gold tellurides, electrum, stibnite, and cinnabar. Minor elements are
tellurium, copper, zinc, lead, and bismuth represented by chalcopyrite, covellite, sphalerite, galena, and
bismuthinite.

Most epithermal gold/silver deposits are obviously mined for gold and/or silver with individual
deposits varying from gold-rich (silver/gold ratios less than 10) to silver-rich (silver/gold ratios from 20-
200). Open pit methods are used for large, low grade deposits (1-2 g/t Au, 70-90 g/t Ag) with gold in
oxidized (supergene) ore being amenable to low cost, heap-leach treatment. Underground mining is
generally used for smaller, higher grade deposits (10-100 g/t Au, or greater than 500 g/t Ag). In these
deposits grade control is essential and difficult because gold and silver values can vary dramatically over
just a few meters. Tonnages mined often depend on grade with low grade deposits needing more gold-
bearing rock; generally tonnages will be in the 100’s of millions. Higher grade deposits could have as
little as 400,000 tons of ore. Large mining companies typically will not mine a deposit unless it has at
least 1 million ozs of gold.

Distribution and Age: Most known epithermal deposits are Tertiary in age, which goes along with
their near surface level of formation and thus low level of preservation. However, older deposits are
being recognized, including those that are metamorphosed and extensively recrystallized. Most deposits
are closely associated with convergent plate boundaries (continental and island arcs). Epithermal
deposits thus form in areas of active volcanism where there is high heat flow, tectonic activity, and
active geothermal systems. Mined deposits represent parts of fossil geothermal systems.

Classification and Deposit Types:

Based on the nature of the ore forming fluids as well as the type of volcanic host rocks, alteration
assemblages, and ore minerals, epithermal gold/silver deposits have been divided into 2 groups:
1) Low sulfidation deposits, also called the adularia-sericite class
2) High sulfidation deposits, these are also called the acid sulfate or alunite-kaolinite pyrophyllite
class.

The term sulfidation is used here to describe stabilities of sulfur-bearing minerals in terms of sulfur
fugacities (partial pressure).
 Low Sulfidation Epithermal Gold/Silver Deposits: Historically most gold production from volcanic
rock-hosted epithermal deposits have come from this type.
Regional Setting: This deposit type, in terms of tectonic setting, is related to back-arc basins,
continental margins, and island arcs. The deposits form at shallow depths and are associated with
regional faults that control volcanism and are relatively long-lived. For example the Comstock, Oatman,
Bullfrog, and Tonapah epithermal districts line up along what is called the Walker Lane in Nevada and
the deposits in the San Juan Mountains are related to the Rio Grande Rift.

Local Setting: Low sulfidation deposits are commonly associated with calderas and, to a lesser
extent, stratovolcanoes. However, in the case of calderas, it needs to be realized that just because you
have identified a caldera does not mean you will necessarily find a gold deposit. In fact most calderas
contain no gold mineralization. In the San Juan Mountains only 1/3 of the known calderas are
mineralized. Within calderas the ore deposits occur:
a) Within permeable rock units like ash flow tuffs, dome breccias, debris flows and especially where
these units are in proximity to synvolcanic faults. Thus margins of calderas and dome-flow complexes
are common environments.
b) In the case of stratovolcanoes the gold mineralization is typically associated with faults along the
flanks of the volcano and permeable rock units such as air fall deposits, debris flows, and ash flow tuffs.

Host rocks are dominantly Tertiary to Quaternary in age and rhyodacite, rhyolite, and andesite in
composition. Rhyolitic host rocks tend to be enriched in molybdenum, tungsten, fluorine, niobium, and
tin. It has been proposed that these epithermal deposits represent the upper parts of porphyry
molybdenum deposits but that claim has not been proven. In some rare cases volcanic sediments (moat-
type) host ore.

Mineralogy: The mineralogy of the ore is characterized by veins of adularia and sericite with quartz.
Other common associate minerals are chlorite, rhodochrosite, rhodenite, barite, and fluorite. Pyrite is
ubiquitous and may be accompanied by cinnabar, arsenopyrite, and/or stibnite. The ore minerals are
electrum (gold with 20% silver), native gold, native silver, gold tellurides, acanthite, tennatite,
chalcopyrite, and tetrahedrite. These occur as replacements of the host rocks and in single veins or vein
stockworks,

In general these deposits contain more silver than gold though there are exceptions like Round
Mountain, a 178 million ton deposit with 0.035 oz gold (300,000 ozs) and no silver. Gold grades vary
from <1 to >100 g/ton; typically the gold is fine-grained and mostly invisible. Silver, when present,
ranges from 1 to more than 5 oz/ton. Minor sphalerite and galena are often associated with these
deposits.

Alteration: At and above the water table the rocks tend to be silicified and alunite often is present
with the quartz. The silicification is due to boiling of the hydrothermal fluid, and precipitation of quartz
as silica sinter, Below the water table clay minerals (kaolinite), sericite, and manganese carbonate are
the common alteration products. This alteration gives way outward to a zone of epidote, albite, and
carbonates with or without pyrite and chlorite. This alteration type is similar to propolytic alteration in
porphyry copper deposits, is quite extensive, and may have formed prior to ore deposition. Quartz is
variable in appearance ranging from banded to crustiform and cockscomb; varieties include chalcedony,
amethyst, and chert.

Zonation of Ore minerals:

 • Above the water table to the surface there may be native gold and/or silver, with minor stibnite
and cinnabar. This will be a low grade zone with the ore minerals occurring as disseminations and
fracture fillings.
• At and just below the water table (boiling zone) can find native gold and silver, gold telluride's,
stibnite, and arsenopyrite. These minerals occur dominantly as fracture fillings with some replacement
ore. This will be the high grade ore zone.
• Below water table can find electrum, acanthite, tetrahedrite and arsenopyrite as fracture fillings
and replacement ore.
• Deeper zones (>600m) may have galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and/or molybdenite

Paleodepth of ore fluid:

• From geological reconstructions and fluid inclusion studies the low sulfidation deposits form
between 100 to 1000m below the surface.
• The ore fluids have low salinity (1-5% NaCl), a near-neutral pH, and contain CO2, H2S, and NaCl as
dominant species.
• The temperatures of the fluid was between 200 and 300 ºC
• The composition of the fluid is similar to many active geothermal systems dominated by meteoric
water and magmatic gas such as the Broadlands in New Zealand.
• The amount of magmatic gas/fluid is between 10-30% and thus the fluid represents a mixture of
meteoric water and magmatic hydrothermal fluid.

High Sulfidation Epithermal Gold/Silver Deposits: Tectonic Setting: These deposits occur in
continental margins, island arcs, and back-arc basins. They form in active volcanic areas where intrusions
are near the surface; thus, like the low sulfidation gold/silver deposits, they are associated with
stratovolcanoes and calderas.

Depositional Environment and Geological Setting: Within calderas the deposits commonly occur
along the margins or near synvolcanic structures within host rocks that range from dome-flow
complexes and ash flow tuffs to hyalotuffs associated with tuff rings and maars. These low sulfidation
deposits are postulated to represent the near surface expression of porphyry copper systems.

Mineralogy: These deposits are characterized by alunite [KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6] [white, powdery, fine-
grained earthy mineral], enargite, and pyrite with or without covellite, quartz, and barite. The ore and
gangue occurs as disseminations, fracture fillings, and replacements. Vein ore is subordinate to these
other types. Ore Minerals are native gold, enargite, tennatite, argentite, tetrahedrite, bismuthinite, and
gold tellurides

Alteration: Characterized by extensive leaching of the volcanic rocks with ore most often associated
with the more intense alteration. From the surface down to the water table will find alunite, kaolinite,
and pyrophylite with native sulfur and some cinnabar as well as quartz (chalcedony). There may be
extensive zones of silification at and just below water table. The ore minerals occur beneath this
silicified zone and the alteration here is sericite-alunite-kalinite-quartz (opal, chert), which gives way
laterally to kaolinite and montmorillonite that grades out into a propolytic alteration zone. With depth
pyrophylite and diaspore take the place of kaolinite, The ore minerals found here are enargite, native
gold, electrum, stibnite, with minor native silver. This gives way downward to tetrahedrite, tennatite,
bismuthinite, and chalcopyrite.

Paleodepth of Formation:
 • 100-600 m below the surface
• Hydrothermal fluids have a low pH (<1-3), are saline (10-30%), and dominated by H2S, HCl, H2SO4,
and SO2
• These are characteristic of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids that enter the near surface environment
with little or no interaction with meteoric water

Surface expression of these low pH waters are:

• Solfataras, acid lakes
• Abundant native sulfur, realgar, and orpiment
• Examples include White Island, New Zealand, and Osorezan, Japan

Hot Spring Deposits: Hot spring gold deposits, which include siliceous (chert) sinters and brecciated
lower zones, cap many modern geothermal systems and may be associated with either low or high
sulfidation deposits. Their surface formation makes them very vulnerable to surface weathering and
erosion and thus their preservation is poor.
In these deposits ore was precipitated within 100 meters of the surface due to the direct interaction
of the hydrothermal fluid with surface waters. The surface manifestations are mud pots, solftaras,
thermal pools, and siliceous sinters. Deposits tend to occur as disseminations and veins and may be
associated with hydrothermal breccias.
Gold mineralization is native gold and electrum with associated arsenic, antimony, mercury, thallium,
silver, and sometimes tungsten. Today some active geothermal fields are precipitating gold at well heads
of geothermal power stations (Wairki), and at the surface in hotsprings (Osorezan, Japan).

References

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