PracticalDescriptiveGeometry 10021526

PR A C T I C A L
DE S C R IPTI E G E O M E T R Y V
W ILL I A M G R I SW OL D S M I T H, M E . .
SS ST T PR O E SS OR
A I AN DES PT V
F E E O ET Y A D OF CR I I G M R N
E T S R O
K IN M A I S T T TE
IC , ATE H L GY
M UR N I U OF C N O O
SE C OND E DITION
RE V
I SE D NLAR G E D AND R E SE T
,
E ’
FI FT H IM PR E SS ION
M cGR A W H ILL
-
B OOK C OM PA N Y, IN C .
NE W YOR K : 23 9 WE ST 3 9 TH STR E E T
LO N D O N : 6 8 BO U VE RI E ST E c 4 . , . .
1916
C OPYR IG HT 1 9 1 2
, ,
1 9 1 6, B Y T HE
M CG R AW —H I B OO LL K C O M PANY , IN C .
S C OND E DI I ON
E T
F i r s t pr int i n g , III a r ch, 1 9 1 6

’
S econ d pr int i n g , A u g u s t , 1 9 1 6
Th ir d pr int in g , Decem b er , 1 9 1 7
F ou r t h pr int ing N ovem b er 1 9 1 8
, ,
F i ft h pr int ing J a n ua r y, 1 9 20
.
T H E M A P LE P R E S S YO R K
PR E F A C E T O T H E S E C ON D E DITION
Th e fir st edition of t h is book publis h ed in 1 9 1 2 r e p r esent e d

, ,
t h e a ut h o r s vi e w s on t h e p r e s e nt a tion of De sc r iptiv e Ge omet r y

’
,
so as to a r ous e t h e st u d ent s int er est in t h e subj e ct wit h o u t

’
s a cr ifi cing r igo r ous tr a ining in t h e p r in cipl es .
In t h r ee y e a r s t h e t e xt h a s b ee n us e d in m a ny s ch ools a n d t h e ,
p re se nt se cond e dition a ims to e mbod y t h e s u gg estions of m a n y

, ,
le a din g t e a c h e r s of t h e subj e ct w h o h a ve a t t h e re que st of

, ,
t h e a ut h o r a n d publis h e r s exp r e ssed t h e i r vi ew s a s to t h is

,
d e velo p m e nt
“
.
T h e m a in id e a of t h e fi r st e dition t h a t of p r a cti ca lity , ha s ,
been a d h er ed to a n d a m p lifie d Th e most im p o r t a nt ch a nge s

.
a re
" division into mo r e ch a pter s

Th e .
w A mo r e logi ca l s e qu e n ce for cer t a in p o r tions of t h e t ext

K h not tion of points a n pl a n e s
.
T e d
-
P a .
E G r a p h i c l a y outs for ex e r ci s e s .
P M o r e ex er ci s e s of a p r a cti c a l n a tu r e e mb r a cing mo re li n es ,
of e ngin eer in g e nd ea vo r .
6 A numbe r of new solutio n s u tili z i n g a u xili a r y p l a n e s mo r e

.
,
fr equ e ntl y .
7 A bette r syst e m of p ers p ective d r a w ing

. .
8 A ch a p te r on t h e int e r s e ctions of p l a n e solids

. .
Alth ou gh y i eldin g to t h e r e q u es t of s ever a l te a ch er s for t h e

in clusion of gr a p h i c l a youts of e x er cis es t h e a uth o r still b eli e ves ,
t h a t dimen s ion e d l a youts a re of gr ea t v a lue d e s p it e t h e a mo u nt

of tim e ex p end e d on t h e l a yout it s elf With both of t h es e h o w .
,
e v er i n p r a cti ca ll y u nlimit e d qu a ntity t h e inst r u cto r m a y d e cid e

, ,
t h e q u e stion for h ims elf T h e l a youts of bot h kinds h a ve b ee n

.
m a d e so fl exibl e by int erch a nging a n d sub s tituting d a t a t h a t

, ,
t h e n u mb er of v a r i a tio n s is a lmo s t in ca l cu l a bl e T h is r emove s .
t h e O bj e ction e xp r e s s e d b y som e t ea ch er s to a d e finit e a n d

, ,
limited numb er of ex er cis e s t h e solutions of wh i ch a r e som e tim e s

,
p r ese r ve d b y st u d ent o r g a niz a tions N o su ch coll ection of solu.
tio n s will b e n e fit futu r e cl a ss es a s t h e exe r cises ca n be m a de

,
e nti r e ly di ffe r e nt e a ch su cceeding y e a r .
1
PR E FA C E
A s to t he tre a tment of Per s p ective ( h ow a n d how muc h ) t h e ,
a ut h o r re ceived a l a r g e a mount of const r uctive t h oug h con flicting
a dvi ce m a inl y f r om t ea ch er s of a r ch it e c tu r e Th e w r ite r s ch oi ce

’
“ ,
.
is C o n i ca l Pr oj e ction a pr ocess th a t is s a n e in th a t it is a
,
”
,
direct a ppli ca tion of t h e p r inci p les of Desc r iptive Geometr y a n d ,
is e a sy a n d swi ft in o p e r a tion .
It h a s been p r e viously st a ted t h a t mu ch inter est w a s m a ni

fes t e d in t h e r evision of t h is wo r k b y p r ominent t ea ch e r s in a l l
p a r ts Of t h e country a n d t h eir combined O pinions mould e d it
,
into its pre sent for m Th e wr i t e r w i s h es to convey hi s th a nks

.
to a l l w h o a ssiste d in t hi s wa y F or spe ci a l cr iti cisms a n d m a te

.
r i a l h e a cknowl e dg e s ind e btedness to Pr of e sso r T h om a s E Fr en ch .

,
Oh io St a t e U ni vers ity ; Pr ofes so r H owa r d M oo re C olo r a do ,
C oll e ge ; Pr ofessor Fr e de ri ck C B ig g in A l a b a m a Pol y t e ch

.
,
n i c Ins titute ; Pr ofe sso r R obe r t H M cN eil l y V a n d er b i lt

.
,
U niver sit y ; Profe ssor C h a ce N ewm a n M ic h i g a n A gr icultur a l

,
C ollege ; Professor H B M on ges U nive r sit y of C a liforni a ; M r

. .
,
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C h a r les R Swineford Armour Ins titute of Tec h nolo gy

.
,
.
W G S
. . .
A R M O U R I NST I T UTE O F T E C H NO LO G Y ,
C hi c a g o, A p ri l , 1 9 1 6 .
PR E F A C E T O F IR S T E DITI ON
In pr esenting a n ew t ext book on Des cr i p tive Geometr y t h e

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wr iter is ful l y a w a r e of t h e ex cell e n ce of e xi s tin g t r e a tis es a n d ,
a p p r e ci a t e s wh a t t h e y h a v e cont r ibuted tow a r d a hi gh er st a nd a r d
of t e c h nic a l t r a ining Th e a u th o r s of th ese t re a tises purs uin g

.
,
t h e ir sever a l cou r s es h a ve ca r r i e d t h e d e velopment of t h e subj e ct

,
to a h igh pl a n e .
H o w e ver in s p ite of t h e indisput a ble excell e nce of m a n y of t h e

,
t ext books t h ey s ee m to h a ve f ai l e d to a r ous e t h e inter est of

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t h e stud e nt p a r tl y b y igno r ing t h e p r a cti ca l a pp li ca tions a n d

, ,
p a r tl y b y m a king onl y a sligh t a tte m p t to pr esent t h e subj e ct

a tt r a ctiv el y . Som e of t h e books a r e v a l u a bl e onl y for r ef er enc e
a n d a r e usel e ss in t h e cl a ss r oom ; ot h er s a r e in compl e te in t h e
e ss e nti a ls ; som e a r e f a ddi s h e mp h a s i z in g cer t a in f ea tu r e s a n d

,
t r e a ting t h e r e st in a dequ a t el y wh il e even t h e b e st conve y to t h e

,
s tud e nt only a v e r y slig h t ide a of t h e p r a cti ca l v a lue of t h e sub
j ect T h is h a s give n r is e to t h e b el i ef pr ev a il i n g a lmost uni

'
.
,
v e r s a l l y in t h e stud e nt bod y t h a t De s cr i p tiv e G e omet r y is m e r ely

,
a d isciplin a r y stud y h a vin g little or no rel a tion to t h e life wo r k

,
of t h e individu a l .
Th e a i m Of t h e w r it e r h a s b ee n t h e r efo r e to p r esent t h e
, ,
subj ect to t h e stud en t in a simpl e m a nn er a s p r ogr e s s ively a s ,
possible r eminding hi m co n st a ntl y Of t h e r el a tion wh i ch e xist s

,
bet w ee n Des cr iptive G e omet r y a n d Pra cti ca l Dr a ftin g ; a n d to

a void n ee dl e ss diffi culty b y using l a n gu a g e a n d di r ections of t h e
gr ea t e st possibl e cl a r it y Th e wr ite r b elieve s th a t a th o r ough

.
knowledge of t h e s u bj e ct is a chi eve d not th r ough mu ch stud y of

t h e t e xt b u t b y w o r kin g e x erci s e s
,
To t h is en d h e h a s p r ovid e d
.
a l a r g e numb e r of e x er cis e s s ca tt e r e d t h r ough t h e t e xt of con

, ,
s i d e r a b l e v a r i e ty a n d ca p a ble of infinit e m u lti p l i ca tion b y t h e
cl e ver i n st r u cto r .
A n e x a min a tio n of t h e subj ect will r e v e a l t h e following fea tur es

a n d innov a tions :
1 A t h o r ough d r ill in fund a ment a ls

. .
2 R e petitions Of st a t e m e nts for t h e s a k e O f e m p h a s is

. .
3 N ot a tion com p r eh ensive y et re du ce d to its lo w es t te r ms

.
,
.
4 A n a lys e s s e p a r a te d f r om p r oofs
. .
5 T a b u l a t e d o r d e r of t h e ope r a tio n s in e a ch a n a l y sis a n d

.
c on s t r u ction .
vii i P R E FA C E
6 E . x er cises to
n u mbe r of 860 of wh i ch a bout on e four th
t he ,
-
a r e su ch a s m a y b e m e t in a ctu a l p r a ctice M ost of t h es e a r e .
dime n s ion e d for a s p a ce of st a nd a r d siz e .
7 N ot e s on e x ce p tions ch ecks on solutions s p e ci a l c a ses

.
, , ,
h int s a n d ru l e s p r esented wh er ever t h e y seem n ece s s a r y or

,
a dvi s a ble .
8 B r ief t r ea tm e nt onl y Of su ch s p e ci a l subj e cts a s Sh a d e s a n d

.
Sh a do w s Pe r sp ective e t c
, ,
.
9 T h e o r i gin a l s e v e nt ee n
. Poi n t L in e a n d Pl a ne p r obl e ms , ,
e x p a nd e d to fo r ty t h r ee -
.
1 0 N ew t r e a tment of sur f a ces less im p o r t a nc e bein g a tt a ch ed

.
,
to p a s s ing t a ngent pl a n e s a n d mo r e im p o r t a n ce to pl a ne s e ctions

, ,
int er s ections d e v elo p m e nts a n d p r a cti ca l a p p li ca tions F or e x

, , .
a m p l e t h er e a r e a bout t h ir t y e x er ci s e s wh i ch a r e b a s e d on p r a e
,
ti ca l illust r a tions Of t h e v a r ious w a r pe d sur fa ces sh o wing a ctu a l ,
us e s for a l l t h e lis ted v a r ieties .
Th e e x p a nsion of t h e p r obl e ms not e d in f ea t u r e ( 9 ) is j ustifi e d ,
t h e w r it er beli e ves in o r d er to full y c ov er t h e g r ound a n d to

, ,
p r ovid e t h e n ecess a r y s te p s in t h e d e velo p ment of t h e subj ect .
Som e of t h em a r e spe ci a l ca s e s a n d some r equi r e little or no

ch a nge in t h e a n a lysis f r om t h os e of p r e cedin g p r oblems .
Stud e nts und er t a kin g t h e study of De s cr i p tive Geomet r y

sh o u ld h a ve a f a ir kno w l e d ge of M e ch a ni ca l Dr a win g a t le a st a s ,
muc h a s is usu a ll y in clud e d in Hi gh Sch ool cours e s Th e mini .
mum pr er e qui sit e s h ould a mount to t h e wo r k cont a in e d in t h e

fir st e ig h t ch a pt er s of Fr enc h s E n gin e er in g Dr a win g o r in
’
“
Reid s M ech a ni ca l Dr a wing entir e
’ ”
.
,
In p r e p a r in g t h is t ext book t h e w r it er h a s consult e d most of

-
t h e st a nd a r d wo r ks on t h e subj e c t a n d des i r e s to m a k e sp e ci a l ,
a ckno w l e dgm e nt for ide a s a n d info r m a tion to t h e e x cell ent

books b y M a cC or d C h ur ch a n d B a r tlett Ph illips a n d M ill a r
, , ,
a n d R a nd a ll M o s t of t h e ex er cis e s a r e o r igin a l b u t m a n y h a ve
.
,
b een a d a p t e d fr om su ch a dmi ra bl e books of ex er ci s es a s t h o s e

by Pr ofesso r s H ood M a r sh a ll a n d F i s hl ei g h a s well a s t h e pr ob
, , ,
l em fil e s of Ar mour Institute of T ech nolo g y a n d t h e books O f ,
t h e A m er i ca n Sch ool of C o r respond e n ce

V
.
Th e writ er wis h es to t h a nk hi s coll ea g ues R ob er t Per r y ,

.
,
He nr y L N a ch m a n J o h n S R eid a n d C h a r l e s R Swin efo r d of

.
,
.
,
.
,
t h e F a cult y of A r mou r Institut e of Te ch nolo gy for v a lu a bl e ,
s u gge stions a n d e n cour a ge me nt .
W ILLI A M G RI SW O L D S M ITH .
A R M O U R I NS T I T U TE O F T E C H NO LO G Y ,
C hi ca g o J u n e 20 1 9 1 2 .
C ON T E N TS
P R FAC E
E
C H AP TE R I
F UND AM E NT AL P RINC I PLE S
De fi n i t i on s — C l a s s i fi ca t i on of oj ection s —Th e Pl n es of Pr a
Pr oj ection —Th e Fo u r Dih ed ra l An gl es —T h e o r e m s — Des i g

n a tion a d N ot a tion of Point s — Dr a w ing Boa r d La y ou t
n
Pr o fil e Pr oj e ct ion s — R epr es ent a t i on Of Pl a n es —Th e or em s

Rela t in g to Lin es a n d Pla n es — E xer cis es .
C H A P TE R II
P R OB LE M S R E L ATIN G To P OINTS LINE S A N D P LANE S , , .

—
24 125
a r ec —
Au xili a r y Pl n es of oj tion Lo ca ting Po in ts a d Lin es
P n
i n Pla n es — Revolu tion of Points a bou t Ax es — Tru e Le n gth

of Lin es —M ea s u em e nt Of An gles — Figu r es in Obli qu e
r
Pl a n es —Int er s ection s Of Pl a n es —Pr oj ec tion s of Obli qu e

Sol id s —Pa a ll el Pl n e P obl em s — M ea s rem ent Of Dih ed r a l
r a r u
An gl e —Pier ci n g Po ints of Lin es a n d Pl a n es —Perpen d i cu

s
l a rs to Pl a n es —Specia l Pr obl em s ; Th e C ommon Per pen

d i cu l a r Th e G u id e Pu ll ey R efl ect i on s — Pr a ct ica l E x er cis es
, ,
.
C H A P TE R III
I N TE RS C IONS O F P LA NE
E T S O L ID S 1 2 6—
139
l
Pa n S t i on
e s of y
P a m
ec i d d P i m s — De
v lopm nt
r s an r s e e s
Ex i —Int
er c s es tion s of Pl n Solid — E x i
e rs ec a e s er c s es .
CH A P TE R I V
S H AD S E D S H A DO W S
AN 1 40—1 48
D fi it i
e n — M t h od of D t m n n g Sh do w of Po
on s e int e er i i a s s,
Lin Pl n e Fig
es , d Solid — E x
a i u r es , a n s er c s es .
CH A P TE R V
C U RV
E D L IN E S 1 49 1 68
-
De fi n i t i on s —Pr oj e cti on s of C u r v es — T a ngents a n dNo r m a ls

.
— R e c t i fi ca t i on of C u rv es — C on ic Se ction s — Gea r in g C u rv es
—Spa ce C u rv es — Pr oblem s r el a t i n g to t h e E llips e, Hyper
bol a bol a C y cloid
Pa r a Invol u te , Sp ir a l of Ar ch im ed es
Heli x—E xercis es
, , ,
and .
X C O NTE NT S
C H A PTE R V
I
S IN GLE C U RV E D S U RF A C S E
D fin
e i t i on d C l
s an i fi t i — D
a ss v lopmcant — The C on
on e e e e
C on i l E lbo w s —E x e i
ca
— Th e C y l ind — Pip E lbow s
r c s es er e
E x ercis es —Th e C onvol t e—E x ises u erc .
C H AP TE R V
II
W AR PE D S U RFA C E S 2 03 —
2 18
i —
.
T ler
—
M eth ods of Gen a t on h H i oid Th e Hype boloid of e e c r
Revolu tion of O e N ppe— Th e Hyp bol i P boloid

n a er c a ra
Mino W rped Surfa

r a Th C y li d o id C ono id C o w s
ces , e n r
’
C on e—Dev elopm e nt
, ,
H or n , Wa rp ed Of Wa rp ed Sur f a ces
E x er cis es .
C H A P TE R V
III
D O UB LE C U RV E D S U RF A C E S —
2 1 9 22 8
Dou bl e C u r ve d Sur f a ces —Sur f a ces Of Re volu tion — M er id
ia n Sect ion s —Righ t Se ct io n s —Repr es enta tion —Pr obl em s
r el a ti n g to t h e Sph er e T oru s E lli ps o ids et c Pla n e Se c
t ions —Dev elopm en t s —E x er ci s es
, , , .
C HA PTE R IX
I NT E RS E CTIONS A N D D E VE LO PM E NT S o r A LL S UR F A C E S
Ru l e—Simpl es t Lin es C u t b y Pl a n es —Pr oblems in In t ers ec

tions a n d Dev elopm ents of V a r i o u s Su r f a ces —C on ce ntr i c
Sph er es M eth od —E x ercis es .
C H A P TE R X
PI CT O R I A L P R O J CTION
E 2 43 25 6
Pe p t iv e—C on ic l Pr oj ecti on —Co ns t
-
rs ec a tion of P ers p c ru c e
t iv e f om a Wo ki g Dra wi g—P rs p tiv e of B g low

r r n n e ec a un a
—E x i s —P do Pe pe tiv es ; I om et ic C v a lie a d
er c s e s eu rs c s r a r, n
C a b i n et Pr o j ect ion —Is om etric Dr a w i n g—E x erci s es

,
.
PR A C TIC A L D E SC R IPT I V
E
G R OM E TR Y
C HA PTE R I
DE F I N ITIO N S , N OTAT I O N S , G E O M E T RI C AL T HE O RE M S ,
P RE LI M I N ARY P RI N C IP LE S AN D E XE R C I S E S
1 . Defi n i t i on — De s cri pti ve

. G e ometry is t he S c i en c e of
Dra fti n g is t h e Art of r e p re s enting obj e ct s on p a p er or ot h e r ,
fl a t surf a ce b y me a ns of proj ection s of t h e O bj e ct on im a gin a r y

,
p l a n es .
FIG . l .
—Th e p oj ection
r Of a poi nt . F IG . 2 .
—O th og p h i p oj ti on
r ra c r ec .
FIG . 3 .
—O bliq ue pr oj ection .
Pr oj e cti on s p resent a tions of obj ects m a de b y im a gi n a ry

a r e re
lines c a lled pro j e ctor s r unnin g ( or p r oj ected ) fr om t h e import a nt

, ,
points of t h e obj ect to t h e pl a ne on wh ich t h e im a g e is to be m a d e

2 P R A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
C L A SS I F I C A T I O N OF PR OJ E CT I ON S
O rth o gr a ph ic Pro j ection : re p r e s e nt a tion of obj ects p r oj e cted

p er p e ndicul a r l y .
Per s pective or S ceno gr a phi c Pro j ection : re p re s ent a tion of

obj ects p r oj ect e d b y c onver gin g li nes .
O bli que Pro j ecti on : r e p r es ent a tion of O bj e ct s p r oj e ct e d by

p a r a ll el Obliq u e lin es .
S in g le Pl a n e Pro j ecti ons : r e p r e sent a tion of obj ects in v a r ious

w a y s for picto r i a l pu r p os e s Se ve r a l styl e s a r e in u s e a n d a r e
.
t r ea ted in C h a p X T h e y a re mec h a ni ca l v a r i a nts on per s pec

. .
tiv e a n d a r e e ffe ct e d th r ough v a r ious d e vi ces of o rt h o gr a ph ic a n d

oblique p r oj e ction a n d b y a rtifici a l fo r e sh o r t enin g
,
.
2 Discu s sion — O rth o gra phi c Pro j ection is a lmost unive r s a ll y

“ “
. .
us ed in work in g d ra win gs a n d m a ch ine sk et ch e s ; h e n ce

” ”
FIG . 4 — Pe rs p e c
. tiv e .
it is t h e most im p o r t a nt cl a s s of p r oj e ction To t h o r ough ly .
und er st a nd its signifi ca n ce l et u s con s id er t h e diff er en ce bet w e e n

,
a p ictu r e a n d a w o r king d r a w ing .
A pi ctu r e or p er s p e ctiv e is a r e p r e s ent a tion of a n obj e ct

, , ,
g r o u p o r s ce n e a s it a pp ea r s to t h e ey e R a ys of ligh t fr om t h e
, ,
.
O bj ect r ea ch t h e e y e in c o n v e r ging lin e s See Fig 4 A is t h e . . .
e y e of t h e obs e r v er ; B a n d C a r e O bj e cts of equ a l si z e but a t ,
diff er ent dist a n ces fr om A ; D is a pl a n e of p r oj e ction bet w e e n t h e

obj e ct s a n d t h e ey e C onv er gi n g r a ys ( s h o w n b y t h e dott e d
.
lin e s ) p r oj ect t h e O bj e cts on D ( p ie r cin g it a t ce rt a in points ) .
T h e se p oints d et er min e t h e si z e of t h e p i ctu r e s of B a n d C a n d ,
t h e im a g e s B a n d C a r e t h e pi ctu re s A s B is t h e n e a re r B is
' ’ ’
.
,
l a r ge r t h a n C '
T h us dist a n t obj ects a pp ea r sm a ll er t h a n n ea r er
.
on es of equ a l a n d oft e n s m a ll er s i z e B y m ea ns O f t h i s f a ct a n d
.
t h e knowl edg e of t h e obs er v er of t h e c om p a r a tive siz es Of t h e

obj ects a picture sh ows t h e e ntire c omposition of a s cene
, .
D E F INITI O N S N OTATION S G E O M E TRI C AL T H E O R E M S
, , 3
Th e wo r kin g dra win g t a kes no such a ccount of dist a n ces See .
F ig 5 . Her e t h e r a y s a r e a l l p a ra llel a n d t h e p r oj ections a re of

.
,
e qu a l size to t h e obj e cts be t h e l a tt e r ne a r o r r e mot e

,
In o r t h o .
gr a p h ic p r oj e ction t h er efor e t h e ey e must b e consider ed to be

, ,
a t a n i n fi n ite dist a n ce If t h e eff e ct Of a finit e vi e wpoint s h ould

.
b e d e sir e d t h e e y e would h a v e to be s h ifted ( a s A Fi g 5) to t h e

, ,
.
line of e a c h ra y T h is of cour se is a n a rtifi cia l condition a n d

.
, , ,
s h o w s t h a t a wo r kin g d r a win g is not a n d c a nnot be a co r r e ct , ,
vi su a l im a ge of t h e O bj e ct .
Th is f a ct would s ee m to b e a dis a dv a nt a ge a ga inst t h e use of

ort h o g r a p h ic p r oj ection but for m a nuf a ctur in g a n d const ru ction
,
wo r k t h e ort h ogra p h ic is mu ch t h e mo r e us eful a n d univer s a l

,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q Q “
O O O - O - O - . Q “
FI G . 5 .
in its a doption th a n pe rs p e ctive a n d mu ch e a si er for t h e d r a fts ,
m a n to use .
On a ccount of t h e c ompl exity of m a n y m a c h ines a n d st r uctu r es ,
it is ne ce ss a r y to sh ow m a n y dim e nsions in m a n y di rections int e ,
r io r dim e nsions t h i ckn e ss e s a n d i r r e gu l a r iti e s w h i ch a r e a l l but

, , ,
im p ossibl e in a pi ctu r e T h is is a ccom p lish ed b y p r oj e cting t h e

.
O bj ect o r t h og ra p h i ca lly on two or mo r e im a g in a r y pl a nes ca ll e d ,
t h e Pla n e s of Pr o j ecti on .
TH E P L AN E S OF P R OJ E C T I O N
3 Th etwo p r in cip a l pl a nes a re t h e V erti c a l a n d H ori z onta l
V V
. .
Th e erti ca l Pl a n e ( wh ic h W e s h a ll h erea fte r wr ite ) is a pl a n e

no r m a l to t h e e a rt h s sur f a ce ; th a t is p er p endicul a r to t h e
’
,
a pp a r ent sur f a ce of t h e e a r t h Th e H o r izont a l Pl a ne ( h ere a ft er .
w r itten H) is a pl a ne pe r p e ndi cul a r to a n y ve rti ca l line ; t h a t is

V
,
it is p a r a llel to t h e a pp a r ent su rf a ce of t h e ea r t h H a n d a re .
pe r pendicul a r to e a ch oth er Th e p r oj e ctions on t h e se two pl a nes

.
dete r mine t h e rel a tive position of a n y t w o or more points in sp a ce .

4 PR A C TI C AL D E SC RI P TIVE G E O M E TR Y
Th er e a re conditions a ris i n g often wh ich rende r a th ird pl a ne ,
d esir a ble a n d indeed necess a ry in t h e solution of cert a in p r ob

V
, ,
lems Th is th ird pl a ne is per pendicul a r to both H a n d is

’
.
,
ca ll e d t h e Profil e Pl a ne w h i ch will l w a ys
a ,
An y num be r Of M ag n u m wh i ch m a y be p a r a ll el per
V
,
pe n di cul a r or oblique to H or
, m a y be used a c co r din g to , ,
6 .
— M a chi n e p a r t p r oj ected o r t h ogr a p h ica ll y .
com p lexities of t h e pr oble m ( In t h e a r ch ite ct s pl a ns of a big

.
’
buildin g two differ ent ve rtic a l p r oj ections m a y be needed two

, ,
p r o fi les a h o r izont a l p r oj e ction for eve ry fl oo r b a sement a n d

, , ,
r oof a uxi li a r y p r oj ections of ce r t a in oblique fe a tur es section a l

“
, ,
inte r io r p r oj e ctions a n d a h und re d det a il p r oj e ctions of doors

,
”
,
win dows st a ir c a s e s eleva to r s etc a l l in ort h o gr a ph ic p r oj e ction

, , ,
.
,
.
B es ides t h ese it is cu s t o m a ry to m a ke a pe r spective of t h e pr o

'
j e ct e d buil din g with colors tree s gr a ss wa l ks etc Th e a ver a ge

, , , ,
.
D E F INITI O N S N O T A TI O N S G E O M E TRI C AL T H E O R E
, ,
M S 5
p u r ch a s er nnot com p r e h end wo r kin g d r a w i n g s w h ile t he pi c

ca ,
ture is of l ittl e u s e to t h e wo r km a n Pe r s pective s a r e for t h e .
c u s tom e rs o r t h o g r a p h i c p r oj e ctions for t h e w o r km e n )

, .
F IG . 7 —Pr oj ection s
. of m a ch in e p t i n
ar t h e fla t .
4 . is ob vi ous t h a t it would b e a w k w a r d a n d im p r a cti ca bl e to

It
h a ve a d ra wing bo a r d m a d e wit h h o r i z o n t a l v er ti ca l a n d p r ofil e , ,
s id e s a n d t h e r e s p ective p r oj e ctions m a d e on t h e m
, N ot only .
would su ch a n a r r a nge me n t b e u n wi eldy but it is u n n e ce s s a r y

V
.
,
Fig 8 s h ows two pl a n e s H a n d inter s e cting a s t h e y m u st in

.
, , , ,
a lin e ca lled t h e Gr ound L in e ( d e sig n a t e d h er e aft er CL)
V
.
,
B y r e volvin g a bout GL a s a n a xi s or h ing e it w i ll b e put into
V
,
c oin cid e n ce wit h H a n d t h e H a n d ,

p r oj e ctio n s ca n b e d ra w n
-
on o n e s u r fa ce Simil a r ly P ca n b e r ot a t e d i n to t h e s a m e sur fa ce
V
.
,
a bout its int e r s ection e it h e r wit h H o r F o r m er e sol u tion of .
pr obl ems it is imm a t er i a l wh et h er t h e P p r oj e ction is re volved

V
-
into H or b u t in p r a cti ca l wo r k it is cu s tom a r y to r e volve it

V
,
into ; th er efo r e in t h is w o r k t h e p r ofil e will a l w a ys b e r ot a t e d

a bout i t s V — t r a ce into V .
TH E F O U R DI H E DR A L A N G L E S
5 . It w i ll b e n fr om Fig
s ee . 8 th a t t h e p l a n es of p r oj e ction do
not end at GL . In f a ct t h e y
,
a re u nlimi t e d in ext e nt ,
and divide
6 PR A C TI C AL D E S C RI PTIV E G E O M E TR Y
sp a c e into four dih ed r a l a n gl e s with CL a s t h e ir common inte r ,
s ection In foldin g into t h e fl a t t h er efo r e no po rtion of t h e

V
.
, ,
d r a w ing bo a r d i s mono p oliz e d by e ith er H or Th er e i s a por .
tio n of H a bove GL a n d a p o rtion belo w GL T h er e is a p o r tion

V
.
,
of a bove GL a n d a po rtion b elow GL ( Th i s cir cumst a n ce wi ll

,
.
b e fo u nd e ss e nti a l to t h e s ol u tion of ce rt a in p r obl e ms of a bst r a ct

ch a r a ct er In p r a cti ca l w o r k t h e diffe r e nt p r oj e ctions or view s
.
, ,
4 4
FIG . 8 .
th e y a re often ca ll e d a re entir ely s e p a r a t e d fr om e a ch ot h er

V
as , ,
a n d d e finit e s p a ce s a r e re s e r v e d fo r H a nd P ) , ,
.
Th fo e di h d l ngl s in y of w hi ch obj t m y b im g i n d
ur e ra a e , an ec s a e a e ,
a re
n mb e ed a h ow n b y t h R om n n m l in Fi g 8
u r , s s e a u e ra s . .
Fi s t An g l e i n f ont of V bov H ;
r , r , a e
S econd An g l e b hi d V bov H ; , e n , a e
Thi d An g l e b h ind V b low H ;

r , e ,
e
Fourt h An g l e in f ont of V b low H , r , e .
Th e fi r st n gle ( desi g n a t e d in th is wo r k a s I ) is l a r g ely us e d i n

a
ou r a bst ra ct p r obl e ms on a ccount of its a cce s s ibili t y a n d t h e e a se

,
of p r e s ent a tion b y t h e te a ch er to t h e cl a ss wh e n g ivin g a solution ,
of a p r oblem i n sp a ce .
Th e t h ird a n gl e ( III ) is c ommonl y us e d i n p ra cti ca l wo r k ,
for t h e r e a son t h a t t h e H p r oj ection is usu a ll y m a d e loo kin g -
d own on t h e obj ect a n d b e sid e s for t h is a ngle t h e p r ofil e com es

,
out ri gh t h a nde d a n d det a ch e d wh er e a s t h e usu a l meth od of

-
s w inging a p r ofile f r om a fir s t a ngl e p r oj e ction will e it h er b r ing - -
t h e obj ect out l eft h a nd e d o r mi x e d up wit h t h e ot h er views

-
,
.
M a n y of ou r p r obl ems a r e giv e n i n I I I .
6 C ommerc i a l Term in olo gy of Pro j ection s

V
. .
A s t h e te r ms p r oj e ction H pr oj e ct i on et c a r e not d es cri p

-
,
-
,
.
t i ve to non p r ofession a ls cert a in t er ms a r e u s e d b y d r a ftsm en

V
-
.
,
Th e p r oj e ction is often ca lled t h e E leva tion Front V i ew

-
, ,
Re a r View or S ection a l E leva ti on a s t h e ca s e m a y be

, , . .
, , M S 7
Th e H p r oj e ction is ca lled t h e Pl a n Top V iew B ott om Vi e w

-
, , ,
or S ection a l Pl a n a s t h e c a s e m a y b e
, .
Th e P p r oj e ction is ca lled t h e Pr o fil e E n d V iew Ri gh t or

V
-
, ,
L eft E n d i e w or Profil e S e ctio n a s t h e ca se m a y b e

, , .
TH E RE PR E SE N T AT I O N OF P O IN T S L I N E S
, ,
AN D PL A N E S
7 Po i n ts
. .
—It is obvious t h a t t h e p r oj e ction of a point on one
p l a ne does not det er mi n e t h a t point F or ex a mpl e l et a point .
,
on t h e fl oo r be t h e p r oj e ction of some point in t h e r oom How .
h ig h is t h a t point ? It m a y be a n y dist a n ce Th e point m a y b e .
t h e p r oj e c tion itse l f or t h e point m a y be on t h e ceiling a bove or

, ,
a nywh e r e in b e twe e n To loc a t e t h e point in s p a ce b y on e pr o

.
j ect i o n it is n e c e ss a ry to a d d its dis t a nc e positive or n e g a tive

, , ,
fr om t h e p r oj ection A b etter w a y ( t h e d ra ftsm a n s w a y ) is to

.
’
lo ca te t h e point g ra p h ic a ll y B y p r oj e ctin g t h a t point on t h e

.
w a ll its h eigh t is d et ermi ned a n d s h own

, .
T h is d e finitely lo ca t e s a point for if perpendicul a r li nes be , ,
ere ct e d f r om e a ch p r oj e ction of a point t h ese pe r pendicul a r s ,
w i ll p a ss t h r o u gh t h e point A s t h e r e ca n b e but on e int er s e ction

.
O f t h e p e r pendi cul a r s t h e point i s a bsolut e ly lo ca ted in sp a ce b y

,
its p r oj e ction on two pl a n e s Th e pe r p e ndicul a r li nes fr om t h e

.
p oint to t h e pl a nes of p r oj e ction a re c a lled pro j e ctor s .
TH E RE L A T I O N OF PLA N E AN D S OL I D GE O M E T RY T o DE S C R IPT IV
E
GE O M E T RY
8 . A ll
t h e o r ems in Pl a ne a n d Soli d Geomet ry a re a pplied to
De s cr iptive Geomet r y to a gre a te r or less extent T h e r e a r e h ow .
,
e ve r a numbe r of t h e o r ems of outst a ndin g import a nce to w h ic h

, ,
r efe re n ce must be m a de wit h consid er a bl e f r equ e nc y A list of .
t h es e i s h er ew it h submitted Th e student ne e d not b e r equire d

.
to p r ov e th e m but s h ould b e a bl eto give t h e con clu s ion to ev er y

,
h ypot h esis a n d to quote h i s r e fer e n ces on o cca sion

,
.
P LA N E AN D S O L I D GE OM E TRY THE O RE M S
1 . Th e op p osit e side s of a p a r a ll elog r a m a r e e qu a l .
2 . T r ia n g l e s a re equ a l :
( )
1 I f t h r ee S id e s of o n e a re e q u a l to t h r ee s id e s of t h e O t h er ,
e a ch to e a c h .
( 2) sid es a n d t h e in cluded a ngl e of on e a re e qu a l to

If t w o
two sid e s a n d t h e in clud e d a n gle of t h e ot h er .
( 3 ) If o n e sid e a n d t h e a dj a cent a n g l e s of on e a r e e qu a l to
one sid e a n d t h e a dj a ce nt a ngl e s of t h e ot h er .
3 R i gh t t r i a n gl es a r e e qu a l if a n y sid e a n d a n a cut e a ngl e of

.
o n e a r e e qu a l to t h e c o rr e s p onding S id e a n d a n gl e O f t h e ot h er .
4 If t h e t w o poi n ts of a lin e l i e i n a p l a n e t h e lin e li e s enti r e ly

.
,
i n t h e pl a ne .
5 If a line is p e r p endi cul a r to a pl a n e it is p e r p e n di cu l a r to

.
,
a l l t h e li n e s in t h e p l a n e t h a t int er s ect it .
6 Two st r a ig h t lin e s p er p e ndi cul a r to t h e s a m e p l a n e a r e pa r

.
a ll el to e a ch ot h er .
7 If two p a r a ll e l p l a n es a r e cu t by a t h i r d p l a n e t h e int e r
.
,
s ections a r e p a r a ll e l .
8 If a li n e e xt er n a l to a p l a n e is p a r a ll el to a n y lin e in t h a t p l a n e
.
it is p a r a ll e l to t h e pl a n
9 If a l i ne is p a r a ll e l to t w o int e rs e cti n g p l a n e s it is p a r a ll e l
.
,
t o t h eir int er s e ction .
1 0 A lin e p er p e ndi cul a r to o n e of t w o p er p e ndi cu l a r p l a n e s

.
i s p a r a l l e l to t h e ot h er .
1 1 A pl a n e p er p endi cul a r to t w o i n t e r s e cti n g p l a n e s i s p er

.
pe n di cu l a r to t h e ir int er s ectio n .
1 2 Th e di h e d r a l a n gl e b et w ee n t w o p l a n e s is m ea sur e d by t h e
.
a ngl e of t h e lin e s cut f r om t h e m by a p l a n e p e r pe n d i cu l a r t o

'
t h e ir inter se ction .
1 3 If a li n e is p er p endi cul a r to a p l a n e e v er y p l a n e c ont a ini n g

.
,
t h e lin e is p e r p e ndi cul a r to t h e p l a n e .
1 4 If t w o p l a n es a r e p er p e ndi cul a r a li n e in o n e per pe n d i cu

.
, ,
l a r to t h ei r int er se ction is p er p e ndi cul a r to t h e oth er

,
.
1 5 Th e a n gle t h a t a lin e m a k e s w ith a pl a n e is t h e a ngl e

.
th a t it m a k e s with its p r oj e ction on th a t pl a n e .
1 6 T w o lines p a r a llel in sp a c e a r e p r oj e ct e d on a n y p l a n e in
.
p a r a ll e l li n es .
{ TH E O RE M S R E L A T IN G P O IN T S
5
x
x To
Th eorem I — Th e H a n d V
9 . pro j ection s of
.
-
a po i n t mu s t lie
on a common perpendi cul a r to C L .
Proof .
—
Th e H and Vp oj e to s
of t h e point det er min e a
-
r c r
p l a ne th a t is p er p endicul a r to bot h p l a n es a n d t h er efo r e to GL

V
.
,
( W h y ?) Th e i n t er sections Of t h i s pl a ne with H a n d wi l l th en
a b ove C L Poin ts a bove H h a v e t h eir V pr o j ection s a bove C L
V
-
. .
Point s below H h a ve th eir pro j ecti on s b elow G L -

.
Th eorem IV — Points i n H h a ve th eir

. Vproj
-
e cti on s i n G L, and
points i n V h a ve th eir H pro j ecti on s i n -

GL .
F ir s t An g le S e c o n d An l e
g
F ou r t h An g le
FI G . 10 .
— Th e fo ur dih e d a l a ngles
r .
Proof — A p oint in H is z e r o dist a n ce f r om H h en ce

.
,
its V
p r oj ection is z er o dist a n ce fr om GL ( T h eo r e m II ) . .
DE S I G N A T I O N AN D N OT A T I O N OF P O IN T S
10. Th e ac tu a l p oint in S p a ce is d esign a t e d by a ca p it a l A B

, , ,
C, et c
Vp oj
.
V
Th e -
r ec tio n is d esign a t e d a b v
,
”
, C , et c .
D E F INITI O N S N OTAT ION S G E O M E TRI C AL T H E O R E M S
, , l I
p r oj ection is d esi g n a t e d a
Th e H -
et c
” “
b O n
, , ,
.
T h e P p r oj ection is design e d a b c et c ” ” ”
-
, , ,
.
R evolved Po s ition s — If a p oint is t a k e n f r om its o r igin a l posi

tion a n d pl a ce d in a n ew o n e it is design a ted by a subsc ri p t a s
" “ ,
If t h ere b e a second re volution it becomes a

,
"
,
“t
al or a, . or , n ,
an , e c .
N O TATI O N OF A P O INT
T h er e a re t h r ee it e ms i n t h e not a tion Of a p oint
1 . Th e dist a n ce fr om t h e m a r gin m ea su r ed a lo n g , GL to t he
igh t
V
r .
2 . Th e dist a n ce a bov e or b elow GL

’
or Of its -
pr o
j ect i on .
3 . Th e dist a n ce a bove or b elow GL or Of its H pr o -
j ect i on .
FI G . 11 .
x
E a mple — Dr a w on t h e fl a t t h e p r oj ections of A ( 3 %
. 1
1 La y off a p oint on GL 3 % in to t h e r ig h t of t h e m a r gin
.
,
. .
2 L oc a t e a 1 in a bov e 1 ) t h is p oint on GL
v
. . .
3 L o ca t e a 2 in 2 ) below t h is poin t on GL
H
. . .
N ote — 1 Pl lw y s m ns bov GL M i n s lw y m n b low

s. . us a a ea a e ,
u a a s ea s e
CL .
Firs t loc te t h e p oj ection f t h e poi nt on p p

2 . a d th n tr s O a e r, an e ry to
im gi n e it in s p ce
a a .
3 Th e u nit fo t h e d w i g bo a d i 1 i
. d for bl a ckbo d w o k
r ra n r s h .
,
an ar r 5 in .
is good s c le for t h e e xe is s in t his book

a a rc e .
LAY O U T F OR D RAW IN G BO ARD
11 . A convenie nt l a yout is s h own in Fi g

A s h eet 1 5 X 2 0 . 12 .
in is give n a 1 % i n m a r gin on t h e l eft for bindin g a n d a M i n

.
-
.
,
-
.
m a r gin on t h e ot h er t h r ee sides le a vin g a wo rki n g sp a c e of 1 4 X ,

12 P R A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E GE O M E TR Y
18 in
Th is s p a ce i s divid e d i n to six r ect a ngl es ea ch 6 X 7
.
,
with CL d r a wn th r ough t h e middl e Of ea ch

’
.
In k in g P 1a tes — It is not a dvi s a ble to i n k p l a t es ex ce p t t h e

.
,
bor d er lin es gr o u nd li n es a n d l etter ing Good p en cil wo r k a n d

, ,
.
n ea t le g ibl e l ett eri n g s h o u ld b e insist e d on

,
.
F IG 12 . .
Proj ectors —Th e p er p e ndi cul a r lin es r un ni ng fr om t h e pr o

.
j ect i on s to GL a r e ca ll e d p r oj ector s a n d s h o u ld b e ligh t dott e d

lin es . See Figs . 10 and 11 .
E XE R C I S E S IN P O INT RE P RE S E NTATI O N
Lo t on t h fl t d d ign t i n Sp
ca e e a an es a e a ce (s ee t h e Rom n N m a u l
era s , e t c .
,
in Fig 1 0 ) t h e foll ow ing point

. a s
1 » A(% 1 ié
B (l 56 C (2 % , 0 D (3 1 E
( 3 21 2 F ( 4 % , 0, l % , 0)
2 K (/3
4 $6 L( I % 1 M (2 M H6 N (3 1
Q( 5 %
. ,
2 P (4 /
1
2 1, , 0 1)
3 b ehi nd V 2 b elo w H ) B ( 1 % i n H 2 b fo e V ) C (2 M 1 b efo e
1
V1 a bove H ) D (3 1 b eh1i nd V 2 a bov e H ) E (3 % in GL) F (4% 1
.
, , ,
e r , ,
r
,
b efo e V 2 a bov e H ) G ( 5 /4 i n V2 b elo w H )

, , , , , , , ,
r , , , , .
4 . K (/ 3
4 i n H 2 b eh ind V ) L( I % 1 b fo V 2 b elo w H ) M ( 2 M 1
, , , ,
e re , , ,
b e h ind V 1 % bov e H ) N ( 3 2 b efo e V 1 a bov e H ) O (3 % i n GL)

a r
P( 4 % 1 b hind V 2 b lo w H ) Q
, , , , , ,
,
e (5 % a bov e H i n V )
,
e , , , .
L o ca t e i n t h e fl t t h e follo w in g points
A (i n I V 1 to r i gh t 1 f om V
a
5 .
,
2 f om H ) ,
r , _
r ,
B (in I 2 to igh t 2 f om V 1 f om H )
C ( i n I I 3 to r igh t 1 % f om V
,
r ,
r ,
r ,
, 1 % f om H ) , r ,
r .
6 D ( i n H 1 to igh t 1 b ehi nd V )
E (i n I II 2 to righ t 2 fr om V
.
, r , ,
, 1 f om H ) , , r ,
F (in I 3 to righ t 1 f om V 1 % f om H )
G (i n I I 1 to r ig h t 1 56 f om H 1 % f r om V
, , r ,
r .
7 .
, ) , r , .
D E F INITI O N S N O T A TI O N S G E O M E TRI C AL T H E O R E M S
, , 13
K (i nVb t n III d I V2 to igh t f om H )

w ee 2
n I d I V3 to igh t f om V )
, e an ,
r ,
r ,
L(i H b t w ee 1
M (in I V to igh t f om H f om V )
n , e an , r , r .
8 .
, 1 r ,
2 r ,
2 r ,
N (in III, 2 to righ t 1 f om V 1 % f om H )

‘
,
r ,
r ,
O (i n H , b et w een II a n d II I 3 to righ t 2 f om V ) , ,
r .
LINE S
A s tr a igh t lin e is t h e p a t h of a point th a t moves const a ntly
13 .
in one dir e ction A ny two points t h e r efo r e of a st r a ig h t lin e a r e

.
sufficient to dete r min e it A lso t h e p r oj e ction Of t h a t lin e will .

,
c ont a in t h e p r oj ections of t h e points U ntil t h e subj e ct of cu rv ed

“
.
lin e s is t a k en up t h e te r m line w ill be under stood to me a n a ”
st r a i gh t line .
Th eorem V— Tw o p r o j e ction s of a li ne wil l

.
, in g en e r a l ,
d e term i ne t h e position of th a t l in e i n Spa ce .
Proof — Pa ss
pl a ne t h r ough t h e p r oj ect ion of some line V '
V
. a -
a n d m a k e it p er pendi cul a r to A lso p a ss a pl a ne t h r ough t h e H .
p r oj e ction of t h e s a me line a n d m a k e t h e pl a n e p er p endicul a r to

H . Th ese pl a nes will intersect in a line a n d t h a t line must b e ,
t h e given lin e . _
—
Th eore m VI If lin e is p a ra lle l t o H i t s H proj ecti on i s
V
a -
lin e a n d i t s —
.
,
pa ra l lel and e qu a l to th e , pro j ecti on i s p a ra l lel

to C L .
Pr ov e Thi s — Wh a t would b e t he st a t em ent if t he line wer e

p a r a llel to V
?
Th eorem —
VI L Ii a l in e i s p a ra llel to H an d V, both of its
pro j ection s will b e p a ra llel to CL .
Th eorem VIII — If a l in e i s perp e n d icul a r to H i t s H pr oj e c

V
-
.
,
tio n wil l b e a po i nt a n d i t s pro j ection W il l b e perpen d icul a r

,
-
to C L
V
.
Wh a t would b e t h e st a tement for a lin e p er p e ndi cul a r to ?

Th eorem IX — Ii a l in e i s ob l i que to both H a n d V both pro
.
,
j e ct i on s wi l l b e obli qu e to C L e xcept wh e n t h e l in e l i e s i n a ,
profil e pl a n e .
14 . P R O JE C TI O N S O N TH E P R O F ILE PLANE
p r oj e ctions of t h e solid s h o w n in Fig 1 3 do not completel y
Th e .
id entify t h e obj e ct be ca use t h e ends ( b a s es ) l i e in a p r ofil e pl a n e

,
.
I4 P R A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
Th e en d vi ew ( sometim e s ca ll e d t h e r igh t s ection ) migh t be on e
of m a n y fo r ms a n d in diff er ent positions a s t h e s h a p es giv e n in ,
Fig 1 4 T h us t h e p r ofil e is som e

. .
time s ne cess a r y to compl ete t h e

d r a w in g .
In d r a wing vie w s i n p r o fil e t h e ,
r ig h t end view is usu a ll y t a k en ,
a lt h o u g h som e tim e s bot h p r ofil e s
F G 13 I . .
a r e n e cess a r y a n d some ca s e s a r is e ,
wh er e onl y t h e l eft vi e w is n ee d e d .
T a kin g t h e vie w a t t h e r igh t w e s ee t h e four dih ed r a l a ngles a s

V
,
s h o w n in Fig 1 5 L ooki n g a long GL we s ee H a n d in t h e i r t r u e

. .
r el a tion ( p er p e ndicul a r ) a n d t h e fo u r s p a ce a ngl e s a s indic a t e d by

,
t h e R om a n N um er a ls .
FIG . 14 .
A ssum e P onvenient lo ca tion on t h e r ig h t In t h e

at a ny c .
r e g u l a r vi e w s m g ive s t h e e l e v a tion a n d m t h e dis t a n ce in

v H
V
,
f r ont Of In t h e p r ofil e vi ew it w ill b e s ee n t h a t t h e s a me dis

.
t a n ce s Obt a in If t h e p oint lies in a n y ot h er a n gle t h e pr o

.
,
FI G . 15 . FI G . 1 5a .
c e d ur e is t h e s a me Th e r ot a tion of t h e H p r oj ection wi ll d e
.
-
termin e wh eth er t h e p r ofil e O—f—t h e poi nt is to l i e to t h e righ t or

l eft of P If t h e H l pr oj ect i OII is b elo wGL t h e pr o fi l e wi ll be on
.
,
t h e l e ft a s in Fig 1 5 a a n d if it b e a bov e GL t h e p r ofile w i ll b e

V
.
, , ,
on t h e r igh t Th e elev a tion is a l w a ys t h e s a me on both a n d P

. .
D E F INITI O N S N O T A TI O N S G E O M E TRI C AL T H E O R E M S
, , 15
Rul e — Pr oj e ct from t h e
. pro j ection h orizon ta l ly ; pro j ect V -
fro m t h e H pro j e ctio n t o P, a n d rota te to GL, th enc e up or d own

-
un t il t h e pro j ectors i n ter s ect .
To O bt a in t h e p r ofil e of a lin e or p l a n e figur e p r oj e ct t h e d e ,
finin g p oints a n d j oin t h em with lin es Fig 1 6 giv es a pi cto r i a l . .
vie w Of a line a n d its pr oj e ctions Fig l 6a s h ows t h e s a m e lin e . .
in t h e fl a t .
F la t Proj ect ion .
F IG . 16 . F IG . 1 6a .
Th eorem X —If a l i n e l ie s . in V, its Vp oj

-
r e ctio n i s th e lin e
its elf a n d i t s H pro j ecti on i s
,
-
in C L .
W hy ? Wh a t
ould b e t h e st a t em e nt for a lin e i n H
w
Th eo r em XL — If a po i n t l i n e or pl a ne fi gure lie s i n P i t s V
pro j ection i s i n t h e V
, , ,
tra ce of P a n d its H pro j ecti on i s i n t h e

-
,
-
H tra c e of P
-
.
15 . E XE R C I S E S
f "
9 D w t h lin A ( I
. ra 2 e B (4 e 2 d t ll w h it t v l an e e re ra e s .
1 0 D w t h l in C ( 1 %
. ra 2 e D (4 %
e 3 d t ll w h it an e er e
t ra v e ls .
11 . D ra w and d es ign t e a t he lin e s : E (1 1 1) F (3 2 G (3%

l + 2 1 2 ) M (5 % 3 1)
12 D ra w a n d d es ign a te t he lin es : A(1 2 2 ) B (2 % C (3
—3 )
.
E (4 % -
1
D ra w a n d d es ign a t e t h e li n es in t he follow ing
13 . K (1 + 1 M (2 % N (4 and
O (4 + 2
14 .
—3 —2 ) D (4 —3
2
15 . K (% — 1 ) N (4
Te ll wh a t a ngles t h es e l in es t a v r e rs e
16 . A(I + 2 —l ) B (3 — 1 —2
17 . G(1 —1 — 3 ) M (2 N (3 % —1 and
O (4 + 2
16 PR A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
F om A ( I 1 2 ) d w li n e 2 in long p a ll el to V a d in l i n d
r ra a .
,
ar , n c e
60 to H do w n w a d
°
D o s it tou ch H 2 V ? D a w e 60 u pw d
,
r . e
’
r on
°
ar ,
2 % in lon g Wh e e do s it t e min t e ?
. . r e r a
F om B (2 2 1 ) d w line Hto H i n li ing 3 0 to V H ow f i

r ra a ,
c n
°
. ar s
it on t his lin f om B to V ? e r
D a w t h e P p oj e t ion s f t h li n s A ( I 1 2 ) B ( l 3 1 ) d
r -
r c O e e an
C (2 1 1 ) D (2 2 Lo c t e t h e p o fil e t 4 % on GL a r a .
D a w t h e P p oj ction f E ( 1 1 1 ) F ( l l 2 ) d C (2 2
r -
r e s O an
P o file
V
1 ) K (2 1 r
D a w t h e t ia ngle L(2 1 I) M (2 2
r r 2 ) N (2 1
its t Si e P o fil e
ru e z . r
Wh t a e t h e s i es Of t h e ngles d s id es of t h e t i ngl K (2 1 1 )
a r z a an r a e
O (2
D ra wp oj ections of p i m p l l l to H d V f 2 i ltitu d
t he r a r s a ra e an ,
O -
n . a e,
and its b s pent a gon in s ib ed i n l % — i l i n P

a e a cr a In c rc e .
F om M ( l 2 I) d a w a line Hto H in line d 45 to V 3 i long

r r ,
c
°
,
n .
,
tow d V to t h e righ t Al o f om M d w a lin e Hto P 3 0 to V 3 in

ar . s r ra ,
°
, .
long Wh e e do t h y t e min te ?
. r e r a
RE P RE S E NTATI O N OF PLAN E S
FIG . 17 .
16 . A pl a ne ot h er th a n H n by its tra c es a s its , V P is sh o

,
or w ,
int er sections wit h t h e t h r ee p l a n es a r e ca lle d In most ca s e s t h e

V
.
H and tr a ces a r e s u ffi cie nt a n d t h e P t r a ce is ch ie fly used a s

-
,
-
a n a uxili a r y to a s s i s t in t h e solvi n g Of p r obl e ms Fi g 1 7 sh ows

V
. .
a n O blique pl a n e T T h e p l a n e T cu t s in t h e line V T ca ll e d its

,
.
,
vertic a l tra ce It cuts H in t h e lin e H T ca ll ed i t s h orizonta l

.
,
tra ce Fig 1 7a s h o w s t h e fl a t r e p r es ent a tion of t h e pl a ne T

. . .
V T is one lin e of T a n d H T is a n e ntir ely diff er e nt on e .
Th eor em XII — Th e . tw o tra ces of a pl a ne completely d eter

m in e t h e pl a ne .
N ote —Th e s t d ent m t on no cou nt thi nk t h t V T d H T e p

. u us ac a an ar ro
j t i s of t h m li n e V T li i V h n i t s H p oj ti on i i n GL
m d in t h pl n w it h i t V
ec on e sa e . es n ,
e ce -
r ec s .
Th efo if a po int i s
er re, p oj tion in V T a ssu e e a e s -
r ec ,
i t s H p oj cti on i s i GL
-
r Wh t is t h e ca s e th en w ith H T ?
e n . a
N O TATI O N
Wh e n t he t r a ces in t e r s ect in t he p r oble m limits t h ree p oi nts ,
ne cess a r y :
Vt
a re
1 . In t h e -
r a ce .
2 . Th e GL inter se ction .
3 In t h e H t r a ce
V
-
. .
A ll t h e s e p oints a r e in H o r h e n ce ,
t h ere a r e z er o s in t h e com p l ete not a tion (0 ) .
Th es e z er os a r e und er stood a n d omitted F l 7 — Th pl n IG . a e a e

T ( 1 2) 5 0 1”
in ou r not a tion a s b ei ng cumb er some
,
.
1 (1 . 2 ) m ea ns a p oint i n V T 1 in to r ig h t 2 in u p ,
.
,
. .
2 5 m e a ns t h e GL int er s ection 5 in to r ig h t
.
,
. .
3 (1 1 ) me a ns a point in H T 1 in to r ig h t 1 in do w n
V
. . .
.
, ,
Rule — F i r s t —A point i n t h e t r a ce S econ d — T h e GL in t e r

. .
-
.
s ection Thi r d —A point in t h e H tr a ce

. .
-
.
SP E C IAL C A S E S
Pl a n e s pa r a l lel to C L h a v e no GL in t er s ectio n a n d t h e ir t ra ces
a r e p a r a ll e l to GL a n d t h e i r not a tion is s h o w n in Fig 1 8
,
. .
FIG . 18 .
—Th e pl a n e S ( + 1 )
~
oo
(
Fig 1 8 s h o w s t h e p l a n e S a n d its p r ofil e t r a ce

.
,
wh i ch i s fr e
qu e ntly n ece ss a ry wit h s u ch pl a n es .
F IG . 19 .
—Th e pla n e X(1
D E F I N ITI O N S N O T A TI O N S G E O M E TRI C AL T H E O R E
, ,
M S 19
Pl a n e spa ra lle l to H or V h a ve but one t ra ce a n d t h a t p a r a llel ,
to GL T h e y r e qui r e specia l design a tion but a r e s eldom use d

.
,
e x ce p t a s a ux i li a r y pl a n e s a n d so it is not n e c e ss a ry to devis e a ,
sp eci a l not a tion for t h em .
O T HE R PLANE S
A pl a n e obli que to C L but not cr ossing it wit h in t h e p r obl e m ,
limits must h a ve fou r p oints to d et er min e t h e t w o t r a ces

V
, .
In t h is p l a ne t h e fi r st t w o points a r e in t h e t ra ce a n d t h e -
s e cond p a ir a re in t h e H t r a ce See Fig 19

V
-
. . .
A pl a n e t h r ough GL h a s its a n d H t r a ce s in GL t h er efo r e

’
-
its P— t r a ce is its b est expo s ition It ca n be desc ri bed a lso a s .
a pl a ne p a ssing t h r ough GL m a king a ce rt a in a n gl e wit h t h e
h o r izont a l o r cont a ining some point

,
.
R C I S E S IN RE P RE S E NTATI O N O F PLANE S
E XE
1 8 Dr a w t h e t ra ces Of t h e follow i n g pl n s a d t t e t h i
. l tion a e ,
n s a e r re a s
(pa a lle l p e rpe ndi cu l a Obli qu e) to H V a d P

r ,
r, ,
n .
Dra w t h e t a c s w it h a d o t a d d a s h li n e
r In E x 2 8
e d 2 9 pl e P t -
n -
. . an ,
ac a
4 34 a d d a w t h e P t a ces
,
n r -
r .
26 . T (3 2) S (5 3)
27 X (3 3) Y(3% 2)
Q(
.
28 . R ( 1) cc
( ) l 00
( D ra w t he P t a ces -
r .
29 . S( 2) cc ( T( 2) cc
( D ra w t h e P t a ces -
r .
30 2) (1 (4 U (2 3) 2M)
Vp oj
.
31 . D ra w t he t ra c es O f t he -
r ecti g pl ne Of t h e line M ( l
n a 2
N (2 % and of t he H p oj ect in g pl a n e Of t h e lin e
-
r A (3 %
If
32 . D ra w of t h e Vpr oj ecting pla ne Of C ( l
t he t r a ces 3 1 ) D (3 1 -
3 ) a d Of t h e H p oj ect in g pl n Of E ( 3 M
n 1 -
2 ) F (5 r 1 a e
3 3 D a w t h e t a ces of t h e H — p oj ecting pl ne of G ( 3 3 1 ) K ( l 1
a d of t h e V
. r r r a
p oj ecting pla n e of M (3 % 1 2 ) N ( 5 % 3
n -
r
34 D a w t h e P t
. r e O f S w h i c h c ont a i n s GL a d C (2
-
ra c 2 a d of,
n n
R w h i h cont in s GL d A ( 4 1 HQ)
,
c a an .
3 5 D a w t h e P t a ces O f t w pl n e
. r T a d X e ch c ont ini n g GL
-
r d o a s, n ,
a a ,
an
e a ch in cli n e d 60 f om t h e h o r i z ont a l T p a s in g t h r o u g h I a d III X

°
pa ss ing thr ou gh II d I V
r ,
s n ,
an .
N ot e —TO find t h e P t a ce of a n y pl a n e t k e t h e pl a n e P a t a y co e
fent pla ce w h ere it w i ll int e se ct t h e H a d V
.
-
r ,
a n nv n
,
t a ces Th en t e t t h e lin e r n -
r . r a
c onn ecting t h s e i nt e e tion s (t h e P t ce ) a s y ou w o u ld a y oth er p ro fil e

e rs c -
ra n
li ne a d revolve it a s i n Ar t 1 4
,
n . .
THE O RE M S R E L A T IN G To L IN E S AN D P L AN E S
19 . Th e or e in —
XX Tw o l i n es . pa ra l l el in S pa c e h a ve p a ra l l el
proj e c ti on s on a n y pl a n e .
20 P RA C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIVE G E O M E TRY
T eorem
h XXL —Tw o l i n e s perpendicu l a r i n s pa ce do not
o r di n a rily h a ve th e i r pro j ecti on s perp en d icul a r .
Spec i a l C a s e .
— If
on e of t h e s e li n e s i s p a ra l lel to H th e H pr o ,
-
j ect i on s of t h e two l ine s will b e perpendi c u la r .
Fig 2 0 sh o w s a li n e A B p a r a llel to H a n d B C ( a n y o n e of
.
, ,
H H
fo u r diff er ent lin es ) wh os e H p r oj ection i s p er p e ndi cul a r to a b
,
-
A ny on e Of t h e lin es B C will b e pe r p e ndi cul a r to A B .
F IG . 20 .
Proof — If A B
. is p a r a ll el to H a n y pl a n e p er p e ndi cul a r to ,
AB will be pe r p endi cul a r to H a n d wi ll t h er efo r e b e a p r oj e ctin g

,
p l a n e on H of a l l lin es cont a in e d in it Let t h e student fi n i s h .
t h e r ea sonin g to Sh ow t h a t a l l li nes wh o s e H p r oj e ctions a r e

‘
b c w ill be p e r p e ndi cu l a r to A B
H H
.
,
Th e orem —
XXII Tw o i nte r secti n g li ne s in spa ce must h a ve
Vproj ection s i ntersect i
.
th e i r H and -
n po i nts in a line perpen
d i cu l a r to CL . Pr ov e .
Th eorem XXIII — Tw o inter secti n g lin e s both pa ra l lel to H

.
, ,
a r e p r o j ecte d on H in l in e s p a r a llel a n d e qua l to t h em s elve s a n d ,
t h e in clude d a n g le w ill b e e qua l i n pro j ecti o n t o t h e a n g l e i n

sp a ce Pr ov e. .
Th eor em —
XXI V A lin
e t h a t i s pa r a l le l to a n ob l iq u e pl a n e
.
, ,
i s not in g enera l pro j ecte d p a r a l lel to t h e tr a ce s

, , Th e ex ce p tion .
is onl y po s s ible w h en t h e tra ces a r e b ot h pa ra llel or bot h per

p e n d i cu l a r to GL .
, , M S 21
Th eor em —
XXV A li ne , th a t i s pe rp en d icul a r to a pl a n e ,
.
alw a ys h a s i t s pro j e cti o n s pe rp e n d icu la r t o t h e r e s p e c t ive tra c e s

of t h e pl a n e .
In Fig 2 1 l et B C b e p er p endicul a r to T TO p r ove t h a t b C

.
is p e r p endicul a r to t t t h e H t r a ce of T ,
-
.
Let fa ll a p er pendi cu l a r Bb fr om B to H Th e lines B C a n d , , .
Bb d et er mine a pl a ne p er pendi cul a r to bot h H a n d T a n d ,
t h erefo r e to t h ei r inte r s ection t t A s t h e pl a n e is p er pe ndi cul a r , .
to t t its int ers ection b C will b e ; t h a t is t h e H p r oj e ction is

, ,
-
FIG . 21 .
p er p endi cul a r to t he H t r a ce Th e m e c o u ld be p r ove d for

Vp oj V
-
. sa
t he -
r ec tion and -
t r a ce .
Th e or em XXVI —C on vers ely a l ine wh o s e proj ection s a r e

.
, ,
perpen d icul a r to t h e re s pecti ve tra c e s of a pl a ne i s p e rpen d ic u l a r ,
to t h e pl a ne wit h one exc e p tion

, .
Excep t ion .
—If
t h e pl a n e is p a r a ll e l to GL t h e lin e wh os e , ,
p r oj ection s a r e p er p e ndi cu l a r to i t s t r a ces m a y not b e p a r p en ,
d i cu l a r to t h e pl a n e Pr ov e t h is b y t h e P t r a ce of su ch a pl a ne
.
-
a n d t h e P p r oj e ction of su ch a li n e
-
.
Th eorem XXVII —A l ine i n a n y pl a n e pierce s H in t h e H

.
tra c e of th e pl a n e un les s th e l in e i s p a ra l le l t o H Simil a r ly it

V V
.
, ,
will pier ce in t h e t ra ce of t h e pl a ne in wh i ch it lies Pr ove

-
. .
Th e ore m XXVIII — If a li n e i s
pa r a lle l to H i t i s pa ra l l el t o t h e
V
.
,
H tr a c e of a n y pl a n e i n wh ic h it l i es
-
S imil a r l y for Pr ove . . .
Th e ore m XXIX — An y pl a n e th a t i s p a s s ed th roug h on e of

t w o p a ra ll el li ne s eith er co n ta i n s or i s p a ra l lel t o t h e o t h e r
’
Let t h e stud ent p r ove t h is wit h a fi g ur e Re fer t o Pl a ne a n d .
Solid Geometry th e o r ems .

22 P RA C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
E XE R C I S E S IN RE VI E W
20 Direction s
. .
-
All t he x er cis es h er e give n ca n b e d ra w n in
e
a s p a ce 6 in X 7 i n . .
,
w i t h GL d r a w n h o r izont a lly a cr oss t h e
middle .
Lette r a l l p oints c a refu lly u s ing sm a ll letter s for a l l p r oj e ction s

“ “ V
, ,
a b et c for p r oj ections a b et c for H p r oj e ctions a

" "
-
, ,
-
”
b for P—
. .
, , , , , , ,
”
,
p r oj e ctions .
U s e t h e followin g c onve ntions for a ll li n e s e t c .
Giv n line —s olid m d i m

e s e u
Re q ui ed lin e — olid h vy
, ,
r s s , ea
A xili y lin — oli d li gh t

u ar es s ,
Invi ibl l in —d ott d m di m

s e es e , e u
P oj to —d ott d ligh t
r ec rs v yfi e , er ne .
P t h of R vol t i on — t h
a s m e u e sa e .
T of Giv n pl n —m di m
r a ce s e % 4 in a es e u .
T of R q ire d pl n —
ra ces h vy e u a es ea
T of Au xi li y pl n — li gh t
ra ce s v yfi ar a es er ne .
A ll pl a nes consid ere d t r a ns p a r ent a n d t h e r e w ill b e n o

a re ,
i n visible lin e s until p r obl ems involvin g solid s a r e given "Ia n d .
_ L a re a bb r evi a tions fo r p a r a ll el a n d p e r p e ndi cul a r .
3 6 T h o gh A ( 5
. 1 +2 ) d w AB I
r u "to C ( 4 2 2 ) D (2 1 ra
3 7 T h o gh M ( 4 + 2
. r 1) d w MN I
u I d q l to O ( 3 1 2) ra an e ua
P( I A) 1
38 . F om r A (4 % d ra w t w lin es i nt rs ecting B ( l
2 I) o e 1 1)
C (3 3 2 ) i n po int s
oth er t h a n B d C an .
39 . D w t w o lines E F a d KL int se cting in t h e point D ( 3

ra n er 1
C onn ect t h s t w o l in es w i t h a l in e I
e e " to H .
40 . D a w t w o lin es M N a d OP i nters e cting in t h poi nt K (2 %

r n e 3
C onn t t h e s e t w o li n s w it h
ec lin e to V e a .
41 . D a w l in L to V int s e ct i n g A ( I
r a e 2 ) B (4
_
3 er 1) and
C (l /2
l
2 1 1)
D ra w a lin e _ L to i
H nt e rs e ct n i g E (l % 3 2 ) F (5 1 3) an d
G ( 1 }§ 1 K (4 2 l) .
43 . D w fo l ine t igh t ngl to L( l 2 1 )

ra ur s a r a es M (3 1)
t h o gh t h point M
r u e .
44 . T h o gh N ( 2
r 1
u 2) d w li L to T ( l 3) ra a ne _
45 . Th o gh O ( 5
r 1
u I) d w lin L to S ( 5 3 ) ra a e _
46 Th o gh P(2 0 0) d w t h t
r u f pl n R t h t i ra e ra ce s O a a e a s L to A (2 2
—M
.
, , _
2 ) B (4
7
47 . Is C (2 + 2 1 ) D (2 to t h e pl n Q
2) _ ( L 3) ( a e oo
If ,
not d
r a w t h e r a ces O f T , t t h a t i s L to C D _
.
D ra w t h e P r ec s Of t h e
-
p oj tion follow ing po i nts a d lin es l oca tin g P n ,
4%
in to t h igh t
. e r
48 . A(I 2 B (l % 2 C (2 l D (2 % 2 and
E (3, 0 l) .
, , M S 23
G(1 -
1 ) G (2 —2 _
Wh t el t ion
a r a a re t h es e lin es to H a n d V ?
M(l 2 2) N ( 1, 0 Wh a t a ngles does t h i s lin e m a k e w it h H
a nd V
?
Th r o u gh O (2 3 1) d a w a 3 i lin e
r -
h . to P, 45
°
to H . In w h t a
s p a ce a ngle do es t he li n e te mi n a te ?
r
Le t A ( 3 , 0 U6) B ( 4 % , d i gon a l of a s q u a e i n H
0 1 ) b e t he a
-
r .
With th is s qu a re a s t h e uppe b a s e of a u b e d a w t he pr oj ections of a

r c ,
r
cu b e Dr a w t h e t ra ces of t h e s i x pl a n es bo un din g t h e cu b e
. .
D ra w t h ree p ro j ections of e h ex a gon a l p i s m i n I i t s center li n e

t he . r
to H a n d V w it h a 1 54 i n b a s e a d 2 i n a lt i t u d e D ra w t h e H a d
Vtra ces Of t he pla ne of on e of i t s Obliqu e fa ces
,
-
. n -
. . n
D ra w t h e p is m given i n E x 5 3 in II I a d d a w t h e H a d V
-
.
r . t ces , n r n -
ra
of t h e pla n e of on e of i t s Obli q u e fa ces .
Le t C (2 0 1 ) D (3 % 0
, 2 ) b e t h e b a s e d ia gon a l of a h ex a g on a l
,
-
pris m f 2 i a ltit u d e s ta ndi ng On H D a w t h e t a ces of t h e Si x fa ce

O -
n .
, . r r
pl n es of t h e p is m
a r .
56
. Write t h e nota ti on of t h e pl nes in Fig 2 2 a d d esc rib e th em Use a .
,
n .
y ou r own di m ens ions .

C H A P T E R II
P R O BL E M S RE LAT I N G TO P O I NT S , LI N E S , AN D P LAN E S
I N T R O DU C T O R Y
21 . In t h e solution of p r obl e ms th a t compose t h is ch a pt er ,
w e ( 1 ) a n a lyz e t h e O p er a tion in sp a ce ( 2 ) o ff e r p r oof of t h e c o rr e ct ,
n e ss Of t h e a n a l y s is wh e n it s eems n e cess a ry a n d ( 3 ) sh ow t h e
, ,
c onst r u ction of a t y pi ca l ex a m p le of t h e p r oble m on t h e fl a t

’
.
Th e a n a lysis s h o u ld be l ea r n e d not b y memo r izin g but b y , ,
visu a lizing t h e situ a tion a n d pr ocess in sp a ce .
De s cr i p tive Ge om etry a s t h e s ci e n ce of d r a ftin g is intended

, ,
to solve d r a ftin g diffi cultie s Dr a fting presents ver y few d i m

“
.
cu l t i es w h e n O bj ects a r e in t h e i r n a tu r a l position ; t h a t is
V
,
wh e n t h e lin es pl a n e figu r e s a n d solids a r e p a r a ll el to H or

, ,
It is onl y wh e n t h e O bj e cts a r e i n O bliqu e positions t h a t we find ,
t h eir r el a tions diffi cult Th es e diffi culties sh ow t h ems elves in

“
.
disto r tions ca lled fo r e s h o r t ening

,
.
”
Th e Obvious g en er a l solution t h er e fo r e is to b r ing t h e O bj e cts, ,
into t h eir sim p l es t r el a tions ( p a r a llelis m ) a n d t h is is don e by ,
o n e of two m e t h ods fir st m eth od mig h t be c a ll e d t h e

“d r a ftsm a n s m eth od a n d is e quiv al ent to t h e ch a ngin g of
. _
’ ”
,
p o s ition b y to b r in g t h e Obj e cts i n to t h e ir

i g h t b e t er m e d t h e
“ m a th e
consists in r ot a ti n g t h e Obj e cts or in
’
m a t i ci a n s m e ,
se cu r in g t h e r esults b y m ea ns of a ser ie s of O p er a tions such a s ,
p a ssing pl a n es m a king int erse ctions r ot a ting a n d t h e like wh ic h

, , , ,
fin a lly a ch ieve t h e solution IB oth meth ods h a ve t h eir a dva nt a ges

.
,
a n d bot h a r e p r e sen t ed In m a n y c a s e s but wh e r e t h e supe r io r it y ,
of e it h er 1 8 conspicuous t h a t meth od onl y 18 Offer e d

,
.
It h a s b ee n sh own t h a t cer t a in situ a tions ca n onl y be repr e

s e nt e d b y t h e u s e of a th i rd pl a n e of p r oj e ction t h e Pr ofile per
V
, ,
pen di cu l a r to bot h H a n d In a like m a n ne r t h er e a r e cer t a in

.
,
solutions of t h is type but diffe r ent in situ a tion t h a t ca n best b e

, ,
r ep r esented b y p r oj e ctin g on a pl a ne t h a t is pe r p e ndicul a r to
H or V
, but not to both Th is m et h od t h e d ra ftsm a n s meth od
.
,
’
,
i s me r el y a v a r i a nt on p r ofile p r oj e ction a n d is perfo r med in t h e ,
24
26 P R AC TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
If a s e cond r emova l is re quire d
X is t h e pl a ne per p e ndicul a r to Q a n d O blique to H
V
.
Y is t h e pl a ne pe r p endi cul a r to R a n d O blique to .
Th e ccomp a n y in g fig ur e sh ows t h e p r oj ection of a l ine on

a
Q ; note t h a t t h e Q pr oj e ctions Of t h e t w o points A a n d B a re

V
-
, ,
t h e s a me in elev a tion a s th eir p r oj ections Th is f a ct is t h e

-
.
c h ie f instrument .
FU ND AM E NTAL P R OBLE M I
24 Prob l e m 1— To pro j ect a n ob l i qu e l in e on a n

V
. .
pl a n e pa ra l lel to t h e gi ve n l i n e , a n d p erp en d icul a r t o H or .
L et A B ( Fi g 24) be t h e g iven lin e

. .
FIG . 24 .
C on s t ru c ti on . 1 . Dr a w H
llel to a b Qp
( Qis d ra wn a ra
n "
. V
h er e but is not necess a ry i n t h i s p r oblem )
2 R un p r oj e cto r s fr om a a n d b pe r pendicul a r to H Q
.
,
” H
3 L oc a te a on its p r oj ecto r t h e s a me dist a nce f r om H Q

. .
.
°
th a t
a
"
is fr om GL L oc a te b simil a rl y
.
°
.
C onclu s io n — Th e line a b is t h e p r oj e ction of AB on Q

.
° °
.
(Let t h e stud ent give t h e ful l expl a n a tion ) .

PR O BLE M S R E L A TIN G TO PO INT S L IN E S A ND PLA N E S , , 27
C oro l l a ry I .
—
Th e Qp oj-
r ec tion of A B is t he true len gth Of t he
line W hy ?
Qis
.
C orol l a ry II .
— Th e a ngle b et wee n a
°
b
°
and H t he tru e
a n gl e and betwee n A B H . W hy ?
N ote —Wh n t h oth t . e e er r a ce of Q Ri or s not n e d ed i t w ill
e , be omitt d e
f om figu h e ft
r r es er a er .
25 . S upple m e n ta ry Probl e m —To l a y ofi . a g ive n d i s ta n c e on a
g iven line fro m a g i ve n po i n t .
FI G . 25 .
—
Re qui r e d To in on A B ( F i g 2 5) fr om A tow a r d B
lay off 1
1 Obt a in t h e Q
. . . . .
o
C ns tr u cti o n s — p r oj ection Of A B
. .
-
.
2 La y O ff a c equ a l to 1 in
° °
“
. .
3 Pr oj ect c b a ck to c t h ence to C
° I
.
,
.
C on cl u s i on —AC is 1 in lo n g . . .
E XE R C I S E S
N ote —E x i es th o gh ou t t h i book a p ente d i n t w o w a y s
26 . . er c s r u s re r es ,
w it h di m en s i on d o o din t s a d g p hic ll y Th e v i o t e not

“
e c r a e ,
n ra a . ar us s e s a r
e x ct d pli tes Th g ph ic l a y o ts
a u ca . e not lw y s given d im n ion
e ra u
”
ar a a e s s,
t h t b ing l ft to t h e t d nt o in s t to
a e e s u e r ru c r
P o j ct on Q
.
r t h follo w in g li nes an d m ea s u re th ei r tru e l en gt h a n d t h ei

e e r
a ngle w it h t h h o i ont l e r z a .
5 7 A (2 + 2
. 1 ) B (4
58 C ( l + 1 + 1 )
—3
.
59 E ( 5 + 1 + 2 ) F ( 3
—1 —2 ) —2
.
60 . C (2 K (4
61 L( l 1 % + 3)
—3 )
.
62 O ( 4 + 2
. P(2 + 1
on R t h e foll ow ing li n e
Pr o j ect s, and m ea s u r e t h ei t ru e lengt hs a
r nd i n clina
t ion fr om t h e v ert ica l .
63 . B (2 + 1
64 C (l
. 1 2 ) D (3 2%
65 E (2 1 + 2 ) F (3 2%
— — —
.
66 G (3
. 3 3 ) K (5 l
67 L(2 + 2 M (3 % 1
68 N (2 + 1 —1 ) O ( 4 —1
.
La y Off on t h e a bove li n es di s ta nce of in a .

( a mo u nt s peci fie d b y in
s t ru ct or ) fr om t h e fi s t point tow a r d t h e second
r .
Gra phi c L yo t N o a u . 1 .
—M a k e Qp oj -
r ec t i on s of th ese li n es . Di m en s i on s
to it su .
G ra phi c La yo t N o 2 — ( ) M k u . . a a e R -
pro j ections of t h ese li n es ( b ) La y .
O ff on t h e bov l in di t n f
a e es a s a ce O i n f om t h e fi s t point to w a d t h e
.
,
r r r
s ec ond .
N ot e — Th e re qu i ements
. r for t hese la y ou ts m ay be t a n s po d if d es i d
r se ,
re .
FU ND AM E NTAL P R O B LE M II
2 7 Probl e m 2 —
. . To fin d t h e Qtra ce or
-
R -
tra ce of a pl a ne
ob l i que to H a n d V
R e qui re d to fi n d t h e Q
.
— t r a ce of t h e p l a n e T in Fi g 2 6
C on s truction —1 Dr a w H Qp er p e ndi cul a r to H T a n d Q V
. .
,
. .
,
p er pendicul a r to GL
2 C onst r u ct a r i gh t t r i a ngle on H Q
.
a s a b a se m a kin g t h e
Qi ncluded between GL a n d T V V
.
,
a ltitude e qu a l to t h a t p a r t of
’
N ote —Th is i e q iv l nt to volving into H t h e i gh t t i ngle c t b y Q

. s u a e re r r a u
f om H V d T
r , an .
C onclu s io n — Th e h y pot h enu s e of t h is t r i a ngl e is t h e Q

. t r a ce -
of T h e r e a fte r wr itten QT
, .
N ot —Thu s T i s a p oj ecting pl n on Q d l l point in T e p oj cte d

e. r a e ,
an a s ar r e
on Q i n Q T Th is m k e i t impl i n t m nt f l l p obl ms re la ting

. a s a s e s ru e or a r e
to point i n T s .
P R O B LE M S R E LA TIN G TO PO INTS L IN E S AND PLA N E S
, , 29
28 . S uppl e m e nta ry Probl e m s — To fi n d t h e d ih e d r a l an gl e

b etw e en a n ob li qu e pl a n e a n d a pl a n e of proj e cti on .
FIG . 26 .
C onc l u s i o n .
—Th e a n g l e 0 in Fig . 26 is t het r ue m ea sur e of t h e
a n g l e b e twe e n T a n d H If t h e R t r a ce of T h a d be e n fo u nd it
V
-
.
,
would h a ve y ie lded t h e a ngl e bet w ee n T a n d .
Proof —
Th e pl a n e Q is pe r p endi cul a r to t h e int er s ection of T
a n d H t h ere fo r e t h e a ngl e b e tween H Q
.
a n d QT i s t h e m e a sur e
V
,
of t h e dih ed ra l a ngl e R does t h e s a m e for T a n d

. .
E XE R C I S E S
G L yo t N o 3 — Fi nd t h e Q d R t ra ces of pl ne
r a phi c a u . . Al o an -
a s
m t h d ih d l n g l
ea s u r e eb t w n t h e pl nes d H d V in d g
e ra a es e ee a an an ,
e ree s .
Find t h e Qt d t e of t h
-
v io pl n g iv n h
r a ce a n Al o
ra c e ar us a es e ere . s
m u re t h e dih d l ngl i d g t h t h of t h e pl n m k w ith

V
ea s e ra a e n e r ees a ea c se a es a es
H and .
69 . S(l 3)
70 T ( 5
. 1)
30 P R AC TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
U (2 2)
W (3 1)
Z (4 3) Di )
S (I 3) (5 2) (1 (5
T (5 3) (1 2 ) (5 H2) ( 1
U (I 3) 1)
W (1 1)
FU ND AM EN TAL P R OBLE M III
30 Problem 3 To fin d t h e po i n ts in w h i ch lin e pi erc es H

V
. .
-
and
V
.
An a ly si s — 1
xt en d t h e p r oj ection of t h e lin e until
. E -
t er s ect s GL a n d p r oj ect t h is point to t h e H p r oj e ction

,
-
. Th e
point t h us found will be t h e H pier cin g point -
.
FIG . 27.
Int e r ch a nging V d H in
an t he a n a l ysis will yield t h e Vp i-
er cing
point
V
.
Proof A ll points in H h a ve t h e ir p r oj e ctions in GL h en ce

.
- -
t h is p oint is in H a n d t h er efo r e w h er e t h e line pie r ce s H

, .
C onstructi o n — Let A B ( Fi g 2 7) be a n y Oblique lin e

. . .
1 E xt e nd 8 v
. to CL . .
2 Pr oj ect t h e int er s ection to E " on a b o r its ext e nsion

n n
. .
,
( 8 is t h e s y mbol h er ea fte r us e d for t h e H pier cing point )

'
-
.
3 E xt e nd a b to GL
H H
. .
4 Pr oj ect t h e int er s e ction to O on a b o r its e xt ension

v v
V
. .
,
( 0 is t h e s y mbol for pie rcin g point ) -

.
P R O BLE M S R E LA TIN G TO PO INT S L I N E S A ND PLA N E S
, , 31
Ax iom s — A line p a r a ll el to Vh a s no CD h e n ce t h e H p r oj ection

,
-
of su ch a li ne i s pa r a l l el to GL
‘
A li n e p a ra ll el to H h a s no E l h en ce t h e V
.
p r oj ection of s u ch
,
-
a line is p a r a ll el to GL .
F IG . 28 .
—H a nd Vpi
-
er c ing po i nt of l i n lo t d i n P—
s es pl nca e a es .
o n —An ex a min a tion of Figs

C on s tr u c ti . . 28 and 2 8a
s u ffi ci e nt to Sh ow t h e O p er a tion in t h i s ca s e .
31 S.
upplement a ry Problem —To fi n d t h e poin t wh ere
. a l in e
pi e rc e s a pro fil e pl a ne a n d s h ow it i n P proj ecti o n

,
-
.
32 PRA C TI CAL D E S C RI P TI V
E G E O M E TR Y f
C on s truct i on — Let A B ( Fi g 2 86) be t h e given lin e

. . .
its P p ie r cin g point Loc a te P a t a n y

-
.
FI G . 2 8b .
V
1 E xtend a b to t h e P t r a ce a t C
v v
“
-
. .
E xtend a b to t h e P t ra ce a t c is pier cing point

fl H
2 C t he
V
-
. . .
3 . R evolve P into loc a tin g c ,

"
.
E XE R C I S E S
Lo te t h H
32 . ca e and Vpi -
er c ing point s Of fol lowin g li nes a d tell
t he ,
n
w h t n gl s t h y t v
a a e e ra ers e . If P i s re qui r ed pl a ce i t a t 4 14 i n f om t h e
,
. r
m gin
ar .
78 . A(I + 2
79 E (l l/3
4 ) F (3 2 — — G (3 1 é K (5 1
—
.
SO M ( I + 2 + 2 ) N ( 2 %
. 1 C (3 1 + 2 ) P( 5 2
81 A ( I + 2 + 1 ) B ( 3 + 54 D (4 + 1
82 E ( 2 — 1 14 ) F ( 3 1 1 5 — C (3 —1 + 2 ) K (5 — 3
—2 —2 1é ) P(2 — 1 —1é )
.
83 M (l + 2 + 1
—1
. .
84 A(I
—2 ) —2 %
.
85 I*3 ( 1
F ( 1 + 2 16 1 G (2
86 ( + 2 —
M l2) N (1 1 P( 2 1 16
— —2 ) D (2
.
87 A ( I + 2 1é ) B ( l 1§ -
88 E ( 1 + 2 —1 ) F ( l G (2 —2
.
Find t h e P pie cin g points of t h e followin g l in es l oca t in g P 416 i n to t h e

-
r
,
.
r igh t .
89 A (2 $6 2 ) B (3 % 1 $6)
90 . C (2 1 14 1 ) D (3 1é 2 15 4
91 1530 22 1 1 16) F ( 3 % 1 1 12)

92 . G (2 14 1 ) K (3 M 1 15 l ) .
34 PR AC TI C AL D E SC RI P TIV E G E O M E TRY
C onstructi — Let T ( Fi g 29) be t h e pl a n e

V
on . . .
1 Assum e a in T ; a w ill b e in CL
” H
. .
2 A ssum e b in H T ; b wi ll b e in GL
3 v
. .
V V
3 Dr a w a b a n d a b A B will be entir ely in T n ”
. . .
Speci a l C a s e — To a ssume a l i n e p a ra ll el to H or V lyi n g in

.
,
a n ob l i q ue pl a ne
V
.
If p a r a llel to H d r a w t h e p r oj ection p a r a llel to GL f r om a n

V
-
a ssum e d point in t h e t r a ce Fr om t h e H p r oj ection of t h is

-
.
-
p oint d ra w t h e H p r oj e ction p a r a ll el to t h e H t r a ce
- -
.
In Fi g 2 9 a t h e line C D is a p a r a llel line to H l y ing i n S a n d

V
.
, ,
t h e li ne E F is p a r a ll el to l yin g in R .
FIG . 2 9a .
34 Problem
.
— G ive n
one pr o j ectio n of a po i n t i n a pl a n e
5 .
,
to loca te t h e oth er pro j ection .
C on s tructi on — T h r ough t h e g iven p r oj e ction d ra w t h e pr o

.
j ect i on Of a lin e a n d a ssume t h e line to be in t h e pl a ne t h us ,
lo ca tin g t h e ot h er p r oj ection Th e re qu ir e d pr oj ection of t h e .
point will be on t h e se cond p r oj e ction of t h e a ssum e d li n e .
Hi n t — Th e convenient li n e for most ca s e s of t h e fo r egoin g is a

lin e p a r a ll el to H or V .
N ot — If t h e giv n p oj tion of t h e point li in t h e p oj cti ng t

e. e r ec of es r e r a ce a
p oj ti g pl ne t h e point i s ind te m in t
r ec n a , d c b e f in fi i t e r a e, a n an e on O an n e
n mb of points lyi n g i t h e pl n e
u er n a .
Problem 6 — To fi n d t h e tra c e s of a pl a n e determ i n e d b y

.
thr ee give n poi nts .
An a lys is — 1 J oin t h e points two a n d two b y l i n e s

. .
, ,
.
2 Fi nd t h e pie r cing points of t h e lin e s

. .
3 Dr a w t h e H t r a ce t h r ou gh t h e H piercin g points a n d t h e
V V
- -
.
,
-
t r a ce t h r ou gh t h e pier cin g points -
Proof —Th e lin e s h a ve t h eir pi er cin g p oints i n t h e res p e ctive

.
t ra ce s Of t h e pl a ne t h e r efo r e t h e lines ( a n d a l l th eir points ) lie

,
in t h e pl a ne t h us d et er mined .
P R O BLE M S RE L A TIN G TO PO INT S L IN E S AND PLA N E S
, , 35
o
C n s tructio n — Let A B a n d C b e t h e given p oint s ( Fig
.
, , .
1 J o i n t h e proj ections O f A B a n d A C
. .
2 Find t h e four pie r cing points of A B a n d A C

. .
3 T h r oug h t h e H p ie r cing point s d r a w H T a n d t h r o u g h t h e

V V
-
.
,
-
p ie r cing points d r a w T
C h ec k — 1 Th e l i n e B C sh ould h a v e its p i er cing point s in t h e
'
. .
r e spective t ra ce s O f T a n d ,
2 Th e t r a ce s s h ould m eet in a p oint on C L or b e p a r a ll e l

.
,
to GL .
FI G . 30 .
Hi n ts — 1 . .Sometimes t h e points m a y be so pl a ced t h a t t h e

pier c i n g points a r e not a l l to be found wit h in t h e limits of t h e
p roblem In suc h a ca se a n a uxili a r y line m a y be d r a w n f r om
.
,
a n y of t h e t h r e e points to a n y point on t h e lin e j oining t h e ot h er
two F or i nst a nc e if su ch a p r o ceeding w er e n e ce s s a r y a lin e

.
, ,
c ould be d r a w n f r om B to a n y poi n t M on t h e lin e AC BM , ,

.
w ould lie in t h e r e q u i r e d p l a ne a n d its p i e r cing p oints wo u ld ,
h el p to d et e r m i n e t h e t r a ce s .
2 Or din a r ily only t h r ee pier ci n g points a r e n ece ss a r y to b e

.
,
found be ca us e wh e n t h e H t r a ce is found its in t e r s ection w it h

V
-
, ,
CL m a y be j oin e d to o n e of t h e p ie r ci n g poi n ts -
.
If t w o in t e r s e cti n g l in e s a r e g iven — T h is m a k e s no ch a ng e i n .
t h e p r oblem .
p
If t w o a a r llel li n e s a r e g ive n — Find t h e ir pi er cing p oin ts
.
.
a n d d r a w t h e t r a ces a s in t h e p r e vious ca se
,
.
If a po i n t a n d a l ine a r e given —Th e point m a y be conne ct e d .
w it h a n y point in t h e lin e t h us m a kin g t w o int er s ecting lin e s

, ,
o r t h rou g h t h e point a lin e m a y be d r a wn p a r a llel to t h e g iven
line th us m a k in g two p a r a ll el lin es

,
.
P R A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
E XE R C I S E S
Lo ca te t he following l ines in t h pl n es g iv en Th e point to b
35 . e a . s e
d t min d a e l tte ed s u nknow n s x y

e er e r et c w it h o t
r o ign a , , ,
z, e .
, u r s s .
0 9 6 A B a y Obli qu e l i n e i n T ( I
.
,
n 3)
9 7 C D a y Obl i q e l in i n S ( 5 2)
‘
n u e
T
.
,
98 E F .
y Obli q lin in a y pl n e bli qu e to CL
,
an ue e n a O .
9 9 D w a l i n i n t h e t h i d a n gl e t h t l i s i n T ( l
. ra e 2) r a e
1 00 Lo ca t e C ( 2
. 1 x ) D(3 2 y ) in S ( l 2) ,
St t v l , ,
a e a u es
of x a d y n .
1 0 1 Lo t e E ( 4 x ) F ( 5 2 y ) in W ( 1 3 )
Q1 02 D a w a li n in S ( l 2 )
. ca ,
. r 2 16) th t i Hto H 1 i n a bov H

e a s , . e .
1 03 D w . l in e i n W ( 1 3 )
ra a 1 ) th t is H to V 1 6 in b hind V a ,
. e .
1 04 Lo ca te M ( 5
. 1 x ) N ( 3 0 y ) in W ( 1 3) l) , , ,
.
1 05 Lo t e O ( 3
. 2 x ) P( 4
ca 16 y ) i n T ( l 3) , ,
G r a phi c La y o t N o u . 6— . Lo t ca e t he ot h er pr oj ection s Of t he
g iv n pl ne
e a
1 06 . Find lo cu s Of a l l poi nts i n S ( 5 2 )

t he 3)
( a ) 1 in a bov e H . .
( b ) 1 i n b elow H
( c) 2 i n b eh ind V
. .
. .
(d ) 2 in b efo e V . r .
1 07 . Lo ca te in R ( 2 ) 1 1 6 ) t h e follow in g l in s co e
A (I 1, X ) B (2 H2 , Y)
C (2 7 X, 1 ) B ( 4; y 2 22 )
E F , t he lo cu s of point s 1 in b e fo e V
a ll . r .
1 08 . Lo c t e t h e
a fol low ing li n es i n X ( 1 16) cc l)
P( l 1, x) G( 2 2, y) .
K (2 % 22 ,
x ) L(4 y) .
M N t h e lo c of l l point
,
in a b ov e H
us a s . .
1 09 Lo ca te O (2
. 2 x ) P( 4 1 y ) in T ( l 3 ) (5 , ,
1 16 )
L oc te t h e follow ing point in t h e pl n s giv n
a s a e e
1 10 A ( I x
. B (3 3 y ) in s o
,
3) ,
1 1 1 C ( l 16
. 2 x ) D (4 y 2 ) in U ( 5,
1) , ,
1 1 2 E (2 1 x ) F (3 y 3 ) in W ( 2) co
3 y ) in Q
.
, , ,
1 1 3 G (2. 1 16 x ) K ( 3 ( ,
2) , ,
0° 1)
P R O BLE M S R E LA TIN G TO P O INT S L IN E S AND PLA N E S
, , 37
1 14 . L( l 1, x) , M ( 4 %. y 1) in R (I 2)
1 15 . N (l ,
x O (3 2, y ) in S ( l 3)
1 16 . P( l 1 16. x ) , A (4 ,
y B (4 % 2. z ) in T(I + 1 16)
(1
Gr a phi c L a you t N o . 7 .
—G ive n on e p oj ection of point i n pla n es to
r s ,
lo a te t h e oth e
c r .
D ra w t he t ra ce s of t he pl nes onta i ni ng t h follow i ng points line

a c e ,
s, and
pl a n e figu res
1 17 . A (2 2 B (3 22 and C (3 % 1M
1 18 . D (2 1 E (2 % 12 1 2 ) a n d F (4 1 16
1 19 . G (2 2 K (3 12 a n d L( 3 % 1M
1 20 M (2 % 12 25) N (3 % 1 14 a n d W 4 12 14 1 12)
a n d O ( 3 —2
.
8
12 1 A(I . 1 + 2 1 4 ) B (4 4
. i g
1 22 T h e t r a n le D ( 1 16 1 1 1 6 ) E (3 1 16 ) F ( 4 1
12 3 Th e p a r a ll e lo g ra m M ( 1 1 6
. 1 1g) N (2 1% O (2 %
1 23) P( 3 % 1 1 95)
. i
1 2 4 H T i s a l n e t h r o u h A ( 4, 0 , O) a n d B ( 2 , 0 g T c ont in s
a
D( l 1 Dr a w VT .
Gr a phi c L yo t N o
a u . 8 .
—Lo ca t e th ese po i nt s in ei th er I or I II, a nd d ra w
t he tra ces Of t he pla n es ont a i ni ng th m

c e .
38 P R A C TI C AL D E SC RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
125 . Th e point s D ( 2 16 1 16 E (3 M F ( 3 16 2 16
a nd G (4 o n ers of a v ertica l b
1 16 1) a re b D w
t he c r a s e O f a cu e . ra
t h e p r oj e ct ions of t h e cu b e d t h e t ce of i t s s i x bo u ndi n g pl n es an ra s a .
126 . L( 3 0 ,
1 ) M (4 0 2 1 6 ) i s t h e b a s e d i gon l Of a s q u a e p y a mid of
, a a r r
2 i -
a lti t d e
a . t nding on H D a w t h e t ra es of t h e fo Obliq
u , s a . r c ur ue
pl nes fo ming i t s fa ces

a r .
127 . O (3 0 ,
1 16) i s t h e cente of t h e b a s e of a 2 i h e x g on l O bli qr -
n . a a ue
p y a m i d w h o s e a p e x i s P( 2 2
r ,
H e x g on b a s e i s i n H ; d w a ra
t h e t ra ces of t h e Six Obl i q e bo u nd in g pl a n es u .
3 6 Proble m
. 7 —
To p a s s a pl a n e th rou gh a give n po i n t
.
,
pa ra llel to t w o gi ven l i n e s .
An a ly s i s 1 Dr a w t h r ough t h e give n p oin t t w o li n es p a r a ll el

.
-
.
,
r e sp ectiv e ly to t h e g iv e n lin e s .
2 Pa ss a pl a n e t h r oug h t h e line s t h u s d r a w n
. .
C onclusion Th is pl a n e co n t a ins t h e giv en point a n d is

.
-
p a r a ll el to both lines fr om t h e g eom et r ic a l t h eo r e m t h a t a lin e , ,
FIG . 31 .
e xter n a l to a pl a n e t h a t i s p a r a ll el to a n y lin e i n t h a t pl a n e i s
, ,
p a r a llel to t h a t pl a ne .
C onstruction —L et A ( F i g 3 1 ) be t h e g iv e n point a n d B C
. .
,
a n d E F t h e g iven lin e s .
1 T h r oug h A d r a w M N H to B C a n d OP l"to E F
V
. .
,
2 Find t h e H a n d
. pier cing points Of M N a n d OP -
.
3 T h r ou gh t h es e pi er cing points d r a w t h e t r a ce s of t h e p l a n e
. .
N ot —If t h g iv n lin s
e. p ll l t h q i d pl n e i ind finite d
e e e a re a ra e ,
e re u re a s e ,
an
an infini te n um b e of pl n m a y b p ed r a es e ass .
37 Probl e m 8
. To pa s s a pl a ne th rough a gi ven l i ne pa ra llel
.
-
to a n oth er g iven l in e .
An a lys i s —l Th r ough a n y point of t h e give n lin e d r a w a

. .
,
line p a ra llel to t h e second lin e .
2 Pa ss t h e re qui r ed pl a n e t h r o u gh t h e t w o int e r s ecting lin e s

. .
PR O BLE M S R E L A TING TO PO INT S L IN E S AND PL A N E S
, , 39
Le t t h e stud e nt m a k e t he on s t r u ctio n
c .
N ot e. — If
pl n e b e p e
a a a ss d t h o gh t h
r u ond line s ec ll l to t h fi t
e p a ra e e rs ,
t he t w o pl n es w ill b e p a a ll e l
a r .
E XE R C I S E S
38 . Pa ss pl nes t h o gh
a r u t he follow i g point s p a lle l to t h li ne gi ve n
n ra e s
1 28 . Th r ou gh O (3 1 1) to A ( I 1 16 1 ) B (2 1 6 2 ) a nd
G( 4 1 + 1 ) D (5 —1% + 2)
1 29 . T h r ou g h A (4 1 1) II to E (l 2 16 ) F ( l 1 1) and
G (2 + 1 6
o g
Th r u h M ( 4 1 1 16 ) "I to L( 1 1 6 1 1 ) N ( 2 16 , 0 16 ) and
O (3 + 1 .
P( 4 2
Gra ph i c L yo t N o a u . 9 .
— T h r o u gh t he giv n point p
e a ss a pla n e pa lle l ra
,
to t h e t w o giv n li n e es .
131 . T h ro u gh A(I 3 2 ) B (2 1 1) p as s a pl n Htoa e C (3 1 —1 )

D(4 1 16
132 . T h r o u gh E (4 1 2 ) F (3 2 1) pa s s pl n a a e I"to G (l 1 16 2)
K (2 1
1 33 . Th r ou gh M (3 2 1 ) N (4 16 2) p as s a pl n a e "Ito O(l 2 1)
P( 2 3
G r a phi c L yo t N o
a u . 10 .
—T h r o u g h t he l in e p a ss a
pl n e p a ll l to lin e
a ra e
RE V
O LU T I O N OF P O IN T S
39 . Defin i t i on vol u tion of a p oint a bout a lin e ( ca ll e d
.
-
Th e re
its a xi s ) con s is ts in movin g t h e p oint in a p l a n e p er p en di cul a r to

t h e a xis a n d k ee p i ng it a t a c onst a nt dis t a n ce f r om th e a xis
,
.
T h e Pa th of R evoluti o n i s a c ir cle .
F O URT H FU ND AM E NTAL P R OBLE M
40 Proble m 9. .
—To r evol ve
po i nt th rou gh a n y given a n gle a
a bout a n a xi s perpe n di cul a r t o H or V .
C onstructi on — Let 0 ( Fi g 3 2 ) be t h e point A B t h e a xis per

. .
,
pen d i cu l a r to H a n d 0 t h e g ive n a n g l e ,
.
1 W ith a b a s a ce nte r d r a w a ci r cl e t h r ough 0

” lEI
.
2 T h r ou gh O d r a w a lin e p a r a ll e l to GL
v '
— V
. .
( T h e se will b e t h e H a n d p r oj ections of
t h e p a t h of r evolution ) .
3 M ove O t h r ou gh t h e g iven a n g l e to
H
.
4 . Pr oj e ct to O1
V .
C onclu s ion .
—
Th i s g ives t he new posi
tion
xis w ere per penOf t he point If t h e
V
. a
d i cu l a r to t h e cir cl e would b e p r oj ect e d

V
,
J on i n its t r ue si z e a n d on H a s a line pa r
at
f
i a ll e l to GL
3 ; 4 .
4 1 Prob lem 1 0 — To revolve a li n e a b out

v
c b I
. .
a vertic a l or h ori z o n ta l a x i s th rou gh a n y
give n a n gle .
A n a l y si s — l A s t h e line is t h e sum O f
FI G 3 2 . .
. .
a l l poi n ts i n it t a ke a n y two points O f it ,
a n d r e volv e t h e m a bout t h e a xi s a s in Pr obl e m 9 .

,
2 J oin t h ese r e volve d points a n d t h e resultin g p r oj e ctions

.
,
w ill b e p r oj ections of t h e line .
E XE R C I S E S
R volve
e A (4 1 1) a bou t B (3 , 0 2 ) C (3 3 2) c ou n t er
clo ck w i s e
Revolve D (4 2 1) a bo t u E (3 12 ,
0) F ( 3 16 2) c lock w i se
R volv
e eG(l 1 1) bo t K ( 2
a u 1 1 ) L(2 1 2) c lo ck w i e s
a n d M (5 1 1 ) a bo u t N ( 4 ,
0 2 1 6 ) P( 4 2 2 1 6 ) u ntil
it e h s H
r ac e .
R volve A ( 3 1 1 6 ) lo kw i 9 0 a bo t B (4 0 1 ) C (4
e c c se
°
u ,
2 l) .
C onti n th evol tion

ue nti l i t t n s to t h fo t h ngl e
e r u u re u r e ur a
R volv D ( 5 1 6 1 ) o nt —lo k w i 90 bo t E ( 4
.
16 0)
°
>l 3 8 . e e c u er c c se a u ,
F (4 16 C ont i n t he Ol t i ntil i t e h s H ue re v u on u r ac e a ga i n .
Revolv e G (4 + 16 1 ) K ( 3 2 2 ) bo t P( 3 O (3 a u 1 3)
clo k w is e
c
Revolve L( 2 2 l ) M ( 3 16 1 2 16) bo t K ( 1 16
’
a u ,
.
0 2)
O ( 1 16 3 2 ) into po ition p ll l to V a s a ra e .
42 P R A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E GE O M E TR Y
in a s er ies of p a r a lle l ci rcl es Th is me a ns t h a t ever y poin t r e .
m a i ns In t h e s a m e r el a tion to t h e a xis a s ever y ot h er point

t h r o u g h out t h e r e volution a n d t h er efo re a l l points in t h e lin e ,
r e m a in in t h e s a m e r el a tion to e a ch oth e r a n d t he line is ,
un ch a n ged .
N ot — I volving p ll l to V t h H p oj tion i not h ng d in

l ngt h b t t h V
e . n re a ra e ,
e -
r ec s c a e
e ,
p oj tion i
u e -
r ec s .
C on struction — Fully Sh o w n in Fig 3 3 . . .
FIG . 33 .
44 . Th e true len gt h of a li ne i n a pr ofile pla ne .
Th e P -
p r oj ection Sh o w s its t r u e l en gt h .
E XE R C I S E S
1 43 . M ea s u r e A(I 1 1 ) B (2 3 2) by re volving to H , (2 ) to
V . C h ec k res u lt b y Pr obl em 1 ,
C o olla y 1
r r .
1 44 . M ea s u re C (5 1 3 ) D(3 3 (1) by re volv i ng I"to V , ( 2 ) l"

to H . C hec k .
1 45 . M ea s u r e E (2 1 1 ) F (4 2 16 (1) by re volv i n g I" to V ,
(2 ) to H . C h k ec .
1 46 . M ea s u re G (3 3 3) K (l 1 (l) by re volving Hto H, ( 2 )

I" to V . C hec k .
1 47 . M ea s u r e L( 2 1 2) M (3 1 (1) by re volving Hto V , (2 )

IIto V . C h ec k .
) 1 48 . M ea s u r e M (4 2 1 ) N (5 1 (1) by r ev o l v m g IIto H ( 2 ) ,
l" to H . C h ec k .
M ea s u r e t he following li n es . l
P a ce P a t
1 49 . A(I —2 + 16) B(1 — 1é + l) and C (2 1 —2 ) D (2 —2
1 50 . E(l + 3 1) F (1 1 2) a nd C (2 16 1 14 ) K ( 2 + 3
15 1 . M(l + 2 I) N ( I 15 2 ) a n d C (2 1 1 ) P(2 + 2
P R O BLE M S RE LA TIN G TO P O INT S L IN E S AND PLA N E S , ,
43
1 52 A(1 +2 + 2) D (2 —2
— —
.
1 53 . E (l 1 16 ) a n d G ( 2 16 + 1 1 ) K (2 -
1 54 . La y O ff in (a mo u nt s peci fi ed b y in s t ru cto r ) on a n y of t h e lin es III

.
Probl e m s 1 4 3 —1 5 3 f r om t h e fi rs t point to w a r d t h e s e c ond .
1 55 T h r o u gh M ( l 1 3 ) d ra w a li n e in long p a ra llel to O ( 3 l
—2 ) P( 4 + 3
,
.
.
1 56 . Th o gh A ( 5
r u 2 3) d ra w a line in long p
.
,
a ra ll l to e B(l
1 + 1 ) C (2
D (2 3 l ) E (3/
1
2 3 2 16 ) i s t h e b s e dia gon l of
a a a s q u a re py ra
mid ,
2 16 in -
. a ltitu d e in ,
III . Dr a w i t s p r oj e tion s c .
(a ) M l nt i g dges
e a s u re o n e O f it s s a n e .
( b) M
ea s e t h e l in e uru nn i ng f om a po i t 1 16 i n p e e d ge t o
r r n . u on a
point 16 i p t h e dj a ce nt ed ge
n . u a .
1 58 . Sca l e 1 00 ft 1 in A ope onvey o i s to b e c on s t te d f om

. . r c r ru c r
A ( 75 ft 0 1 80 ft ) t o a l o d i g po int on hill 2 2 5 ft high 2 00 ft no t h

.
, ,
. a n a .
,
. r ,
6 0 e a s t O f t h e d u mpin g po i nt H ow m c h ca bl e m u s t b e p u ch a s ed
°
. u r
,
f o a d u pl ex b elt a llo w in g 3 0 ft fo pu ll y s l a ck et c
r ,
. r e s, ,
FIG . 34 .
A pip ns t h o gh f to y b i lding f om point M ( 5 ft

e ru r u a ac r 1 0 ft u r a . .
2 ft ) to N ( 3 O ft
. 2 ft 6 in . 1 4 ft ) in t h fl oo b low
. . . e r e .
( ) Wh a t i s i t s l n g t h ?
a e
( b ) A t w h t point i n t h e fl oo m u s t t h e h ole f it b m a d
"
a r or e e
( )
c A t a point 6 ft f om t h e fl oo r .h ol e m ea s
r d a long t h e pipe i s ,
u re ,
a
s u ppo t f om t h e fl oo
r r H ow f f om t h e w a ll ( V ) a d t h e fl oo ( H )
r . ar r n r
i s t hi s point of s ppo t ? Sc l e u in r 1 ft a . .
Fig 3 4 h ow s t h pl n d l v t ion Of a pl in h ip oof D w it to

. s e a an e e a a r . ra
an y c onv i nt s l een e ca .
( )
a W h t a n g
a l e i s i t d a w n in ? D a w i t s P p oj ection
r r -
r .
b
( ) L o t e t h
ca e t a c s of t h e
r r oof pl a en es C a d D ,
n .
( )
c W h t i s t ha e l e n g t h O f t h e h ip a ft e AB r r .
(d) Loc t
point on t h oof C 3 ft b e low t h e idg d 1 0 ft to t h e
a e a e r ,
. r e an .
r igh t of t h e cente r .
( 6 ) Lo a te a po i nt on t h e a fte 3 ft f om F
c r r, . r .
Sc a l e 1 i n 2 0 ft A 60—ft s t a ck 3 ft in d ia m et is es f om A ( 6O
. . .
,
. er, r r
ft . 0, 35 on t h e t p of a fla t oof ( H ) Five g y w i es a e o r . u -
r r
a tt a ch e d to t h e s t a ck a t 40 ft a bov e t h e oof a n d a e a n ch o e d a t . r ,
r r
points on t h e r oof es pec tiv el y B ( 30 ft 0 1 0

,
r C ( 85 ft 0 ,
.
, .
,
7 ft 6 . D ( 90 ft 0 47 ft 6 E ( 70 ft 0
.
,
67 ft 6 and . .
, .
F ( 2 5 ft 0 5 2 ft 6
.
,
Dr a w t h e s t a ck
. d gu y s a n d m ea s u r e t h e an ,
t u e l ength of t h e gu y s
r .
G ra p hi c L yo t N oa u . 13 — .
(a ) M th t
ea s u r e e ru e l n gt h
e Of giv n l i n
e e
( b ) La y f om o e point Of
O ff r n giv n lin e e a poi t n in d i t nt on
. s a
the lin to w d t h e s econd poi nt

e ar .
FIFT H FU NDA M E NTAL P R OBLE M

46 . Pr oblem To r e volve
1 2 —. a point in S pa ce in to H or V
a bout a n a xi s lyi n g in th a t pl a n e .
FIG . 35 .
—Fi g 3 5 s h o w s a point A in s p a ce a n d a li ne B C i n H
Proce s s . . .
To r evolve A a bo u t B C into H it i s n ecess a r y to d r a w t h e ra dius ,

P R O BLE M S R E LA TI N G TO PO INT S L IN E S AND PLA N E S
, , 45
Of t he cir cle t h r ou gh wh i ch A i s to r e volve A s will be s ee n in .
t h e pictu r e A x is t h e r a dius a n d it is t h e h ypot h enuse of t h e

, ,
r igh t t r i a n g le B y l a y in g O ff t h is h y poth enuse in

H n
Aa a x , .
e it h e r di r e ction p er pendi cul a r to B C a t x t h e revolved position ,
is obt a ined
—
.
An a y s To revolve a po i nt into H a bout a n a xis in H

l s i .
1 Dra w t h e t r a ce Of t h e pl a ne of r e volution t h rou gh t h e H

.
p r oj e ction of t h e point p er pendicul a r to t h e a xis , .
2 C onst r uct t h e r i gh t t r i a n gle a s follow s : ( 1 ) t h e b a s e

. t he
pe r p endi cul a r dist a nce fr om t h e H
pr oj ection t o t h e line ; ( 2) t h e a lti
tud e t h e p r oj ection to CL V -
.
3 La y off t h e h y pot h e nus e of t h is

.
t r ia n gle fr om t h e a xis on t h e t r a ce
of t h e pl a n e Of r evolution .
C on s tru cti o n Let A ( Fig 3 6) b e .

-
.
t h e g iv e n point a n d B C t h e g iv e n
lin e in H .
1 T h r ou gh a d ra w xa l pe r pe n
H Ht
.
d i cu l a r to b c
H H
.
2 C onst r uct t h e tri a n gle a x

u
“(
.
v
a z a y) .
3 . La y on x a l loc a t i n g a ;
off x z
”
,
C o n c l u s io n — al is t h e revolved.
FI
lEIG 36 . .
p osition Of A a bout B C .
N ote s TO evolv e a poi t i nto Vbou t a a xis in Vm k e a i nte h ng

.
-
r n a n , a n rc a e
of H d V i t h e fo egoi ng
an n r .
2 If t h po i nt i s d i
. e tly ov t h e a xi t h e b e of t h e t i ngl b om
re c er s, as r a e ec es
o d t h h ypoth enu w ill b e q l to t h ltit d u e

“
e a
“
z er , an e se e ua .
3 Th t f t h pl n f evol u tion d t h p oj ti on f t h p t h
“
. e r a ce O e a e O r an e r ec O e a
f vol u ti o n w ill b e a bb ev i t d h e ft to t h e p th of evol ti on

” ”
O re r a e er a er a r u .
E XE R C I S E S
1 62 . Revolve A ( 2 1 3) and B (4 2 2 16 ) into H a b ou t C (l , 0 2)
D ( 5, 0
1 63 . Re volv e E (l l 2) and F (4 1 2) into Vb a ou t G (2 3 , 0)
K (5 I2 , 0)
1 64 Revolv e M ( l 2 N (2 1 O (S 1 a nd P( 4 1+
V
.
1 16 ) a bo u t GL, ( 1 ) in to ; ( 2 ) i nto H .
1 65 . Re volv e K ( 2 1 16 1 ) a bo u t L( l 3 , 0) N ( 5, 0, 0) into V R volv . e e
M )3 2 1 ) a bo u t P( 2 , 0, 0 ) O ( 5 , 0 1 ) i n to H .
i) 1 66 Loc a te A ( 1 l , x ) a n d B (2 y 1 ) in T ( l 3 ) a n d re volv e
i nto Vb V
-
.
,
a ou t T ,
and into H a bou t HT .
46 PR A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
1 67 Lo t C (4 2, x) a nd D (2 , y 1) in S ( 5 3) a n d re volv e
Vbo t V
. ca e
i nt o Sa u , a nd i nto H a bo t H S u .
1 68 Lo t E (2 x 2 ) and F (4 l y ) in U( 2) ( a n d re volv e
t h m bo t V
. ca e , ,
oo
e U ad u an HU into V an d H .
G hi c L yo t N o
ra p a u . 14 —Revolve
. t he poi nts i n E x . a bo t
u t he
giv n lin into t h pl n
e e e a e Of t h e l a tt e r .
1 69 Lo t K (2 2, x) a nd L( 4, y 1) in W 1) ( a n d re volv
t h em a bou t V
. ca e cc e
W a n d HW i nto V a nd H .
Gr a phi c L yo t N O
a u . 15 —Loca te t h e points in pl a n e
. a n d re volv e t h me
i nto a bo t u t he t ce ra .
1 70 . Lo t ca e O( 2) and P( 1) in t he Vt-
r a ce O f T (l 3) 2) and
re volv e t h em i nto H a bou t t h e H t -

r a ce .
a u . 16 — . Lo ca t e pla n e fi g u re—
t he i n i t s pl a n e, a n d re
volv e a bou t on e of t h e t r a ce s to s h o w i t s t ru e s i e z .
1 71 Lo te A (2 —1 ) andB ( 4, 0 2) in S( l) (+ a nd volve
V
. ca z oo re
,
A i nto H bo t a u H S, and B into V bo t a u S .

P R O BLE M S R E LA TIN G TO PO INT S L IN E S , ,
AN D PL A N E S 47
1 72 Revolv t ia n gl e M ( 1 1 6
t he 1 ) N (2 /1 1 2 16 ) O (3 1 6
16) i nto V a bo t t h e V
. e r
2
1 16 t ra ce of i t s pla n e Wi ll t h i s give i t s
u -
.
t ru e s i a d t h e t u e ngl s a t t h e co rn e rs ?
ze , n r a e
1 73 . Revolve t h e p a ll log a m A (3 1 l ) B (3 1/ 16 2 ) C ( 5
ra e r
2 16 1 1 6 ) D ( 41 6 1 6 ) into H a bou t t h e H t ce Of i t pl a n -
ra s e .
Will th is give i t s t ru e s i ? ze
M E A SU RE M E N T OF A N GL E S
48 . Prob l em 1 3 .
—To me a s ure th e tru e a n g le betwee n a ny
tw o in e t rs ecti n g li n e s .
F I G 37
. .
Two inter secting lin e s l i e in on e pl a n e a n d if t h a t p l a n e b e

V
, ,
folded so a s to coin cid e with H or t h e r e volv e d p r oj ections ,
wi ll s h o w t h e t r ue r el a tion of t h e lin es .
An a lys i s — 1 Pa ss a pl a n e th r o u gh t h e two li n es
. .
N ote — O e t . onl y n e d b e obt in ed

n r a ce e a .
2 R e volve t h e pl a ne a bout its H t r a ce i n to H o r a bout i t s

V V
-
.
,
-
t r a ce into .
N ot — R volvi n g t h v i o point in pl n i q iv l nt to volving

e . e e ar us s a a e s e u a e re
t he pl a n e .
C onclusion —Th e a n gl e betwee n t h e li n e s i n r e volve d p o s ition

.
is t h e me a sur e Of t h e a ctu a l a n g l e .
C on s t ru ction — Let A B a n d B C ( Fig 3 7) b e t h e t w o int er

. .
s e ct i n g lines w h ose a n g l e is to b e m ea su r e d .
48 PR A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M B TR Y
1 . Pa s s t h e p l a n e t h r o u gh t he t wo lin es ; H T is t he n ece s s a r y
t ra ce .
2 R e volve A B a n d B C a bout t h e t r a ce
. .
C onclu s ion — Th e r e q u i r e d a n gl e is b l o l d l
. .
N ot e 1 .
—
l to con s id e t h e cu t e ngl s t h e mea su re a lth ou gh
It is u su a r a a e a ,
t h e obtu s e a n gl e i s not i n c o ect rr .
N ote —In c s e a y of t h e n e ss ry pie cing point s e ina ccess ibl i t i s

a n ec a r ar e,
p ope to d a w a s ma n y a u xi li a ry lin es f om o e lin e to t h e ot h e a s m a y b e

.
r r r r n r
n eed e d to obt in t h e t a ce a r .
SP E CIAL C A S E S
49 .
—
e I Wh e n one s id e i s pa ra l l el to H
Ca s . .
An a ly si s — 1 R e volve t h e O blique li ne a bout

. . t h e h o ri zont a l
lin e as an a xis until it b e comes p a ra ll el to H .
F I G 37a
. . FIG . 3 7b .
C o clusio n —
n Th e p r oj ected a n gle is now equ a l to
. t r ue a n t he
gle S ince both a r e p a r a ll e l to H a n d t h ei r r el a tions a r e un ch a nged
, ,
.
C on s tructio n — R equir e d to me a su r e t h e a n g le AB C ( Fi g
. .
3 7a ) A B b e in g p a r a llel to H
,
.
1 R evolv e C a bout A B a s a n a xis into t h e h o r izont a l pl a n e Of A B .
N ote 1 Thi c b e i t don b y t n f ing C L to b a d a p

.
-
s an ea s es e ra s er r a
v v
,
n
plyi g P obl m 1 2
n r e .
N ot e 2 —Th s m e p o . b e p fo m d w h e n o
e a of t h e li n i
r cess ca n er r e ne es s
p llel to V P
a ra or
N ote 3 —
.
Ii p f d th g l p o
. r e e rr eb d in t d of t hi
, e re u ar r cess e s ca n e u se s ea s
sp i lo e
ec a n .
PR AC TI C AL D E SC RI P TIVE G E O M E TR Y
N 0te . ngle ca b e m ea s ed b y
— If t h e a n ur any of t he i l
s pe c a ca se s , t he bi
sec to m a y b e fou nd b y t h e s a m e p o cess
r r .
E XE RCI SE S
G ra p hi c L yo t N 1 7 — ( ) M
a u 0 ngl b t w n giv n li n es
. a ea s u r e a es e ee e in E x .
b ) D w t h p oj tion of t h bi
ra e r to f t h ngl
ec s E e s ec r O e a e In x .
M ea s u r e t he a ngles i n cl u d e d b e tw ee n t he foll ow i ng l in es
1 74 . A (2 2 1 4 ) a n d B C (4 1 4
2 ) B ( 3 16 l 3
D ( l 2 3 ) E (4 1 14 + 1 1 4 ) a n d E F (2 1
V
1 75 .
1 76 . cu 2 14 1 ) K (3 1 4 + 1 4 2 ) a n d K L( 2 1 2 16 )
1 77 . M U12 3 2 ) O (2 1 14 ) a n d O P( 5 14
1 78 . A (2 3 2 ) B (2 1 1 ) a n d B C ( 3 16 2
1 79 D (4 1 1 ) E (4 2 14 2 ) a n d E F (3 1
1 —3 ) K ( 3 + 3
.
1 80 . C (3 1 ) a n d K L( 2 + 3
181 . M ( l 2 1 ) N ( 1 + 2 3 ) a n d N O (2 14 15 l ) .
1 82 . A(I 1 14 2 ) B ( 4 + 1 14 2 ) a n d BC (2 1 1)
PR O BLE M S R E LA TING TO PO INT S L IN E S A ND PLA N E S
, , 51
1 83 . D (3
t he p ofile
r
3
.
1 16) E (1 1 V
) 2 and E F (3 1 3) b y evolvi ng into
r
1 84 . G (2 1 14 3 ) K (4 1 14 1) a nd K L< 3 3
1 85 . M(l 2 16 + 1 ) (4 ,
N 16 1) a nd N O (2 1
1 86 . A (2 + 2 + 2 ) B (4 1 6 + 16) a n d B C ( S 1
1 87 . D (4 2 2 ) E (2 16 1 6 ) a n d E F (3 2 l) .
1 88 . G (3 + 1 1 ) K (3 1 16 a n d K L( I 1 1)
1 89 . M ( 4, 0, 0 ) N ( 2 1 1 16) w it h GL .
M ea s u r e t he a ngl e b e t w e e n t h e t r a ce s of t he fol lo w ing pla nes

1 90 . T(I l)
$ 19 1 S(I 3) 2)
1 92 R (4
Q( 1
.
1 93 . 2)
194 . U (4 2)
1 95 W (5
. 3 ) 3 16 0 1)
1 96 T ( l
. 2) 3) and so 1 1 4) 3)
197 R ( I
. 1)
1 98 W ( 1 +
.
a u . 18 .
-
(a ) Me a s u re ngl e b et w ee n t h e H a n d V
t he a
t r a ces O f pl a n e (b ) D ra w t he bi s ec to f t h e a ngle b ew ee n t h e t a ce s
r O r
Of pla n e
M e as u r e t he a ngl e s in t he follo w in g t i n gl r a es
l 99 . A (2 1 + 3) B (3 2 1 14 ) O ( 5 1 14
2 00 D (2 ) 2 + 1 1 ) E (4 3 12) F ( 4 + 2 2)
—2 )
.
20 1 . G (2 + 2 K (2 1 1 14) L( 3 + 2
2 02 . M (2 12 1 12 + 2 ) O ( 3 1 ) P(4 24
2 03 A (2 + 2 2 ) B ( 2 12 1 1 ) C (4 1 12 1 12 )
— 1 —I)
.
204 . D (5 R (4 —2
205 . G (2 1 1 4 , 0 ) K ( 3 1 6 , 0, 0 ) L( 3 , 0
2 06 . M ea s u re t he a ngl es and t r ue s ze i Of t he pa llelog a m
ra r M (3 12
1 12 ) N ( 3 + 1 14 ) O (4 + 2 1 ) P( 4 + 1 14
2 07 . M e a s u re t he a ngles of t he pent gon a A ( 3 16 12 ,
X ) B (4 1 14 , Y)
C (4 16 16 , z ) D (516 In ) E (5 1 16 , n ) t h a t lies in t he p la n e
T (6 3)
2 08 . Pr ove gra ph ica ll y t ha t A (2 1 ) B (3 2 2 ) C ( 4 15 2 1 5)
i s a righ t a n gl e Write a n expla n a tion. .
2 09 . Dra w a lin e from D(2 2 1 ) i nt ers ecting E (2 1 2 ) F (5 2

16) at 4 5, 60,
2 10 . D ra w a lin e from G (3 1 1) inte rs ec tin g K ( l 2 3 ) L( 4 2
3) at 4 5 , 60 ,
211 . D ra w a line f om r M (2 16 2) inte rs e c tin g N (l 2 1 ) O (3
1 1) at 4 5 , 60,
2 12 . Dr a w a lin e f om r P(2 2 l ) i nters ecti n g A (3 1 2 ) B (3
2 16) at 4 5 , 60,
2 13 . Dra w a p erp endi cul a r fr om C (2 2 16) to D (2 16 16 )
E (2 2
214 . M ea s u r e ngl e b etw een t w o a d j a cent edges a n d t h e a ngle b t w een
t he a e
a n e d ge a d a b a s e li n e of t h e py r a m i d gi v e n i n E x 1 5 7 A rt
n 45 .
, . .
2 15 M ea s u re t h e a ngle th a t E (2 16 2 1 6 ) F (4 2 1 ) m a k es ( 1 )
w i t h i t s ow n V
.
pr oj e ction ( 2 ) w ith i t s H pr oj ection

-
,
-
.
2 16 . D ra w t h e r oof in F i g 3 4 to a d efin ite s ca le a n d m ea s u re t h e follow ing

.
,
a n g l es
( ) Hi p ra ft er E F w it h h i p r a fte r E G
a .
( b ) Hi p r a ft er E F w it h ea v e F G .
( 0 ) Hi p ra ft er A B w ith ea v e AG .
( d ) Hi p ra ft er A B w i t h rid ge BE .
217 . D a w t h e r oof in Fig 3 4 to a d efi ite s ca le a d mea s u e t h e t u e s i e

r . n ,
n r r z
of t h e r oof pl n es C a n d D a .
C ompu t e t h eir a rea s fr om t h e s le ca .
Wh a t w o u ld it cos t to r oof it a t p e s qu e y a d ?
Th e V
r ar r
2 18 t ra ce of T ( l 3 ) 4 ( y ) m a k es 60 w it h i t s H t a c D w x,
°
r e ra
t h e H—
- -
. .
t ra ce
1 1 6 ) m a k es 1 2 0 w it h i t s V
.
2 19 T h e H t a ce of S (x y ) tr c D a w °
t he V
.
-
r ,
-
a e . r
t ra ce-
.
22 0 . A r y o f ligh t p a s s es t h r ou gh A ( I 1
a 2 ) a n d i s r e flecte d f om H r
to B ( 4 1 1 6 At w h a t point a n d a ngle doe s it s t ri k e H ?

22 1 A ra y of li gh t p a s ses t h o u gh C ( l 2 1 ) a n d a fte r re flect in g f om
Va n d H pa s s es th o ugh D (5 16
. r ,
r
,
r At w h a t points a n d a n gl es
does it s trik e H a n d V ?
D ra w a li n e f om E (4 x 1 ) in T ( 5 3 ) 2 ) m a ki n g 60 w it h
°
2 22 . r ,
t h e H t ra ce -
.
2 23 . D a w a lin e fr om K (2 1 1 16) in t h e t ria ngle K L( 2 2 2 )

r
2 ) m a kin g 60 w it h t h e Oppo s it e s id e
°
N (3 2 .
2 24 . Find t h e center of t h e t ri a ngle A (2 1 16 1 ) B ( 3 1 16)

C ( 3 12 3
Find nter of t i a n gl e
V
22 5 . t he ce t he r D ( 1 16 2 1 ) E (2 16 l 16)
F (3 2 1 16
D ra w t he p oj ection s of
r t he b ise to c rs of t he follow ing a n g les (E x . 226
2 47)
2 26 A (4 + 2 %
.
22 7 D ( 2
. 1 + 3 ) E (2 % 3 1 14) F ( 4 1 14
22s G (2 + 2
. 1 ) K ( 3 16 + 3 3 ) L(2
P R O BLE M S R E LA TING TO PO INT S L IN E S A ND PLA N E S
, , 53
M (4 —1 %
A (2 + 1 %
D (2
G(1 + 14
M(l + 2 14 -
2) N (1 + 1
D (2 + 1 % 1 ) E ( 5, 0, 0) F (2 ,
Gra phi c La yo t N o 1 9 — ( ) M u . . a ea s u r e t he a ngle of t he polygon

( b ) Lo t e t h cant e of t i ngl
e ce r r a e (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 8,
236 G( 1 1 12) K 0 2 14 2 ) L( 1 1 14
B et w e e n t h e H a n d V
.
237 t ra ces of T ( l 3)
B e t w ee n t h e H a n d V
-
.
2 38 t ra ces of S ( l 3)
B et w een t h e H a n d V
-
.
239 t a ces of R ( 5 3)
B etw ee n t h e Van d P t r a ces of R (5
.
-
r
2 40 3) 2)
B etw een t h e Va n d P t a ces of Q
-
.
2 41 .
(+ -
r 1) oo
G r a phi c La y o t N o 2 0 — (a ) Dr a w perpend icu la r f rom point to

'
u . . a
l i ne in E x I . n E x . 6— 8 lo ca t e t h e po int in t h e pl a n e a n d d a w ,
r
t he p p end i u l to t h e
er c ar t a ce ( b ) Fr om t h e give n point in E x
r . .
d a w a lin e m a king
r ( 1 5 3 0 45 60 75 ) w it h t h e g iv en li n e o
, , , ,
r
t r a ce .
2 42 . B e t w ee n t h e H an d Vt -
ra ces of U (5
2 43 B et w e n t h e H and t r a ces of U ( E x
P
a nd V
. e -
.
2 44 . B et w ee n t h e H t ces of W (2 -
ra 3)
2 45 B etw een t h e H a d P t a ces of W ( 2 3) 3)
Vp oj
. n -
r
2 46 ' M (1 2 3 ) N (3 1 16) and it s -

tionr ec .
2 47 C (4° 1 3 ) P( 2 3 + 1 16) a nd it s H pr o j e cti on

-
.
54 PR A C TI CAL DE S C RI P TI V
E GE O M E TR Y
54 Pr ob l e m 1 5
. .
—To fin d th e sh ortes t d i s ta n c e fro m a poi n t
to a l in e .
rw o M E TH ODS
Fir s t M eth o d — An a lys i s —1 Pa ss a p l a n e t h r ough t h e give n

. . .
p oint a n d line .
2 R evolve t h e p oint a n d li n e a bout t h e t r a ce of t h e a uxi li a r y

.
p l a ne a s in t h e p r e cedin g p r oblems
,
.
F IG . 39 .
rect t h e perpendic ul a r fr om t h e point to t h e line

E
C o n clu s io n —T hi s per p endi cul a r i s t h e t r ue s h ortest dis t a n ce
.
.
,
a s t h e point a n d lin e a r e i n t h eir t r ue rel a tion .
C o n s truc t io n — L et C ( Fi g 3 9 ) be t h e g iven point a n d A B t h e

. .
given line .
1 Pa ss t h e pl a ne T t h r ou gh A B a n d C obt a i nin g H T only

.
,
2 R evolve A B a n d C a bout HT to a b a n d c
.
, ,
.
3 E r ect t h e pe r pendicul a r c l d l from 0 1 to a l b l

. Th is i s t h e .
s h ortest dist a nce .
N ot e —If t h e sh ort e s t li n e i s d es i d, o d m a y b e evolv ed b a ck to t h e

. re l ; r
o igi n a l pr o j ect ion s of t h e lin e s s h o wn i n t h e figu e

r a r .
PR O BLE M S R E LA TING TO PO INT S L IN E S AND PLA N E S
, , 55
55 . S e co n d M th o d b y a u xili a ry pl a n e s
e .
Let AB ( Fi g 40) be t h e g iven l i ne a n d C t h e g ive n point

. .
C on s t ructi o n — 1 Pr oj ect A B a n d C on Q whi c h is t a k en

. .
,
p a r a l le l to A B (a n d per pe ndi cul a r to H of cour s e )

2 Dr a w Q
.
,
QQ
. X pe r pendi cul a r to a b a n d p r oj ect A B a n d C on Q ,
.
C o n c l u s ion —Th e dist a nce fr om 0 to 3 b ( a point in pr oj ec

K
. .
tion ) is t h e true dist a nce Proj ectin g b a ck C D is t h e sh ortest

. .
lin e
.
F IG . 40 .
E XE R C I S E S
Find t he s ho t t di t n
r es s a ce f omr t he follo w ing poi nt to s t he follow ing
A (4 + 3
E (l —3 +
G (3 + 2 —3 to K (1
M (B + I
P( 3 + 2 — 1 14) to GL
—1
.
-
3 —3 ) C (3
‘
D (3 —1
56 PR A C TI C AL D E S C RI P TIV E GE O M E TR Y
G (l on t h e V
3 , 0) t ra ce of T ( l 3 ) 2 ) to HT
-
Al s o .
K (2 1 6 0 , 1 ) on H T to V T .
A 2 i n s tea m pipe ru n s th ou gh a b a s em ent f om a po int i t h e fl oo r

-
. r r n ,
M ( l O ft 0 . 1 8 ft 6 i n ) to a point on o e w a ll N ( 5O ft
, , . . 1 3 ft n ,
. .
,
At a point O (22 ft 1 8 ft 2 ft ) i n t h e ei l in g it i s d es ire d to

. . . c
m a k e t h e s h o rt es t po ible conn ection u s in g 1 % i pipe Wh e e w il l

ss ,
-
n . . r
t h e j o int b e m a d e a d h ow lon g w ill t h e b r a n ch p ip e b e a llow in g 3 in

,
n ,
.
fo c onn e ct ion ?
r
Gra phi c L y o t No 2 1 — (a ) M ea s
a u . . u re t hedis t a n ce from t h e giv en point
in E to t h giv n lin (I E 6—8 lo ca t e t h e po int in t h e pl a n e
(H o V
x . e e e . n x .
giv en d m ea s t h d i t n to t h
, an u re e s a ce e tra ce) (b) Dra w t h e
r -
.
p oj t ion s of t h h o t t po ibl lin

r ec e s r es ss e e .
FIGU R E S IN O B L IQUE P L AN E S
57 Problem
. 1 6 —To
. d ra w th e pro j ecti on s of a ny pl a n e
fi g ure in a ny obli que pl a ne .
M E THO D S
T h er e a re t w o im p o r t a nt p r o ces s es of a ch ieving t h is result .
Th e stud ent b y m a ster ing bot h will h a ve complete comm a nd

, ,
ove r a n y s itu a tion t h a t will a r ise Th e differ e n ce in t h e met h od .
is m a inl y in t h e m a nn er of counter r evolvin g t h e points -

.
A lysi
n a s — A ssumin g t h a t a give n point in a g iven oblique pl a n e
.
is to b e t h e ce nt er of som e r e gul a r pol y gon l y ing in t h e pl a n e .
1 R e volve t h e give n point a bout t h e t r a ce of t h e gi ven p l a n e

.
,
a s in Pr oblem 1 2 .
2 C onst r u ct t h e r equi r e d pol y gon in i t s t r u e si z e a bout t h e

.
r e volved position of t h e ce nt er .
3 C ount er r e volve t h e points ( co r n e r s ) of t h e p oly g o n into t h e

.
-
o r igin a l position of t h e pl a n e .
N ot —Th e bov i t h a n ly i f bot h m t h od

e. a e s e a s s or e s .
58 . THO D BY O RDINARY R E V
M E O LUTI O N
C on s tructi on —L et O ( Fi g 4 1 ) be a point in T
J
. . .it b e
Le t
requir ed to d r a w t h e p r oj ections of a l i n squ a r e -
. in T a bout 0,
a s a cent e r h a vin g two of i t s sides p a r a llel to H

, .
58 PR A C TI C AL D E SC RIPTI V
E G E O M E TR Y
2 . Obt a in t h e Qtra ce of
— T a nd t he Qp oj ection of O
-
r .
3 . Re volve 0
bout H T to 0 1 in t h e m a nne r s h own in Fi g 4 2
a . .
4 C onst r uct t h e r e qui r ed h ex a gon a bo u t 0 1 a s a c e nt e r

5 C ount er r evolve t h e co r ne r s of t h e h ex a gon : ( 1 ) to Q
. .
T;
V
-
.
( 2) to t h e H p r oj e ction ; ( 3 ) to t h e pr oj ect i on
- ~
.
N ote 1 —Th ow i n F i g 42 h ow t h e d i e ti on of t hi op tion in

. e a rr s, .
,
s r c s er a
t h c e of point A
N ote 2 —Th V
e as .
p o j ti on of t h v i o s point a t h
e -
r ecm di t n s e ar u s re e sa e s a ce
f om GL a s t h e Qp oj ti o f om H Q
.
’
r -
r ec n s a re r .
F IG . 42 .
—A he x a gon d r aw n in anobli q e pl a n e b y
u the
“ a u x i l l i a ry pla n e
m et h od .
60 . S upplem en ta ry Probl e m .
—To d ra w t h e pr o j e cti o n s of a
c i r cl e i n a n ob l i qu e pl a n e .
C on s tructi on — L et 0 ( Fi g 4 3) b e t h e cent e r of a 1 % i n ci rcl e

. .
-
.
lyin g in T .
1 R evolve 0 a bout HT to 0 1
. .
2 Dr a w t h e circle full size a bout 0 1 a s a ce nt er

. .
3 Dra w t h e di a meter s p a r a llel a n d pe r pendi cul a r to H T a b

.
, l l
a n d c d l r es p ectivel y
l .
4 C ounte r r evolve t h e points a l b

.
-
cl a n d ( 11 T h e y will l ,
be t h e fou r vertices of t h e ellipse wh i ch 18 t h e H —

.
, ,
p r oj ection of
t h e ci r cle .
‘
Th e m a j or a xis will be a b a n d t h e minor a xis e d
“ ,
n H n
.
PR OBLE M S R E LA TIN G To POIN T S L IN E S , ,
AN D P LA NE S 59
Th e lli p s e m a y be d ra wn on t h ese a x es in a n y desir e d m a nner

e ,
p r efera bly t h e t ra mmel m et h od ( See Art

”
V
. .
F or t h e p r oj ection re volve 0 a bout V T a n d counter revolve

-
,
-
t h e points e 1 f g a n d kl in t h e s a me w a y ; e f will t h e n be t h e
v "
, l , 1,
V
m a j or a x1s a n d g k will be t h e minor a xi s
,
"
.
F IG . 43 .
— Th e p oj ections of a ci cl
r r e.
E XE R C I S E S
Dr a w t h e pr oj ections of t h e follow in g pl ne figu es i n t h e pl n es g iv n a r a e
a cc o d i n g to t h e s t a t e d cond i ti ons
r
2 5 7 E q u il a t e a l t i ngl e 1 1 6 i n s id es
. r r aT (2 3) ,
C e nt e
-
t . . r a
A ( 3 16 1 x ) in T , .
2 5 8 T i a n gl e E x 2 5 7
. r U (2 2)
. .
Ito H 1 in f om
On e s id e I ,
. r
HU .
259 . T r i a n gl e E x . 2 57 . S (5 2) C e nte r at x ) in S
O (4 1, .
2 60 . T ria ngl e E x . 2 57 . T (2 3) "to V 1 in f om V T

On e s id e I ,
. r .
261 Tr i a n gl e E x 2 57 U ( + 2) C e nte r a t M (3 y
On e s id e "Ito H 1 in f r om V
co
. . .
,
2 62 . T ria ngl e E x . 257 . W( 3) co W

,
. .
60 P RA C TIC AL D E SC R I P TI V
E G E OM E T R Y
263 Tria ngl e E x 2 57 X ( + 16 ) co C ent er at N (3 1 16, y)

Q
. . .
.
2 64 . Tria n gle E x . 2 57 .
(1 3) C e nt er at K (4 1, x) .
265 . T r ia n gl e E x . 2 57 . R (l 1) (5 2) (1 16 ) (5 C e nt er a t
F (3 1, x) .
2 66 . Tria ngl e E x. 2 57 . S (5 2) C e nte r a t D (3, x
G r a phi c L yo t No
a u . 22 .
— D ra w t he p oj ections of pl n e fig e
r in a ur
giv n pl n
e a e u nd e r on e of t he follow ing conditi on s a s s el ect ed b y t h e ,
i n t to :
s ru c r
( a ) As s u m e a point in t he gi v n pl n
e a e, a s t he ce nt e of r t he giv n pl n
e a e
fig u re .
( b ) As s u m e a l in e i n t he given pl ne a as on e of t he si d es of t he pl n e a
figu re.
( 0) As s u m e a l i n e in t he g iv e n p l n e a as t he dia g on a l or di m ete of
a r t he
g iv n p l n fi g
e a e u re .
(d ) D w o e o n ra of t h e give n figu e i n H a n d o e s id e in cli ed

n c r er r , n n
( 1 0 1 5 3 0 40 4 5 ) to t h e H t a ce r
N ote — V
-
, , , , .
m a y b e s u b s titu t e d for H in cond ition ( d )

. .
( ) C i cu m s crib e a ci cl e a bou t t h e pl a ne fi gu re
e r i n pl a ne
r
(I) In s c ib e a ci cl e i n t h e pl a ne figu e
r r i n pl a e r n
2 67 . T r ia n g l e E x . 2 57 . Y(1 2 16 ) C ent e r at A (2 1 6 , x
2 68 . Tri a ngle E x . 2 57 . P( 4 3) On e s id e "Ito H ,
1 in b low
. e
H in I I I .
2 69 . Su b s ti tu te a r igh t t i ng l r a in X 1 16 in in
e l a ny of t he p l n
a es in E x .
2 5 7—
. .
2 68, u nd er t h e a s m ond itio

e c ns .
2 70 . I n s crib e a ci r cl e i n a n y of t h e t i ngl in Er a es x . 2 5 7—2 69 .

PR O BLE M S RE LA TING T O POI N TS LI N E S A N D PLA N E S
, , 61
2 71 . Su b s t it t u e on e of t h e follo wi n g polyg on s f or t he t i a n g l e in E x
r . 2 5 7 268
-
(a ) 1 16 i n . s qu a re .
( b) l in-
t n gl e
. X 1 16 i n -
. r ec a .
( c) 1 16 i n r eg l p ent gon
-
. u ar a .
(d) 1 16 i n regu l a r h ex a gon

-
. .
( e) 1 1 6 i n ci cl e -
. r .
(f) 1 1 6 i n o ct g on -
. a .
2 72 . D a w t h e p oj ect ion s of pol yg on

r r i n E x 2 71 i n a y of t h e pl n es . n a
given i n E x 2 57—2 68 w it h on e co er i n H a d not h co n er 16 in

. rn n a er r .
f om t h e H t a ce
r -
r
T ia n gl e in E 2 69 i n a y of t h e pl n es i n E x 2 5 7—
.
2 73 2 68 wi th i t h y
Ito V 1 i n f om t h e V
. r x . n a . s
,
p ot h e u e I n s t a ce , . r -
r .
2 74 . S q a e E x 2 71 ( ) i n a y of t h e pl a n es in E x 2 5 7—
u r , . 2 68 w i t h i t s di g
a n .
, a
ona l I" to H i n a bov e o b e low H ,

. r .
2 75 . H ex a g on 1 16 i n S h o r t d ia m et er w ith a
, i n ci cl e i t h e ce nt e
.
,
-
. r n r,
d ra w n in a n y of t h e pla nes i n E x 2 57—2 68 w it h i t s center a t a n y ch os en .

,
poi nt i n t h e given pl a ne .
2 76 . C ir cu m s crib e a ci l e a bo t a y of t h e fo eg oi n g pol yg on s rc u n r .
2 77 S qu a e E x 2 71 ( ) in a y of t h e pl a n es i n E x 2 5 7—2 68 w ith o e c o r n e
in Va d a Sid e in li n e d 30 to t h e V
. r , . a n .
,
n r
,
n t a ce c
°
-
r .
2 78 . Th e l i n e M ( 3 1 X ) N ( 4 + 12 y ) i n R ( I 1 ) (5 + 2 ) ( 1, 12 ) ,
(5 1 ) i s on e of t h e di a m e t e s of a ci cl e in R Dr a w t h e p oj ect i on s r r . r
of t h e ci cle r .
2 79 . An el li ps e m a j o r a xi s A ( 2 0 , 1 ) B ( 3 16 0 mi no r a xi s C (2 % , , ,
0 16) 0 1 1 6 ) i s t h e p oj ecti on of a ci cl e l yin g i n a pl a n e

D w t he V
r r
wh os e H —
,
t a ce i s E ( l 0 2 ) F ( 4 0 tra ce of t h e
pl a ne a d t h e V
r , ,
ra -
p oj ecti on of t h e ci cle
n -
r r
1 ) i s t h e H—
.
2 80 . A 1 16 i n ci cl e w h os e ce nt er i n M ( 3 0
-
. r p oj ection of a ,
r n
e lli p s e l y i n g i n a y of t h e pl n e s i n E x 2 5 8 2 59 2 6 1 2 63 2 64 2 65
D a w t he V
n a .
, , , , , ,
2 66 2 67, . p oj ection a n d t h e t ru e s i e of t h e ellips e

r -
r z .
281 . Th e r oof of a to w i s a h e x a g on a l p y a m id b a s e 1 4 ft a d a ltit u d e

er r , .
,
n
1 8 ft In e a ch of t h e t h e f ont f es a e r e ct a ngu l a w i ndo w s 2 ft

. re r ac r r ,
.
9 in X 6 ft 3 i n
. e c h 3 ft 3 i n f om t h e to w e b a se
. .
,
Dr a w t h e
a . . r r .
p oj ection s Sca le 16 i n
r 1 ft
. . .
S IX T H FUNDAM E N TAL P R OBLE M

62 Problem 1 7 — To fi n d t h e l i n e of inte r s e cti o n of t w o pl a n e s
. . .
Axiom s 1 Th e int er s ection of two pl a n e s is a st r a igh t lin e

‘
-
. . .
2 T w o points d et e r m i ne a st r a ig h t lin e
. .
An a lys i s — 1 Find bot h p r oj ections of t h e point wh e r e t h e

V
. .
-
t r a ce s of t h e give n pl a n es int er s ect .
2 Find bot h p r oj e ctions of t h e point Wh er e t h e H t r a ces

.
-
int er s e ct .
3 J oin t h e r esp e ctive p r oj ections of t h e s e t w o points wh i ch

.
,
a r e c ommon to bot h pl a n e s .
C o n clu s io n — Th e lin e t h us d r a wn is common to bot h pl a n e s

. ,
a n d t h e r efo r e t h e i r int er s ection .

62 PRA C TIC AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
N ote —Th H p oj ection of a y V t a ce i s i GL, and th fo t h e H pro
point i n t h e V
. e -
r n -
r n er e re -
j ec t i on of a ny t a ce i s in GL -
r .
Proof .
— Th e Vt
es b e in g e a ch a line in one of t h e giv e n
-
ra c ,
p l a n es int er s ect in a point common to both pl a nes a n d t h er efore

, ,
in t h e line of int er section Simil a r l y for t h e inter se ction of t h e .
H t r a ces
-
H a vin g found t h e se two points t h e li ne of i n t er s ec
.
,
tion is deter mined .
C on s tructio n — Le ft to t h e stud ent Refer to Fi g 44

. . . .
F IG . 44 .
63 .Sp e c i a l C a s es — Wh en t h e tra c e s d o . n ot i nter s e ct wit h i n

th e l i m i t s of t h e probl e m , or not a t a l l .
An a l y si s .
-
1 . If on e pa ir of t ra c e s in ter s e ct lo ca te t h eir point ,
of inter section .
2 Dr a w a n a uxili a r y pl a ne t h a t will in te r sect bot h g iven pl a n e s

. .
Th e lines of int er se ction of t h e a uxili a r y a n d g iven pl a n e s will

int er sect in a point on t h e r equired lin e of inte r s e ction .
3 If n eith e r p a ir of tra ce s i nter s ect d ra w a s econd a uxili a r y

.
,
p l a ne wh i ch w ill d eter mine a not h e r poi nt on t h e r equir ed lin e ,
t h us dete r minin g t h e line of int er s ection .
C on s tructi on — For most obliqu e pl a n e s such a s t h e two sh own

.
,
in Fi g 4 5 it is quicke st a n d most convenie nt to use pl a nes

V
.
,
p a r a ll el to H or a s a uxili a r ies Su ch pl a nes h a ve one t r a ce .
onl y a n d t h a t is p a ra llel to GL Su ch pl a nes int er se ct obliqu e

, .
pl a nes in lines p a r a llel to t h eir t r a ce s ; t h a t is a pl a ne p a ra llel ,

P R O BLE M S RE LA TING TO PO I N TS L INE S AND PLAN E S
, , 63
to V wi ll i nte r se ct a n obli que pl a ne in a line p a r a llel to its V

t r a ce etc L et t h e student give t h e r e a son fr om Solid Geomet ry
V
Q( Q Nto H) Q will cut C M a n d DM fr om T a n d
.
, .
1 Dr a w
. .
S r esp e ctivel y
“
.
2 L oc a te In a n d In t h e inte r section of C M a n d DM
"
V
.
, .
3 Dr a w H R ( R H
. to ) R wi ll cut AO a n d B 0 fr om T a n d .
S r e spectiv el y .
V
4 L o ca t e a nd o
n
int er s e ction of AO a n d B 0
t he
“
. 0 , .
Dra w t h e p r oj e ctions of t h e r equi re d int er

v " 3
5 . o m a nd 0 m ,
se ction .
64 . C a s e 11 .
— Wh en it
convenient to u s e a n a u xi l ia ry pl a n e
is ~
p a ra llel to on e of t h e g ive n pl a n e s .
Fig 4 6 s h ows a pl a ne Q p a r a llel to S bein g used to d et er mine

.
, ,
t h e di r e cti o n of t h e line of int er s e ction of T a n d S .
C o n s tru ctio n — 1 Pa ss a p l a ne Q p a r a ll e l to S so t h a t its int er

. .
,
se ction XY wit h T will come inside t h e p r oblem limits .
2 Dra w X Y t h e intersection of T a n d Q
.
,
.
64 PRA C TIC AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
3 Fi nd M ( one point on t h e inter s ection of T a n d S)
. .
4 Dra w M N p a r a llel to X Y
. .
C onclu s io n — M N is t h e requi r ed in te r s e ction of T a n d

. S .
FI G . 46 .
65 . Case 111 — Wh en
both pla n e s a r e pa ra l l el t o GL .
Alt h ough t h e pl a nes intersect t h eir t ra ces a r e a l l p a ra ll el

,
.
In a smuc h a s bot h pl a n e s a r e p a r a ll el to GL t h eir i nte r section

,
F IG . 47 .
l o be p a r a ll el to GL ( See Solid Ge omet ry

a s .
H e nce onl y one point on t h e int er se ction is r equired .
Fi gs 4 7 a n d 48 sh ow t wo diff erent a uxili a r y pl a nes t h a t

. m ay
66 P RA C T IC AL D E S C RI P TIV E G E O M E TR Y
2 96 . S( 1 1 6 , pa ra ll e l to H ) and X (5 2)
2 97 . U( p
1 , a ra e ll l to V ) a nd W (5 2)
298 . X(1 2) 1) a nd Y (5 1 16 )
299 . R (l 3) 2) a nd S (5 2)
T(l 2) W (2 2)3) a nd
3 01 . U (4 2) 1 ) a n d X (5 2)
3 02 Y( 1 3) 2 ) a n d Z (2 3)
Q
.
3 03 . R (l 3) 3) a nd (5 2 ) 3 160 16
304 . S(l 3) 3 ) a n d U (5 2)
3 05 . T(l 3) 1 ) a n d X (5 2)
3 06 W (l 3) 2 ) a n d Y ( 4 16 3)
Q
.
3 07 .
(3 3) 3 ) a n d Z (4 3)
308 . R (I (5 2 164 ) (1 12) ( 5 1 16) a n d 3)
3 09 . T (2 3) 2 ) a n d U (5 2)
310 . W (5 3) 2) a nd X (1 2 16 )
311 Y(3 3) 2 ) a n d Z (5 2)
Q —
.
3 12 .
( 1 + 2 ) ( 5 + 3 ) ( 1 1 ) ( 5 1 19 8 11 61 R ( I + 1 ) ( 5 + 1 12) ( 1 2)
(5
313 . S ( l + 1 ) (5 + 3) ( 1 1 16) ( 3 —2 ) a n d T ( l 1 16) ( 3 —2 ) ( 1 l)
(5
3 ) a n d a 3 0 pl a n e w hi ch c ont a i n s GL
°
3 14 . U(I 2) .
3 14 . W (5 1) 3 ) a n d a pl a n e c onta i n i ng GL a n d A ( 3 1
X (1 1 6 ) (5 1 16) a n d a 4 5 pl a n e t h r o u g h GL
°
3 15 . 1 ) (5 3) (1 .
316 . D r a w a li ne t h r ou g h M ( 4 1 1 ) pa r a llel to T ( l 3 ) 1) and

S (5 3)
3 17 . Dra w a l in e 2 i n long th r o u gh 0 , ( 4. 1 2 ) p a r a ll e l to W ( l 3)
1 ) a n d X (5 3)
3 18 . Dra w a li n e 2 16 i n long t h r o u gh A (2 . 3 3 ) pa ra ll e l to X ( 1 3)
3 ) a n d Y(3 3)
N 9 . Fin d t h e point of inters ection of t h e th ree pla n es , R ( l

S( 2) (co a n d T (5 2)
3)
3 2 07 D ra w t he p oj ectio n s of t h e te t
r ra h e d on bou nd ed b y H/an d
r t he t h ree
pl a n es i n E x 3 1 9 . .
32 1 . Deve lop t h e s u rf ce of t h e t et a h ed on in E x 3 2 0
a r r . .
t h e p oj ecti ons of t h e f rus t u m of t h e te t h e d on

r ra r in E x . 320
by W( 2)
323 . op t he f
fru s tu m of t h e t et h ed on i E 3 2 2
s u r a ce Of t he ra r n x . .
32 4 . D a w t h e p oj ctions of t h e t etra h ed on fo rm ed b y t h e inte se ction

r r e r r
of t h e pla nes S ( 3 2 ) T (3 3) R (3 3)
4 16 ( 2 2 a d t h e pl n e Q 2 in b e lo w a d p a a ll e l to H
n a ,
. n r .
325 . Dev elop t h e s u rfa ce Of t et a h ed on in E x 3 2 4 r r . .
32 6 . D a w t h e p o j e ct ions of t h e f rus tu m of t h t t a h e d on in E x 32 4
r r e e r r .
,
m d e b y t h e pl n e Y ( 1 16 ) (
a a m
327 . Deve lop t he s u rfa ce of t h e frus tu m in E x 3 2 6 . .
TH E PIE R C IN G PO IN T OF A L IN E AN D PL AN E
67 Prob l em 18 — TO fi n d t h e
. . poin t wh er e an ob l iq u e pl a n e is
pi e rc e d b y a l i ne .
PR O BLE M S R E LA T I NG T O PO I N T S L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, , 67
Gr a phi c La yo t N o 213 —D
u . . ra w t he p oj ec ti ons Of t h e li ne of inte
r rs ec tion of
t h e pl n
a es giv n in E x
e .
68 PR A C TIC AL /
DE SC R IPTI E V GE O M E TRY
FIR S T M E T HO D
C o n s tr u c t i on Let T ( Fi g 4 9 ) b e t h e giv e n pl a ne a n d A B t h e
.
-
.
given li ne
1 Obt a in Q
.
. T .
2 Obt a in a b
° °
. .
Q
3 L oc a t e O ( t h e pie r cing po i nt ) w h er e a b inter sects QT
° °
.
,
a n d p r oj ect it b a ck to O O
V H
.
C o n cl u s io n — Th e p oi ht O is t h e r e qu i r e d p i er cin g
’
F IG . 49 .
SE C ON D M E T HO D
An a lys i s .
—1 . Pa ss pl a ne th rough t h e g iven lin e
a .
2 .Find t h e line of int er s ection of t h e a uxi li a ry

a n d given
pl a nes .
C onclu s i o n — Wh ere t h is int er s e ction cr oss e s t h e giv e n line is

.
t h e pie r cin g point .
Proof — Since t h e point t h us found is not onl y on t h e giv en

.
line but In t h e g iven pl a ne it must be t h e common point of t h e

,
,
. .
“
two 73e t h e pier cin g point
,
,
C on s tructi o n L et A B ( Fi g 5 0) be t h e g iven line a n d T t h e

. .
g iven pl a ne .
1 Pa ss a pl a ne ( Q ) t h r ou gh A B
. .
N ot e Whi l y of t h i nfini te n um b e of pl n e cont i i g A B m y

bl to s t h e H o V
.
-
e an e r a s a n n a
b e u e d it i s s i mm
s , dp f er a n p oj e ting pl n I
r e era e u e r -
r c a e . n
thi s cons t ru ction t h e H p o j ecting pla n e ( Q ) i d -

r s u se .
2 Obt a in M N t h e i n t e g ct i q n of Q a n d T
.
r ,
.
R
P OB E L M S R E LA T ING T o POI N T S L IN E S
, ,
LAN E S
AN D P 69
3 . L o ca te wh e r e M N cr osses A B
C, .
C o n clu s ion — C is t h e point in wh i ch A B p i e r ce s T

. .
N ot e —Th i p obl m fig
. s r e in mo t of t h
u r es d in g p
s e s u c ce e r ob l e m s .
'
an d
s h o ld b e t h o o g h l y m t d
u r u a s e re .
F IG . 50 .
F IG
. 51 .
70 P RA C T IC AL D E S C R IPT IV E G E O M E TR Y
68 P roblem. 1 9 — To solve Problem 18 with out t h e tra c es of
.
t h e g ive n p l a n e .
Con structi o n —Let t h e two int er s ectin g l i n e s M N a n d OP

.
d et er mine t h e g iv en pl a n e a n d A B be t h e giv en line ( Fig , .
1 Pa ss t h e p r oj ectin g pl a ne Q t h r ough A B
. .
( N ot — HQ is ffi ci nt )
“
e su e
2 Pr oj ect t h e Q
. .
pier cin g points of M N a n d OP 0 a n d d 3
V
-
.
, ,
V n
to th eir p r oj e ctions 0 a d d
-
,
"
.
3 Dra w c d t h e inte r s ection of Q a n d t h e p l a n e M N OP

v v
.
,
V
4 Wh e r e c d c r oss e s a b at x
"
t h e pi er cing poi n t is lo ca t e d
v " v
, ,
. .
Pr oj e ct to x on a b
H f’ H
N t o eTh i p obl m i of g t v l in
.
-
s r f i nt e tion s rea a ue s u r a ce e rs e c s .
E XE R C I S E S
69 Fi nd t h e piercing points of t h e follow in g lin es a n d pl a ne s
. . F m il i a i
a r ze
y ou s el f w ith both m et h od s b y doi g t h e exercis es both w ys

r n a .
328 . A (2 3 2 ) B (4 1 1) a nd S (5 3)
32 9 . C (l 1 16 16) D ( 4 1 16 16 ) and S in E x . 32 8 .
330 . D (3 16 1 16 ) E ( 5 2 2) and S in E x . 32 8 .
33 1 . F (3 G (3 2 3) and S in E x . 328 .
3 32 . K (3 1 6 ) L(4
16 3 3 ) a n d s i n E x 328 . .
3 33 . M (3 l 1 ) N (4 2 3 ) a n d T (2 2)
334 . O (l 1 2 ) P( 5 1 2 ) a n d T i n E x 333 . .
335 . A(I 16 1 16 ) B (5 16 1 1 6 ) a n d T in E x 3 33 . .
336 . C ( 3 16 2 3 ) D (3 % 16 16) a n d T in E x 333 . .
3 37 . E ( 3 16 1 3 16 ) F ( 5 2 1 ) a n d T i n E x 333 . .
33 8 . G (2 2 1 ) K (4 1 3 ) a n d X (5 3)
339 . M (l 2 1 ) N (4 2 1 ) a n d X E x 338 , . .
3 40 . O (4 3 1 ) P( 2 3 1 ) a n d X E x 3 38 ,
. .
341 . A (3 — 3 + 2 ) B ( 1 1 + 1 ) a n d Y( 1) ( co
3 42 . C (l 2 3 ) D (3 16 16) a n d Y E x 3 4 1 ,
. .
3 43 . E (3 + 2 2 ) F (3 1 16) a n d U ( 1 16) ( oo
3 44 . G(l 2 2 ) K (3 16 1 a n d U (E x .
345 . M (2 2 1 ) N (3 1 1 16 ) a n d R (5 2) l) .
3 46 . O (3 3 1 6 ) P( 3 1 2 ) a n d R (5 2)
3 47 . A (I 1 1 ) B (5 1 1 ) a n d R (E x .
3 48 C (3
. 1 2) D ( 5, 0 3) R (E x
and .
3 49 E (2 + 3
. 3 ) F (2 16 1 16 ) a n d T ( 5 + 2 ) ( 1 1 ) (5 3) (l
3 50 G (2
. 2 16) K ( 3 16 1 1 6 ) a n d T , E x 3 49 . .
351 . M(l 2 16) N ( 5 2 16) a n d T E x 34 9 ,

. .
3 52 . A (4 2 1 ) B (3 1 3) a n d S (l 3)
3 53 C (l
. 1 2 ) D (4 1 2 ) a n d S E x 352 ,
. .
3 54 E (2 2 16) F (2 l 2 ) a n d S E x 3 52 , . .
3 5 5 G (3
. 2 1 16) K ( 3 % 0 2 ) a n d S E x 3 52
, ,
. .
Lo te t h pi ing points of t h follo w in g lin w ith t h e pl nes of

ca e e rc e es a t he
va io giv n li n s w it h o t d w ing t h e t
r us e s of t h pl n
e , u ra r a ce e a es .
P R O B LE M S R E LA TI NG T O PO I N TS L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, , 71
3 56 . M (2 2 1 1) N ( 3 16 1 2 16 ) and t he pl ne of
a O (5 3 1)
P( l + 1
Gi v e n Lm e s
Giv e n Pl a n es
G L y o t No 24 — L t t h po int i w h i h t h lin
r a phi c a u . . o ca e pi e n c e e e r ce s
t h e pl n e a N ote — D w t h e line s o t h t it i s lik l y to p e t h pl n

. ra a e i erc e a e .
T h e H a d V p oj ti on s
n d t r m y b
ec t n spo d if d i d
an r a ces a e ra se . es r e .
3 57 . A (5 16 3) B (2 2 16 l ) a nd t he pl n e of
a C (5 2 2)
D( l 1 1 14) E ( 5 , 0
72 P RA C TIC AL DE S C R IPT IV E GE O M E TR Y
. P( 3 + 2 —3 ) O (3 + 1 16 ) — and t he pl na e of G (3 + 2 —2 )
K (1 1 1 16) L( 5 1 , O) .
M (2 N (2 and t he pl ne ofa A(I

B (4 1 + 1) C (1
D(l + 3 —2 ) a n d t h e a pl ne of F (2 + 1 1 6 —3 )
G ( 4 + 2 12 1 ) a n d K (2 16 16 2 ) M 4 16 1 1 6 , 0)
M (3 + 2 —16) N (3 + 16 1 16) and t he pl a ne of PG —K L , Ex .
360 .
G ra p hi La y o t No
c u . 25 .
—Find w h e re t h e gi ve n l i n e pie rces t he giv n pl n
e a e
in E x .
3 62 . O (4 2 16) F (2 16 16 2 16) and t he pl n e ofa A (2 1 16, O)

B (4
3 63 . From t h e mi ddle po int A of t h e line B(l 2 1 ) C (1 1 3)
d ra w a lin e w hi ch s h a ll inte rs ect M (2 16 1 ) N (4 3 3) and
O ( 3 16 1% 1 ) P( 4 12
Gr La y o t N o 2 6 — Find w h
a phi c u . . e re t he giv n li n A B pi s t h pl n
e e e rce e a e
of t h e inters ctin g o p ll l lin i

e r a ra e es n E x . w it h o t d w in g t h e pl n
u ra a e
t r a ce s .
Dra w gh t h ex g on l p i m i t nt li n E ( l 16 1 ) F (3 16
a ri a a r s , s ce er e
16 with o of i t f s in H Fi nd t h point i w h i h it i
ne s a ce . e s n c s
pie ced b y G ( 1 16 2 16) K (3 0

r ,
D w t h e p oj tion s of t h e h o t t li n on t h e
ra r ec f of t h h x gon l s r es e s u r a ce e e a a
p i s m ( E 3 64 ) b tw n t h pi ing poi nt of GK
r x . e ee e erc s .
3 66 . Hex a g on l p i m i n E a3 64 Find t h e pi i ng po i nt of t h th
r s x. . er c s e r ee
p llel li s A ( I 0 2 ) B (3 2
a ra ne C ( l 16 0
,
1 ) D ( 3 16 2 ,
a nd E (2, 0 1 16) F (4 2
74 P RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPT IVE GE O M E TR Y
D v elop t h e s f
e of t h py mi d in E 3 75 b t w n H d S
u r a ce e ra x . e ee an .
M k p pe mod el of it
a e a a r .
P i m in E
r s 3 64 F ind i t i nt rs e tion with t h pl n U (2 3 ) 2
x . . s e c e a e
(3 C o s s h t h t h e s ti on a d s h o w i t i n i t s t e i e
r a c ec n ru s z .
D v lop t h e s rf ce of t h e p i m in E x 3 77 b etw een

e e u a of i t b r s . on e s a s es
an d U M a k e a p pe mod l of it
. a r e .
P i m in E
r s 3 64 Fi nd i t s inte ti on d t h t
x . . i of t h int rs ec ,
an e ru e s z e e er
se ti on w i t h
c p ofil e pl n t h o gh A (2 16 O
, a r a e r u , ,
D v lop t h e f of t h e p i m in E 3 79 b etw een

e e s u r a ce b d th r s x . on e a se a n e
p o file pl n e M k e a p p mod el
r a . a a er .
P i m in E
r s 364 D w i t inte ection b y t h e pl ne S (2 3 ) 416
x . . ra s rs a
(1 C o h t ch t h e i nte s e t i on
r d s h o w i t s t ru e i
ss a r c an s ze .
Dev lop t h e p is m in E 3 81 b et ween o e of i t s b ases a d S M k

e r x . n n . a e
a p a per mod el .
PE R PE N DI C U L A R S To PL AN E S
70 Problem
. 20 — TO d r a w . a l in e p e rp en di c u l a r to a gi ven
pla n e th rou gh
, a g ive n point .
F IG . 52 .
An a lys i s — 1 T h r ou gh t he Vp oj ection of t h e giv en point

V
. .
-
r
d r a w t h e pr oj ection of t h e re quir ed line pe r p e ndicul a r to t h e

V
-
-
t r a ce of t h e given pl a ne .
2 T h r ou g h t h e H pr oj e ct i ori of t h e g ive n point d ra w t h e H

.
-
pr oj e ction of t h e requir ed lin e p er pendicul a r to t h e H t r a ce of -
t h e g iven pl a ne .
C on s truction — Let t h e stud ent m a k e t h e const r u ction fo r t h e

.
ordin a r y c a se .
Speci a l C a s e —
Wh e n t h e given pl a n e i s p a ra l l e l t o GL
. .
C on s tructi on — Let M ( Fi g 5 2 ) a n d T be t h e g iven point a n d

. .
pl a n e .
P O R BL E M S R E LA T ING T O POI N TS L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, ,
75
1 . Obt a in t h e P p r oj e ction -
of M .
2 . Obt a in t h e P t r a ce of T
-
.
Dra w t h e p e r p endi cul a r to PT

i "
3 . m n .
4 . to ri a n d 11 on a
Pr oj e ct n
P v K
lin e t h r ough M p er p endi cul a r
to t h e t r a ce s of T .
C onclu s ion — M N is p e r p e n di cu l a r to T
. .
N ot e —N . n ee d not b e point in t h pl a n e
a e , b ut a ny poi nt in t h e l in e .
E XE R C I S E S
i c La yo u t N o 28 — F om A ( S 2 2 ) (or
Gr a ph . .u m e t h e point if
r ass ,
p efe red ) d ra w a pe pe ndicu l a to pl a n e

r r r Find w h e e t h e perp e
r r n
dic lu arpie ces t h e giv en pla n e Fi nd t h e t ru e le n gt h of t h e perpen dicu l a r

r .
f om t h e po int to t h e pl a n e
r .
F r om A (2 2 d a w a p pe ndi cu l a r to T ( 5
2 16 ) r er 2)
a n d fi n d w h ere i t pie ces i t r .
3 84 . F r om B ( l 2 I) d a w pe pe ndi l a t o S ( 5 3 ) r a r cu r and
find w h e e i t pie s it
r r ce .
F om C (4 1 2 ) d w a p p ndi c l to R ( 3 3 )
r ra er e u ar and
find w h e e it pie ces it

r r .
3 86 . Fr om D ( 2 1 1 6 ) d ra w a pe rpe ndi cu l to X ( ar + 2) oo
(
a d find w h ere i t p ie rces i t
n .
P RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPT IV E GE O M E TR Y
Fr om E (2 d ra w a pe pendi cu la r to U ( 5 2 ) ( 1 1 )
1 16 ) r
( 5 +3 ) ( 1 a d find w h ere i t p ie ces i t n r .
F om F ( 3 2 2 ) d ra w a perpe ndi cu l to W ( l 2 )
r a d ar n
find i t s W pie ci n g poi nt -

r .
F om G ( 3 0 0) d ra w a perp ndi c l a r to Y ( 1 2 )
r , ,
a n d fin d e u
w h e e i t p ie c es i t
r r .
F om K ( 3 0 0) d a w a perpend icu l a r to T ( 2 ) (
r , ,
r oo
Sc a l e 1 6 in 1 ft The oof of a b u ild i n g c ont a ins t w o poi nt s : A

. . r
( 1 6 ft 0 .
, 8 a d B ( 2 2 ft
,
1 4 ft 6 i n 2 Th e ri d ge
n .
, . .
,
a n d lo w e e d ge u n 2 4 ft h o ri ont a ll y to t h e s o u th ea s t
r r A t C (2 8 ft . z . .
,
0 6 ft ) i t i s d es i e d to erec t a a ft e b a ce pe p end icu l a to t h e r oof

. r r r r r r .
A t w h a t po int w il l i t s u ppo rt t h e r oof a d h ow lon g w i ll i t b e ? n
A tow er a h ex a gon a l p yr a mid 1 8 ft b a s e 1 6—

,
Sca l e 1 6 i n 1 ft . . ft , ,
-
.
,
.
a lt it u d e b a s e cente r a t O ( 24 ft
, 0 8 Fr om B (42 ft 2 0 ft .
,
. .
1 8 ft ) i t i s d es i e d to ru n a t el eph on e w i e p erpend icu l a rl y to t h e

. r r
n ea res t fa ce Wh ere i s t h e h ole d rill ed a n d w h a t i s t h e l engt h of t h e

.
,
W i re ?
72 . Problem 2 1 .
— To e r e ct a perpen di cul a r of a n y gi ve n l en gt h
from a point i n a pl a n e .
F IG . 53 .
C on s tructio n — L et be t h e given po i nt a n d T t h e A ( Fi g . 53 ) ,
given pl a ne Re quir ed to er ect a p er p endicul a r 1 i n lon g

. . .
1 Dr a w a pe r p endicul a r to T of inde fi nite len gt h t h r ou gh A .
2 Obt a in QT
. .
3 Obt a in a ° °
4 E r e ct t h e p er pendi cul a r a c 1 i n long

° °
“
.
,
.
5 Pr oj e ct c b a ck to c t h en ce to c
° "
.
,
C o n clu s io n — A C is pe r p e ndi cul a r to T a n d 1 i n lon g

.
,
. .
PR OB LE M S R E LA TIN G TO POIN TS L IN E S , , AN D P LA N E S 77
S E C O ND M E TH O D
An a lys i s —1 E
r e ct a p e r p e ndi cul a r of ind e finit e l engt h f r om
.
t h e given p oint a c co r ding to Pr oblem 2 0

, .
2 A ssume a p oin t on t h e p er p endi cul a r

. .
3 . R e volve t h e de fi nite lin e t h us d r a wn

, ,
SO a s to Sh ow its t r u e
l e n gt h .
4 . La y off quire d dist a n ce on t h e t r u e l en gt h of t h e lin e

t he re
fr om t h e give n point .
5 R etu r n t h e limiting p o i nt to its p r o p e r p osition in s p a ce

. .
C on tr
s u cti on — TO e r ect a p er p e ndi cul a r 1 i n lon g a t A ( Fig
. . .
54 ) in t h e pl a ne T .
1 Dr a w a b a n d a b r e s p ectiv ely p e r p e ndi cul a r to H T a n d

H H v "
.
,
VT
V
.
2 H a vin g a ssumed B on t h e lin e r e volv e it p a r a ll e l to

.
,
to ,
s h o w its t r ue l en gt h .
3 La y off 1 in on t h is re volv e d lin e a c

v v
. . l .
4 R etu r n o f to c c on A B
l’ lEI
. .
C o n c l u s ion —.A C is p er p e ndi cul a r to T a n d 1 in lon g

~
,
. .
78 P RAC T IC AL DE S C R IPT IV E G E OM E T R Y
E XE RC I S E S
Fr om A (2 1 x ) i n T ( l ,
3) 2) e r ec t a p pe ndi cu l
er ar 2 in .
lon g .
F om B ( l y 1 ) i n S (
r ,
2) oo
( l) erec t a pe p nd ic ul
r e ar 1 16 i n .
lon g .
Fr om C (2 l ) i R (l ,
z n 2 16) 1) er ec t p p ndi cu la
a er e r 2 in .
lon g
F om D ( 3 1 y ) in Q
.
r (l ,
3) (5 1) (1 1 14) (5 16 ) e re c t a
pe rpendi u l 1 1 6 in lon g c ar . .
Ga phi c
r L y o t N o 29 — A m point in pl n
a u . . ssu e a a e a n d e r ec ta 1 16
ih .
p p nd i l to t h pl n f om t h
er e cu a rm ed point e a e r e a ssu .
397 .
F om E
r (2 1 16 , x ) in U (2 3) 3) e r ec t pe pend ic la
a r u r 1 in .
long .
398 .
D ra w t h e p oj ecti on s Of a r igh t p i s m
r ltit d e h a vin g M ( l 2 r ,
l % -
in . a u ,
1 2 ) P( 2 1 6 1 16 1 ) a s i t s ba se .
3 99 .
As s u m e t h e p oj e tion s of a y pl a n e fig u e in s p ce a d e ect a rig h t
r c n r a n r
p is m of 2 i ltit u d e on it a s a b s e
r -
n . a a .
THE PR OJ E C TIO N S OF OB L IQUE SO L IDS
75 Problem
. 2 2 — TO dr a w t h e
. pr o j ection s of a
'
sol id h a vi n g
its b a s e in an obli que pl a n e .
R L M S RE LA T ING
P OB E T O PO I N TS L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, ,
79
F IG . 55 .
F IG . 56 .
80 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPTIVE G E O M E T RY
F IR ST M E TH O D
C on s truction —
. Le t T ( Fig 5 5) b e t h e giv en p l a n e a n d l e t it
b e re quir ed to d r a w a l —
.
,
i n X 1 16 i h h e x a go n a l p r ism
-
1 Obt a in Q
. . .
. T:
2 W it h QT a s a g r o u n d lin e d r a w t h e solid in i t s n a tu r a l
.
p o s ition
3 Pr oj ect it b a c k on H a n d V
.
. follo w in g t h e dott e d p r oj ecto r s

, ,
a s s h own in t h e fi g u r e.
F IG . 57 .
SE C O ND M E TH O D
C on s truction — Let 0
.
( Fi g be t h e ce nt er of a l i n
. 5 6) -
.
in t h e pl a n e T L et it b e r e quire d to d r a w a p yr a mid Of 2 —
. in .
a ltitude on t h is squ a r e a s a b a se .
1 R e volv e 0 a bout HT into H

. .
P R A C TIC AL D E SC R IPTIVE G E O M E T R Y
id
So l R (l 3) A (4 1, y) .
Soli d ,
S (4 2 ) 2 14 B ( 4, x
Soli d ,
T(I 3) C ( 1 14 1, x) .
Soli d U (I + 2) D ( 2 14, y
SOli d W (5% 2) E (3 % X )
Soli d ,
X (4 3) F (3 y
Soli d 1
Z (5 3) (1 2) (5 2 14 ) (1 K (3 1 94 , Y)
Sol d i ,
S(I 3) L( 4 2, x) .
Soli d ,
T (5 2 14) M (2 , y
Soli d , U( 2) ( oo N (3 1, x) .
41 2 . Sol d i ,
W( 3) ( cc O (3 1, y) .
413 . Sol d i ,
X( 1 ) cc ( P( 2 , x
E of t h e fo egoi ng s olid s on on e of t h e follo w i ng ce nte lin s
t
Dra w on e s id e of t h e b a s e IIto H o Va cco d i ng to a s s ignm ent
r ec on e r r e .
r ,
r .
41 4 Soli d
. C e nt er li n e A ( I 2 1 ) B (3 2
4 1 5 Soli d
. C e nt er li n e C (2 16 1 1 16) D ( l 1
4 1 6 Soli d
. C e nt er l i n e E ( l 1 1 16 ) F ( 3 2
41 7 Sol i d
. C e nt er lin e G ( 5 1 2 ) K (3 1
4 1 8 Solid
. C e nt er li n e M ( l 2 16) N (2 16
41 9 Soli d
. C e nt er l in e O ( 4 3 P( 5 1
42 0 Soli d
. C ent er li n e A ( 1 3 3 ) B (2 1
42 1 Soli d
. C e nt er li n e C ( 4 l 1 ) D (5 2 16
422 S oli d
. C ente li n e E ( 2 2 16 ) F (2 r 1
4 2 3 S ol id
. C ent e r l in e G (2 2 16 2 16) K ( 2 1
42 4 S ol i d
. C e nte r l i n e M (2 2 N (2
42 5 Sol id
. C ente r lin e O (2 1 P( 2
E ect s olid b d f k In o r 0 a cco r d in g to ss ignm e nt w i th i t s a pe x i n t h e

r , , , , , ,
a ,
point give n a n d i t s b a s e i n t h e pla ne give n in t h e follow ing e x e cis es

,
r .
ga d t h e a ltitu d es giv en a s th ey m a y not fit

r ,
.
Soli d Ap ex A ( 5 1 16 B T(l 3) a se
Soli d Ape x B ( 3 2 Bas e S ( l 2 )

Soli d Ap ex C ( l 3 B a s e U (2 + 2 )
Sol id Ap ex D ( 3 2 16 B a s e W (5 2 )
Soli d Apex E ( l 2 B a s e X (5 2 )
Soli d Ap e x F ( 3 1 Ba se Y( 1 3 )
Soli d Ape x G ( 3 l Ba se Z (5 3)
Soli d Ap ex K (3 0 Ba se Q (l 3) (5 2)
, (1 2 16 )
,
(5 1 16)
43 4 . S ol id Ape x M (4 3 B a se R (l 16 ) ( 1 2)
(5
Soli d A pe x Ba s e S ( l
'
435 . N (5 2 3)
43 6 . Sol d i Apex O(l 3 Ba se T (5 2)
43 7 . Soli d Ape x P( 3 3 Ba s e U ( 2)
438 . Soli d Ap x A ( 2 e 2 Ba s e W ( 2 16 ) w
(
43 9 . Sol d i Ap x B (2 e 2 Ba se X ( 1 6) m
(
440 . E r ec t a l in-
b e on T ( I
. cu 2) l ), w it h its b as e ce nte r at
O (2 1, x ) d ia g ona l IIto H
,
.
P OB ER L M S RE LA T I NG T O POI N TS L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, , 83
D ra w b e on S ( 2 ) ( 1 ) wit h o e co n e a t A ( 3 16 x )
a 1 in-
. cu oo n r r ,
a n d a not h er to u ch in g H .
44 2 . D a w a cu b e o e of w h o s e e d ges i s t h e li ne A (4 1 2 ) B (3 1 1 )
r ,
n
a n d a not h e r to u ch es H .
Th e ce nt er li n e of a cu b e i s C ( 2 2 2 ) D (3 1 D w ra
t h e cu b e ( ) w i t h a n e d ge I
,
aIto H ; ( b) with i t s b a s e d i gon a l I"to H a .
Th e li n e E (2 1 16 x ) F (3 y ) in S ( 2 ) ( 1 16) i s o e ed g e
,
oo n
of a cu b e b as e i n S D a w t h e p oj ect i on s of t h e c b e
,
. r r u .
(3 ) ( )
4
G ph i c L yo t N o 3 0 —L t t h polygon s b b
ra a u of . . e e e a s es 2 ih-
.
pr im
s s or
py mid ( ones o y lind f N

ra s or c r c ers or O .
( ) E ect p i m (or cy lind ) b e

a r on pl n
r s er , as a e a ssu m in g a
ce nter i n pla n e
t he .
( )
b E e c t p y
r r a m i d ( or c on e ) b a s e on pl n e a
,
s m m g a a su
c e nt e i n t h e pl a n e
r .
( )
0 W it h t h e b a s e on pl a n e u nd a y of t h e c ondition s g iv n er n e
i n G a phi c La y o u t N O 2 2 e e ct a 2 i py mid or p is m
r .
,
r -
n . ra r .
( d ) As s u m e a conv eni e nt point i n s p ce A (3 2 2 ) or B (3 a
2 a s t h e a p e x of p y a m i d o con e r to b d w n w it h i t s r e ra
b a s e in pl ne a
( 6 ) D a w p is m b a s e
r r w it h i t s e nt
,
l i ne p a lle l to c er ra
o r P) o e of i t s fa ces to u ch i n g pl n e
,
n a
ollo p i m y i nd i t h l nd ond i t on s
0
( f) D a w h r w s o c l e r w r 16 i w l
r s u e t h e c
,
-
n . a ,
r i
(a ) or ( e) .
84 P RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPTIVE G E O M E T RY
Th eli nes G ( 2 1 1 ) K ( l 16 1 16 ) a n d K L ( 2 1 6 1 16 1 16)
for m t w o s id es of a pa a ll elogra m w h ich i s t h e b a s e of a p i s m of
r , r
1 1 6 i n a lt it u d e
-
Dr a w t h e p is m . r .
Th e li n e M ( l 1 1 ) N (2 16 16) i s o e s id e of a r ect a ngl e n
w h i ch fo m s t h e b a s e of a p ris m 1 16 i n a lt itu d e
r Th e Oppo s it e s id e -
. .
pa s s es th ou gh D (2 1 r D a w t h e p is m r r .
D a w a line f om P( 2 16 2 16 ) t h a t s h a ll inte s ect M ( 1 2

r r r
1 16) N ( 3 11 1 ) a d b e a t a d is t a n ce of 2 in f om P( 3 16
n 1 . r
I I
1 I
9 " "
m n
“
k
(3) ( 4)
nt er lin s f r s olid s Ce e o .
Gr a phi c La y o u t N O 3 1 — ( ) With li n e a s c nt r l i n e
. . d w2i a e e ,
ra -
n .
p is m ( or cy li nd e ) w it h b a s e
r ( b ) Wit h line
r a s cent e l i n e d a w r ,
r
a 2 in -
py ra mid (or con e ) w ith b a s e
N ot e —Th e s ign s on t h es e lin es m a y b e t ra n pos ed
.
. s .
79 Proble m 23 —To p a s s a pl a ne th rou gh a g ive n point pe r

. .
pe n d i cu l a r to a g ive n li n e .
Pri n ciple — Th e t r a ce s of a pl a ne p er p e ndi cul a r to a n y lin e a re

.
,
re s p e ctivel y pe r pendi c ul a r to t h e p r oj e ctions of t h e line ; h en ce
we know t h e d i rection of t h e tra ce s .
—
An a ly si s A p p l y t h e p r inciple given
. .
C on s truction — Let 0 ( Fi g 58) be t h e g iven point a n d A B t h e

. .
,
g iven line .
1 Dr a w o p pe r pendi cul a r to a b
H H H H
. .
.
V
2 Dr a w O p p a r a ll e l to GL
v
.
3 Obt a in G ) (P ) of OP
V
. .
4 T h r o u gh G ) d r a w T p er p endi cul a r to a b
v v
. .
5 W h er e V T inte r s ects GL d r a w HT
. p er p endi cu l a r to ,
H H
a b .
C onclusion .
—T c ont a ins
is p er p endi cul a r to A B
0, and .
N ot e s — 1 . . If t h e fi s t t do not i nt ect GL w it hi n t h p obl m

r r a ce es e rs e r e
limit d w s, ra a s ec ond xili y lin e p llel to t h e s econd r qu i d t ce

au ar a ra e re ra .
P OB E R L M S R E LA T ING T O POI N T S L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, , 85
2 . giv n lin l i s i n p o fil pl n t h i mpl t ol tion w ill

If t h e e e e a r e a e, e s es s u be
a cc ompli h ed t h o gh t h e u of t h P p oj tion
s r u se e -
r ec .
E XE R CIS E S
Th r ou gh A (3 16 1) p a ss a pl n e pe pendi u la to
a r c r B (l 1
C (2 3
Th r o u gh D (4 1 1 ) pa s s a pl a n e _ Lto E (2 3 1 ) F (5 1
Th r ou gh G (2 1 1 ) pa ss a pl a n e _ L to K ( 4 1 1 ) L( 5 3
Th r ou gh M ( 3 1 1) pa ss a pl a n e J .
to N ( 4 16 16 1 ) P( 5
3
Th r o u gh O (2 1 + 2) pa s s a pl n e
a J . to A (3 + 2 16) B (3
1
F IG . 58 .
T h r o u gh P( 2 1 16 2) p a ss a pl n a e 1 to C (3 2 1 ) D (3
1 221
T h r o u gh K ( 5 1 1 ) p a s s a pl a n e L _
to E (3 3 1 ) F (2 1
Pa ss pla n 1 to
a e _ _ G (2 1 1 ) K (3 2 3) t h ou gh
r t he middle
point of t h e li n e .
Pa ss a pl a n e J to M ( l 1 16 )
.
N (4 3 1 16 ) t h o gh
r u t he
poi n t M .
On e e dge Of a c b e i s t h e li n e A ( 3 u 1 16 1 16 ) B ( 4 16 l) and
one of i t s c o n e s to u c h s H
r D w r e . ra its p oj e ction s
r .
M ( 3 16 2 2 16 ) N ( l i s t h e b a s e of a n o s l es t i
is ce r
a ngle w h o s e v e rt ex i s i n GL . D ra w i t s p oj ect ion s a

r n d evolv e to
r
s h o w i t s t ru e s i e z .
86 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
45 9 . Th e ce tick 1 1 6 in s qu e i s t h e li n e O (2
nte r line of 2 ) P( 3
a s . ar
1 Tw o 1 6 i n h ol es a e d ill ed s t ra igh t t h r o u gh t h e s t i ck
-
. in r r
, .
f r om t h e end s D a w t h e p oj ections of t h e s tick a n d h oles dottin g

. r r ,
invis ible l i n es .
N ot e —Th is exercis e ca n b e perfo m ed b y t h e m et h od of t h e Su pple

. r
me nta ry P oblem P oble m 2 2 C onv ers ely E x 4 1 4—42 5 ca n a ls o b e

r ,
r .
,
.
c on s t u c t e d b y t h e u s e of P obl e m 2 3
r r .
4 60 Th e u p p e s u rf a ce of a v ei n of c o a l i s fo u nd to b e pe p e nd i cu l a r to a
. r r
s h a ft bo e d i n t h e d i e ct i on Of C ( 3
r 1 16) D ( l 3 Th e o e
r r
i s lo c a t e d a t a po int O ( 2 x y ) on C D Dr a w t h e t r a ces of t h e pl a n e of , , .
t he o re .
4 61 . Sca l e 1 in
ft A 4 ft s t a ck on a b u ild in g h a s i t s cente li n e A ( 1 5 ft
. lo .
-
. r .
3 0 ft 1 5 ft ) B ( 1 5 ft 0
. 15 a g u y wi r e r u ns f r om a po int
. .
,
1 5 ft u p t h e s t a ck to a po int C ( 2 3 ft
. 2 2 ft 7 ft 6 i n ) i n a r oof . . . .
p erpend icu l a to t h e w i e Find t h e t ra ces of t h e r oof pl a n e a d d ra w

r r .
,
n
t h e p r oj ec ti on s of t h e r oof a r ect a n g l e 40 ft lon g b y 2 0 ft s l a nt h ei g h t , ,

. .
,
w it h C a s i t s c ent er .
4 62 . Sca l e 1 i n 6 ft A 3 i s h a ft ca r ryin g a 5 4 i a pu ll ey ( 8 i n f ce )
. .
-
h .
-
.
-
. a
mou nte d 7 ft fr om t h e u ppe e d ru n s from D ( 1 8 ft 0 1 2 ft )

. r n ,
. .
i n t h e ce ilin g of a fa cto y b u il d ing to E ( 1 8 ft 1 8 ft 0 ) i n a w a ll r .

,
.
,
.
D a w t h e p oj ection s Of t h e s h ft a n d pu lley (w ith ou t s pok es )

r r a .
463 . Sca l e 1 i n 6 ft A gu id e p u ll ey 5 4 i n X 1 2 i f a ce i s ru nning

. .
,
-
.
-
n .
,
on a n obli qu e 2 i n s h a ft w h o s e ce nte r l i ne 1 8 F ( 12 ft -
. 6 ft ,
. .
8 ft 6 i n ) G ( 2 4 ft
. 1 2 ft . 1 9 ft 6 in ) D a w t h e p oj ecti ons . . . . r r
of t h e pu lley a t t h e cente of PG r .
G L yo t N O 3 2 — ( ) A m poi nt i p
r a phi c a u d p .
pl n . a ssu e a n s a ce , a n a ss a a e
t h o gh it p p nd i l to lin e
r u er e cu a r
( b) P pl n L to lin
a ss a t i t s m iddl e po i nt
a e _ e a .
( ) Let lin
c b d g of e b w i th o n ( dg ) to h ing
e on e e e a cu e, on e c r er or e e uc
(H V) D w t h p oj tion of t h b e
or . ra e r ec s e cu .
( d ) L t l in e b t he
e nt l i n of 1 16 i s q a e ti k w ith 16 e ce er e a -
n . u r s c ,
a
h ol d ill d l n gt h w i
e r th o gh t h e nt
e e D w i t p oj ti on se r u ce er . ra s r ec s .
( ) L t li n
3 b t he
e nt lin of 1 16 i s q
e t i k w i t h 16
e ce er e a -
n . u a re s c a
h ol d ill d o w i e t h ro gh t h nt
e r e cr ss D w i t p oj t i on s
s u e ce er . ra s r ec .
(1) L t lin b e th
e nt lin e of 2 i h ft
e yin g 2 4 i X 8 i e ce er a -
n . s a , ca rr a -
n .
-
n .
pu ll y eDra w t h e p o j ct ion s o f t h e p ll y to a y onv en ient s ca l e

. r e u e n c .
P OB E R L M S RE LA T ING T O POI N TS LIN E S A ND PLAN E S
, , 87
DIS T AN C E OF A PO I N T To A PL AN E
81 . Problem 24 — To fi n d t h e d i s ta nce fr om a
. point to a pl a n e .
C onstru cti on .
—Let 0 ( Fi g 5 9 ) a n d T b e t h e
. give n p oint a n d
pl a n e .
1 . Obt a in
QT a n d
Q
2 Dr a w a pe r pendicul a r f r om O to QT
. .
C o n clu s ion —T h is p er pe ndi cul a r will b e t h e dis t a n ce

. re quir ed .
F IG . 59 .
E XE R C IS E S
Sh o rtest d is t a n ce A ( 1 14 2) to T ( I 2)
465 . Sh o r tes t d i s ta n ce B ( l 3 2) to S (4 2)
466 Sh o rt es t d is t n ce C ( 2 a 1 3 ) t o R (5 2)
Q
.
467 . Sh o rte st d is ta n ce D (2 16 16) to ( l + 3) (5 2) (1 2 14)

(5
4 68 Sh o r t e s t
. d is t a n ce E ( l 16 3 ) to U ( I 2)
469 Sh o r te s t
. d is t a n ce F (4 1 1 ) to W ( 5 3)
470 Sh o r tes t
. d is t a n ce M (4 2 2 ) to X ( 1 3 )
47 1 Sh o r t es t
. d is ta n ce N (2 3 2 ) to Y ( 1 16) ( co
472 Sh o r t es t d i t a n e O (3 1 1 ) to Z
s c 1 ( 00
d is ta n ce u pp er righ t h a nd rea r co ner of a 3 —

.
473 Sh o rt es t
.
-
i cu b e w i t h r n .
fa ces i n H a d V to t h e pl a ne of t h e t h ee a dj a cent co n e s
n ,
r r r .
474 . Sc a l e 1 1 6 i n -
1 ft . An 8 i n ci cu l a flu e r u n s f om po int A ( 1 ft
.
-
. r r r a .
,
0 8 i n ) i n a floo r pe pen dicu l a r to a pl a n e w h o s e t r a ces i nte se ct

. r r
88 RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E GE O M E T RY
P
at a point 4 ft to t h e igh t t h e V
. t ce b eing in clin ed 67% to GL a d
r ,
-
ra ,
n
t he H t a ce
-
r D a w t h e p oj ection s O f t h oof a d fl oo op ings
r r e r n r en
fo r t h e fl u e .
G r a phi c L y ou t N o
a . 33 .
— As s u m e a po i nt in s p a ce ,
an d m ea s u re i t s dis
t n ce f om pla
a r ne
PR O JE C TIO N OF LINE S L
O N OB I UE P Q LA NE S
83 . Problem 25 — TO pro j ect a l i n e on a n
. bli qu e pl a ne
O .
C on s truction .
—L et A B ( Fi g 60) be p r oj e ct e d
. on T .
1 . L et f a ll per pendi cul a rs fr om A and B to T .
QQ
2 .
QT Obt a in an d a b .
3 Dra w t h e p r oj e ctors a m a n d pe r p e ndi cul a r to QT

° °
V
. .
4 Pr oj ect t h e p oints m a n d n b a c k to t h e H a n d
° °
pr Oj ec
-
.
tions of t h e p er p e ndi cul a r s d r a wn in O per a tion

C onclusio n — M N is t h e p r oj ection of A B on T
. .
C ec
h k — If A B inte r se cts M N a t t h e point in wh i ch A B p i er ce s
.
T t h e O pe r a tion is p r ob a bl y co rre ct W h y ?
, .
E XE R C ISE S
Pr oj ect A ( I1 4 2 1 ) B (3 1 2)on Q (5 3)
4 76 . Pr oj e ct C ( l 2 1 ) D (2 2 ) on R ( 3 3) 3)
477 . P o j ect E ( 2
r 1 1 ) F (4 1 1 ) on S ( l 3)
90 P RA C TIC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
Gi v e n Li n e s
Giv e n Pl a ne s
G i La y o u t N o
r a ph c . 35 .
— Pr o j ect giv n lin
e e on pl n e
a
P OB E R L M S R E LA T IN G T O POI N T S L IN E S
, , AN D PLAN E S 91
A N G L E S B E T W E E N L IN E S AN D PL AN E S
85 . Problem 26 .
-
To me a s u re th e a n g le between a ny lin e a n d
a ny pl a n e .
e h —
Fir s t M t o d Th e me a su re of t h e a n gle between a lin e a n d
a p l a ne is t h e a ngle betwe e n t h e lin e a n d its p r oj ection on t h a t
p l a ne Th er efo r e one a n a lysis sug gests its elf ; a s follo w s

.
—
An a lys i s 1 Pr oj ect t h e li ne on t h e pl a ne b y Pr obl e m 25
. . .
2 M e a su r e t h e a n g l e betw ee n t h e give n line a n d its p r o j e ction

.
t h us found b y Pr obl e m 1 3 ,
.
Let t h e stud e nt m a ke t h e const r u ction .
85 S econ d M eth o d
.
— Th is m et h od wh il e not SO obvious i s ,
much qui cker a n d b etter .
An a ly si s —1 Fr om a n y point in t h e give n lin e e r ect a

. .
pe r pe ndi cul a r to t h e give n pl a n e .
2 M e as ure t h e a n gle betwe e n t h e giv e n lin e a n d t h is per pe n

.
d i cu l a r .
3 . S ubt ra ct
t h is a ngle fr om wh i ch give s t h e r equire d
a n g l e betwe en t h e line a n d pl a ne .
Proof — B y letting f a ll a p er pendi cul a r to t h e pl a ne a r ig h t

.
,
a ngled t r i a n g le is fo r med bet w e en t h e g iven l i ne its p r oj ection , ,
a n d t h e p e r p endi cul a r Th e a ngles betw e en t h e line a n d its .
pr oj e ction a n d b etween t h e line a n d t h e pe r pendi cul a r a re com

,
pl e m en t a ry a n d a d d u p to H ence t h is met h od migh t be

ca l led t h e
“ c ompl e ment a r y m et h od
,
.
”
C on s t ruction — L et it be r e quir e d to m e a su r e t h e a ngle bet w ee n

.
A B ( Fi g 6 1 ) a n d t h e pl a n e T
. .
V
1 F r om B d r a w t h e line b p p p er p e ndi cul a r to T v El
2 T h r ou gh t h e H—
“
. .
pie r cing points Of A B a n d B P ( O a n d p ) H
dra w H Q
.
N ote —If t h V .pi i ng point mo onv ni nt th y m y b

e -
erc d in s a re re c e e , e a e use
p ef
r ere n ce .
3 . in to H a bout H Q
Re volve B to b 1 .
4 La y off a pe r pendi cul a r b m to p b

fl
. l l l .
C o n clu s ion — Th e r equir e d a n gle will be 0 .

,
t he c om p l em ent of
t h e a n g le between t h e line a n d t h e p r oj e cto r .
92 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E GE O M E TR Y
E XE R C IS E S
M ea s u r e t he a ng l es th t
a t he follow in g l i n es m k a e w it h t he
v en
A(1 + 2 — 3 ) B (3 + 1 1 ) a n d T (2 + 3 )
486 C ( 2 + 3 — 1 4 ) D (4 + 1 1 ) a n d S (5 + 3 )
—2 ) a n d R ( l
.
487 E (2 + 1
.
488 . G (2 1 4 ) K (2
1 2 3 ) a n d R (E x .
489 L( 4 3 16 ) M ( 1 1 2 ) a n d R (E x
Q
. .
490 N (2 1% 1 ) P (4 1) and (5 2)
Q
.
49 1 . O (I 2 1 ) K (3 1 1) and (E x .
492 . A (2 + 2 1 ) B ( l + 14 — 3 ) a n d U ( + 2 ) cc (
4 93 . C (2 3 2 ) D (2 1 0) a n d U ( E x , .
E (l
G (3 1 1 ) K (4 1 16 ) a n d X ( 1 1)
L( I 2 16 ) E (4 2 1 6 ) a n d X (E x
M ( 2 —1 — 2 ) N ( 3 — 2 — 1 6 ) a n d Y ( 1 + 3 )
.
O (2 2 1 6 ) P(2 + 12 3 ) a n d Y(E x .
- A ( 1 + 12 B (2 + 3 — 3 ) a n d Z ( 1 + 3 )
( 1 1 6)
1
C (2 2 2 ) D (2 1 1 6 ) a n d Z (E x
Q
.
E (2 + 1 — 3 ) F ( 3 + 3 —2 ) a n d ( l + 3)
A(1 2 2 16 ) B (2 1 1 ) w ith H , V, a n d P
V
.
An y of t he fo eg oing lin es w ith

r H, , and P .
94 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T RY
Dra w lin e f om M ( 4 3 3 ) m a k i ng a a ngle of 60 w ith T ( I 2 )
a r n
°
3 ) i nt e ect in g t h e lin e A ( 3
rs 2 0) B ( 1 0 Wh a t a n gle , ,
do s it m a k e w ith A B ?
e
D ra w t h e p oj ti ons of t h e locus of l l lin es f om O ( 3 2 3 ) ma ki n g

r ec a r
6716 w i t h S ( 5
°
2)
D w a li ne f om N ( 2 + 2 2 ) m ki n g 45 wi th R ( + 2 )
ra r 1) a
°
cc
inte s tin g C (2 2 0) D (4 0
r ec , ,
D w lin e f om P( 2 3 2 ) a t 60 f om U ( I 1 16)
ra a r
°
r
inte s ting E ( l 1 1 6 0) F ( l 0
r ec , ,
G r a ph c i La y o u t N o . 37 .
— M ea s u re t h e a ngl e b et w ee n t h e line a n d pl n e i n a
E x .
p r oj ecti ons of t h e lo cu s of a ll li n es t h r ou gh M ( 3 2 1 )
.
5 13 . Dra w t he
m king 60 w ith W ( 1 )
a
°
0°
514 D w a li n e f om P( 3 0 0) m king 45 w ith T ( I 2 ) (5 1 ) ( 1 3 )

ra r a
°
i nt er s ect in g Q
.
, ,
(5 (2 l % O) K ( 3 O , ,
515 . D a w t h e lo cu s of a l l lin s t h ou gh N ( 3 2 0) ma k ing 6716 w it h t h e

r e r ,
°
pl ne t h ou gh GL a n d F ( 2 1
a r
F IG . 62 .
PAR A L LE L PL AN E PR OB L E MS
87 Problem 27 —
. To p a s s a pla ne th rou gh a given po i nt p a ra llel
to a give n pl a n e .
Pri nciple .
— C o r r es p ondin g t r a c e s of p a r a l l el pl a nes a r e p a r a llel .
P O R BLE M S R E LA T ING T O POI N T S L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, , 95
C on tr
s u ction — Let 0 ( Fi g 62 ) b e t h e give n point Re quir ed
. . .
to p a ss a pl a n e t h r ou gh O p a ra llel to T .
1 L oc a te QT
. .
2 L oc a te
3 Dr a w Q
.
S t h r ou gh 0 p a ra llel to QT
°
4 Wh e r e Q S in t er s e cts H Qd r a w H S p a r a ll el to H T
. .
Th en
V V
.
.
,
d r a w S p a r a ll el to T .
C o n clusion s — Th e pl a ne S c ont a i n s O a n d is p a r a llel to T

. .
E XE R C ISE S
G i La yo u t N o
r a ph c . 38 .
—As s u m e a po int i n s p ce a ,
and p a ss a pl nea
t h ou gh it Hto pl a n e
r Wh t i
a s t h e d is t n ce b t w e n
a e e t he pl n
a es ?
Th r ou gh A ( I 2 16 ) pa s s a pl a n e l"to R ( 3 3) W h a t is
t he d i s t a n ce b et w ee n pl n es ? a
517 . Th ou gh B ( 3
r 2 2 ) pa s s pl n Hto Q
a (l
a e 1) Wh t i s a
t h e d i s t n ce b et w ee n p l n es ?
a a
518 . Th ou gh C ( 1
r 1 16) p a ss a pl a n e I " to S ( 5 + 2 )
Wh a t i s t h d i s t n e b etw e en pl n s ?
e a c a e
519 . Th ou gh D ( 2
r 1 1 6 ) p a ss a pl a n e I
" to T ( 3 ) ( Wh at i oo s
t h e d is t n ce b etw ee n pl a n e s ?
a
52 0 . Th ou gh E ( l
r 3 1 ) p a s s a pl n e I " to t h e pl n e ont inin g GL a d
a a c a n
P( 3 1 Wh a t i s t h e d is t a n ce b e tw ee n pl es ? an
96 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E GE O M E T RY
52 1 . T h r ou gh F ( 4 1 16) pa s s a pl a n e ll to U ( I 2) Wh t i s
a
t he d i s t a n ce b etw ee n pla n es ?
52 2 . Th ou gh G (2
r 1 2 ) p s s a pl n e to W ( l
a a 2 16 ) 1)
Wh a t i s t h e d is t n ce b etw ee n pl a n es ?
a
52 3 . Th ou gh K ( 3
r 16 1 ) p a s s a pl a e IIto X ( 1 3) n (5 2) (1 3)
(5 Wh a t is t h e d is ta n ce b etw ee n pl a n es ?
89 . Problem 28 —
To p a s s a pla ne p a ra l lel to a gi ve n pl a ne
.
a t a g ive n d ista nce from it .
C onstruction — Let T ( Fi g 63 ) be t h e g iv e n pl a n e
. R e quir e d . .
to p a s s a p l a ne 1 in fr om T a n d p a r a ll el to it . .
It is Obvious th a t two suc h pl a n e s ca n a l w a ys b e p a s s e d .
1 QT Obt a in
2 Dr a w Q
. .
SH to a n d 1 in fr om QT
3 Wh er e Q S c r oss e s H Q
. . .
d r a w H S I"to H T
V
. .
4 Dr a w. S II to HT .
C onclusion — Th e pl a ne S i s p a r a ll e l to T a n d 1 in f r om it
. . .
E XE R C IS E S
90 . Dra w on e or pla n es ( o d i n g to d i r ections

t wo a cc r i n s t r u cto r )
a r a l l el to and 1 in f om t h e follow in g pla n es
. r .
52 4 T(I 3)
52 5 S (2 3)
Q(4
.
52 6 . 2)
52 7 R .
( + 2) oo
(
52 8 . U( 1) co
(
‘
52 9 . W( 1) oo
(
98 P RA C T IC AL DE SC R IPT IVE G E O M E T RY
Of int er s ection a n d t h er e fo re to bot h of t h e g iven p l a n e s Tw o
,
.
m et h ods of find i ng t hi s a n gl e a re give n h ere w it h .
First M e th od — An a ly s i s — 1 Find t h e int er s e ctio n of t h e

. . .
given pl a n es .
2 A t a n y a s sumed point on t h e line Of inter section p a ss a

.
p l a n e p er p endi cu l a r to it .
N ot e —O nl y. t of t his
on e i li y pl n i
r a ce ll y n a ux y ar a e s u sua e ces s a r .
3 M e a sure t h e a ngl e b etw ee n t h e int er s e ctions of t h e a uxili a ry

.
pl a n e wit h t h e two g ive n pl a n es .
C o n s truct o
i n — L et S a n d T ( Fig
. b e t h e t w o p l a n es . .
F IG . 64 .
1 . Obt a in
th eir lin e of i nt er s ection A B , .
2 Th rou gh O a ssum e d on A B d r a w OP p e r p e ndi cul a r to

V
.
, , ,
A B a n d p a r a ll el to .
3 Obt a in P t h e H — p i er cin g point of OP

4 Dr a w H Q
. .
,
t h r ough p p er p endi cu l a r to a b H fl ”
5 C onn ect O wit h x a n d y ( int er s ections of H Q

. .
,
w it h H T a n d
llir
.
H S) .
6 R evolve O to 0 1
. .
C o n clusion — X Ol y ( 0) .is t h e r equir e d a ngle .
S eco n d M e t h od An a lys i s — 1 Fr om a n y p oint l et f a ll t w o

.
-
. .
per pendicul a r s one to e a ch of t h e two give n pl a n es

,
.
2 ? M e a sur e t h e a n gle in clud e d b et w een t h es e p er p e ndicul a r s .
T h is will be t h e co rr ect me a sur e of t h e require d dih e d r a l a n gle .

R
P OB E L M S R E LA T ING T O POI N TS LIN E S AND PLAN E S
, , 99
P roof —Th e t w o p er pendi cul a r s f r om t h e point to t h e pl a n e s

.
d et er min e a p l a n e p er pendi cul a r to bot h pl a nes Fig 65 s h ows . .
a vi e w of t w o i nt e rs e cting pl a n e s S a n d T O is t a k e n a ny w h e r e .
,
a n d p e r pe n di cu l a r s OM a n d ON a r e l e t f a ll to T a n d S r e s p e ctiv el y .
Th e p l a n e of M ON cuts lin es M P a n d N P f r om T a n d S a n d t h e ,
fo u r lin es OM ON M P a n d N P fo r m a qu a d r il a t er a l t h e s um
, , , ,
of w h os e a ngl e s is Pr ove t h is Th e a ngl e s a t M a n d N .
a r e r ig h t a ngl e s b y con s t r u ction a n d t h e r e fo r e a d d u p to ,
Th i s l ea ve s 1 80 a s t h e sum of a ngl e s 4) a n d 0 a t O a n d P r e
°
,
s pect i v el y Th e a ngl e (1) is t h e r e fo r e t h e su p plem e nt of 0 wh i ch

.
,
i s t h e a ngl e b et w ee n T a nd S B ut t h e m ea s u r e Of a n y a n gle .
,
p l a n e or dih e d r a l m a y b e eit h er t h e a cute a ngl e or its sup p lement

, ,
so t h e a n gle b et w een t h e p l a n es S a n d T m a y be eit h er 0 or
F IG . 65 .
a n d as is t h e a ngl e b etw ee n t h e p er p e n dicul a r s it 18 a lso t h e ,
m ea su r e of t h e give n dih e d ra l a n gle .
N ot e —Al th o gh t h e ngl b tw een t w lin

. u tw pl n e m y b
a e e o es , or o a s, a e
it h t h
e er t t h obt
e a cu e o rn gl t t d i n t h e fo goin g t h e
e use a t e, a s s a e re , a cu e
n gl i
a e lly t k n t h t m
s u su a a e as e ru e ea s u r e .
92 . E XE R C IS E S
Dim n ions of pl n
e s a es fo r follow in g e x e ci se s r
S (5 2)
T( 2) 1)
R( 1 16)
Q
(5 3) 2)
X(1 2)
W (5 2)
Y( 1 3)
Z (5 3) (1 (5 1 16) (l 1)
P( 3 3)
M (l 3) (5 1 16 ) (1 —2 ) ( 5
U onta i ni n g A (2 1 1 16) n d GL
c a .
53 7 . M ea s u re t h e d ih ed ra l a ngl of t h e pl a n es e
1 00 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPTIVE GE O M E T R Y
M e t he
ea su r ngles th t t h e pl n e a m k e with H Va n d P a a a s , , .
M e t h h i p oof n gl b t w
ea s u r e n t h e oof C d D in Fi g
r Art 45
a e e ee r s an . . .
A oom i s 1 8 ft long 1 0 ft w id
r d 1 0 ft h i gh
. Th e ent
, li n e of . e, a n . . c er a
c h te u n f om point i n t h e c i li ng 2 ft f om t h e igh t d w ll
ru s r a e . r r en a
an d 1 16 ft f om t h to a point i t h fl oo 5 ft f om t h e l ft d
. r e r ea r , n e r, . r e en
Th e ch u te i s 2 ft s qu e w it h t h e
_
w lla d 2 ft f om t h f ont
an . r e r . . ar ,
d i gon l p ll l to t h fl oo
a a a ra e e r .
( ) Fi nd t h e fl oo p ni n g f t h e h t e
a r O e or c u .
( b ) Find t h ngl of i t f e aw i th t h fl oo S l 1 in
es 3 ft s a c es e r . ca e . .
G i La you t N o 40 — E x e ci
r a ph c . . r s es 537 an d 5 38 a ppl y to ei th e gra ph ic r
or dim en ion e d l y o u t
s a .
541 . A x gon l oof tow e

he a a r r, 1 2 ft -
.b a s e d ia m e t e 1 6— ft a lti tu d e h a s
r, .
,
s p eci ll y olle d a ngl e i on s

a r r fo r i t s f mera Wh a t i s t h e a ngl e a t w hi ch
.
th ey mu s t b e olled ? r
93 . Problem 30 — To fi n d t h e . tra ce s of a pl a ne th a t s h a l l
ma k e a give n a n gle with a gi ven pl a ne a n d conta i n a give n l i n e
of th a t pl a n e
An a ly si s —A ssume a point in t h e give n line a n d p a ss a pl a ne
.
.
,
t h r ou gh t h e point p er p endi cul a r to t h e line .
2 R evolve t h e li n e ou t b y t h is a uxili a ry p l a n e f r om t h e given

V
.
p l a ne a bout t h e tra ce of t h e a u xili a ry pl a ne into H or as t h e ,
ca se m a y r equ i r e .
3 Fr om t h e r evolved position of t h e a ssum e d point on t h e

.
giv e n line l a y off a lin e m a ki n g t h e given a ngle wit h t h e r e volv e d ,
lin e .
4 Wh e r e t h is new line c r osses t h e t ra ce of t h e a uxili a r y

.
pl a n e W 111 be a point on t h e tra ce Of t h e re quired pl a n e .
5 Sin ce t h e r e qui r e d p l a ne must cont a in t h e g iv e n lin e its

.
,
02 P RA C TIC AL DE SC R IPT IV E G E OM E T R Y
C no clu s ion — Th is pl a ne will b e per pen di cu l a r to t h e giv en
. ,
pl a ne W h y ?
.
Let t h e stud en t m a k e t h e const r u ction .
N ot e —If t h g iv n l i n i p p nd i l t t h gi v n pl n t h n mb of
. e e e s er e cu a r o e e a e, e u er
sol tion i in fi nit

u s s e .
E XE R C ISE S
G i La y ou t N o 4 1 — ( ) Pl n
r a ph c . D . a a e ra w t ra ce s of a pl n e nd
a u er
t h e c ond iti on s of E x 5 42 . .
( b ) Pl n e a Dr a w t c s of a pl n e u nd e ra e a r t he c ondition s of E x . 5 43 .
( ) Pl a n e
c D aw t s of a pl n er nd e ra ce a u r t he c ondition s of E x . 5 44 .
94 . Us e t h e foll ow in g pl a n es in E x . 5 4 2 —5 44
M (l 2)
N (5 1)
O ( I + 3 ) (5 1 16) (l 2) (5
P( 3 3)
Q (2 3)
R (I 1)
S (5 2)
T( 2 ) cc (
U( + 2)
W( 2) 1)
X ( + 1 16 ) 2 16)
Y( 1 2 ) (5 1) (1 2 16) (5 1 14 )
R B LE M S R E LA T ING
P O T O PO I N TS L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, , 1 03
Z (5 1)
HO 3) M
Ass um e n e 1 in f om a d p a ll l to
a li .
( H
r V ) in t h
n e pl n L ar e or a e
D a w t h e t a ces of pla ne t h a t s h a ll cont in t h i s lin e d m ke a di h

r r a an a e
d l a ngl e Of
ra w it h t h e g iv n pl n e e a .
Pl ane As s u m e a lin e n in g obli qu el y to H V d P in t h e

ru n , ,
an
pl a n e a d d ra w t h e t ces of a pl a n e w h ich cont a i ns t h e li n e a n d

,
n ra , ,
m a k es wi t h t h e gi v e n pl n e a .
Pl a n e As s u m e a p ofil e lin e in t h pl a n e a d d w t h t a es of a
r e , n ra e r c
pl n e w h i h ont a i n s t h e line d m k s
a , c c w it h t h g iv e n pl n
,
an a e e a e .
G ra phi c La y o t N O 42 — D w t h t
u . . ra e r a c es of t wo pl n a es c ont a ini n g li ne
a nd m ki g di h d l ngl of
a n a e ra a e ( 1 5 , 3 0, 45 , 60, 75,
5 45 . Th e d ih ed ra l a ngle b tw een t w o a dj a ent f c s of a igh t p y mi d b a s e

e c a e r ra ,
a 2 i n e q u il te
-
. l t ri ngle i s
a ra ( 9 5 1 00 1 05 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 3 5
a , , , , , , ,
D a w t h e p oj ctions of t h e py ra mi d
r r e .
5 46 . Ass u m e a l in e i n s p a ce a d p a s s a pl a n e t h o gh t h e lin e p p end i u l r

, n r u ,
er c a
to giv en pla n e ( Us e eit h er dim e n ion ed o g p hic l y o t ) s r ra a u .
P R OBLE M S UTILIZING TH E RIGH T C IR C ULAR CO NE

95 . Prop e rtie s
of t h e Ri gh t C i rcu l a r C one .
Th r e e pr o p erties of t h e con e a r e p a rti cu l a rly u s e fu l in t h e sol u

tion of cert a i n p r obl e ms .
1 T h e el e m e nt s of t h e c one a l l m a k e t h e s a me a ngl e wit h t h e

.
pl a n e of t h e b a s e a n d t h ey a r e a ll of t h e s a m e l en gt h b e c a us e
, ,
one w a y of g en er a ting a con e is to re volve a r igh t a n gled t r i a ngl e -
a bout o n e of its p er p e ndic u l a r s id e s .
2 All p l a n e s t a ng en t to a c o n e m a ke t h e s a me a n g le wit h t h e
.
p l a n e of t h e b a se b e ca us e a t a ng e nt pl a n e i s p er p e ndi cul a r to
,
t h e g e n er a tin g t r i a n g le of t h e c on e a n d c ont a ins its h y pot h e nuse ,

.
1 04 RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T RY
P
3 ver y el e me nt Of t h e co n e a n d e ver y p l a n e t a n g e nt to t h e
. E
c on e p a s s t h r oug h t h e a p e x .
With th e s e pr ope r tie s unde r stood it is a Sim p l e m a tt er to solve ,
t h e s i x follo w i n g p r obl ems :

96 Proble m 3 1 — TO dr a w a l i ne th ro u gh a po i n t s o a s to
. .
ma ke give n a n gle s with H a n d V .
Li mits — Th e sum of th es e a n gl e s ca n not b e mo r e th a n

If a lin e b e p a r a ll e l to GL t h e s u m i s a n d if it l i e in a p r ofil e
,
p l a n e t h e sum is F or ,
a n y ot h er position t h e sum ,
will b e l ess th a n
C onstruction —Let it b e .
r e q u ir e d to d ra w a lin e
t h r ough A Fig 66 t h a t sh a ll ,
.
,
m a ke 4 5 wit h H a n d 30 ° °
V
,
wit h .
1 M a ke A t h e a pex of a .
r ig h t ci r cul a r con e wh os e ,
b a s e is in H a n d wh o s e el e ,
m ents m a k e 4 5 wit h H °
.
All t h e elem ents m a k e 4 5 °
w it h H a n d a l l p a ss t h r ough ,
A Th er efo r e it r em a ins to .
,
b e found w h i ch a r e t h e fou r
p os s ible elem ents t h a t m a ke
F G 66 I
3 0 wit h
°
V .
2 Fr om A d r a w a line
. .
V
.
v
a b
v
a b p a r a llel to H m a king 3 0 wit h
,
H
l a n d e qu a l i n l e n gt h
,
°
,
to t h e el em ents of t h e con e .
3 Let t h is lin e b e a n e lem en t Of a s e co n d c o n e w it h its a p ex a t

V
.
A a n d b a se p a r a ll el to
,
Dra w t h e p r oj e ctions of t h e con e
. .
( wh ole or i n p a rt ) .
4 Wh er e t h e b a s es of t h e con es int e r s e ct ( B o r E ) t h e co m mon

.
,
e l e m e nt ca n be d r a w n .
C onclusion — Th e line A B ( a s w ell a s t h e li n es A C A D a n d

V
.
, ,
A E ) is i n clin e d 4 5 to H a n d 3 0 to
° °
,
Let t h e stud e nt give t h e rea son for t h is a n d s u pp ly a p r oof a n d

‘
a m e a ns of ch e cking its c o rr ect n es s .
97 . E XE R CISE S
5 4 7 T h o gh M ( 3
. r u11 2 ) d w fo li n 6 h m king 60 w it h H d ra ur e s , ea c a
°
an
1 5 w it h V
°
.
06 P RA C TIC AL DE S C R IPT IV E GE O M E T RY
5 62 . K (l 3)
5 63 . N th o gh GL a d E (2 2
r u n
5 64 . A tet h d on i lim ited b y t h point

ra e r s e s A(2 , 0 E (3 16 , 0
C (4, 0 and D (3 1 16 M ea s u r e t he di h ed a l ngl
r a e
b et w een fa ce and fa ce
5 65 Tet a h e d ron ( E x M t he ngl of t h t h obli qu e f
w it h H a n d V
. r . ea s u re a es e r ee a ce s
Gra phi c La yo t N o u . 42 .
—M ea s u re t he a ngles b t w e n giv en pl n e
e e a
an d H d V an .
1 00 . S upplementa ry Problem — G ive n one tra c e Of a

pl a ne a n d t h e a n g le b etween t h e
pla n e a n d t h e pl a ne of pr oj e c
tion to fi n d t h e oth er tra ce
, .
An a ly si s — 1 C onstru ct a con e wh ose el em ents m a k e t h e

.
,
given a ngle w ith its b a se t a ng ent to t h e given tr a ce with t h e , ,
ce nte r of its b a s e in GL .
2 Dr a w t h e ot h er t r a ce t h r o u gh t h e a p e x Of t h e c one a n d t h e
.
inte r s ection of t h e giv en t r a ce w it h GL .
N ote s 1 If t h e giv n t
.
-
. does not inters ect GL w ith in bo nd t w e r a ce u s, o
c on es ca n b e on t ted d t h t e d w n t h o gh t h t w v e t i e
c s ru c ,
an e ra c ra r u e o r c s .
2 If t h e giv n t
. i p ll l to GL t h oth t
e ra c ew ill a l o b ps ll l a ra e , e er r a ce s e a ra e ,
an d t h q i k s t s ol t i on i
e u c fl t e d t h o gh t h e p ofil pl n e
e u s e ec r u r e a .
3 B y i nv tin g t h e on
. noth e pl ne o ld b fo nd t h t w o ld f l fi l
er c e, a r a c u e u a u u
t h e ond ition s
c .
1 01 S upplementa ry Problem 3 3 ( b ) —G iven th e H tra ce of

V
.
-
a
pla n e a n d i t s a n g le wi th V to fi n d t h e tra ce
‘
, .
An a lys i s — 1 F r om a n y p oint in t h e given t r a ce a s a n a p ex

. .
,
c onst r uct a cone of t h e r e qui r ed e lement a l a n g l e h a vin g its b a se
V
,
in .
R
P OB E L M S RE LA T ING T 0 POI N T S L IN E S AND PLAN E S
, ,
1 07
Fr om t h e int er s ection of t h e give n t ra ce wit h

2 GL d ra w t he
V
.
t ra ce t a ng e n t to t h e b a s e of t h e a uxilia ry con e
-
.
N ot —S not follow ing 3 3 ( )

e . ee es a .
E XE RC ISE S
G r a ph i c La yo t No u 43 —H or Vt -
r a c es of pl a n es to be us e d w ith Ex
—
. . .
5 66 5 79 .
5 66 . Giv en H t -
ra ce s : SS ( 1 T 4 (2 U oo
( 1), W (1 3) (5
X5 ( 1 Z(1 2) (5 1)
D aw t he V t of pl n whe n t h e pl a ne m a k es w it h H
D a w t he V
r -
r a ce a e .
5 67 . r t of pl n -
ra c e a e (E x . w h e n t h e pl a n e m a k es
w i th V .
568 Th e H t (E 566) is t h e H t of t w o pla n es ea ch i cli n d

Vt
.
-
r a ce x .
-
r a ce ,
n e
to H a t Dra w t h ei r -
r a ce s . M ea s u r e t he a ngl e b etw een
pla n es
t he t wo .
569 . D a w t h e t a ces of t h e b is cting pl n e of t h e di h ed l ngle fo rm ed b y

r r e a ra a
t h e t w o e q u ir ed pl a n es in E x 5 68
r . .
5 70 Give n t a ce (E x T h is i s t h e H t a ce of t w pl a n es m a k
D w t h ei V
. r .
-
r o
i ng w it h V t a ce s . ra r -
r .
5 71 . M ea s u e t h e d ih ed a l ngle b t w een t h e t w o e qu i ed pla n s in E x 570

r r a e r r e . .
5 72 . D a w t h e t a ces of t h e bis ctin g pl a ne of t h e di h ed l a ngl e b etw een t h e

r r e ra
r equ i d pl nes i n E x 5 70
Given V
re a . .
5 73 . t ces : X ( 3 -
Y (5
ra Z( 2) M (5 co
,
S(l T (2 U( 1) W (l 2 16 ) (5 Dra w t h e
V
co
,
H t ra ce
-
of whe n t he pla n e m a k es w it h .
5 74 . D w t h e H—
ra t ra ce of (E x . w h n
e t he pla n e m a k es
w it h H Wh t i its ngl e w i t h V ?
Vt
. a s a
5 75 . Th e -
ra ce (E x . 5 73 ) i s t h e t r a ce of t h e t wo pla nes m a ki ng
with V Dr a w t h ei r H t
Vt
.
-
r a ces .
5 76 Th e
.
-
r a ce ( E x 5 73 ) is . t he t r a ce of a pla n e ma ki ng
it
w h H and a not h er pla n e m a ki n g Dra w t heir H t a ces -
r .
1 08 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T RY
5 77 . M e a s u re t he dih d a l a ngle b tw e n t h e t w o pl n s r e qu i re d in E x 5 75
e r e e a e . .
5 78 . Me a s u re t h e d ih e d a l a n gl e b et w e n t h e t w o pl a n es r e qu i e d i n
r e r
E x . 5 76 .
5 79 . D ra w of t h e pl a n e b i ecti n g t h e di h ed a l a ngl e b etw ee n t h e

t he t r a ces s r
t w o pl a n es re qu i e d in E x 5 75 o E 5 76
r . r x . .
5 80 Th ou gh a po int A ( 3 0 1 ) in a v ein of o e a h o ri ont l l in e on t h e

“
. r ,
r z a
s u rf a ce ru ns no rt h 3 7 w es t Th e d ip (in lin a ti on of t h e or e to t h e
° ”
Find t h e V
, . c
h o i ont a l ) i s
r z t a ce of t h e pla ne of t h e o e -
r r .
Th e lo w er e d ge of a r ect a n gul a r r oof i s 30 ft lon g a d in cl in e d 40 to

°
5 81
t he V
. . n
pl ne Th e r oof i i n clin ed 60 to t h e h o i ont a l a d t h e rid ge i s °
D aw t he H a nd V
-
a . s r z n
8 ft h igh er t h a n t h e lo w er e dge
. p oj ecti on s of . r -
r
t h e r oof a d in s ert t h ee w indow s e a ch 2 ft 6 in X 6 ft 3 i n s ym

,
n r ,
. . . .
,
m et i a ll y pl a ced D w to a s ca l
r c i . 1 ft ra e n . .
582 . Given t h e l in e a s t he t a ce of a pl a n e i n clin ed r
Dra w t h e oth t a ce Wh a t a ngle does i t m a k e w ith

er r .
5 83 . Th e lin e is t h e t ra ce of t w o pla n es m a k in g w i th
D a w t h i t ces r e r ra .
584 . Th e l in e i s t he t ra ce of t w o pla n es on e m a ki ng w it h ,
a d t h e ot h e
n w it h Dr a w th eir t ra ces
r .
585 . M ea s u e t h e d ih ed a l a ngl e b et w een t h e re qu i ed pla n es in E x 583 o

r r r . r
58 4 .
586 . D ra w t he t ra c es of t he b i s ecto r of t he d ihed l a n g l e of

ra t he
p l n es
a in E x . 5 83 or 584 .
F IG . 68 .
1 03 . Prob l e m 3 4 .
— To
p a s s a pl a n e th rough a gi ven l i n e so a s
,
t o m a ke a ny re q uire d a n g le with a pl a ne of pro j ecti on .

1 10 PRA CTICAL DE SC R IPT I E GE OM E V T RY
595 . M ea s u re t he d ih ed a l ngl e b tw ee n t h
r a e e t wo pl n a e s re qu i d i n
re E x . 593
or E x . 59 4 .
59 6 . Us e of t h e give n lin es a s a r oof ridge

on e ft o r ra er a n d d ra w t he oof
r as
d i ect ed b y t h e in s t ru cto t i a ngu l a ect ng l

r r, r r, r a u a r , et c .
,
at an y in lin a
c
tion given a d w ith o r w ith ou t w indow s

, n .
G r a phi c L yo t No
a u . 44 .
— To be use d wi th E x . 5 87—59 6 .
1 05 . Probl e m 35 —To fi n d t h e . tra ce s of a pl a n e wh ich s h a l l

m ak e a n y re quire d a n gle s with H a n d V .
Limi ta ti on s — Th e sum of t h ese a ngles must be b etw een t h e

V
.
limits of 9 0 a n d A pl a ne p a r a llel to H or is per pe n

°
di cu l a r to t h e ot h er A p r ofil e pl a ne is 9 0 to ea ch Obliq u e .
°
.
p l a nes a re between th ese lim its .
C on st uctio — Let it be r e qu i r e d to d r a w t h e t r a ces of a p l a n e

V
r n .
in clined 4 5 to a n d 60 to H ° °
.
1 Dr a w t h e p r oj ections of a s p h er e of a n y di a m e t er wit h its

.
ce nte r in GL ( See Fig . .
2 Dr a w a 4 5 cone t a n g ent to t h e s p h er e h a ving its b a s e on

°
V
.
,
a n d a p e x in H .
3 Dr a w a 60 con e t a ng e nt to t h e s p h e r e h a ving its b a s e on H

°
V
.
,
a n d a pex in
V
.
4 Dr a w V T t h r oug h t h e a p ex in
. t a nge nt to t h e b a s e of t h e ,
ot h er cone a n d HT t h r ough t h e a p e x in H t a ngent to t h e b a s e

, ,
t h a t is in H .
C onclu s ion — T h is pl a ne t a ng e nt to bot h con e s t h us fulfils t h e

.
c on ditions of t h e p r obl e m
N otes —1 E igh t pl n e f lfilling th

.
~
. ondition b d wn l la s u es e c s ca n e ra , a
ta n g en t t o t he s ph ere .
P O R BLE M S R E LA TING T O POI N T S L IN E S A ND PLA N E S
, ,
111
2 . An y pla n e p a ra ll el to CL h a s t h e s u m of i t s a n gles w it h H d V e qu l to
an a
n ce if t h e s u m of t h e giv en a ngles i s e q u a l to
he , t h e p obl em ca b e
r n
e a s i es t s olv d b y t h e u s e of t h e p o fi l e p l a n e
e r .
3 If it b e re q u i ed to p s s s
. h pl a n e t h o u gh a giv e n po i nt a n a u x il ia y
r a uc a r ,
r
pl a n e m a y b e d a w n a n y w h e e a in t h e fo going filli ng t h e cond ition s

r r ,
s re , ,
a d t h e n a pl a n e m a y b e p a s s ed t h ou gh t h e poi nt p a a ll e l t o t h e a u x i l i a ry
n r r
pl a n e Th e pl a n e S Fig 69 i s pa s s e d t h ou gh t h e poi nt 0 pa ra llel to T

.
,
.
,
r ,
a l ea d y fo u nd
r T h e pl a n e S m a k es t h e s m e a n gl es w it h H a n d V t h a t T
. a
do s e .
S e con d Meth od ( Fr om C h ur c h a n d B a r tl ett ) If a lin e

.
— .
is p e r pendicul a r to a pl a ne t h e a ngl es between t h e line a n d t h e ,
pl a n e s of p r oj ection will b e complements Of t h e a ngles b etwee n

t h e pl a ne a n d t h e pl a n e s of p r oj ection He n ce if we const r uct .
F IG . 69 .
a line m a king wit h H a n d t h e co m pl e m ent s of t h e r equi r e d

, V
a ngles a p e r p endi cul a r pl a ne t h r ough t h is p oint will m a ke t h e
V
,
r equi r e d a n g l e s wit h H a n d .
E XE R C IS E S
2
Dr a w t h e t ra ces of a pl a ne in clin ed 0
to V and 1 L
°
to H t h o r ugh
t he po int A (3 1
598 .
(a ) D w ra t ra ces Of a pla ne i n cli ne d
t he to V a d to H n
t h o gh a n a ss u m e d po i nt i n I I I ( b) As s um e t h point in I I ( ) c
Ass u m e t h e po i nt in I V
u r . e
59 9 . Pa s s a pl a n e u nd er t h e c ond iti on s i n E x 5 9 7 o 5 9 8 u s in g t h e s econd . r ,
m et h od .
600 . A lin e s h ft m a king a w it h H a n d w it h V a ies a 1 2 i n c rr -

.
pu ll ey w ith 6 i n fa ce w ith i t s center a t M ( 3 ft 6 in + 2 ft

-
.
,
1 ft 8 . .
,
. .
Dra w t h e p r oj ecti on s of t h e pu ll ey to a s ca l e 1 in 1 ft . .
1 12 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E GE O M E T RY
A pu ll ey 2 4 in os e cente pl n e i s i n clin ed
. X 8 in .
, wh to H d r a an
to V ru ns on a s h a ft 8 ft lon g e xt endi ng f om a point i n t h

w a ll ( V
, . r e
) to a po int in t h e fl oo r ( H ) Th e pu ll ey i s in t h e ce nt er of t h e .
s h a ft . D a w i t s p r oj ections
r .
602 . A m a n i s rea d ing a n ew s pa per 2 0 in X 30 in a n d h i s ey e a t D ( 1 0 ft . . .
4 ft . 6 ft ) i s 2 ft di s t a nt f om t h e p a p er
. . H i s l in e of s igh t i s r .
i n cli n e d to H a n d to V a d t r a vels to t h e geom et ica l ,

n r
ce nte r of t h e s h eet Dra w t h e p oj ect i on s of t h e p p er

. r a .
As s u m e a point in t h e a n gl e a n d d a w t h e t a ces of a l l t h e pl n es ,
r r a
t h a t ca n c ont a i n t h e point a n d b e in clined to H a n d to V .
S PE C IA L PR OB E M S L
1 07 Problem 3 6 — To fi n d t h e
. . sh ort e s t d ista nc e b etwe e n tw o
l i ne s n ot i n th e sa me pl a ne .
F IG . 70 .
C o n s tructio n .
— R e qui r e d t he sh ort es t dis t a n ce b e twee n A B
an d CD ( Fi g .
R efer r in gto Fi g 71 w e fi n d t h a t wh e n a l in e is pe r p e ndi cul a r

V
.
, ,
to H or ( a s A B is to H) t h e common per p endi cul a r is i m m edi ,
a tel y d r a wn wit h out fu rt h e r O p er a tion s on A B a n d C D

,
Why ? .
Th er efo r e t h is p r oblem is e a siest solved b y b r in g ing on e of

,
t h e li nes into t h i s r el a tion .
R eturn to Fi g 70 Dr a w Q p a r a llel to C D
. . .
1 14 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPTIVE G E O M E T RY
3 . At
inter s e ction of t h is p r oj ection with t h e given lin e
t he ,
e r e ct a p er p e ndi cul a r f r om t h e pl a n e to t h e o u tsid e lin e T h is .
lin e is t h e comm on per pendi cul a r .
C on truction
s — Let AB a n d C D ( Fi g 72) b e t h e giv en lin es
. . .
1 Dr a w E F p a r a llel to A B int er s e cting C D

. .
2 Pa ss t h e pl a n e Q t h r ough E F a n d C D
. .
3 Pr oj ect AB to a b on Q
‘
. .
4 Wh er e a b cr o s s e s C D a t o er ect t h e c ommon p er p e ndi cul a r

.
,
0 0 .
Th is m et h od t h e st a nd a r d for m a ny y ea r s i s still p r eferr e d

, ,
b y m a ny Let t h e st u dent m a ke t h e const r u ction i n ort h o gr a p h ic

.
p r oj ection .
E XE R CISE S
D ra w t he p oj ct i on of
r e s t he c ommon p p endic l er u ar to t he follo w i n g
l in e s :
604 A (I 2 2 ) B ( 4, 0 1) and C (3, 0 3 ) D (416 2
—1 ) —3
.
605 . E (4 + 1 -
3) a nd G(l -
1 K (3
606 . M(l +2 O (2 + 3 1 ) N (3 + 2
3 ) P (3 + 1 1) and -
607 A ( 2
. 2 3 ) a n d C (2 1 1 6 , 0) D ( 4
1 ) B ( 3 16 , 03 l ) .
608 E ( 2
. 3 1 6 ) F (2 1 2 16 ) a n d G (3 3 3 ) K ( C , O,
609 M (2. 3 , 0) N ( 2 , 0 2 ) a n d O (2 16, O 3 ) P (4, 0
61 0 X ( 2
. 3 , 0) Y ( 3 16, O 2 ) a n d GL .
61 1 A ( 1 + 1
. 1 ) B (4 + 1 3 ) a n d C (2 + 3 1 ) D (4, O -
61 2 E ( l
. 3 1 ) F ( 3, 0 1 ) a n d G (3 2 16 2 ) K ( 4, 0 ,
61 3 . M (l + 2 16) N (2 , 0 2) and O (3 + 3 3 ) P (3 1 6 1
61 4 . Dr a w t h e s h o rt es t po s s ibl e li n e p a ra l e l l to ( H, V , or P) i n te rs e c ti n g
both lin es i n E x ( 604 .
61 5 . Given a 2 i n cu b e D w t h e s h o rt e t li n b et w n t h non i nte s t

-
. . ra s e ee e -
r ec
i n g d i g on a l s of a n y t w o a dj a ce nt f ces
a a .
616 . Tw o w i es r u n t h ou gh a b u ild i n g A ( 12 ft
r 2 3 ft
r 0 ) B ( 2 8 ft 0 , . .
,
.
,
6 ft ) a n d C ( IG ft
. 1 2 ft 0) D ( 2 4 ft 0 16 . Dr w t h e .
,
.
, a
s h o t s t c onn ect i n g w i
r e Sc l e 16 in 1 ft re . a . .
61 7 . A 2 16 i n pip e is ru f om a h ol e i n a w a l l a t R ( I3 ft
-
. n 1 2 ft r0) a t . .
,
45 to H a n d 4 5 to V At F ( 8 ft 6 ft 0) a l i n pip e ru n s s t a igh t
° °
. . .
,
-
. r
ou t f r om t h e w a ll t h e n b e nd s p e rp e nd i cu l ly a d ru ns dow nw a d to
,
ar n r
t h e ri gh t a t 40 to H M a k e t h e s h o r te s t po s s ib l conn ection How

°
. e .
lo g mu s t it b e a llo w i ng 2 in a t ea ch e d for conn e ctions ? Sc le

n ,
. n a
16 i n = 1 ft. .
61 8 . Dra w t h e s h o rt es t pos s ibl e h o r i z ont a l pip e fo E x 6 1 7 r . .
61 9 . Dra w t h e sh o rt es t po s s ibl e v e tic l p ip e for E x 6 1 7 r a . .
62 0 . Sca l e 16 i n 1 ft In a m i ll t h e r e i s a 6 ft cu b ic l b i n on t h efloo r w ith

. .
-
. a
o e ed ge a t A ( I5 ft
n 0 0) E ( 2 l ft 0 O) A 2 4 i n s qu a re chu te run s
.
, ,
.
, , .
-
.
i t s ce nt e r li n e f om C ( 3 ft 9 ft 0) i n t h e w a ll to D ( 1 6 ft 0
r 10 . .
,
.
,
ft ) in t h e fl oo r It i s d es ire d to ru n a 9 i n cy lind rica l pip e fr om h ol

. .
-
. a e
a t E ( 1 8 ft 10 ft 0) to F ( 8 ft 0 . 13 C a n t h e pipe p as s b ot h
.
,
.
,
R
P OB E L M S RE LA T ING T o PO I N T S L IN E S
, ,
AN D P LA N E S 115
t he bin a nd t he c h t u e? If s o, h ow m u ch w ill t he e b e to s p a re in ea ch
r
ca s e ? If not lo c te t h n ea
,
a e res t point to t a n s f F r er .
a u . 45 — .
( N ot e .
—Sy mbol s m ay be t a n pos d a t opti on of
r s e
in t
s ru c to r .
)
D ra w t he s h o t t lin b tw n
r es e e ee t he t wo lin es in E x . Of La y
ou t 45 .
D w t h h o t t h o i ont l b t w n
ra e s r es r z a e ee t he t w o lin es in E x .
L y o t 45
a u .
D w t h h o t t v ti l b tw n t h
ra e s r es er ca e ee e t wo lin es in E x . of La y
ou t 45 .
D ra w t he s h o t t lin b t w n C L
r es e e ee and a ny obliq ue lin e in La yo t 4 5
u .
FIG . 73 — Pu
. lley s on non int -
er s e c t i ng s h fts a .
111 . Th e Problem
of t h e Gu ide Pu l le y .
It is a w ell known f a ct in m a chi ne d es ign t h a t a belt could b e

-
r u n ov er t h e pulleys A a n d B Sh own in F i g 73 so a s to d r ive in ,

.
,
one direction or t h e ot h er but it would be imposs ibl e t o revers e ,

1 16 P RA C TIC AL D E SC RIPTIV E G E OM E T RY
t he dir e ction if a tt a ch e d to r u n in on e It is possible to C onstr u ct
“
.
i dle r or g uide pulley wit h its S h a ft a t suc h a n a n gle t h a t

”
an , ,
t h e belt will not run off eit h er pulle y r unnin g in eit h er direction , .
F IG . 74 —
. Lo ti ng t h
ca e p la ne of t h e gui de pul leys .
F I G 75 . .
—Sh ow i ng evolu tion a n d cou nter revolu t ion of t h e gu id e pu l ley
r -
.
C on truction s .
—l
Sel ect a point M ( Fi g . betw een t h e ,
.
p ulle y s p r efer a bly a bout midwa y common to t h e cente r pl a n es

, ,
of t h e pulley s .
2 R u n a t a n ge nt f r om M to e a c h of t h e pull e ys in t h eir cente r

.
pl a n e .
1 18 P RA C TIC AL DE SC RIPT IVE GE O M E T RY
If t h e numbe r of pl a nes is in cr ea s e d t he str a igh t li n e st ill p ers is t s
,
if t h e obj ect is t r a nspos e d s y mm et r i ca ll y a bout e a ch of t h e pl a n es .
F IG . 76 .
C on s tructi o n L et it be re quir e d to find t h e pom t s on H a n d

Vwh e e
-
.
r a ra y , t h r ou gh A strikin g bot h is r efl ect e d to B ( Fig

, . .
1L oc a te t h e p r oj ections of B a t b l b l symm et r ic a lly p l a ce d v n
V
.
,
on o p posit e sid e s of H a n d .
2 Dr a w a st r a igh t line fr om A to b l b l
v n
V
. .
3 L o ca te t h e H a n d
. pie r cin g points of t h is lin e C a n d D
-
,
.
F IG . 77
4 . As C is t he first point r e a ch e d it is t he point of re fl ection

on H .
5 Tr a ns p o s e (i f to d a n e qu a l dist a n ce a bove H a n d it will

v
V
,
.
,
be t h e po i nt of r efl ection on .
6 Dr a w t h e l in e A GDE , a n d i t will b e t h e pa t h of t he r a y f r o m
.
A to B ,
R B LE M S RE LA TING
P O T O POI N T S L IN E S AN D PLAN E S
, , 1 19
1 14 . R C ISE S PR A C TIC AL E XE
63 3 Fi nd t h e l ength of l l t h obli q e
. fters in F i g 78 a e u ra . . Sc a le 16i n 1 ft . .
634 Fi nd t h e t e
. ngl s b t w n t h e v io obliq
ru a e e ee ar us ue ra fte rs a n d t h e
h o i ont l id g
r z t h t int
a t th em ( Fig
r es a e r s ec .
63 5 M . l l t h v ll ey ngl s b tw ee n t h e pl n
ea s u r e a e Aa a e e a es and C, A a nd D ,
et c .
,
in t h e oof ( Fig
r .
F IG . 78 .
63 6 A t ng u l a ch imn y 3 ft 6 in X 5 ft 4 in i s t o b e pu t t h ou gh r oof
D w it s H a d V
. rec a r e . . . . r
C i n Fig 78 . .p oj tions d t h e t ru e s i e Of t h e
ra n -
r ec ,
an z
Ope n in g i n t h e oof r .
W i n d ow s Z O
' ' '
x 3
F IG . 79 .
63 7. Roof in Fig l a ce w indow

.
( Fig 79 ) in t h e ce nt er of r oof
78 . P .
638 C u t a n op eni n g 4 ft s q a e in oof

. Fig 78 . u r r . .
63 9 A n o cta gon a l ton e to w e r 1 8 ft in di a m et e r a d 40 ft h igh i s s u r

. s , .
,
n .
,
mou nt ed b y a p y mi d a l ca p 1 2 ft h i gh D ra w i t s p oj ction s a d
ra ,
. . r e ,
n
d a w i n t h e center Of e a h of t h e fo v i s ible fa ces w indow

r c ( Fig ur .
D a w onl y h a l f of t h e pl n
r d t h e e l ev a t i on of t h e ca p Sca l e a an .
16 in 1 ft . .
640 A 1 4 i n s te m f e d pip e w h o s e ce nt er li n e i s A ( I ft
.
-
. a e 3 ft 3 in
, . . .
3 ft ) B ( 4 ft 0
. 1 .Th e pl n of t h e r oof s h e d i s T ( 5 ft
,
2 ft ) a e . .
6 i n ( 2 ft . 3 D a w t h e p oj ctions of t h e Openi ng i n t h e r oof

. r r e ,
a n d i t s t ru e s i e De te m in e t h e d ip of t h e r oof Sca l e 1 in
z . r 1 ft . . .
1 20 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
64 1 . A t p b 3 ft long i
ra e ze p nd d b y op s 3 ft long Find h w
a r, .
, s s us e e r e . . o
h igh it i is d b y t w i t i ng th o gh
s ra e s r u
Wh t ngl do t h pipe in E 640 m k w ith H V d T If it

a a es es e x . a e , , an .
k eep i t di tion w h t i t h i of t h h ol i t h e fl oo ?
s s r ec ,
a s e s ze e e n r
64 3 . A oni l tow i 1 5 ft in d i m t
c ca er d 1 4 ft h igh
s D w t w li n . a e er a n . . ra o es
in t h f ce f om t h p x to t h e b e m kin g
e su r a r e a e as ,
a
w it h h ot hea c er .
64 4 . D w ra b e of 1 1 6 i id on H D w t h t e of pl n t h t
a cu -
n . s es . ra e ra c s a a e a
sh ll t a g l h x gon f om t h
cu a re u ar b R volv t h e h ex gon to
e a r e cu e . e e a
p ov t h t it i g l
r e a d ca l c l t e t h
s re n gl e t h t Q m k w i t h H
u a r, a n u a e a a a es .
A b i ld in g 2 8 ft 6 in X 4 1 ft 3 i g o nd pl n i ov d b y h i p oof
u . . .
-
n . r u a s c ere a r
h vi n g a c nt l id g 1 8 ft long
a e raomm n i ng 1 0 ft f om t h f ont
r e .
,
c e c . r e r
of t h e h ou s e Th e f ont co n er fters a e i n cli n ed 45 fr om t h e

. r r ra r
°
h o ri ont lz D w t h e pl a n d e lev a tion of t h e r oof Wh a t i s i t s

a . ra an .
h eigh t ? M e s e t h e h i p ngl es aWh a t a e t h e a ngl es m a d e w ith t h e

ur a . r
h o i o ta l b y t h e
r z n a r c o r n er ft ers ? re ra
B . C .
M o ul d i n g S e ct i o n s .
F IG . 80 .
Tw o u p ll eys 2 4 i X 8 i n a e lo c ted on p lle l h o i onta l s h a fts

n . . r a a ra r z .
Th e c e nte li n e of o e i s A ( 4 ft
r 6 ft 6 i n 1 8 i ) B ( 6 ft
n 6 ft . . . n . . .
6 in .6 d t h e ot h e p s e t h o gh C ( 6 ft
an 2 ft 5 r as s r u . .
T h e fi s t p u ll y i s m id w y b e t w ee n A a d B
r e Th e b lt p ss es th o u gh a n . e a r
a w a ll w h o s e pl n i s S ( l O ft 4 ft ) 6 ft ( 2 ft
a e 4 D w t he . . . . ra
p oj ection s a d t e s i e of t h e Opening i n t h e w ll to ccommod a te

r n ru z a a
t h e b e lt Al low 2 i cl e n c a t a l l points Sca l e 16 i n

.
-
n . 1 ft a ra e . . .
In s c ib e a Sp h e e in t h e te t h ed on A ( 2 0
r r 1 ) B (4 0 1 ) C ( 3 16 ra r , , ,
0 3 ) D ( 3 14 2
C i r cu m s cr ib ph e e a bou t t h e tet h ed on i n E
e a s r ra r x 64 7
—12)
. .
I n s c ri be a s p h e e i n t h e te t
r h ed on M ( 2 1 16 ra r 1 ) N (3 2
O (3 % 1 12 1 1 6 ) P( 3 1
i
C r cu m s cr ib e a s ph e e a bou t t h e tet h ed on in E x 649
r ra r . .
Pa ss a pl a n e e q id i s t
u t f om A (2 3 2 ) B (3 an r l l ) an d
C (5 + 3
D ra w the H and Vp oj -
r ec tion s of a 1 1 6 in -
. h ex nut , d illed a d ch a m
r n
fered , on t he ce nter lin e M (2 1 3 ) N (4 2 l ) Fu ll s ize

. .
1 22 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPTIV E G E O M E T RY
A t nn l th o gh
u e ns f om A ( 42 5 ft
r u 2 75 ft
a h ill
1 00 ft ) to ru r . . .
B ( 2 1 00 ft 1 50 ft
. 1 3 00 Find i t s l ength a d g a d e
. n r .
A pl e T p a s s es th ou gh GL a d t h e poin t K (3 1 A pla n e
S p a r a ll l to i t cu t s V
an r n
1 16 i n a bov e GL Fi nd t h e H — t ce of S t h e
d is ta n ce b e tw een T d S a n d t h ei a n gl es w ith H a d V
e . . ra ,
an ,
r n .
Pa s s a pl a n e t h ou gh L( I 2 1 ) e qu a ll y di s ta nt f om M (4
r l r
N (3 2 a d O (2 2 Fi nd a point i n t h e pla n e
n
t hu s fou nd w h ich i s e qu a ll y dis t a nt fr om M N a d O ,

n .
E ec t a cu b e on H w i th i t s b a s e d i g o n a l A ( 3 0
r 16) B (4 0 a , ,
Sh o w i t s pi ct u e a s s ee n fr om C ( 3 1 6 r 1% Sh o w t h e pi c tu re i n
i t s t ru e si e z .
N ot e —P s s t h pictu e pl n e p rp e ndi cu la to t h e li n f om t h e point f

. a e r a e r e r O
s i gh t to t h e ce nt of t h e cu b e er .
669 . F om a h ole A ( I8 ft
r 1 0 ft ,
i n a mi ll w a ll ru n a pip e th a t w i ll
. .
, ,
m a k e a s t a igh t conn ection w ith t w o pipes w h o s e cen t e lines a re

r ,
r
B ( 5 ft 1 0 ft
. 3 ft 6 i n ) C ( 1 9 ft 0 . 1 0 ft ) a d D ( 3 ft 0 . 8 . .
, . n .
,
ft ) E ( 1 0 ft
. 1 0 ft 8 . Wh a t a e t h e l en gths of t h e t w o po
. r r
tion s of t h e pi pe ? S l e i n 1 ft ca . .
F IG . 81 .
—Ston e a r ch .
D ra w t h e pr oj ection s of t he c rc e i l p a sse d t h ro ugh A (2 2

B (2 1 6 1 and C ( 3 16 2
Th e hi nge of a door 3 0) N ( 4 0 Wh en s hu t it i s to t h e
i s M (4 , , , ,
l eft of M N A t a u t w i e ru n s f om O ( 3 2 0) to P( 5 0
. Find
r r , ,
t h e o u tl i e of a s lot t h t w ill a llo w t h e doo to Op en f e l y t h o gh

n a r r e r u
Le t H b e a mi o r A r y of li gh t p s es t h ou gh A ( I
rr . 1 16 2 16) a a s r
s t i k es
r H a n d p s s t h ou gh B ( 3 1 6 1 as Wh e e do es i t
e r r
r efl ec t on H a d w h e e do es i t s t ik e V ?
,
n r r
Find t h e p th of a a y of ligh t t h a t p s s t h ou gh O ( 5 2 1 16 )
a r as e r
a n d i s re fl ec t e d f om H a d V t h o gh P ( 2 r 1 n r u
Th e top of a la ge b in i n a mill h a s fo i t s c o n e
r t h e po i nts A ( 4 ft r r rs .
7 ft 6 i . n ,B ( 2 0 ft
. 7 ft 6 i n C ( 4 ft 2 ft 3 i n . 8 ft . .
,
. . . .
9 a d D ( 2 O ft
n 2 ft 3 i n 8 ft 9 F om M ( IG ft
. 12 . . . r .
ft 0) t h e c ente r li n e of a 2 4 i
.
, s q u a e ch t e n s dow n w a d to t h -
n . r u ru r e
l eft a t 45 to H d 3 0 to V D a w t h e p oj ction s of t h e h ole in t h e

°
an
°
. r r e
b i n top m a d e b y t h e ch u te d find i t s t ru e s i e Sc le 16 in 1 ft ,
an z . a . .
R B LE M S RE LA T ING
P O T O POI N TS L IN E S A ND PLAN E S
, , 1 23
D w t h e p oj ections f fo Sph e es 1 K i 1 16 i 1 16 i n a d 2 i
ra r O ur r , n .
, n .
, .
, n n .
in di m t a h o e t n g nt to t h ot h
e e r , ea c t h ee n a e e er r .
D v lop t h e s f c of t h e k ey ton of t h e h s h own i Fi g 81 Th e

e e ur a e s e a rc n . .
ma on y i 1 4 in t h ick U
s r s y onv n ie nt le . . se a n c e s ca .
M (8 in 71 6 in . 2 in ) N ( 1 7 i 4 in 8 i n ) i s t h e cente li n
. . n . . . r e
of a h ollow tile 4 i n X 1 2 i of s q u a e s ction w ith ou nd d co n s

, . n .
, r e r e r er ,
16 i w ll s Th e ou nd e d c orn ers e 1 16 i
-
n . a . d iu s D w i t s p o
r ar -
n . ra . ra r
j t i s s ca l e 3 i n
ec on 1 ft
A bo eh ol e t a 6—
.
, .
r ft c o e f om v in w h o e t i k i nort h 60
cu s . r r a e , s s r e s
°
ea s t d w h o e cl ip i s 45 to t h e no t h w t Th e bo h ol b
°
, an s r es . re e ea rs
s o th 75 w e t a d d ip Wh t i t h l th i k es of t h v in ?
°
u s n s a s e r ea c n s e e
E x. 681 — P . la te b a nd a r ch .
At A , l v a ti on i s 9800 ft a v er ti ca l bo r eh ol e s tri k es a vei n

w h ere t h e e e .
,
a t 3 00 ft B b ea rs no rt h 3 0 ea s t 1 500 ft fr om A a n d h a s a n el e
.
,
°
,
.
,
v a tion of 9 600 ft An i n cl i n ed h ole i s d ri lle d b ea ri ng no rth 75 ea s t

.
,
°
,
d ipping s t i k i n g t h e v ei n t 5 2 5 ft
r A t C w h o s e e l ev a ti on i s a .
,
1 2 00 ft fr om A s o u t h 60 e a s t a v ert ica l bo eh ol e cu t s t h e
°
9 900 ft .
, .
, ,
r
or e a t 3 75 ft R equ i ed t h e d ip a n d s t ik e of t h e v ein Let H b e a t

. r r .
9 500 ft l ev e l . .
At A ( I 3 ) a bo reh ol e i s d ri ll e d b ea ri n g no rt h 30 e a s t a n d
°
3 , ,
di ppin g 7 It i n t er s e ct s a v ei n wh o s e s t rik e i s d u e no rth a n d cu ts , ,
a n 8 ft c o re
-
. Th e t ru e t h i ckn es s of t h e v ei n i s 5 ft
. W h a t i s t h e cl ip .
of t h e v ein ?
Vertica l h oles on h il l s id e ( o s id e ed a pla ne ) a e bo e d 1 50 ft t
a c n r r r . a
1 24 P RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T RY
A ( 1 00 ft . 400 ft . 300 2 00 ft . at B ( 3 5O ft . 2 50 ft . 325
a nd 125 ft . at C ( 6OO ft 3 2 5 ft . 1 00 . s t ri ki ng a v ein of o e r .
W h a t i s t h e lin e of ou t c op a d w h a t a re
r ,
n t he dip a n d s t r i k e of t h e
v ein ?
D ra w p oj ect ions of t h e Pla te B a nd Ar ch La y ou t t h e p a tte n s
t he r . r
f or j oin t s A B C D E Sc a l e 16 i n
, ,
1 ft, ,
. . .
Pl a te B a nd Ar ch La y ou t t h e p tter n s for t h e l nti g f a ces F J

. a s a n , , ,
K L M a n d N Sca le 16 in
, , ,
1 ft . . .
Pl a te B a nd A ch M a k e w o ki n g d a w i ngs in th ee vi w s of Block
r . r r r e
(A B C N M )
,
Sca l e 1 i n
, ,
1 ft
, . .
Le a J h a f f
O(1 /cr op of Lod e
E x . 684 .
—Min e su r vey of Pr in ce a n d Q u ee n v ein s .
Given t h ou t op of P in e e Qu een v ei ns a d t h e s h a ft Leo

cr s r c and ,
n .
Req i ed t h e l ngt h b e i n g
u r e a a d in cli n a ti on of t h e s h o r tes t c o s s
,
r , n r
c u t f r om t h e p e e nt bottom po i nt of t h e s h a ft to t h e i nt er sec t i on of P
r s
a nd Q A ls o t h e l ength b ea ring a d l evel o f t h e d rift fr om t h e l ow es t

.
, ,
n
point of t his lin e to t h e line of t h e s h a ft .
N ote —D a w comp s s m k a d s ca le
. r a ar n .
M in e S ur v ey
Dar/u m Pl a n e
E x . 685 .
-
Min e s u rv e y NO 2 . .
685 . Min S v y of A h i L l nd
e ur e nc or a ,
e a , and Is ab e ll lod es Re qu ired : ( 1 )
a .
Lo tion d d pth of a s h ft to
ca an e a t he inte se ction of A L I ; (2 )
r
C H A PT E R III
INTE R S E C TIO N S AN D DE VE L O PM E NT S OF PLAN E

SOLIDS
1 1 5 Problem 3 9
. .
— TO find a pla ne s ectio n of a pyra m i d or
pri s m .
—
An a lysis 1 Obt a in t h e p ier cing p o i nts of t h e v a r iou s obliq u e
. .
e dg e s wit h t h e giv e n pl a n e .
F IG . 82 .
2 . C onnect t h e points two a n d two b y str a igh t lines in ord er .
C o n s tructio n —Let it be r e quir e d to d r a w t h e s ection line of

.
t h e h e x a g on a l p yra mid m a de b y t h e pl a ne T ( Fi g
1 Dr a w t h e Q
.
.
-
p r oj e ction of t h e pyra mid .
1 26
I N TE RSE C T IO N A ND D E V E L OPM E N TS OF P LAN E L DS
SO I 127
2 Dr a w t h e of T Qt
V ( Th
.
-
r a ce .
3 Pr oj e ct t h e v a r io u s pie r cin g points to H a n d e
Qp r oj ections of th ese points a re a l l lo ca ted on QT )

. .
-
.
4 J oin t h e point s in o r d er fo r min g t h e i rr eg ul a r

.
,
h ex a g on
en closin g t h e c r ossh a t ch e d sp a ce .
DE V
E L O PM E N T
1 1 6 Defi n i t i on —
. To develop t h e sur fa ce of a solid is to b r in g
its v a r ious fa ce s a n d b a ses into one pl a ne a l l in th ei r t r ue siz e s ,
a n d re l a tiv e positions so t h a t t h e pl a ne fi g u r e t h us outlined ca n

,
be cut out a n d folded i nto t h e fo r m of t h e solid .
— .
“
N ot e In s h eet m eta l d ftin g t h is i s ll d l yin g o t t h e p tt n
ra ca e a u a er .
Pr ob l em 40 —To d ev el op t h e
. rfa c e of a t run ca te d pri s m su .
C on s t ru ctio n — L et it be requi re d to develop t h e squ a r e p r ism

.
( Fi g between its H b a se a n d t h e T s e ction

.
- -
.
Ba se Li n e
De v el opm e n t
F IG . 83 .
1 . out t h e b a se line on a righ t s e ction of t h e p r ism

La y .
( In t h is ca se use t h e H b a se ) -
.
2 La y 0 6 t h e tru e l e n gt h of t h e b a se ed g es on t h is lin e
. .
3 E r ect p er p e ndi cul a r s a t t h es e poin ts m a kin g t h e m e qu a l in

.
,
len gt h to t h e se g m ents of t h e lon g itudin a l ed ges in o r de r , .
4 C onn e ct t h e ends of t h es e p er p e ndi cul a r s two a n d two by

.
str a i gh t lin e s .
1 28 PR A C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T RY
5 . A tt ach to p a n d bottom b a ses A a n d B to t h eir p r ope r

t he , ,
edge s in t h eir t r ue si z es .
1 1 7 Problem
. 41 — To d evelop a trun ca te d pyra m id
. .
C onstruction — Let it b e r e quir e d to dev elop t h e p yra mid

.
s h own in Fig 82 bet w een t h e H b a se a n d t h e T s ection

.
- -
.
1 Obt a i n t h e t r u e l en gt h s of t h e e dg e s a n d of t h e segm e nts

.
,
b et w een b a s es .
0 . 2 Lay out t h e t r i a n g les in t r ue size a n d o r d er wit h a c ommon

.
,
vertex .
F IG . 84 .
—Dev elopm ent of t ru n c a te d p yr a mid .
3 . La y on t h e e d ge s in t h is fig u r e t h e t r u e l engt h s of t h e
Off
va r ious se gm e nts a n d conn e ct t h e s e p oints b y st r a igh t lin e s

, ,
two a n d two .
4 A tt a c h t h e b a s e s A a n d B in t h e i r t r ue S i z e s to t h e p r o p e r
.
edge s .
E XE R C IS E S
G r a ph c i L a yo u t N o . 46 — C e
. nte l i n es
r for l
reg u a r s ol id s .
1 30 RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPTIV E G E O M E T RY
P
F IG . 85 .
F IG . 86 .
—Sa w h o rs e .
IN TE R SE C T IO N S A ND D E V E LOPM E N T S OF PLAN E SO I L DS 13 1
69 1 . M k a d et i l Of t h e b ckb Oé of t h e s w h o s e s h ow n i Fig 86
e a a a n a r n .
,
s h ow i n g t h e a n g l es of t h e cu t to b m d e D a w to a y c onv eni ent s e a . r n
s a le
c .
F IG . 87 — . G i n h oppe
ra r. F IG . 88 — . V ntil to
e a r ca p .
69 2 . M k d ta il d wi ngs f t h e l g a d b c of t h e
a e e ra O e s n ra es saw h o r s e, s h ow n i n
Fig 86 h ow ing t h ng l s of t h v i o
.
,
s ts e a e e ar us cu . Dr a w to any c on
v en i e n t s ca e l .
FIG . 89 .
—St a nd .
69 3 . M k p tte n to a y o v ni nt l of t h g i n h opp s h ow n i
a e a a r n c n e e s ca e e ra er , n
Fig 87 U t w o s p
. f t h p oj ti o n s
. d p tt
se M k a ces or e r ec an a e rn . a e a
p p e mod el of t h e h opp p tti ng on fl p f h old in g togeth

a r er , u a a or er .
694 . M ke a p ttern to y o
a i ts l of t h v ntil to p h ow n
a an c n v en en ca e , e e a r ca ,
s
in Fig 88 . .
132 P RA C T IC AL DE SC R IPT I E V GE O M E T R Y
695 . Fig 89 s h ow s a s t ool or pl nt s ta nd m a d e of l i lu mb e r Th e
.
,
a ,
-
n . .
e d g es of t h e fou r i n cli n e d su ppo r tin g p ie e s e c h a mf e e d t o fi t c ar r .
M a k e a w o ki ng d a w in g w ith f ll d e t a ils to s ca le s h ow ing t h e ng les

r r u , a
F IG . 90 .
—
St on e a r ch .
of t he ch a mf e ed pi
r e ce s , w ith o t d pli ti n g a
u u ca ny of t he p rts
a . Ta k e
t wo p a ces for t h e w o k
s r .
69 6 . D ev lop t h e s u fa ce of t h e k eys ton e of t h e a ch s h ow n in Fig

e r r . 90 . The
m a s on ry i s 1 2 in t hick U s a y o v enient s a le
. . e n c n c .
FIG . 91 . F IG . 92 .
119 . Problem 42 — To fi n d t h e l i n e
. of i n te r s e ction b e tw e e n t wo
pl a n e s ol id s .
C on s t ru cti on — To fin d t h e lin e of inte rs ection b et w ee n

. t he
squ a r e p yr a mid a n d squ a r e pr is m s h o w n in Fig 9 1 ,
. .
34 RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T RY
P
1 21 . E XE RC ISE S
G a phi c La yo t N o 48 —C nte line

r u . . e r s fo r inte ti ng s olid s Lette to
rs ec . r
su it lo t i ng in I III Anoth e p i
,
ca or . r a r (9 ) ca n be m a d e lik e ( 8) w it h a x es
i nt cting
ers e .
G r a ph c
i
L y ou t N o
a . 49 .
—B a s e s for s olid s .
Le t A n t er li n e of a igh t p y mi d b a s e
b e t he ce a lti r ra ,
tu d e in ( 2 2 16 .
, d B b e t h e cent e r l i n e o f t h e rig h t
, an
p yr mi d b s e
a ,
a a lt i t u d e in (2 2 16 .
, ,
( 0 ) Dra w t h e lin e of i nt ers e cti on .
( b ) D ev e lop t h e s rf a ce of py m id A u ra .
( c) Dev e lop t h s u rf a ce of p y ra mi d B
e .
Le t A b e t h e ce nt er l i n e of a r igh t p y ra m id b s e a lti ,
a
tu de in ( 2 2 16 . a d B
,
b e t h e c e nt e r l i n e of t h e righ t
, n
p is m b a s e
r , a lt it u d e 3 i n .
I N TE RSE C T IO N S A ND D E V E L OPM E N TS OF PLAN E L DS
SO I 135
( a ) D ra w t h e li n e of inte rs ecti on .
( b ) D e v elop t h e s u rf a ce of py ra mi d A .
( 0) De v elop t h e s u rf a ce of p ris m B .
Le t A b e t he ce nter lin e of a righ t p i s m b a s e r ,
2 in . and B be t h e ce nt e li n e of a ri gh t p y ra m id
r ,
a ltitu d e i n ( 2 , 2 16, .
( a ) Dra w t h e li n e of i n t e rs e ct on i .
(b) D
ev elop t h e s u rf a c e of p r s m i A .
( 0) D
ev elop t h e s u rf a ce of p r a mi d y B .
Let A b e t he ce nter lin e of a ri gh t p ris m b a s e ,
2 in .
,
B and b e t h e ce nte r li n e of a r i gh t p ris m ,
a lt it u d e 3 in .
( 0 ) Dra w t h e l i n e of int er s ecti on .
( b ) D e v elop t h e s u rfa ce of p ris m A .
( 0 ) De v elop t h e s u rfa ce of p ris m B .
M k e a p a per mod el of t h e t w o g iv n s oli d s

a e .
CO N C R E TE F O R M P R O B LE M S
F orm A F or m B
F IG . 95 .
703 . D v elop
e t he pa tterns f or t he c on cre te fo m ( A o B ) d im ens i on s
r r ,
(1 ,
2, 3, or c ons t ru c te d b y t h e Sa nta F e Ra i lr o a d ( di m en
si ons lte e d )
a r .
1 36 P RAC T IC AL DE S C R IPTI V E GE O M E T R Y
In l ying ou t t h e timb e ing fo
a r r t he g bl a e, s h ow n in Fig . 94, i
u s e s z es
s e l ect e d f om t h e follo w in g l i s t
r
4 in . X 6 in . 6 in . X 6 n i . 8 1n . X S in . 10 in . X 10 in .
4 in . X 8 n i . 6 in . X 8 n i . S in . X 10 n i . 1 0 in . X 1 2 in .
4 in . X 10 in . 6 in . X 10 n i . 8 in . X 1 2 in . 10 in . X 1 4 in .
4 in . X 12 in . 6 in . X 1 2 in . 8 in . X 14 in . 1 0 in . X 16 in .
Di m e n s i on s of t h e g bl e m y b e a lte ed if d es i ed Det a i l ea ch piece

a a r ,
r .
,
l a ying ff o t h e n gl es of t h e t im w i t h fu ll d e t ils of m e s u m e nt s
a r , a a re .
S l e to s
ca u it .
F IG . 94 .
—Timb ering of a g ble i n M in B ild i n g A mo
a a u ,
r ur Ins tit te of u
T h ologyec n .
Tw o tim b e s w h os e cente li n es a e A (4 ft
r , 1 0 ftr 2 ft ) B ( 1 8 ft
r . . . .
,
0 5 ft 6 i n ) a d C ( 4 ft 0
. . 8 ft ) D ( 1 8 ft
n 1 0 ft
.
, 8 a e . . . r
c onn e t d b y t h e s h o rt e t po s ibl
c e tim b b a ce not ch ed to fit S el ect
s s e er r ,
.
t h e t i mb er s i es f om t h e fo eg o i n g l is t
z r d d a w t h e p oj ection s
r ,
an r r
of t h e t h ee pi eces in a s s embl y a d d et a il w ith ful l dim en ions of

r n ,
s
not ch es a d t ims A B a d C D a e t immed to fi t h o i ont l t i mb e s

n r . n r r r z a r .
Sc a l e 16 i 1 ftn . .
Us ing t h e s m e d ta a s E x 705 ma k e t h e c oss b a ce t he s h o rtes t

a a .
,
r r
p o ss ibl e h o ri ont a l t imb r

z e .
138 P RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPT IV E GE O M E T RY
71 0 . D ev lop t h p tte n s fo t h e h opp e lb ow
e e a r r r e
‘
in 3 , 4)
pi c s ( F i g
e e A y onv ni ent s l e
. n c e ca .
71 1 . A t ng l i pip 1 0 i X 1 2 i follow s t h
r ec a u ar a r e, n . nter line A ( 3 ft
n .
, e ce .
6 ft .
, 0) B ( 3 ft 6 ft
. 2 ft ) C ( 7 ft 6 i n
. 2 ft . 2 ft ) D ( 7 ft . . . . .
6 in .
, 0 2 c omin g t h o u gh t h e w a ll h o riz ont a ll y ru nn in g dow n
r ,
F IG . 99 .
wa r d ob liqu ely a n d th e n dow n th ou gh t h e

, Keep t h e cr os s r
s ect i on u n ifo m ex cept a t t h e t u rn s

r La y ou t t h e j o ints in p r oj ecti on .
n d l a y ou t t h e p a tt e n s for t h e pipi n g Sca le 16 in 1 ft

“
a r . . .
71 2 Fig 9 9 s h ow s a 4 5 ga ble w ith Wa ter Ta bl e A in clin ed a t

°
u s i ng
”
“
.
,
.
mou lding D Fig 1 00 mu ltipl yin g ea ch dim ens ion b y 3

,
”
.
,
.
D .
M o ld ing Se ti ons
u c
F IG . 1 00 .
t he in el of in te section of t h e mou lding with t h e w a ter ta ble a t points

r
B a d C Als o l a y ou t t h e pa tter n for th is mou ld ing in s h eet m e ta l

n .
,
-
w o rk ( N ot e
.
— D ev elop a s a cy li n d er a n d sh ow t h e s h a pe of ea ch
.
,
en d i n d ev elopm ent ) .
I N TE RSE C T IO N S AND D E V E L OPM E N T S OF PLAN E SO I L DS 139
71 3 . Fig . ow s a 45 ga ble u s in g mou ldin g B Fig 1 00 mu ltiplyi ng

1 01 sh
°
, , .
,
e ch di m e n s i on b y 4 w it h h a lf o u nd pil a s te s a s s h o w n a t C a d D
a ,
-
r r n .
Dr a w t h e lin e of i nt e s ect ion i n eg ion s E a n d F La y ou t t h e p a ttern s

r r .
fo r t h is mo u ld i n g in h e et m et a l
s Sh o w e a ch e d i n t h e d ev elo pm e nt
. n .
La y ou t a l s o t h e p a ttern s fo t h e pi l a s te r in s h ee t m et a l
r An y con
.
v e i e t s ca l e
n n .
F I G 1 01
. .
C H A PT E R I V
S HADE S AN D S H ADO W S
1 22 On e of t h e int er esting a ppli ca tions of De sc r i p tive Geo m e

.
try is t h e det er min a tion oi t h e s h a d es a n d sh a do w s of obj ects .
C a t a logue cuts it ect s d r a w ings e m p loy it mo s t ext e n

’
a n d a r ch
s i v el y , but on m a n y occ a sions it will b e found us eful in s h Op

d r a w in g s .
1 23 . De fi niti on s .
Sh a d e is t h a t p a r t of an obj ect not e x p o s e d to t he dir ect ra ys

of lig h t .
F IG . 1 02 .
Sh a d o w is t h a t p a r t of a s u rfa ce i n l ig h t fr om w h i ch r a ys of
ligh t a r e ex clud e d .
U mb r a is t h e unligh t e d s p a ce b eh ind a n obj ect in lig h t .
N ote —S h dow i t h int

. a s tion of t h e mb w ith
e er s ec f i ligh t ; u ra a s u r a ce n
th t i s i t i s t h int pted po tion of

a ,
e e r ru mb b y int po d f
r an u ra an er se s u r a ce .
Th e L in e of Sh a de
is t h e im a gi n a r y lin e b e t w ee n t h e ligh t a n d
s h a ded po r tions of a n obj ect .
1 24 Th e sun i s ou r so u r ce of lig h t a n d its r a y s a r e a s s um e d

.
,
to b e st r a igh t lin e s a l l p a r a ll el T h is a ssum p tion is ver y ne a r ly

,
.
t r ue a n d t h e devi a tion of t h e r a y s is so ver y sligh t t h a t no a o

,
count need be t a k en of t h e err o r F or convenience in convention a l

.
1 40
1 42 RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T RY
P
2 Fi nd t h e p ier cing p oin t of t h e r a y wit h H

. or
me ets fi r st
V
.
C on clu s io n — O ca s ts its s h a do w on at P .
F I G 1 04
. .
—Th e sh a dow of a l ine .
F IG . 1 05 .
—S h a do w of a l i ne on H and V
.
1 28 Problem 44 — To fi n d t h e s h a dow of a li n e
. . .
C onstruction — L et A B Fi g 1 04 b e t h e g ive n line

.
,
.
,
.
1 . Fi nd t he pier cin g poin ts , C and D, of A a nd B .

SH AD E S AND SH AD OW S 1 43
2 . Dr a w C D ; it is t he sh a dow on H .
p c
S e ia l C a s e — Wh en s h a d o w on m or e t h a n
. a l in e ca st s i t s
on e pl a n e .
C o n s t ru cti on —Le t AB Fig 1 05 b e t h e give n lin e

V
. .
,
.
,
1 Find its H p i er c in g point s C a n d D a n d t h e

.
-
p ier cing , ,
-
p oint E of B , , .
2 Dr a w c d until it meets GL a n d c onn ect it a t t h is p oint

f’ lat
.
,
w it h e
v
.
N t —Th s h dow li n i t h t of t h mb pl n h n t h i h do w
on H a d t h e V
o e. e a e s e r a ce e u ra a e, e ce s s a
i th H t
s e -
t e on V of t h pl n A B C D
ra ce ,
n -
ra c e a e .
1 29 . Prob l e m 45 —To fi n d t h e
. sh a dow of a pl a n e fi gu r e on a
pl a n e .
F IG . 1 06 .
—Sh a dow of a s qu a re .
C on s t ru cti o n .
— Let t h e squ a r e A B C D ( Fig . 1 06) b e t h e fi gu r e ;
to find its s h a dow .
l Obt a in t h e H pier cin g points of t h e ra y s fr om t h e fou r

“ “ “ “
-
.
c o r ne r s A B C a n d D a t e
, ,
f g and h
, , , , , , .
2 J oin t h e m in o r d er a n d fil l in t h e en closed sp a ce e x ce p t
.
, ,
wh er e it is c over ed (h idd en ) b y t h e O p a que obj e ct .
N ote —If t h pl n e fig i p ll l to t h e f in ligh t i t s h dow

. e a u re s a ra e s u r a ce , s a
w ill b e eq l pl n e fig e W h y ?
an ua a ur .
1 30 Prob l e m 46 — TO d r a w t h e
. . ow of a s ol id on a pl a n e
sh a d .
C o n s t ru cti o n .
—Let the cub e s h own in Fi g 1 07 b e t h e g iv en .
solid .
1 Dr a w r a y s fr om a l l t h e c or ne r s
. .
2 Dis r e g a r d t h e ra y t h r oug h A , a s
. it will b e inside t he umb r a .
1 44 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
3 Obt a in t h e H p i erci n g p oi n t s of t he y s fro m B C, and D,
““ “
.
-
ra ,
at e ,
f , and g .
4 . C onnectt h es e p oints w it h t h e b r oke n li n e a n d fill in b a c k ,
to t h e H p r oj ection of t h e cub e
-
.
—
N ote Th h do w of B M d DN t h lin
‘ ‘‘
’
’
i H l
K
. e s a s m an d g a re e es e an n
F IG . 1 07 .
— Sh a dow of a cu be .
Spec i a l C a s e .
—Wh e n th e sh a d ow fa l l s on more
pla n e .
C onstructi o n —Let t h e h ex a g on a l p r ism Fig 1 08 b e t h e

V
. .
, ,
O bj ect To find its sh a dow on H a n d

. .
1 Fr om a l l t h e expos e d points d r a w t h e r a y s a n d obt a in t h e i r

.
p iercing points In thi s ca s e it will be found t h a t t h e point X

.
is t h e only on e to ca st its sh a dow on H

V
.
2 Obt a in t h e s h a dow of M X on H a n d a n d of A B
li v
“ V “
.
y n , ,
on H a n d a ,
c c ( Pr oblem 44 S pe ci a l C a se )
v
,
.
1 46 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IVE GE O M E T RY
71 9 . H ex a g on a l p is m res ti n g on
r H, ce nter li n e G ( 1 16 16 1 ) K ( 3 14
Ra i t h e p is m in E 71 9 16 in ff H
se r x . . o .
C y lind e 2 i d i a m ete x i M ( 2 0 1 16) N (2 3

r, -
n . r, a s ,
S mo nt t h cy l ind
ur u in E 72 1 wi th a
e ( q er e x . s uar or he x a g ona l )
plinth 3 i d i gon l d 1 in th i k
,
-
n . a a an 6 . c .
C y l ind e t n g nt to H
r a xi O ( 1 e 1 ) P( 3 1
6 ,
a s
P i m
r s ( q o h ex g on l ) b a se d i gon l 2 l
s u a re r a a ,
a a n .
, ce nter li n e
A (2 , 0 2 ) B (2 2 Sh a do w on H a n d T ( 5 2)
Pr s im in E x . 72 4 cu tti g n th r ou h t h e pla n e S ( 2 ) g oo
(
Sh a dow on S .
S qu a re p ri s m , l i n -
. b a s e center lin e A (2 0 2 ) B (2
, ,
2 su r
mou nted b y a s qu a r e plint h 1 16 i b a s e 16 i n th ick

,
-
n .
,
. .
F IG . 1 09 .
Pris m plinth in E x 72 6 Sh dow on H V a d T ( 5 2 )

and . . a , ,
n
P is m
r a n d plin t h in E x 72 6 e m e gin g t h ou gh S ( 2) .
( ,
r r oo
Sh a do w on S .
H ex a g on a l p ris m 1 16 i b s e d ia gon a l center lin e A ( 2 0 2 ) B

,
-
n . a , ,
(2 2 s u r mou nte d b y a h e x a g on a l pl i nt h 2 i b a s e d ia gon a l ,

-
n .
,
16 in t h ick
’
. .
Pris m a n d pl inth E x 72 9 Sh a dow on H V a d T ( 5

, . 2) .
, , n
Pris m a n d plint h E x 72 9 cu ttin g t h r ou gh pl a n e S (

, . 2) ( ,
00
Sh a do w on S .
C y l ind e r l i n d i a m ete r s u rmo u nte d b y

-
.
(s qu a re r o u nd o
, , ,
r
h e x a g on a l ) plint h b a s e d ia gon a l ( o d ia m ete r ) 2 i n 1 6 in t h ick

Sh a d ow on H Van d T ( 5
, r .
,
. .
C y l i nd er a n d plint h E x 732 , . 2) .
, ,
SH AD E S A ND SH AD OWS 1 47
73 4 . Cy l i nd er a n d pli nth ,
E x. 73 2 , cu tt i n g th r ou gh S( + 2) cc (
Sh a do w on S .
F IG . 1 10 .
I
73 5 . C r o ss , 1 09 , ba se ce nte r at A (2 } 0
73 6 . T wis t the cr oss ,
E x . 73 5,
F IG . 111 .
737 C r oss , E
. x . 736 . t
cen er a t B (2 , 0 Sh a do w on H V
, , and T (5 2)
l
P a ce t h e on a s tepped py a mid ma d e u p of fou r 16 i n
o
cr s s , E x . 736, r .
th ick plinth s r es p ectiv ely i , 1 16 in 1 16 i n 1 in s qu a re n .

,
.
,
.
, . .
D a w t h e box Fig 1 1 0 3 0 f om V Sh a d s a n d s h a do w in s id e a n d
r ,
.
,
°
r . e s,
o u ts id e a d on H a n d V
,
n .
D a w t h e box Fig 1 1 0 on S ( l 1 )
r ,
Sh a do w on H V
.
, s ,
a nd S .
D w t h e box Fi g 1 1 0 on d op n f ont Sh dow on H V d

ra , .
, en , e r . a s , ,
an
i t lf
se .
T w i t t h box Fig 74 1
s e , Sh do w on H V . d , a s , ,
an
it l f
se .
Sid l v tion of h o w ith 4 5 g bl oof D w pl n d d °

e e e a a use a e r . ra a an en
v iew R q i d s h a dow of himn ey on oof oof ed g s on w ll

. e u re c r , r e a s,
an d e nti e h o e on t h e g o nd
r Dim n ion a d
us l e w h te v e r u . e s s n s ca a r
c onv n i nt e e .
F IG . 1 12 .
744 . Sid el v tion of h o w ith 30 g ble oof D w t h e pl n d d

e e a a u se
°
a r . ra a an en
vi w D w t h e s h dow of t h e chi mn y d do m on t h e oof l o

e . ra a e an r er r ,
a s
th oof ed ges on t h e w a ll an d t h e s h a dow of t h e h ous e on t h e g o nd

e r s, r u .
1 50 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IVE G E O M E T R Y
1 35 Pro j ection s
of C urve s
V
. .
A cu r ve is p r oj ected on H a n d P in t h e s a m e m a nne r a s a ,
s t r a i g h t line ; t h a t is a l l t h e points in t h e cu r ve a r e p r oj e cted on

,
t h e pl a ne of p r oj e ction in lin e s p er pen di cul a r to t h e pl a ne a n d ,
t h e sum of t h es e p r o j ection s of p oints m a k es u p t h e p r oj e ction of

t h e line AS t h es e p r oj e cto r s a r e a l l p a r a ll el t h e sur f a ce w h i ch
.
,
t h ey com p ose is ca lled t h e Pro j ecti n g C ylin d er of t h e cur ve .
( C om p a r e w ith t h e proj ectin g pl a ne of a st r a i gh t line ) .
F IG . 1 13 .
—Pr oj ect ion s of a cu r v e .
U su a lly sm a ll number ( six or eig h t ) p oint s in sp a ce will ver y

a
a ccu r a tely d e t er mine a cu r ve It s p r oj ection s a r e d r a wn by .
r unnin g a smoot h lin e t h r ough t h e p r o j e ctions of t h e p oints in
o r d er on bot h H a n d Va n d on P if n e ces s a r y ( See Fi g

, , ,
. .
N ot —Pl n e rv es in ce t a in po s ition s will p oj t on

e. a cu ,
pl n e r ,
r ec on e a as a
t igh t lin e a d t h e p oj ting y lind e i in t h t e a p oj t in g pl ne

s ra ,
n r ec c r s a ca s r ec a .
H o w ev e mos t r, rv do not l i s onv ni ntly d s p e v n ev

cu es e o c e e , an ac cu r es er
p oj t s
r ec t ig h t li n An y c v e t h t i p ll l
a a s ra obli q to t h
e . ur ,
a s a ra e or ue e
pl n e of p oj tion w i ll p oj t
a r ec v on t h t pl n An y pl n c v e
,
r ec a s a cu r e a a e . a e ur ,
l yin g in pl n p p nd i l to t h pl n of p oj tion w ill p oj t

a a e er e cu a r e a e r ec ,
r ec as a
t igh t lin e on t h t pl n
s ra a a e .
1 36 Pl a ne C u rves
. Lyi n g in a Pr o fil e Pl a ne .
No urve l ying in a p r ofil e pl a n e ca n b e s h o w n in its t r ue

V
c , ,
c h a r a cter b y t h e H a n d p r oj ections b e ca use t he y will bot h be -
,
C URV E D LIN E S 151
st r a i gh t lin es Th e P p r oj e ction will Sh ow not onl y t h e tr u e

.
-
ch a r a ct er of t h e cu r v e but its t r ue dim en s ions Th e H a n d

V
.
,
-
p r oj e ctions of a numb er of p oint s in a cur ve will determine it ,
b u t will not s h o w it ( See Fig . .
In a s imil a r w a y a n y cu r v e lying i n a pl a n e p a r a ll el to H is
V
, , ,
p r oj ect e d in its t r ue size on H a n d a s a str ai g h t lin e on

V V
.
,
If t h e cu r ve li e in a p l a n e p a r a ll e l to its proj e ction gives ,

-
its tr u e Si z e a n d i t s H pr oj eetion will b e a st r a igh t li ne

V
-
.
,
If a cu r ve l i e in a pl a n e p er p e ndi cul a r to H a n d obliq u e to

V
,
its H p r oj ection wil l b e a st r a i gh t lin e a n d t h e p r oj ection w ill

-
,
-
be cur ved a n d w ill Sh o w t h e

,
ch a r a ct er of t h e c ur v e Th e .
c ur ve ,
h o w e v e r m ay be ,
e nti r e ly c h a ng e d by t hi s fo r e
s h o r t e ni ng ; e g t h e pr oj e c
. .
,
tion of a n oblique cir cle is a n

elli p s e
V
.
Th e H a n d p i er cin g -
p oints of a cu r ve a r e found
b y t h e s a me r ul e th a t Obt a i n s
for str a i g h t lin e s ; t h a t is
V
,
wh e r e t h e pr o j e ctio n -
cr oss e s GL pr oj e ct to t h e
,
H p r oj e ction to find t h e H
-
pi er cing point et c , .
1 37 Ta n g e nts a n d
.
Norm a l s to C u rve s .
Defi n i t i on — A t a n g ent to
.
a cu r v e is a line c o n t a inin g
— C v in
t w o con s e cutiv e point s of t h e F G 1 1 1 P ofil 1 1 I ur e a r e 3 9 11 6 .
cu rve .
Th e t a ng e nt m a y b e str a ig h t or cur ve d b u t w h e n cur v e d it , , ,
i s a l w a y s es p e ci a ll y d es ign a t e d Wh en spok e n of a s a t a ng e nt .
,
t h e und er st a ndi ng is t h a t it is a s tr a i gh t line t a n g ent .
Th e t a ng e nt ( fr om its d e fini tion ) must li e in t h e pl a n e of t h e

c ur ve a t t h e p oint of t a n g en cy A lso ( fr om its d e finition ) it u
must h a ve t h e s a me di r e ction a s t h e cur ve a t t h e p oint of t a n

g en cy . It is e s p e ci a lly im p o r t a nt to r ememb er t h a t t h e t a ng ent
mu s t li e in t h e pl a n e of t h e curv e a s m a n y error s oc cur fr om ,
di sreg a r din g t his f a ct .

1 52 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
N ot — Th e pp ent d i ep n y b t w n t h e fo going d fini t ion of t h e
e . a ar s cr a c e ee re e
t ng nt d t h t giv en i mo t Pl n G omet i
a e an a mo nt to not h ing
n s a e e r es a u s .
T h y d fin t ng nt a s li n to h in g
e e e a a v te po i nt Th ei d fi i
a e uc a cu r e a on e . r e n
tion n w a fli i t l y f
s b ginn in G om t y d f
ers s u c en t ion of t h
or e ers e e r ,
an or a s ec e
subj t th t confi i t op tions to s ingl pl ne b t t h t d nt

ec a n es s e ra a e a , u e s u e ca n
il y e h ow s ch a d e fini tion w o ld b e u tt e l y in d q t in Sp e
ea s se u u r a e ua e ac
G om t y
e e r .
AS t h e t a ngen t is a s h o r t st r a ig h t li n e in t h e cur ve ( t w o con

s e cu t i v e points ) t h e cur ve m a y b e consid er e d a s b e in g c ompo s e d
,
of a n i n fini t e numb er of infinit es im a l t a ngen t s int er s e cting con ,
s e cu t i v el y Fig 1 1 5 S h o ws a s er i e s of st r a i gh t lin es A B C
. .
, , , ,
et c . inte rs e cting a t s h o r t finite int er va ls T h e y com p o s e so

, .
n ea rl y a cur ve t h a t it i s e a sy to
im a gin e t h a t minut e divi s io n s
w oul d c om p os e a n a ct u a l cu r v e .
Fr om t h e figur e it ca n e a s ily b e
s ee n h ow t h e t a ng e nt a t a n y
p oint d et er mines t h e di re ction
of t h e cur ve a t th a t p oint .
1 38 Pro j ection s of t h e Ta n .
g ent .
Th e p r oj e ctions of t h e t a n gent
F G 1 15 I
to a cur ve will b e t a n gent to t h e
. .
p r oj e ctions of t h e cur ve on t h e r es p ective p l a n es Th e convers e .
i s not n ecess a r ily t r u e b eca us e a line lyin g in a di ff er ent p l a n e

,
fr om t h a t of t h e cu r ve m a y h a ve i t s pr oj e ction t a ngent to t h a t
of t h e cur ve on on e pl a n e but not on a n y oth er , .
To Dr a w a Ta n g ent to a C urve .
T h er e a r e ex a ct a n d a pp r oxim a te m et h od s In t h e ca s e of t h e .
ci r cle t h e t a ng e nt is a l w a ys p er p e ndi cul a r to t h e r a dius a t t h e

,
point of cont a ct In t h e ca s e of ot h er .
co n ic s ection s t h e ex a ct m eth od will be

,
t a ken u p in con n e ction wit h t h e s t u dy

i
of t h o s e cur ves F or o r din a r y d r a ftin g

.
wo r k a suffi ciently a ccur a t e t a ng ent m a y Pro 1 1 6 . .
b e d r a w n b y pl a cing a st r a ig h t e d g e
a g a i n s t t h e c urv e a n d l a ying o ff t h e t a ng e nt wi t h t h e eye
,
A .
sim p l e a pp r oxim a tion t h a t ca n be u s e d in ne a r ly a l l ca s es of

,
c u r ve s a n d is ex a ct for t h e ci r cle is t h i s : L et it b e r e qui r e d to ,
dr a w t h e t a n gent a t A ( Fig 1 1 6) on t h e cur ve s h o w n Set t h e . .
di v i ders a t s om e s m all ar b i t rar y s pan , a n d l a y off B a n d C on

1 54 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E GE O M E T R Y
F ou r t h .
— To rectify a qua dr a n t of a cir cle .
Le t A B ( Fi g . 1 1 9) b e t h e g ive n qu a d r a nt
t a n g ent . Dr a w t h e
at B a n d fr om A d r a w a lin e A C w h i ch m a k es 60 wit h C B °
, , .
B C i s t h e n a v er y clo s e a pp r oxim a tion to A B T hi s is .
doubte dl y t h e clo s es t a p p r oxim a tion for su ch a n a r c Let t h e .
C
FIG . 1 18 — Th e r ec ti fica ti on of F IG . 1 1 9 — Th e
. r e ct i fi cw
i tion of a qu d nt
.
a c r cu a r a r c l . a ra .
stud e nt pr ove by t r igonometr y t h a t it is n u m er i ca lly e qu a l to

ER . Alth oug h t h er e i s no ge om etr i ca l p r oof for t hi s y our ca l ,
cu al tion will Sh ow th a t it is clos er t h a n t h e a ccu r a cy of y o u r

in s tr um e nts .
A conveni e nt m et h od of r e ctify ing a sm a l l a r c comes with

1
t hi s met h od To rectify B D .
,
Fi g 1 1 9 dr a w t h e lin e E D .
,
t hr ou gh to t h e t a ng ent a t F .
Th e line B F equ a l s B D .
F i ft h —TO re ctify a n a r c of a
cir cle wh en its a n gle i s kn o wn .
H er e t h e num er i ca l met h od
i s b es t T h e a r e A B ( a ngl e 0) .
F IG 1 17
9
. .
o
27rR OI74 5 R 0
§®
3 .
1 41 To La y O fi An y L e n gth of
. or C ur ved on Li ne , S tr a i gh t ,
An y C urve
Re g a r d t h e lin e A B ( Fig 1 1 7) a s a cur ve d li n e La y o ff A B
'
. .
on t h e cur ve in ex a ctly t h e s a m e m a nn er t h a t it w a s l ai d off on

t h e st r a i gh t line .
C URV E D L IN E S 1 55
Thi s is often a n e ces s a r y Op er a tion in p r a cti ca l d r a fting ;

e x a mpl e in dr a wing c y cloid s fo r g ea r outlin e s
, .
1 42 C o n ic S ections
. .
Defin ition s .
C ircle — .A ci r cl e i s a p l a ne cu r ve gene r a t e d by a point moving

s o a s to b e a t a const a nt dist a nc e fr om a not h er point .
E lli p s e — An elli p s e is a p l a n e cu r ve g e n er a t e d by a point

.
mo vi n g so t h a t t h e s u m of its dis t a n ces fr om two fix e d p oints in

its p l a ne is con s t a nt .
H yperbol a — A h yper bol a i s a pl a n e cu r ve g e n er a t e d by a point

.
movin g so t h a t t h e differe n c e b e twee n its dis t a n ces fr om t w o

fixe d p oints in its pl a ne is const a nt .
Pa r a bol a — A p a r a bol a i s a pl a n e cu r ve g e n er a t e d by a p oint

moving so t h a t its dist a nc es fr om a line a n d a point in t h e p l a n e
a r e a l w a ys e qu a l
“
.
Th e fou r fo r e g oin g cu r ve s a re ca ll e d C oni c Se ctions fr om ”
t h e f a ct t h a t t h e y a r e t h e p ossible cu r ves t h a t ca n b e cut f r om a

r ig h t ci r c ul a r con e b y a pl a ne A p l a n e ca n a lso cu t a str a ig h t.
lin e fr om a cone Th e ne ces s a r y conditions for cuttin g t h es e

.
lines fr om a con e a r e :
Stra i gh t L ine — Pl a n e t h r o u g h t h e a p ex
. .
Ci rcl e —.Pl a n e p er p endi cul a r to t h e a xis .
E l lip s e — Pl a ne obli qu e to t h e a xis cuttin g a l l t h e e l e m e nt s ,
on on e sid e of t h e a p ex .
Hyperbol a — Pl a n e p a r a ll e l to t h e a xi s or a pl a n e obliqu e to
.
, ,
t h e a xis a t a sm a l l er a ngl e t h a n t h a t m a d e by t h e el e ments of t h e

c one .
Pa r a bol a — Pl a ne p a r a ll el to one e l e m e nt of t h e con e

. .
143 G e a ri n g C u rve s
. .
C yclo i d A c y cloid IS a pl a ne cu r ve g e n er a ted by a p oint on

'
t h e ci r cumfer en ce of a ci r cl e a s t h e ci r cl e r oll s on a st r a ig h t ,
lin e.
E pic ycloi d —A n e p i c y cloid is a p l a ne cu r ve g e n er a ted by a

.
p oint on t h e ci r cumfer en ce of a ci r cl e a s it r olls on a not h er ci r cle ,

.
H ypoc ycloi d A h y p ocy cloid is a pl a ne cu r ve g ene r a t e d by a

.
-
p oint on t h e circumfer e n ce of a cir cle a s it rolls on t h e in s ide of

a not h e r cir cle .
In volute —An involute is a pl a ne cur ve g ene r a ted by a point

.
on a t a ngent a s t h e t a ngent r olls on a pl a ne cur ve or polygon

,
.
T h e involute of a c i r cle is t h e onl y one of a n y consider a ble i m

po rt a nce a n d is t h e curve used in ge a rin g
,
.
1 56 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IVE G E O M E T RY
Th e fo r egoin g a re ca lled g ea r in g cur ves be ca use th e y a re ,
m a inl y us e d a s t h e outlin es of t e et h in g ea r w h eels Th e outlin es .
of b e ve l gea rs a re ( t h e o r eti ca lly ) s p h er i ca l c y cloids but t h ei r ,
consid er a tion is n e gli g ible in thi s wo r k a n d p r a ctic a lly so in ,
a c tu a l d r a fting w o r k .
S PA C E C URV E S
1 44 . H elix —A h elix i s . ur ve g en er a t e d by a p oint movin g

a c
a bo u t a st r a ig h t li n e a t a con s t a nt di s t a n ce a n d in t h e di r e ctio n ,
of t h e line a t a con s t a nt velo city .
N t — Thi s li n i t h e li n of t h
o e. ew t h
e s d tw i t d i ll s w
e e s cr r ea ,
s r , cre co n
v ey or,wo m g r o il e d p i n g d m n y ot h
ea r , c impo t nt p ti l
s r ,
an a er r a ra c ca
d vi
e ce s It i
. v e on t h e s f of y l i nd
s a cu r u r a ce a c er .
T h er e is a l s o a coni c a l h elix t h a t som etim e s a pp e a r s in pr a ct i

ca l w o r k It is usu a lly d r a w n so t h a t it m a k e s one c om p l et e
.
r evolution a bout t h e a xi s in t r a ve ling f r om t h e b a s e to t h e a p ex ,
a s cending t h e su r f a ce a t a unifo r m r a t e of motion T h e pl a n of .
t h e c oni ca l h e lix i s t h e Spi r a l of A r chi medes B y dr a wing t h e

'
p l a n fi r st a n d p r oj e cting t h e points of t h e cu r ve a s it int er s ects

t h e v a r ious elem e nts of t h e con e t h e el e v a tion is e a s ily d r a w n ,
.
It i s r a th er commonl y used in S h e e t met a l wo r k a n d in s p i r a l

s p r in gs .
T h e r e is no n e e d of d efi n i n g o r con s id eri n g a n y oth er of t h e

s p a ce cu r ve s .
GE NE RAL DE FIN ITIO N S

1 45 . Axis lin e a bout w hi ch a p oint r e volves a s in t h e
.
-
Th e ,
ca se of t h e h elix It is a lso a ce nt er lin e for som e cu r ve s a s t h e

.
,
e lli p s e p a r a bol a a n d h y p er bol a

, , .
M inor Axi s a n d M a j or Axi s — In t h e e l lip s e t h er e a r e two

dim e nsions som etim es ca ll e d t h e long a n d s h or t di a m et er s but
, ,
mo re g e n er a lly t h e m a j or a n d minor a x es T h e y a r e r espe ctively .
t h e long est a n d s h o r t est possible st r a ig h t line s r unnin g t h r ou gh

t h e cent er fr om one p oint in t h e cu r ve to a not h er Th e consta n t .
s um , s p oken of in t h e definition is equ a l to t h e l en gt h of t h e ,
m a j o r a xis .
Focu s —Th e two fix ed points m ention e d in t h e d efini tion s ,
of t h e e lli p s e a n d h y pe r bol a a n d t h e Singl e one m entioned in , ,
t h e definition of t h e p a r a bol a .
V ertex — Th e n ea r est point in t h e c ur ve to t h e fo cu s

. It h a s .
t h e sm a lle s t r a diu s of cu r v a tu r e of a n y p oint in t h e cu r ve a n d ,

F and Fent er s Th e int er s ections C a n d D of t h e s e a r cs
’
as c .
, ,
a r e t h e e nds of t h e mino r a xi s .
4 Set t h e c om p a s s e s a t a r bit r a r y r a dii A I A 2 e t c

. and , , ,
.
,
str ike a r cs with t h e m fr om F a n d F a s c e nt er s ’

.
5 Se t t h e c om p a s s e s a t compl e m ent a r y r a dii B 1 B 2 e t c

.
, , ,
.
,
a n d s t r ike a r cs fr om F a n d F a s c e nt er s
’
.
6 T h r oug h A B C D a n d t h e inte r s e ctions of com p l e m ent a r y

.
, , , ,
r a du d r a w a smooth lin e T h is will be t h e r e qui r e d ellipse

, . .
Proof — T h e sum of t h e di s t a n ces of a n y of t h e points t h us

.
,
found to t h e fo ci is a l w a ys e qu a l to A B
, .
1 4 7 Appro xi m a t e a n d M ec h a n ic a l M eth od s of Dra wi n g t h e

.
E llip s e .
F IG . 12 1 .
—D r a wi n g t h e ellips e w ith t mm l
a ra e .
T h ere a re nume r ou s w a ys of d r a win g a n ell ipse ex a ct a n d ,
a pp r oxim a te T h ese a r e found in most text boo ks on M e

“
-
.
ch a n i ca l Dr a w in g Th e b e st of t h ese is t h e T r a mmel M et h od
”
. .
Th e Tr a mmel M —
eth o d 1 La y off t h e M a j or a n d M ino r .
A xes of a n y desi r ed di m en s IOn S A B a n d C D ( Fig

, , .
2 T a ke a ca r d or a n y st r a ig h t e dg e a n d l a y o ff P1 a n d P2
.
, , ,
r e s p e ctivel y equ a l to t h e s e mi m a j o r a n d semi mino r a xes B0 - -
and CO .
3 . Pl a ce t h e
str a igh t e dge s o t h a t 2 lies on A B a n d 1 lies on
C D a n d m a r k t h e p oint P
, .
4 Do t h i s in a s m a n y po s itions a s d esi r e d m a r king a number

.
,
of p oints on t h e curve .
C URV E D LIN E S 1 59
5 . Dr a w smoot h cur ve t h r oug h t h e p oints t h us obt a in e d

a .
U se s for th e E ll p s e i —In or n a ment a l wo r k t h e ellip s e is ex

.
t en s i v el y u s ed in its e nti r ety a n d in po r tions

,
T h e e lli p se is .
t h e p r oj e ction of a n y ci r cl e in a n obliqu e p l a ne a n d its m a j o r ,
a xi s is a l w a ys e qu a l to t h e di a m e t er of t h e ci r cle In m a chi n e .
d es ign t h e elli p se i s us e d in cer t a in qui ck r etur n motions

,
”
.
In s h e et m e t a l wo r k a n d boil er m a ki n g it i s oft e n ne ce s s a r y to
“
-
cu t e l l i p ti ca l h ol e s in t h e pl a t e s In d esigning fo cus ing r e

.
t h e e lli p s e is ne cess a ry b e ca u s e a l l r a ys fr om o n e
”
r e fl e ct o r s ,
fo cus of a n elli p s e r e fl e ct fr om t h e cur ve to t h e ot h er fo cus .
Li m its — Wh e n t h e di s t a n ce b etw ee n fo ci is z er o t h e ellip s e

“
.
is a circl e Wh en it is e qu a l to t h e const a nt sum t h e e lli p s e

.
,
i s a str a i gh t line .
1 48 Problem 48
.
— To d ra w t h e ta n g ent t o a n E llips e a t a
.
given point on t h e cur ve .
F IG . 1 20 .
—Th e ellips e .
C on s truction — Let M .
( Fig . 1 2 0) b e t h e p oi n t .
1 . Dr a w M E and fo ca l li n es
M F
’
, t he .
2 E xt end M E b e yond M to F
’ ”
. .
3 B i s e ct t h e e xt er io r fo ca l a ngl e F M F
.
Th e bi s ecto r M X will b e t h e t a ng e nt a t M .
1 49 Problem 49 —
. To d ra w t h e ta n g ent to a n E llipse fr om
. a
po i nt outside .
Let N ( Fig 1 2 0) b e t h e point

. .
1 Dr a w a ci r cle w it h N a s ce nt er a n d N F a s r a di u s
’
. .
1 60 RA C T IC AL DE SC RIPT IVE G E O M E T RY
P
2 . Inter se ct t h e
i cle in points P a n d Q by a n a r c w h o s e
c r
r a dius is e qu a l to A B a n d w h ose ce nte r is a t F

.
, .
3 C onn e ct eit h er P o r Q wit h F

4 Wh e r e PF or Q
. .
. F int er s ect t h e elli p s e a t R or S will b e t h e

p oints to w h i ch t a ng ents ca n b e d r a w n fr om N .
If t h e a xe s of a n ellips e a r e gi ven t h e fo ci m a y b e d et er m in e d ,
by str iki ng a n a r e fr om C or D a s ce nt er wit h a r a dius e qu a l to ,
AO .Wh er e t hi s a r e int er s e cts A B will be t h e fo ci .
1 50 Problem 50 — To d r a w a Hype r bol a , h a vi n g gi ven its

.
“
foci a n d t h e consta nt difference
.
.
”
Let F a n d F ( Fig 1 22 ) be t h e foci a n d t h e con s t a nt diff er

’
V
V
.
,
e n ce be equ a l to t h e dist a nce

” ’
t
i
F IG . 1 22 .
—Th e h ype r bol a .
C onstruction .
— 1 La y off
F a nd F and V and
. on t h e s a me ’
V
’
l ine a t t h eir p r op er di st a nces a l l symm et r i ca ll y pl a ced a bout a

V V
, ,
center 0 ( a n d wil l be t h e ver tic e s )

’
VV
. .
,
2 Sp r ea d t h e c om p a s s a t a n y a rbitr a ry sp a ns a s
. 1 2 et c , , .
,
a n d s t r ike a r cs wit h t h es e r a dii wit h F a n d F a s ce nte r s

’
VV
.
3 U sing t h e com p l e m e nt a r y r a dii 2 e t c st r ike a r cs

’ ’
. l , , ,
.
,
wit h F a n d F a s cent er s int er s ecting t h o s e a lr e a d y dr a w n

’
,
.
4 Dr a w a smoot h cu r ve t h r oug h t h e p r o p er int er s e ctions a n d

V V
.
and T hi s will be t h e r equi r ed h y p er bol a

’
. .
N ote —Th h yp e bol i s in lity t w c v

. e r ah h v in g v t x d rea o ur es , ea c a a er e , an
e ch nlimit d i n ext nt Th e h yp bol v i i o d n w i th t h e

ti o b t w n FF d V V Th e mo t i mpo t nt“ of t h h ype bola is
a u e e . er a a r es n a cc r a ce
’ ’
ra e ee an . s r a u se e r
th t it i s t h e gen e a ting lin e of t h e pit h f ce of s k w ge s

a r c sur a e ar .
1 62 P RA C T IC AL DE SC R IPT IV E G E OM E T R Y
1 . Dr a w a l i ne C G t h rough F p er p endi cul a r to XD . Thi s is
t he xis of t h e cur ve
a .
2 B i s ect t h e dist a n ce fr om F to X D a t E
. E w ill b e t h e .
v er t e x .
3 Dr a w a number of lines a t p oint s 1 2 3 e t c p a r a ll e l to

.
, , , ,
.
,
X D a t a r bit r a r y di s t a n ce s
,
.
4 L o ca te two p oints on e a ch of t h e li n es e q u a lly di s t a nt fr om

.
,
F a n d XD .
5 Dr a w a smoot h line t h r o u gh t h e p oi n t s t h u s fo u nd a n d it
.
,
w ill b e t h e r e quir e d p a r a bol a .
15 4 Problem .54 —To dr a w t h e Ta n g e nt to a Pa r a bol a a t a n y

.
point on t h e c u rve .
C onstruction — Let M ( Fig 1 2 3 ) b e t h e give n p oint

. . .
1 Dr a w M X p er p e ndi cu l ar to X D
.
,
.
2 Dr a w t h e fo ca l lin e M E
. .
3 Bi s e ct t h e a ngle PM K
. T h e bi s e cto r i s t h e t a ng e nt . .
N ot —E xt nd t h l i n X M i t h e di tion MY d d w t h no m l
e . e e e n rec , an ra e r a
MO . N oti t h t M Y i p ll l to t h e x is d t h t M O is t h e b i ct o
ce a s a ra e a , an a se r
of t h e ngl F M Y m k i ng DM F q l to O M Y Th is f t i t k en d
a e ,
a e ua . ac s a a v an
t g of in d i gn i n g t h fl to f t h e s
a e es h l igh t Mi e re ndom poi nt ec r or ea r c . s a ra
‘
on t h p bol e d h ow th t
a ra y y f om F s t ik i n g t h e p
a, an s b ola a t
s a an ra r r a ra
M ( a n y poi nt ) i s fl e t d i l i n e p ll l to t h x i
re c eM Y Th is n a a ra e e a s , as . con
ce n t tera ll t h fl e t ed y s i to cy li nd e of ligh t p v nt ing d iff i on

s a e re c ra n a r ,
re e us .
1 55 . Problem 55 .
—To d ra w a Ta n g ent to a Pa r a bol a from a
po i nt outside .
C onstruction — Let N ( Fig 1 2 3 ) b e t h e given p oint

. . .
1 W it h N a s a ce nte r d r a w a c ir cl e t h r oug h F
.
,
.
2 Fr om its int ers e ction s C a n d D wit h DX d r a w t h e

.
, , ,
p er p e ndi cul a r s C E a n d DK ,
.
3 E a n d K t h e int er s ection s wit h t h e cu r v e a r e t h e p oi n t s

.
, ,
to w h i ch t a ng ents ca n b e d r a wn .
1 5 6 Problem 56 — To dra w a C ycloi d h a vin g g iven t h e d i r e c

. .
,
trix a n d g enera tin g cir cle .
C onstruction — L et A B b e t h e di r ect r ix a n d 0 b e t h e cent er

.
of t h e g e n er a ting ci r cle w h i ch i s to b e d r a w n t a ngent to t h e ,
dir e ct r ix of a r a dius R , .
1 La y off on A B a dist a n ce e q u a l to 2 R a n d divid e t h e

.
,
rr ,
ci r cl e a n d A B into a n y conv e ni e nt n u mb er of e q u a l p a r t s 12 , ,
16 or 24 .
2 . Dr a w t h e p a t h Of t he ce nt er of t he c r c e,i l p a r a ll el to A B ,
at a di s t a n ce e qu a l to R .
C URV E D L IN E S 1 63
3 . ect pe r p endicul a rs to t h e line of ce nte r s a t e a ch of t h e

E r
divisions of A B Th e inte r s ections will be s u cces s ive p o s itions

.
of t h e ce nt er of t h e ge n e r a ting cir cle .
4 From t h e divisions l 2 3 e t c of t h e g en e r a ti n g ci r cl e
.
, , , ,
.
, ,
r u n p r oj e cto r s p a r a ll e l to A B .
5 Fr om e a ch of t h e su cce s s ive positions of t h e ce nte r

.
,
et c d e s cr ibe a r cs inter s e cting t h e co rr es p onding p r oj e cto r s

.
,
.
6 T h r ou gh t h e se int erse ctions d r a w a smoot h cu r ve w h i ch

. .
w ill b e t h e r e qui r e d C y cloid .
F IG . 1 24 .
— Th e c y loid c .
1 57 Problem 5 7 — To
. . dra w the t a n g e nt to the C ycloi d a t a ny
po i nt on t h e c u rve .
C onstruction — Le t M ( Fig 1 24 ) b e t h e give n p oint a n d P b e

. .
,
t h e p oint of t a ngen c y w it h A B of t h e g e n e r a ti n g c ir cle w h en M ,
i s its int er s e ction wit h t h e cu r ve .
1 Dr a w M P
. T h is lin e i s t h e no r m a l a t M
. .
2 Dr a w t h e t a ng e nt pe r p endi cul a r to M P
. .
N ote —It i s ow in g to t h f t t h t t h e no m l to t h y cl oid t y poi nt

. e ac a r a e c a an
p es t h o gh t h e poi t P w h t h gen t i ng i cle a d d i ect i x

ass r u n ,
er e e er a c r n r r a re
t ng nt t h t t h e y loid i
a e , o t a v f e i n ge
c c o tlin es It i s a c r r ec cu r e or u s ar u . s
t hi p op t y t h t m k it po ibl to m int in on t nt ng l v elo city

s r er a a es ss e a a a c s a a u ar
ra ti o i n g a s w i ll b e n w h n t h t d y of K i n m tics
ea rs , M ech n i m
s ee e e s u e a , or a s ,
is t k en
a up .
1 58 . Probl em 58 — TO d r a w
pi cycloi d a n d a Hypocycloid
. an E .
T h e only di ffere n ce b e tw ee n d r a w in g t h es e cur v e s a n d t h e

c y cloid is t h a t t h e dir ect r ix now is a ci r cl e inste a d of a st r a i gh t
,
line Fi g 1 2 5 s h ows bot h cur ves A B is a n a r c of t h e pit ch

. . .
cir cle a s t h e dir ect r ix is us u a ll y ca l l e d in M a ch in e Des ign a n d

, ,
t h e cent er of t h e gene r a tin g cir cl e of t h e E pi c y cloid is a t C a n d ,
its p a t h is t h e a r c C D ( ce nt er a t O) Th e cent er of t h e H ypo .
c y cloid a l ci r cle is a t E a n d its p a th i s t h e a r c E F center a t O , ,

.
1 64 P RA C T IC AL D E S C R IPT IV E G E O M E T RY
C onstr uction — 1 . . Divid e t h e g en er a ting cir cl es i n to a n y c on
v e n i en t numb er of e qua l p a r t s .
2 . St e p o ff t h es e a r cs on A B ( Ar t .
3 . Fr om t h e p oints 1 2 3 et c d r a w , , ,
.
, a r cs w it h t h e ir ce nte r s
at O .
4 T h r oug h t h e divi s ions on A B d r a w r adi a l lin es inter se cting

.
.
C D a n d E F in t h e point s o ccu p i e d by t h e c ent er s a s t h e ci r cl es

r oll on A B .
1 25 .
-
Th e picy cloid
e and y o y loid
h p c c .
5 Fr om t h ese cen t er point s str ike a r cs w it h r a dii e qu a l to

.
t h o s e of t h e ge n er a ting ci r cl e s int er s e cting t h e a r cs of o p er a ,
tion
6 T h r oug h t h e r es p e ctive i n t er s e ction s d r a w t h e c ur ve s
. .
Th e t a ng ents a r e d r a w n p r eci s e ly a s t h e t a ng e nts to t h e c y cloid

a r e d r a wn ; t h a t is t h e no r m a l a t a n y p oint p a s s e s t h r oug h t h e
,
p oint of t a ngen cy of t h e gen er a ting ci r cle a n d t h e pit ch ci r cl e .
N ot e — Th h ypo y loid g n t d b y i l h lf t h i of t h e pit h

. e c c e era e a c rc e a e s ze c
i l i
c rc e tr ai g ht li n
s a s d i ll d di l hypo cy loid
e an s ca e a ra a c .
1 59 . Probl em 5 9 .
— To d ra w a n Involute to a C ir cle .
Le t AB (F i g . 1 2 6) b e t h e di r e cting ci r cl e o r E volute wit h , , its

ce nt e r a t O .
C onstruction — 1 Divid e a n y a r c of A B a s for ex a m p l e t h e

. .
, , ,
s e mi ci r cl e into a n y n u mb e r of e qu a l p a r t s
,
.
2 A t t h e p oints 1 2 3 et c d r a w t a n gents in t h e dir e ction of

.
, , ,
.
t h e o r i gin A , .
RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T RY
P
1 62 Pro b l em 62
. .
—To d ra w t h e proj e ctions of a H elix , h a vi n g
g ive n i t s Pi tch a n d Di a meter .
Let OP ( Fi g 1 2 8) be t h e a xi s
.
,
v
O 1 2 t he pit ch , and D t he
di a meter .
Co n s tructi on — 1 Dr a w t h e ci r cle a n d divid e it into a n y n u m

. .
b er of equ a l p a r ts .
2 Divide t h e p it ch i n to t h e s a m e n u mb er of e q u a l p a r t s
. .
F IG . 1 28 .
3 . Dr a w
p er p e ndic u l a r s to t h e a xi s fr om e a ch of t h e divi s io n s
m a de in oper a tion
4 Dr a w p r oj e cto r s fr om e a ch of t h e divi s ions of t h e ci r cl e
.
,
int ers ecting t h e co r r es p onding p er p endicul a r s fr om t h e a xi s .
5 Dr a w t h e cu r ve t h r o u g h t h e se int er s e ction s
. .
1 63 Th e An g le of t h e H elix
. .
Fr om t h e d efinition ( Ar t . we s ee t h a t t h e gen er a ting

point on t h e h elix a s cends a give n dist a n ce in t r a ver s ing a give n
a r e a n d t h a t t h e r a te of a s cent i s c on s t a nt
, T h is me a n s t h a t
.
a n y e lem e nt of t h e cur v e m a ke s a cer t a in a ngl e wit h t h e h o r i
zon t a l ( t h e a xis of t h e h elix b e in g t a k e n in a l l t h e se p r obl e ms

C URV E D LIN E S 1 67
as ver ti ca l ) a n d t h a t al l t h e el e m e nt s in a n y one h el ix m a ke
,
t h e sa m e a n g le wit h t h e h o r i z ont a l T h us in Fi g 1 2 8 (a ) if
.
, .
,
AB is t h e l e ngt h Of a n el em e nt a l a r c of t h e circle a n d B C is t h e ,
l ength of a n el em e nt a l divi s ion of t h e pitc h t h e h ypot h enuse of ,
t h e r ig h t t r i a ngle AB C will yi eld t h e in cli n a tion a n d t h e len gt h

of a n el e m e nt of t h e h elix T h er efor e if a r ig h t tri a ngle h a vin g
.
, ,
i t s b a s e a ngl e e qu a l to b e w r a p p ed a bout a c y linde r t h e h y

a , ,
p o t h en u s e will b ecome t h e h elix Fr om t h is it i s e vi dent t h a t

.
p it ch
ta n a
di a m
7T. .
1 64 Th e Ta n g ent to t h e H e l i x
. .
If t h e r ig h t t r i a ngl e j u st m e ntion e d b e un w r a pp ed fr om t h e
, ,
c ylind er its h ypot h e nus e b ecomes t h e t a ngent to t h e h elix

,
a t t h e point w h e r e t h e unw r a p pin g c e a s es .
PE G . 129 — Th e gn
e e ra tion of a he ilx .
T his is so bec a us e t h e t a n ge nt must m a ke t h e s a me a n g le

with t h e h orizont a l t h a t t h e h e lix do es be ca use it cont a ins two ,
cons ecutive p oints ( on e e lem e nt) of t h e cur ve .
T h er efor e t h e t a ng ent b ecom es t h e h elix if it is rol led on t h e

,
c yli nd e r a n d t h e l en gt h of t h e h el i x fr om its o r igin to t h e point of

,
t a nge n cy is equ a l to t h e l ength of t h e t a n g ent fr om t h e pl a n e of

t h e o r igin to t h e p oint of t a n g e n c y R eferr ing to t h e pi ctur e
.
,
Fi g 1 2 9 will Sh o w t h a t A O B O a n d furt h er th a t A P B P
.
, ,
.
A P is t h e H p r oj ection of t h e t a ng e nt a n d B P is t h e H pr o
-
,
-
j ect i on of t h e h eli x Fr om t hi s t h e r ul e is d er iv e d : Th e H
.
pro j ection of t h e H elix is of t h e s a me len gt h a s t h e H pro j ection -
of t h e Ta n g ent from t h e pl a n e of t h e ori g i n to t h e poin t of

t a n g e nc y .
1 68 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E GE OM E T RY
1 65 . Problem 63 — To d r a w t h e . Ta n g ent to the H elix a t a ny
point on t h e c u rve .
C o n s truction —L et B ( Fig 1 2 8) be t h e g ive n point 1 Dr a w

“
~
. . . .
t h e t a n g ent to t h e cir cle a t b .
2 R e ctify t h e a r c b l 2 a n d l a y it o ff on t h e t a ng e nt a b
n H H
.
,
3 Pr oj e ct a to a on GL
H v
“ V
. .
4 a b w il l be t h e pr oj ection a n d a b t h e H pr oj e ctio n of
v v fl
- -
.
,
t h e t a ngent req u ired .
E XE R CIS E S IN C U RVE D LIN E S

N ote .
-
NO g o nd lin
r u e is nec es s a r yi d n ra w ing a ny of t h e cu rv es b u t t he
h l ix
e .
74 5 D llips e A B 5 i F F D a w a t ngent a t a point on '

. ra w an e 3i,
n .
,
n . r a
t h e c u rv e 2 in f om F D ra w t w o t a ngents f om a point 4 in f om F
. r . r . r
a d 2 in f r om F
’
n . .
74 6 . D a w a n e lli ps e A B 4 16 l n a d C D 3 in Lo ca te F a d F a d
r ,
.
,
n . n
’
,
n
d ra w a t a n gent a t a poi nt on t h e cu rv e 1 in fr om A Dra w t w o . .
t a ngents f om E whi ch i s 3 in fr om F a n d 2 in fr om F
r ,
.
’
. .
747 . A a d B a re t wo t a ngent e l l ip s es of e qu a l s i e Th e fo ci of A a re
n z .
C (l 0 2 ) D (3 1 6 0
,
a n d t h e mo re d i s ta nt fo cus of B i s a t E
,
(5 0 D a w t h e t w o elli ps es
“
,
r .
74 8 . D a w a h ype bol a FF 3 in a n d t h e cons t nt diff eren ce

r r . 2 in
’
. a .
Dra w t h e t a n ge nt a t a point on t h e cu rv e 2 in f om F Dra w a . r .
t a ngent f om a poi nt 2 in fr om F a n d 2 16 in f om F
r .
’
. r .
74 9 . D a w a p a ra bol a w ith t h e d is t a n ce b et w een fo cu s a n d di rect rix l i n

r .
D ra w t a ngents f om a s s u m ed poin t s on a d ou ts id e t h e cu rv e
r n .
75 0 . D a w a p a ra bola w h o s e d is t n ce f om fo c s to v ertex i s 16 i n Dra w

r a r u .
t a ngents f om a s s u m e d point s on a n d ou t s id e t h e cu v e
r r .
75 1 . D a w a cy cloid w ith a 1 16 in gen e tin g circle Dr a w a ta ngent a t

r -
. ra .
t h e po i nt on t h e cu rv e a t 166 of t h e revol u ti on .
752 . D a w a n epicy cloid a d a h ypo cy cloid on a pitch ci le of 6 i n r a di u s

r n rc -
.
,
wi th 1 16 i n ge n e a t in g ci r cl es
-
. D a w t h e no rm a ls to e a ch cu rv e a t
r . r
Of a r e vol u t i on f r om t h e o ri gi n .
753 . Dra w a n i nvol u t e of a l l n ci cl e -

. r .
754 . D a w a n in vol t e of a 16 in s qu a re
r u -
. .
755 . D a w a n i nvol u te of a h ex a g on of 1 6 in s id es
r -
. .
75 6 . D a w a n involu t e of a 16 i e q u il a te ra l t i ngl
r -
n . r a e .
75 7 . D a w a h elix of 2 i n d i m et e 3 i n pit ch D w i t s t ngent t 60

r -
. a r, -
. . ra a a
°
f om t h e o ri gi n Al s o on e t
r . a
758 . D es ign a fo cu s ing re fl e cto of d ia m ete r in ( 4 5 6 i n w h i ch r .

, , ,
t he ys f om a ligh t pl a ced
ra r in ( 2 3 4 5 ) f om t h e v rtex e
,
.
, , ,
r e ar
c on ce nt ra te d a t a po int in ( 8 9 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6) f om t h e lig h t .
, , , , ,
r .
1 70 P RA C TIC AL DE SC R IPT IVE GE O M E T R Y
Th e y ometimes c onvex s om etim es con ca ve a n d sometim es
a re s , ,
bot h . T h e a nnul a r to r us h a s bot h in c ontinuous sur f a ce .
Wa rped S urf a ce s a r e n u m er o u s in th ei r va r i et y but t h e mo s t ,
impor t a nt a r e t h e h eli coid a n d h y p er boloid of r e volution of on e

n a pp e .
1 69 Th e following t a bl e w ill give a c o n ve n i e n t s u mm a r y of

.
t h e s u r f a ce s .
C on — l l l m nt i nt
e ting
a e e e s e rs ec
Singl e C y l i nd — l l l m nt s p ll l
er a e e e a ra e
C v d
ur e C onvol t e—c on tiv l m nt int
u t s ecu e e e e s e rs ec
ing .
H e l i co i d
H y p bolo id of Revol ti on
er R l dS f u u e u r a ces .
H y p boli P boloid
er c a ra
W p d C onoi d
ar e
C y l ind oi d r
W p d C on ar e e
o s H orn
C w
’
.
Sp h e e r
Obl a t e Sph e oi d r
D o bl
u e Pr ol a t e Sph e o i d r
C u rv e d Pa ra bolo i d ( bot h v a i eties ) r
Hy p e boloid of R evol tion of T w o N e ppes

r u
To u s r .
R igh t C i cu l a C on e R igh t C i c l
r C y lind r ,
r u ar er
H yp e boloi d of R evol u t ion of On e N pp e

r a
Sp h e e Sp h e oid s Ovoid s et c
r ,
r , ,
.
1 70 Ta n g ent Pl a ne s a n d Developments
. .
T h e mo s t impo r t a nt p r obl e ms in s ur f a ces a r e to b e found in

d r a w ing t a n gent pl a n es to sur fa ce s t h e inter s ections of s ur f a ce s , ,
a n d developin g t h e su r f a ce s .
A Ta n g ent Pl a ne to a sur fa ce a t a n y p oint is a pl a ne compo s e d

of a l l t h e t a n gent lines to a l l t h e lin es of a sur fa ce p a s sin g t hrough
t h a t p oint AS two int er s ecting lin es dete r min e a pl a n e t h e
.
,
g en er a l r ul e for t a ngent pl a n es is t h is : An y t wo ta n g ent lin e s a t

a n y point on a n y s ur f a ce determi ne t h e t a n g en t pl a n e a t th a t
point .
A ny pl a ne p a ss e d t h r o u g h t h e point of t a n g en c y S O a s to
,
int e r s ect a sur fa ce a n d its t a ngent p l a n e wi ll cut from th em a ,
lin e a n d its ta n g ent .
In r uled su r f a ce s o n e a n d sometime s t w o str a ig h t li n es of

,
t h e sur f a ce ca n be d r a wn t hr oug h ea ch p oint in t h e su r f a ce ,
th er efor e t hi s line ( elem ent a s it a lwa y s i s ) ca n be used for one ,

SI NGLE -
C URV E D S UR F A C E S 1 71
of t h e t a n gents in t h e for egoing r ul e T hi s i s tr ue bec a use a .

,
str a igh t line is its o w n t a ng ent On t hi s a ccount t h e r ul e wil l

“
.
,
r ea d : In ru le d surfa ce s one ta n g ent a n d t h e element a t a n y

,
point will d eterm i ne t h e ta n g ent pl a ne a t th a t point .

”
Norma l — Th e no r m a l lin e a t a n y point of a cur ved s ur f a ce is

.
t h e p e r p endi cu l a r to t h e t a ngent pl a n e a t t h a t point Th e .
nor m al pl a n e is a n y pl a n e cont a ining t h e no r m a l lin e .
Development —
By D evelopment is m ea nt t h e r olling out of a
.
s urf a ce into a pl a n e fi g ur e w h ic h ca n b e r oll e d

,
or folded b a ck , ,
to m a ke t h e or igin a l sur f a ce Onl y s ingl e cu r ve d surf a ces a r e

.
-
str ictl y develop a ble be ca use th e y onl y h a ve con s ecutive elements

,
F IG . 1 30 .
—Ta nge nt pl a n e to a c y l ind er d te m i n ed b y
e r t wo t a ng nt lin
e es .
l ying in pl a n es App r oxi ma te d evelopm e nts ca n b e m a d e of

.
oth er surfa c es a s will a pp e a r w h e n t h e s u r fa ce s a r e t a ke n up

,
s e p a r a t ely .
T HE C ONE
1 71 . De fi n i t i on s —A C on e i s ge ner a te d b y
t ig h t lin e a s ra
mo v ing so a s to touc h const a ntly a cur ve d lin e directr ix w h il e ,
one point in t h e gen er a tr ix r e m a ins st a tion a r y

V
.
Apex or ert ex t h e s t a tio n a r y p oint on t h e g e n er a trix

,
.
Ba s e a limitin g pl a ne t h a t cuts al l t h e elem e nts

, .
Axi s a str a i gh t line t hroug h t h e a pex a n d t h e ce nt er of t h e

,
b a se .
A Frustu m is a p or tion of
sur fa ce between two p a r a ll el
t he
pl a n es on t h e s a m e Sid e of t h e a p ex w hi ch cut a l l t h e el em e nts , .
Discussion — T h e s u r fa ce of t h e con e t h a t lie s b e twe en t h e

.
b a se a n d a p ex i s us u a lly a l l t h a t is cons id er e d T h e or eti ca lly .

,
h owe ver t h e s ur f a ce i s unli mi ted a n d ext ends b e yond bot h

, ,
limits to infinity T hi s t h e or etic a l e xt e n s ion cr e a t es t w o

.
divi s ions of t h e sur fa ces one on ea ch s ide of t h e a p ex ca ll e d

, ,
r es p ectiv ely t h e Upper Na pp e a n d Lo wer Na ppe In p r a cti ca l .
wor k t hi s condition a lmost n e ver exis t s a n d is usu a lly igno r e d ,

.
—
Va rietie s Of C one s Th e di ffer e nt v a r i e ties of con es a r e d i s
.
t i n g ui s h e d b y t h e ir b a s e s a n d a x es Th e b a s es m a y b e ci r c ul a r .
,
e lli p ti ca l h yp er bolic et c or combi n a tions of cu r ve s a n d t h e

, ,
.
, ,
a x e s a r e eit h e r p e r p e ndi c ul a r (ri gh t) or oblique to t h e b a s e s .
T h us w e d es ign a t e a con e a s a r ig h t ci r cul a r cone a n Obliq u e ,
e l l i p ti c al c on e e t c Th e b a s e a n d a p e x or t h e b a s e a n d a xis a r e
,
.
, ,
s u fli ci e n t to det er m i ne t h e con e .
—
Limits A con e wh os e a p ex is a t infini t y becom es a c ylin d er
.
, , ,
a n d on e wh o s e a p e x i s in t h e pl a ne of t h e b a se b ecom es a
, ,
pl a ne .
A Ta n g ent Pl a ne to a con e a t a n y point on t h e sur fa ce is

t a n ge nt a l l a lo n g t h e el ement t hr oug h t h a t point T hi s el em ent .
i s ca ll e d t h e E lement of C ont a ct A s a l l el em e nt s p a ss t hr oug h

.
t h e a pex every t a n g ent pl a n e must conta i n t h e a pex

,
T h is .
f a ct is of gr e a t i m p o r t a n ce in p a ssing t a nge nt p l a n es It m e a n s .
t h a t a n y line th ro u gh t h e a pex ex ce pt li n es inside t h e con e , ,
will lie i n one or t w o t a n g ent pl a ne s Fr om t his f a ct a n d fr om .

,
Ar t 1 55 we d er ive t h e sp e ci a l r ul e for p a s s i n g t a ng e nt pl a n es to
.
,
c one s .
R leu —
.O n e t a n g ent lin e a n d t h e a pex a r e s u fli ci e n t to d et e r
m i ne a t a n g ent pl a n e to a n y cone .
Axiom Ii t h e b a s e of a con e is in H t h e H tr a ce of a n y
.
-
,
-
t a ng e nt p l a n e will b e t a ng e nt to t h e b a s e .
1 72 Development of C one s — Wh e n t h e sur f a ce of a cone is

. .
roll e d out we find t h a t t h er e i s on e point common to a ll el em e nts

, ,
t h e a p ex a n d t h i s point will r e m a in a p oint in t h e d e velo p m e nt

,
.
Fr om t hi s point al l t h e el em e nts r a di a t e in fa n s h a pe m a ki n g ,
u p a n int e gr a l of al l t h e mi n u t e t r i a ngl es t h a t for m t h e sur fa ce

of t h e cone In t h e ca s e of a r ig h t ci r cu l a r con e t h e el em ents
.
,
a r e a l l of e qu a l l e n gt h a n d t h e b a s e r oll s out into a n a r c of a

,
ci r cl e wh os e r a dius is t h e l engt h of t h e elem en ts ( som etim es

,
“
c a lled s l a n t T h e l en gt h of t h e a r e th us de r ived is
1 74 P RA C T IC AL DE SC R IPT IV E GE OM E T R Y
2 . Obt ai n t h e e l e ments of t h e con e cu t by t h i s p l a n e .
3 . Wh ere t h ese el em ents inter se ct t h e give n lin e w ill b e

lo ca t e d its p ier ci n g p oi n ts w ith t h e con e .
L et t h e stud e nt m a k e t h e const r u ction .
N ote —Th e e e o s ion s w h n a pl n i nt rs t i ng n mb of l

. r ar cca e a e e ec a u er e e
m nts
e b u e d to b tt
ca n e dv nt g t h n pl n t h o gh t h p x S h
s e er a a a e a a a e r u e a e . uc
a pl n e wi ll t a c
a f om t h on su f
cu d t h pi
urv e ing point w ill
r e c e r a ce , a n e er c s
b t t h e i nte ect ion s of t h e g iv n l i n e wi t h t h

e a rs v e e cu r e .
1 76 Proble m 66
. .
-
To pa ss a pla n e Ta n g ent to a C one at a
po i n t onurfa ce th e s .
An a l y si s —R ea d t h e r u l e give n in A r t 1 71
. . .
C onstructio n — R efer to Fig 1 3 3 L et O b e t h e give n point

.
~
. . .
1 Dr a w t h e e l e m ent t h r oug h 0 . .
T h i s is t h e E lement of C onta ct a n d ,
on e li n e of t h e pl a n e .
2 Wh er e t h e el e m e nt of cont a ct .
int er s e cts t h e b a s e dra w t h e t a ng en t ,
to t h e b a s e
T h is is t h e H—
.
tr a ce of t h e r equir ed
p la ne a n d t h e t r a ce m a y b e oh , V-
t a i n e d in sev er a l w a y s known to t h e
s tud e nt .
1 77 Problem 67 —To p a s s a pla n e . .
Ta n g ent to a C one th rou gh a Point

outside t h e s u rfa ce .
An a ly si s — 1 Dr a w a lin e thr oug h .
t h e a p e x a n d t h e g iv e n p oint ( See .
Ar t .
F IG Find t h e pier ci ng p oint of th is

. 1 33 . 2 .
lin e wit h t h e pl a n e of t h e b a se .
3 F r om t h i s p oint d r a w on e of t h e t w o p os s ibl e t a n g ents to

.
t h e b a se .
4 Pa ss t h e r e qui r e d p l a n e t h r o u g h t h e t a ng e nt lin e a n d t h e
.
a pex .
C on s truction — Le t t h e s tud ent m a k e it

. .
N ote 1 —If t h e l in t h o gh t h g iv n point d t h p x i p ll l to

. e r u e e an e a e s a ra e
t h b e t h e t n g nt lin e i
e as , t h pl n e of t h b
a e w i ll b p ll l to id n e a e a se e a ra e sa
l in d m y b e d a w n on it h
e, a n a id of t h b r e er s e e a se
N ote 2 —If t h e lin t h o gh t h p x i too n l y p ll l to t h e pl n e of

.
. e r u e a e s ea r a ra e a
t h e b e to obt in t h e pi cin g po i t w i thi n t h e l imit of t h e d w in g a

as a er n s ra ,
pl n e m y b e pa ss e d pa ll l to t h e b a s e n e
a a t he p x d a t ng nt
ra e ,
a r er a e ,
an a e
SIN GLE C -
URV E D SUR F A C E S 1 75
m ay b e dr a wn b a s e o a s econd one s im il a to t h e fir s t m a y b e
to t he n ew , r c r
d w n wit h i t s a pe x i n t h e lin e a t not h er poi nt a d t h e t ng nt pl n e

ra a ,
n a e a
d w n to both con es
ra .
1 78 . Problem 68 .
— To pa s s a pl a n e Ta n g ent to a C one pa r a l lel
to g ive n li ne
a .
s —
An a l y i s 1 Dr a w . . a lin e t h r o u gh t he a p e x p a r a ll el to t he
give n l ine .
2 H a vi n g t hi s l ine fi nis h a s in Pr obl e m 67

.
,
C onstruction —L et t h e stud e nt m a k e it
. .
Impos sible C ondition s — Wh e n t h e line t hr oug h t h e a p e x

p a r a llel to t h e given li n e is in s id e t h e co n e t h e p r obl em is i m pos ,
s ible In suc h a ca s e t h e l in e w ill pi er ce t h e p l a ne of t h e b a s e

.
i n s id e t h e b a se Oth er wise t h e p r obl e m is possible

. .
1 79 Problem 69
.
— To p a s s a pla n e Ta n g ent t o a C one m a k in g
.
,
a g ive n a n g le
Li m i ta tion s — Only . ce r a t in conditio n s w ill a llo w a s ol u tio n of

t h i s p r obl em .
1 . one be a r igh t cir cu l a r con e wit h its b a s e on H

If t h e c , ,
t h er e i s only on e a ngl e pos s ibl e a n d t h a t is t h e a ngl e t h a t i t s

,
e l e ments m a k e wit h H .
2 If t h e b a s e b e in s ome p l a n e not p a r al l e l to H t h e r e a r e
.
,
m a ny a n gles a t wh ic h t a ngent pl a n e s m a y be p a s s e d th ou gh not ,
all .
1 76 PRA C T IC AL DE SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T RY
3 . b a se be in H a n d t h e a xis Oblique diff ere nt a ngl es
If t h e , , ,
b u t not a l l m a y be a ssigned to t h e p r obl e m

, .
4 If t h e b a s e be in H a n d a di ffe r e nt cu r ve fr om t h e ci r cl e
.
, ,
e ve n t h oug h t h e a xis be pe r pendi cul a r t h e r e will be some v a r i e ty ,
to t h e a ngl es t h a t m a y b e r e qui r e d .
E a ch p r oblem will fix its own li m it a tion s .
C onstruction —L et it be r equi r ed to p a s s a p l a n e t a n g ent to

.
t h e c on e A B ( Fi g 1 3 4 ) m a ki ng 60 wit h H
°
.
.
F IG . 1 35 .
1 . With B as it s a p ex d r a w, t he p r oj ection s Of a 60
°
c one ,
a xis BC .
2 . Dr a w t h e H
tr a ce of T t a n gent to t h e b a ses of t h e t w o
-
c on e s T hi s m a y b e d r a wn on eit h er sid e of t h e cones

V
. .
3 L o ca te t h e
. tr a ce of T by a n y lines th r ou gh B lying in T
-
,
.
N ote — Und e t in ond ition fo pl n

. er c r a b p c d m k in g t h
s ur a es ca n e a sse a e
sa m n gle with H l l t ng nt to t h one

e a , a a e e c .
1 80 Probl e m 70 —To d evelop t h e

. . su rfa ce of a r igh t circul a r
c on e .
1 . Divid e t h e b a s e into numb er of e qu a l a r cs a .
2 . Dr a w t h e e l e m e nt sof t h es e divis io n s dividing , t he c on e

into sm a ll ( a pp r oxim a t e) t r i a n gl es .
3 M e a s u r e t h e t r u e l e n g t h of a l l t h e el e m ent s
. .
N t —By littl
o e. in t h d iv i ion t hi
a e ca r e b e don i n p i
e s s ca n e a rs .
4 . R e ctify on e of
qu a l a r cs t he e .
5 B e gi n ning ( p r e fer a bly ) wit h t h e long est e l em ent

. 01 , ,
c o n s t r u ct t r i a n gl es e q u a l to t h e ( a p p r oxim a t e ) t r ue S iz e of t h o s e
in t h e cone a s s h own in t h e d e velopment a t t h e r ig h t

, .
F IG . 1 37 .
—R ev er s i n g t he u ppe pa t of
r r t he c on e to m a k e an el b
1 82 . Th e Problem of t h e Sh o r test Pa th .
T h e s h o r t e st li n e t h a t ca n b e d r a wn on a n y surf a ce fr om o n e
p oint to a not h er is a st r a ig h t line on t h e develo p ment L et .
A a n d B ( Fig 1 3 6) be two p oints on t h e s ur f a ce of t h e con e

. .
1 L o ca te t h em on t h e d e velo p m ent s ee a a n d b
.
, l l .
2 Dr a w a s tr a ig h t lin e fr om a to b 1 a n d lo ca t e i t s i n t er s e c
.
l ,
tion s c d e t c wit h t h e int er ven in g el em en t s

, l , l , .
,
.
3 R e tu r n a l l t h es e p oints to t h e i r o r igin a l po s itio n s in t h e

.
p r oj e ctions of t h e con e a n d d r a w t h e cu r ve t h r oug h t h em

,
.
CO NIC AL E LB O W S
1 83 . Principle — A . p l a n e s e ction t hr ou gh a ll t h e el em e nts
,
of a cone a s ,
in Fi g 1 3 7 is a n elli p se w h i ch is a symm etr i ca l
.
, ,
cur ve A s y mmet r ic a l curve

. ca n be inve r ted upon itself .
S IN GLE C -
URVE D S UR FA C E S 1 79
C onstruction .
—1 it is d esir ed to h a ve a c oni ca l elbow of
. If
t w o pi e ce s to tur n t h r o u g h a n a xi a l a ngle of 2 0 p a s s a pl a ne ,
t hr ough t h e con e a t a n a n gl e of 0 with t h e b a s e .
2 Tu r n t h e t r u n ca ted po r tion on t h e lower p a r t an d t h e

.
,
r e qui r e d e lbo w i s m a d e .
F IG . 1 38 — C e nt er lin e la y ou t .
MU LTI JO IN T E LB O W S
-
1 83 . Th e con s tr u ction of t h is is e s s e nti a lly t h a t of t he singl e

j oint lbow
e .
F IG . 139 .
— La yi ng ou t t he s ea m s .
E x mple
a .
—R equ ir e d
to r edu ce a 6 i n pi p e to a -
.
t hr ough a 90 b end in t h r ee pie ces

°
,
.
1 L a yout t h e cente r lin es a cco r din g to Fi g 1 38

. . .
1 80 P RA C TIC AL DE S C R IPTI E GE O V M E T RY
2 . La y tot a l l engt h of t h e ce nt er l in es a s t h e a ltitude
Off t he
of t h e fr us tum of a con e of 6 i n b a se a n d 2 i n to p -
.
-
. .
3 C u t t h e fr ustum by p l a n es t h r o u gh B a n d C a t t h e a ngl e s
.
s h o w n in Fig 1 3 9 . .
4 R e ve r se t h es e t r un c a t e d p o r tion s a s S h o w n i n Fig 1 4 0
. . .
FI G . 1 40 .
— T h r ee -
pi e ce elbow .
E XE R C IS E S
G hi c L yo t N o 50 —C nt li n of igh t i
ra p a u . . e er es r c rcu a r c l on es .
B as e in ( 1 1 16 1 16 2
.
, , , ,
Al tit d u ein ( 1 1 6 2 2 1 6 3 .
, , , ,
N ot e —A ll t h se a x s
. in I Th ign m y b
e e a re e s s a e re ve rs e d ,
and t he l in es
d w n i I II t t h e Option of t h e in t to
ra n a s ru c r .
Dim e n s i on e d L yo t — C nt e
a u . e r li nes . Le t A or B b e t he ce nter of the
ba se .
( 1 ) A (3 3 1 16 ) B ( 3 , 0
( 2 ) 11 0 + 1 1 16) B ( 3 % 1 1 12 )
1 82 P RA C TIC AL DE S C R IPT IV E G E OM E TR Y
(5 ) W (
«n a + m w m
x 3 — .
( 7) Y ( 1 1)
a nm + "
2 3 @ — 2)
(9 ) M M 3 ) 3 126 16
Pi e r c in g Li n e s —Signs . m ay be re v erse d if ,
( 1 ) A (2 0 1 16 ) E (4 + 2
—
,
(m a o o E BG + 2
( )
3 E ( +
3 2 12 ) (F 3 1 — 2 12)
( 4 ) G (3 + 2
( 5) M ( 1 1 1 1 4 ) N (4 1
75 9 . Lo te ca poi nt on t h e
a (fr ont or s u r a ce f of cone
i a w y f r om H
n . a .
760 . C u t t h e s u rf a ce of c on e b y pl n e a F ind the true s ize of

t h e s e t ion c .
a uith i u l a b a s s di m et
. 52 .
-
Obl iq ue c on es w c rc r e ,
a ers
1 16 i 1% in 2 i
.
,
2 16 i a x es 1 16 i
n .
,
2 in 2 16 i
n . 3 i n long
,
n .
, an d n .
,
. n .
, . .
Obl i q e on es w i th ellipti l b
u c 1 in X 1 1 6 i 1 in X 2 i 1 16 i X ca a s es , . n .
, . n .
,
n .
2 i
n 1 % in X 2 1 6 i
.
,
2 in X 2 1 6 i
. an d x es 1 16 2 2 1 6 3 in long
n .
,
. n .
,
a , , , . .
U t h i L y o t i n E 770—78 1
se s a u x . .
76 1 Dev lop t h s f
. b et w n t h b
e d e tting pl n e in E 760
u r a ce ee e ase a n cu a ,
x . .
762 D ev lop t h
. f e b t w n t h pex d u tti g pl e i E 766
e e sur ac e ee e a an c n an , _
n x . .
763 Fi nd t h e point i w h ich t h e s f

. of on e I s p e d b y l in
n u r a ce c s I rce e
Find t h e s h o rt es t li n e on t h e s u f ce of c one bet wee n t h e piercing r a
points of lin e
As s u m e a point on t h e s u rf a ce of c on e a n d d ra w t h e t a ces of a r
pl a n e t ng ent a t t h a t poin t
a .
As s u m e a poin t in s pa ce o u ts id e t h e c on e a n d d ra w t h e t a ces of a ,
r
pl a n e ( or t w o pl a n es if d es ir ed ) t a ngent to t h e con e ,
Dra w t h e t a ces of on e of t h e t a ng ent pl a n es to con e

r in clin ed
to ( H V o r P) , , .
S I N GLE C —URV E D S UR F A C E S 1 83
768 . D ra w t a c s of t h e t ngent pl n e ( pl n es ) to t h
t he r e a a or a e c on e
p a a llel to lin e
r ( e of t h e giv en pie cing lin es ) on r .
769 . Wh a t a re t h e lim it a tions of t h e s p eci fi tion s of E x 766 ca . and

'
767, i f
a ny ?
Di m n i on e d L yo t —
e L t th
s a u . e e a xe s b e t he follow i ng lin es , w it h t he ci r
l lli pti l b
cu a r o r e t A ca a se a . Us e i n E x . 770—78 1 .
(1) A (2 ,
0 1 16 ) B (4 2
(2 ) A (2 , 0 1 ) B (4 2
(3 ) A (3 1 , 0) B ( 3 2 14
( 4) A (2 1 12, 0) E (3 16 1 16
( 5) A (2 1 , 0) B ( 3 /
1
2 2
( 6) A (4 1 B (2 2
(fl AM + 2
( 8) A (3 , 0 1 ) B (3 2
770 . C on e b a se a xis
lo t e a point on t h ca e
o r re a r ) s u r a ce ,f in w a y f om H
. a r .
771 . C on e b s a e a d it t ea xis d w t h e int e tion ra ers c ,

n s ru
s i e m d e b y pl n
z ,
a a e
772 . Deve lop t h e s u f ce of t h e b a s e f u s t m i n E 770

r a r u x . .
773 . De velop t h e s rf ce of t h e pe x f u s tu m in E x 770

u a a r . .
774 . C on e ba se xi s Find t h e poi t s i w h i ch it i s a n n
p i c d b y l in e
er e
775 . D w t h e s h o t e s t li ne on t h e s u r fa e Of t h e con e b et w e n t h p i
ra r c e e e re
in g poi nt s i E x 774 n . .
776 . C on e b a se is a s s u m e a point on t h e s rf a a d ax u ce , n
d a w t h e t a s Of a pl n t ng nt t t h a t point
r r ce a e a e a .
777 . As s m e a point in s pa ce o ts id e of cone

u b e xi ,
u as a s
d w t h e t ces of a pl n e (or bot h pl n es if d s i e d ) t a ngent

ra ra a a ,
e r
to t h e con e t h o gh t h e a s me d poi nt r u s u .
C on e ba se xi s d w t h e t ces of pl n t ngent a ra ra a a e a ,
an d in clin d to e ( H V o P) , ,
r .
779 . C on e b x is d a w t h e t ces of a pl n t ng nt
a se a r ra a e a e
to t h e on d p c lle l to l in e
e an a ra
780 . Wh t a e t h e limit tions of t h e Spe i fi tions of E 778 d 779 i f

a r a c ca x . an ,
a ny ?
78 1 . C on e b se a x is d w t h e p oj e tion s d t
a ra r c an ru e s z e i
of i t s righ t s e tion a t t h e m i ddle point Of i t s xi s
c a .
782 . L y u t t h e p tt e n fo Fu nn l N o
a o a G ph i L y o t N
r s r e . ra c a u O . 53 .
783 . La y ou t t h e pa tte n s f M oto r Bo a t Fu nn el N O r or .
784 . La y o u t t h e p tt e n s f Ventil to H ood N o

a r or a r .
785 . La y ou t t h e p tt n s fo Sink D in e N o a er r ra r .
786 . La y ou t t h e p a tt e rn s for Off s e t R e d ci n g Pi pe N o u .
a
78 7 La y. p tt e ns for t h e Fu n a ce H ood N o
out t he a M a k e t h pl n
r r . e a
of t h e conica l he lix a Spi a l of A chi med es m kin g e compl te r r ,

a on e
re vol u t i on Omi t l p d ive t h ol es

. a an r .
mX L y t t h p tt n f C h imn y T a n s it i on Pi ec e N O G r ph i c
I )
\ ( a ou e a er s or e r . a
L yo t N o 54
a u . .
1 84 P RAC TIC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
f
O fs e t Re d u c i n g Pi pe
V
e t il
n a t or Hoo d
iE l<
-
>
M oto r 3 0 0 1 Fu n n e l
Fu r n a c e Ho o d
G phi c La yo t N o 53 — Dim n ion s i n t bles a e in in h es
ra u . . e s a r c .
RA C T IC AL D E S C R IPT IVE G E O M E T RY
P
TH E C YLIN DE R
1 85 . De fi n i t i on .
—
yli n d er i s a s ingl e c ur ve d s ur fa ce g en e
A c -
r a t e d by a lin e moving a long a n y c ur v e d lin e di r ect r ix a l w a ys -
r e m a ini ng p a r a ll e l to a g iv e n li n e It i s a cone with its a pex a t .
T h e Su rfa ce of a cylind er i s u s u a lly t a ke n to be t h a t po r tion

wh i ch i s i n cl u d e d b e t w ee n t w o p l a n e b a s es Th e b a s es m a y b e .
p a r a ll el o r not T h e o r eti ca lly t h e cylind er i s infi n it e in ext ent

. .
Ax is Th e a xis i s a lin e t h r ough t h e ce nt er of a r ig h t s e ction

.
-
p a r a ll el to a l l t h e el e m e nts It is a us eful lin e in d efining t h e

.
c ylind e r in s p a ce .
Va ri e tie s of C yl i nde r s — Th e ch a r a ct er i s ti c di s tin ction b e t w ee n

.
c ylind e r s i s t h e c ur v e of t h e ir ri gh t section T hi s is a t som e .
va r i a n ce to t h e con e distin ction s w hi ch a r e found e d on b a s e a n d ,
a xi a l p e culi ar iti e s Th e r e a son for t hi s i s t h a t it is a bsolut ely

.
ne ce s s a r y to know t h e r ig h t s ection of a c ylind er in mo s t of t h e

p r obl e m s a r i s ing ; a s for in s t a n ce in its d e velopm ent t h e r igh t
, , ,
s ection a l w a y s r olls out in a s t r a ig h t li n e A lso in most t a ng ent .

,
p r oblems t h e r ig h t s ection h a s to be con s id er e d So w h en a

, .
,
c ylind er i s s p ok e n of a s ci r cul a r e lli p ti ca l et c a ri gh t section , ,

.
,
i s understood .
—
Limit s Wh en t h e di r ectr ix b e com es a s tr a ig h t li n e t h e cy li n ,
d er b e com es a p l a n e a n d w h e n t h e di r e ct r ix b ec om es a p oint t h e
,
c ylind er be com e s a l in e .
1 86 Ta n g ent Pl a ne s to C yli nder s — A p l a n e whi ch c ont a ins

.
t w o cons e cutiv e el e ments is t a ng e nt Th e Ta n g ent Pl an e i s .
p a ra llel to t h e a xi s a n d to every element Th e t w o cons e cuti ve

, .
el em e nts cont a in e d in t h e t a ng e nt pl a ne fo r m t h e E lement of
C ont a ct T hi s el em en t of cont a ct is on e of t h e t w o t a nge nt li n es

.
n eces s a r y to d et er min e t h e t a nge nt pl a n e Fr om t hi s f a ct w e .
d er ive t h e s p e ci a l r u l e for p a s s in g pl a n es t a ngent to c ylin der s .
Ru le —A ta n g ent l ine a n d a line p a r al l e l to t h e a xi s inte r

.
,
s ootin g t h e t a n g ent det e rm i ne a t a n g ent pl a ne to a cylinder

, .
—
Axiom Wh en t h e b a s e of a cy l ind er is in H t h e H tr a ce of
.
,
-
a n y p l a n e t a ng e nt to t h e c ylind e r
,
w ill b e t a ng e nt to t h e b a s e ,
c ur ve of t h e c ylind er .
Axi om A pl a n e ca nnot i n g e n er al b e t a ng e nt to t w o cyli nd er s

.
-
unles s t h e a x es a r e p a r a ll el Th e ex ce p tion s w h i ch a r e not .

,
fr e quent will only be found wh en t w o out s id e elements of t h e

,
two c ylind er s a re in t h e s a m e pl a n e T h a t pl a n e will be t h e . ,

SI N GLE -
V
C UR E D S UR F A C E S 1 87
ta ngent p l a ne If t wo c ylinde r s h a ve p a r a ll el a x es four pl a n es

.
,
t a n ge nt to bot h ca n us u a lly b e p a s s ed Tw o cy l ind er s of e qu a l .
di a mete r wit h a xe s inte r s ectin g ca n h a ve two common t a nge nt

, ,
p l a nes out s id e .
1 87 Development —AS w as b e fo r e m e ntion e d t h e r ig h t s e c

. .
,
tion of a cylind er r oll s out into a str a i gh t line T h is is t r ue b e .

,
ca u s e t h e r i g h t s ection is p e r pe ndi cul a r to a l l t h e e l e ments a n d ,
wh e n t h e y a r e r oll e d out t h e y r e m a in p a r a ll el a n d t h e pl a n e ,
pe r pendicul a r to t h em c uts t h ei r pl a n e in a str a i g h t l ine per

pen di cul a r to t h em T h er efor e t h e fi rs t t hin g to do is to r ebt ify
.
,
a ri gh t s ecti on T h e n l a y off p e r pendic u l a rs p r o p er ly S p a ced

.
, ,
w it h t h e t r u e l e n gt h s of t h e v a r ious el e m e nts l a id off in o r de r .
PR O B LE M S RE LATING TO C YLINDE R S
1 88 Prob l em 72
. .
—To loca te
point on t h e surfa c e
a .
An al y sis 1 Assume o n e p r oj ection of t h e p oint

.
-
. .
2 Dr a w a lin e t hr oug h t h a t p r oj e ction p a r a llel to t h e a x i s

. .
( T hi s wil l be t h e elem e nt on wh i ch it li e s ) .
3 Find t h e int ers ection of t hi s el e m e nt wit h t h e b a s e

. .
4 Pr oj e ct t h is int er s ection to t h e ot h e r p r oj ection of t h e b a s e

.
a n d dr a w t h e ot h e r p r oj e c tion of t h e element .
5 Pr oj ect t h e point to t h e se c ond p r oj e ction of t h e el e m e nt

. .
Let t h e stud e nt m a ke t h e constr u ction

1 89 Problem 73 —
.
. To find t h e inter s ecti on of a pl a n e a n d a

.
c yl i nder .
Anal y si s — 1 Dr a w a s u fli ci en t number of elem ents

. . .
2 Obt a in t h e pie r cing p oints of t h e s e el e m e nts w it h t h e pl a n e

. .
3 Dr a w a smoot h cu r ve t hr oug h t h es e pi er cing points in o r d er

. .
1 90 Problem 74
. TO fi n d t h e point s in wh ic h a str a i gh t line
.
-
pierce s a c ylinder .
Th er e a r e t w o m et h ods : 1 to u s e wh e n t h e b a s e of t h e c ylind er
.
li es in one of t h e pl a n es of pr oj ection ; 2 to u s e wh en t h e b a se i s .
in s p a ce
V
.
Ana l y si s Fir s t M eth o d — Wh e n t h e b a s e i s i n H

. . or P ,
1 Pa ss a pl a n e t h roug h t h e line p a r a llel to t h e a xis

. .
2 A t t h e point s in whi ch t h e t r a c e of t h i s pl a ne cr oss e s t h e

.
b a s e dra w elem ents of t h e c y l ind er

, .
3 Th e points in w hi ch t h e s e el e ment s ar e int er s ect e d by t h e

.
give n line w ill b e t h e r e qui re d p oints .

1 88 RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
P
S econ d M eth o d .
— Wh e n
b a se i s in sp a ce
th e .
1 Dr a w a suffi cient numbe r of elements

. .
2 Pa ss a p l a ne t hr oug h t h e lin e p r ef er a bly a p r oj ect i ng pl a n e

.
, .
3 Find t h e int er se ctions of t h is p l a n e wit h e noug h of t h e el e

.
m e nts to yi eld a cur ve th a t will be inter se cted twi ce by t h e g ive n

lin e .
4 Th e r equi r e d point s wi ll t h e n be wh ere t h e given li n e cr o s s e s

.
t h e cur v e .
1 9 1 Problem 75 —To p a s s a pl a n e t a n g ent t o a c yl i n der

. .
th rou gh a g iven poin t on t h e surfa ce .
—
An a ly sis 1 T h r ou gh t h e given point d r a w a line p a r a llel to
. .
t he
F IG . 1 41 .
( T h is will be on e lin e of t he re qui r e d p l a n e ,

t he l m ent of
e e
c ont a ct ) .
2 . At point wh er e t h e e l em en t of cont a ct c r o s s es a n y cu r ve
t he
of t h e sur fa ce ( p r efer a bly on e of t h e b a s es ) d r a w t h e t a ngent to
,
t h a t cur ve .
1 90 RA C TIC AL D E SC RIPTIVE G E O M E T RY
P
di a m eter wh os e a xis is A B ( Fi g
,
Le t it be r equir e d to.
p a s s a t a ng e nt pl a n e t h r ough M a point outside t h e sur fa ce

, .
1 Dr a w t h e lin e M N p a r a l lel to A B t hr oug h M

.
,
.
2 Pa ss a p l a n e Q t h r ough A pe r p endi c ul a r to A B
.
( T h is
,
.
will b e t h e p l a n e of t h e b a se c utting a cir cl e fr om t h e sur f a ce )

,
.
O
O Find t h e pi er cing p oint N of M N with Q
R evolve A a n d N into H a bout H Q
.
, ,
t
B - .
Dr a w a i n ci r cle a bout a a s a cente r

i
O -
. 1 .
G Fr om n l dr a w a t a n g ent to t h e ci rcle
D
.
QC ounter r evolve t h e t a ngent n o in to t h e pl a ne Q

-
l .
O
O Pa ss t h e pl a n e S t h r ou gh N O a n d M N It will b e t h e .
r e qui r e d t a n g ent pl a ne .
F IG . 1 43 .
1 93 . Problem 77 — To . pa s s a pl a ne ta n g ent to a cyl i n d er an d
p a ra lle l t o a g iven l i n e
. .
—
An al y si s 1 Pa ss a pl a n e p a r a llel to t h e a xis a n d t h e given
.
line W h y ?
.
2 Find t h e inte r s ection of t hi s p l a n e a n d t h e pl a ne of t h e b a se

. .
3 Dr a w a t a n g ent to t h e b a s e p a r a ll e l to t h e inte r se ction

.
obt a ined in op er a tion

4 Pa ss t h e r e qui r ed t a ng ent pl a ne t h r oug h t hi s t a n g e nt lin e
.
,
p a ra llel to t h e a uxili a r y pl a n e p a s s e d in Op er a tion

,
C onstruction — Let A B Fi g 1 43 b e t h e a xis of t h e c y li nde r

.
, .
, ,
a n d let it be r equi r e d to p a s s t h e t a n g e nt pl a ne p ar a llel to X Y .

SI NGLE -
1 uxili a r y p l a n e Q t hr oug h A B p a r a llel to X Y

Pa ss t h e a .
2 Dr a w t h e re qui r e d pl a n e T t a n ge nt to t h e cy linder a n d
.
,
p a r a ll el to Q Th e H t r a ce of T w ill b e t a ng ent to t h e b a s e in
H a n d p a r a ll el to H Qa n d t h e V V
-
t r a ce of T will be p a r a ll el to Q
.
, ,
— .
1 94 If t h e c ylind er be ci r cul a r a n d its a xis obliqu e t h e b e st

.
“
m et h od for t h e fo r egoing p r obl em i s t h e Norm a l meth od ”
,
It s a n a lysis is a s follows :
1 Pa s s a p l a n e t h r o u gh t h e a xi s p a r a ll el to t h e give n lin e
'
. .
2 Pa ss a pl a ne p a r a ll el to t h is pl a ne a t a dist a n ce equ a l to t h e
.
r a dius of t h e c ylind er .
Th e p r oblem m a y be don e in th is w a y with out d r a w ing a n y

elem e nts or b a s es of t h e cylind er Le t t h e s tud e nt p r ove t h a t
“
.
t he no r m a l met h od is c o r r ect
”
.
1 95 Problem 78 — To p a s s a pl a n e inc li ne d a t a n y g ive n a n g l e

. .
,
to H or V t a n g ent to a c ylin der

, .
Li m i ta tion s —Th e limits of this a ngl e must be b et w een 90 °
a n d t h e a n g le betwe e n t h e e l e m e nts a n d t h e stipul a t e d pl a ne
An a l y si s —
.
1 Pa ss a n a uxili ar y pl a n e t h r ou g h t h e a xis m a kin g

V
. .
t h e giv e n a ngl e wit h H or a s r equi r ed ; see Pr oblem 4 0

, .
192 PRA C T IC AL D E S C RIPT IVE G E O M E T RY
2 . b a s e of t h e c y l i nd er i s in H d r a w t h e H tr a ce of t h e
If t h e ,
-
r e qui r ed pl a ne t a ng ent to t h e b a s e a n d p a r a ll el to t h e H tr a ce
,
-
of t h e a uxili ar y p l a ne
V
tr a ce of t h e r e qui re d p l a n e p a r a ll el to t h e V
.
3 Dr a w t h e
.
-
tr a ce of t h e a uxi li a ry pl a ne
—
.
1 9 6 N orm a l M et od h Wh en t hi s p r obl e m i s r e qui r e d of a

V
. .
ci r cul a r c ylind er oblique to H a n d

,
t h e no r m a l m et h od lik e , ,
t h a t in Ar t 1 9 4 i s t h e e a s ie s t a n d best
.
,
.
Fi g 1 44 s h o w s t h e constr u ction of su ch a pr obl em in w h i ch

.
,
A B is t h e a xis a n d AC t h e r a dius of t h e given c yli nder T h e .
e l e ments of t h e a uxili a r y c on e m a k e t h e g iven a n gl e wit h H .
T is on e of t he four possible required pl a nes .
De v e l o p m ent
F IG . 1 45 .
1 97 . W h enxis is p a r a llel to H a n d t h e a n gle between

t he a ,
t h e t a ngent pl a ne a n d H is g iven t h e problem is ve ry e a s ily ,
s olved by p r oj ectin g on a pl a ne pe r p e ndi cul a r to t h e a xi s .
N ot e —Fo p l n
. ur b p ae d t n g nt to
es ca n y y l ind
e m king t h
as s a e an c e r, a e
giv n ngle if t h p obl m i pos ibl e

e a , e r e s s .
1 9 8 Problem 79
. .
— To
develop t h e surfa ce of a c yl i n d er .
C onstruction — To d e velop t h e ellipti ca l cylind er w h o s e a xis

.
,
i s A B ( Fig .
1 Dr a w a suffi ci e nt numbe r of e l e m ent s

. .
2 Pa ss a pl a n e pe r p e ndi cul a r to t h e a xi s a s for e x a m pl e

.
, , ,
a lon g t h e line C D .
3 R e volve t h is r i gh t s e ction to s h ow i t s t r u e size

. .
4 La y Off t h e b a s e lin e C D I e qu a l in len gt h to t h e l e n gt h of

.
, I ,
1 94 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPTIV E G E O M E T RY
( See F i g . on a l o i n r a di us a n d di vide
La y o ff a 90
°
arc -
.
,
t h e a r c into a r cs of Th e fi r st of t h ese r a dii w ill be t h e

p r oj e c tion of t h e fi rst j oint a n d t h e o d d r a dii t h e thi r d fi fth , , , ,
a n d se v e nt h will be t h e p r oj ections of t h e ot h er j oints Pi pes

,
.
l a id out p e r p endi cu l a rly to t h e eve n r a dii will give a p i pe b e nd

of unifo r m ri gh t s e ction .
E XE R C IS E S
G hi c L yo t No 55 — Ax f i c
ra p a u . . es or c r u ar l or e llipti l cy li nd e
ca rs , w it h
b p p nd i l to t h x e
a s es er e cu a r e a s .
B s e — C i l 1 i U6 i 2 i ; llip
a s . r c es n .
,
h .
,
h . e s es 1 in . X 1 56 i n .
,
l in . x 2 in .
1 % in X 2 i . X 2 34 i n .
,
n .
Alti tu d es 1 % i 2 i 2 % i 3 i
.
-
n ,. n .
,
n .
,
n .
N t e — Th i gns f t h l i n m y b
o . e s or es e es a e re v e rs e d , a nd t he c y lind e rs d ra w n
in III i f d e i d
, s re .
D im en i on e d L y o t — C nt lin f
s a u e er es or i
c r cu a r l c y lind ers or e ll pti l
i ca
cy li nd e w ith b
rs , p p nd i l to t h a s es er e cu a r e ax es .
(1) A ( 3, 0 1 36 ) B ( 3 3
(2) A(3 B (3 1
(3) A (2 9 5 1 ) B (4 U4
( 4) A (2 + 1
( 5) A (2 + 2 1 ) B (4 + 1
( 6) A (3 + 2 B (3 1 2)
( 7) A (3 + 2 % 2 ) B (3 1
( 8) A(1 2% 1 ) B ( 3 3é -
1 2)
(9) A (2 2 2 m B (4 1
N ote — Th fo going x m y b e d w n in III b y v in g t h e igns

. e re a es a ra re e rs s
an d I t h i ev nt t h e s ign on t h e pl n e t ces
n s d pie in g lin
e , s a ra an rc es
s h o ld b e
u v s d if th ey nte t h e exe cis e
re er e ,
e r r .
SI NGLE -
C URV E D S UR F AC E S l 95
Gra phi c La y ou t N o 5 6 —C u tti g pl an es ( N ote —If t h e y lind ers

. . n . . c a re
d a w n in III rev rse t h e lette i n g of th t

r
,
e s ) r es e ra ce .
Gra phi c La you t N o 57 —Pie ci g lines . . r n .

( N ot e .
-
x
If t h e a es a r e r a wd n
i n III d a w t h es lin es in III n d i a y
, r e , a n n ca s e, d ra w t m
he s o ha t tt y
h e a re
l i k el y to pie ce t h e cy li nd er
r .
tt
C u i n g P an e sl
Q
.
(1) (1 % 3) 2)
(2) R (l 2)
(3 ) S (5 3)
( 4) T(I 3)
( 5) U( 1)
( 6) W( 3)
( 7) X(1 1) 2 56)
( 8) Y( 1 3)
(9 ) Z (4 3)
( 1 0) P( 3 % 3) 3)
Pi erci n g Li n e s .
(1) A (2 , 0 1 34 ) B (4 2 2)
(2 ) C (2, 0 2 ) D(4 2
(3 ) E (3 + 2 + 1
( 4) G (3 + 2 2 ) K (3
-
+ 56 1)
( 5) M (1 1 1 545) N (4 1 Mg ) .
792 . C y lind e r x is a b a s e o r righ t sect ion

, loca te t h e p roj ec
tion s of a point on t h e (f ont o r ea r ) s u rfa ce
r r .
196 PR A C T IC AL D E SC R IPTIV E GE O M E T RY
C y lind er xis b a se or r i gh t s e tion
a d w t h i nte , c ra e r
se c t i on a d i t s t ru e s i e m d e b y pl n e
,
n z ,
a a
D w t h e d e ve lopment of t h e cy lind in E x 793 in l d ed b tw ee n

ra er .
,
c u e on e
of t h e b e a d t h e c tting pla n e
as s n u .
C y lind e r xi s b a s o righ t tion

a fin d t h e p o i nts e, r sec
i n w h i ch i t i s pie ce d b y lin e r
D a w t h e s h o rt es t li n e on t h e su rf ce b et w een t h t w o pi ci n g points
r a e er
fou nd i n E x 79 5
Dra w t h e H Va d P i nte rs ections of cy li nd e
. .
n a x is -
ba e r s ,
o r righ t s ect i on c ontin i g t h e cy li nd er to m t t h e pl n i f u n ee a es ,
n eces s rya .
D a w t h e t a ces of t h e pl n e t a nge nt to cy lind r

r r a xi s b s a e a e,
or r igh t s e ction a t a p oint a s s u m e d on t h e (f ont re ) r or ar
s fa ce
ur ,
in f om H . r .
D a w t h e t a ces of
r r ( on e or t w o ) ta n ge nt p l n es to cy l i nd e a r
a xi s b s e o igh t s ection t h ou gh a point w i t h ou t t h e

( I II III o I V
a ,
r r r
sur fa ce i n , ) , , r .
D w t h e t ces of
ra ra(o e o r t w o ) t n ge nt pl a n es to cy lind e n a r
a x is ba o r igh t s e,tion pa a lle l to A (

r s ec r
B(
D w th t
ra e ra ce s of ( on e , t w o, th re e , fou ) t nge nt pl n es to
r a a
cy l i nd er a xi s b a se , or r i gh t se ction i n cl i n e d
,
to
(H V , ,
or P) .
G r a phi c L yo t N o 58 —
Ax e s fo r lli p ti ca l cy li nd t
wi h i l
llipti ca l b a s e s i n H V P a s give n
a u . . e e rs , c r cu a r
e or
B a s e s —1 i n
, , , .
1 34 i n 1 94 i n
. 2 , .
, .
, in .
,
i l
c r c es ; 1 in . X 1 % in .
,
1 in . X
2 i n .l % in X 2 i n e llip s es
, . .
, .
Di m e n s i on e d La y o t for A x u es of F or e g oi n g C yli n d er s .
(1) A ( 1 %, 0 2 Hf ) B e in H . as .
(2) A (2 U4 ,
0 ) B (4 34 B se i n V a .
(3) A (3 2 , O) B ( 3 , 0 Ba s e in H .
( 4) A (3 O) B ( 3 , 0 B se i n V a .
1 98 P RA C T IC AL D E S C RIPTIV E G E O M E T R Y
Ro un d
M ul t i J oi n t Pi pe E l b ow
-
G r a phi c La yo t N ou . 60 —Dim e ns i on s i n in ch es
. .
81 5 . La y ou t p a ttern s for t h M lti j oint Pipe

t he e u -
n u mb er of pieces
81 6 . La y ou t t h e p a tte ns f t h e Oblong Pi pe
r or E lbo w
nu mb er of pieces
C o r r ug a ed
'
Pl pe .
S c oo p f o r S ca l e .
Gra phi c La yout N o . 61 .
8 1 7 La y
. ou t pa tterns for t h e C o rru g ted
t he a Pi pe .
8 1 8 La y
. ou t t h e p a tte n s for t h e S oo p
r c .
SI NGLE -
Ob l i q ue C onn ect or
for Ci r c u l a r Pi pe o r s e Ra r e fi e d M Du s t Coll e c t or
Gr a phi c La y ou t N o 62 —D imens ions in in ch es
. . .
81 9La y
. ou t t he p tte n
a r s fo r O bli q ue onne to
C c r
820 La y
. ou t t h e p a tt ern s fo r t h e Du s t C oll to
ec r
t< -
B -
> l
Of f s e t Pi pe Re d u c e r
ob l o n g Ho o d
a u . (53 .
—Dime ns ions in i n c h es .
82 0 La y
. ou t t he pa t t er ns for Off se t Pipe Re d u ce r
82 1 La y
. ou t t h e p a tte r n s f r Oblong H ood
o
2 00 RAC TIC AL D E SC R IPT IVE
P GE O M E TRY
TH E C ON V OLUTE
2 01 . Th et h ir d cl a s s of s ingl e— cu r ve d su r f a ce s t h e C onvolute , ,
i s g en er a ted by t h e t a ng ent lin e to a n y s p a ce cu r v e a s it mov es ,
a long t h e cu r ve T h e t a n g e nt li n e to a c u r v e cont a ins two con

.
s ecu t i v e point s of t h e cu r ve T h is m ea ns t h a t t w o co n s ecutive

.
t a ng e nts h a ve on e p oint in common ; t h us A B a n d C a r e con , , ,
s e cu t i v e p oint s in a cu r ve a n d A B a n d B C a r e t h er e fo r e t w o
,
c ons e cutive t a ng e nt s wit h B a s t h ei r int er s ection T h us a l l .
consecutive t a n g ents to a n y s p a ce cur ve i n t er s e ct two a n d t w o ,
a n d t h er e fo r e be c om e e l em e nt s of a s ingl e cu r v e d su r f a ce -
.
202 H . elic a l C onvolute — Th e only c onvolute of im p o r t a n ce i s

.
t h a t ge n er a ted by t h e t a nge n t to t h e cylind r i ca l h elix Fig 1 4 7 . .
s h ows bot h p r oj e ction s .
F IG . 1 47 .
— Pr oj e c tion s of a c onvol t e u .
It is s om e tim es ca ll e d t h e Develop a bl e H el i coid a n d i t s ,
most fr e quent a pp li ca tion is in s cr e w conv e yo r s .
T h e or eti ca lly t h e su r fa ce i s unli mit e d t h e p o r tion s h o w n h e r e

“ -
,
b eing a t h r ee q u a r t er tur n In p r a cti ca l d es ign it is a lw a y s

.
”
,
limite d by a cylind er a n d u pp er a n d lo w er b a ses ,or by t w o cy l i n

d er s Th e H —
. tr a ce of t h e s urf a ce is a n involute (See Fig . .
2 03 Problem s — T h e p r obl e ms t h a t r el a t e to t h i s s u r f a ce do
.
not differ m a t er i a lly fr om t h o s e of ot h er s i n gl e cu r ve d s ur f a ces ; -
t h er e fo r e t h e only p r obl em give n a solution h er e i s t h e p r obl em

of t h e developm ent of t h e su r fa ce .
02 P RA C TIC AL D E SC RIPTIVE GE O M E T RY
C on s tructio n of t h e Development — Dr a w t h e cir cle wit h t h e .
r a di us b c a n d dr a w a n involute to it M a ke t h e a r c of t h e
v v
.
develop e d involute equ al to t h e a r c of t h e h eli x sin ce t h e h elix ,
fr om a n y point to t h e ori g in is equ a l to t h e t a ng ent fr om t h a t

p oint to t h e pl a ne of t h e o r i g in Thi s th en is a ccompli s h ed by .
, ,
me as urin g t h e t a n gent a n d l a yi n g off its l en gt h on t h e involut e

in t h e development .
M a ht em a tic a l V a lue —Th e m a t h em a ti ca l v a lue for t h e r a di u s

.
of development is t h e exp r ession cos 2 0 in whi c h R is t h e

t he
.
r a dius of t h e h e l i ca l cy l inde r a n d 0 is t h e i n clin a tion of t h e ele ,
ments to t h e h o r izont a l .
E XE R CIS E S
822 . D ra w a onvol u te to t h e h elix w h os e a xis i s A ( I% 0 1 M )

2 70
°
c , ,
B(l % 2 1 M ) 1 i n di a m e t er 2 i n pi tch, Find t h e tra ces of t h e

-
.
,
-
. .
t a nge nt pla n e cont a inin g C (2 % x 2 ) on t h e s urfa ce , .
82 3 . Dra w t h e convolu te in E x 822 Dra w t h e tra ces of t h e ta ngent pla n e . .
t hr ou gh D ( 1 % M y ) on t h e fr ont s u rfa ce
“ , .
82 4 . Dra w a 2 70 convolu te to t h e left h a nd h eli x wh ose a xi s i s E ( 4M

°
-
”
, ,
0 1 ) F (4% 3 ih d ia m e ter 2 % in pi t ch Dr a w t h e -
.
,
-
. .
t ces of a pla ne ta ng ent a t t h e poin t G (4% x 1 94 ) on t h e su rfa ce

ra ,
.
82 5 . D a w t h e convolu te in E x 82 4 Dra w t h e t ra ces of t h e pl a ne t a ngent

r . .
a t K (3 % 1 y ) on t h e f ont s u rf a ce
, r .
82 6 . Dra w t h e convol u te in E x 82 2 Dra w t h e t ra ces of a pla n e ta nge nt . .
cont a ini n g M ( 1 2
82 7 . C onvol u te i n E x 824 D a w t h e t ra ces of t h e ta ngent pla ne co
. . r n
ta in i ng N (4 % 1 2 M ) ,
.
82 8 . C onvolu te in E x 822 Find i t s inters e cti on w ith t h e pla n e S ( l

. . 1)
82 9 . C onvolu te in E x . 82 4 . F i nd i t s i nters ection w ith t he pla n e T ( + 1M )

3)
830 . D v elop t h e s u rfa ce of t h e convolu te i E 822
e n x . .
83 1 . Dev lop t h e
e f e of t h onvolu te in E 82 4
su r a c e c x . .
83 2 . Find t h s h o rtes t p th on t h e fa ce of t h convol te in E

e a s ur e u x . 822 f rom
O ( I/
3
4 x , 2 ) to P( 3 y l) ,
.
83 3 . Find t h e s h o tes t p th on t h s f e of t h e onvol te i n E

r a e ur a c c u x . 824 f rom
C ( 5, X to D(3 y , P6)
C H A PT E R V
II
WAR PE D SURF AC E S
204 . Di s cu s s i on — A ccor din g

to t h e d efi nition in Art 1 67 a
. .
,
w a r ped s u rf a ce is g ene r a ted b y moving a s t r a ig h t line so t h a t no

t w o conse cutive po s itions s h a ll be in t h e s a me pl an e It t h u s .
fa lls into t h e cl a ssific a tion with sin gl e cur v e d surf a ces a s a rule d -
s u rfa c e Pl a n es m a y be p a ss e d t hr ough a n y point of a w a rped

.
surf a ce th a t wil l cu t str ai gh t l in es fr om t h e sur f a ce a lwa ys one , ,
a n d i n t h e ca s e of s e v e r a l s u r f a ce s
,
two st r a ig h t lines Oth er ,
.
p l a n e s cu t cur v es fr om t h e m .
Wa rpe d surf a ces a r e of m a ny v a r ie tie s a n d a r e common in

p r a cti ca l wo r k In m a ny ca s es wh en t h ey o ccur in p r a cti ca l
.
,
wo r k it is not ne ce s s a r y for t h e dr a ftsm a n to r e cognize t h e ir

,
pe c uli a r iti e s but v er y ofte n a s in a r c h es s h ee t met a l wo r k

, , , ,
turbine bl a des p r o p e ller bl a de s ske w g ea r s conve yor s et c it i s

, , , ,
h i gh l y impo r t a nt t h a t e ngine er s a n d d r a ftsmen know t h ei r p r o p

e r t i es a n d met h ods of gene r a tion .
205 M eth od s of G en e ra tio n — W a r ped surf a ces m a y b e

. .
ge ner a ted :
1 B y r evolvin g one line a bout a not h e r not in t h e s a me pl a ne
. .
2 B y movin g a st r a ig h t lin e t h e g enera trix a lon g two lin es

.
, , ,
d irectr ice s eit h er st r a ig h t cur ved or bot h ke epin g p a r a llel to

, , , ,
som e pl a ne c a lled t h e Pl a n e Di rector

, .
3 B y mo v in g a st r a i gh t lin e a lon g t h ree di r e ct r ices st r a ig h t

.
, ,
c ur ve d or bot h
, .
4 B y movin g a st r a i gh t li n e a lon g a n a xis a t a const a nt a n gl e

.
wit h t h e a xi s following a s p a ce cu r ve a s a dir e ct r ix

, .
Ot h e r m e t h ods mig h t b e inv e nt e d but t h es e cove r a l l t h e ca s e s,
m e t in p r a cti ca l wo r k .
2 06 Ta n g en t Pl a n e s — In Ar t 1 70 we find t h e ge n er a l r ul e
. .
for t a ngent pl a n e s to a l l R uled S urf a ce s a s foll ows : O n e ta n g ent ,
l i n e a n d t h e element a t a n y point d etermine t h e ta n g en t pl a n e

a t t h a t poin t .
In g ener a l a t a n ge nt pl a ne i s onl y t a n g ent a t on e po i n t of a

,
wa rped sur fa ce T h er e a r e c er t a in points as i n conoids a n d

.
,
wa r p ed con es wh er e t h e t a ngent p l a ne wil l b e t a n gent a l l a lon g

,
t h e el ement but su ch exce ptions will b e r e a di l y reco g nized

,
.
2 03
204: P R AC T IC AL DE SC R IPTIVE G E O M E T RY
All pl a n es t a n ge nt to ped sur fa ce s ( ex ce p t in t h e cas es j u st
wa r
noted ) int er s e ct t h e sur f a ce b ec a use t h e y a r e not t a ngent a l l
,
a lon g t h e e l e m e nt a n d c onv er s e ly a n y pl a ne th a t inter s e ct s a

, , ,
wa rpe d s u rfa ce i n a n element will in gener a l be t a n g ent to t h e , ,
s urf a c e a t some point .
2 07 Double R ule d S u rf a ce s — Two sur fa ces t h e Hype r boloi d

.
-
of R evolution of On e Na ppe a n d t h e H ype r bol ic Pa ra boloi d a r e ,
c a ll e d double rul e d sur fa ces fr om t h e fa ct a s will be s h own l a t er

-
, ,
t h a t t h e y a r e ca p a bl e of g en er a tion by t w o d ifi er en t s tra i gh t
lines Thi s yi elds t h e p h enom e non t h a t th rou gh every point
.
i n t h e s u rf a ce t wo str a i gh t line s ( el e m e nts ) ca n b e dra wn l yin g

Wh oll y Wi th i n t h e surf a ce Fr om t hi s fa ct we h a ve t h e specia l
.
r ul e for t a ngent pl a n e s to t h es e sur f a ce s : Th e t w o elements of a
double ruled s u rfa ce th rou gh a n y poin t of t h e surf a ce determi n e

-
t h e t a n g ent pl a n e a t th a t po i nt .
2 08 R epresenta tion — Some w a r ped sur fa c es ca n be s h o w n

. .
in outli ne in or t h ogr a p h i c p r oj e ction with suffi cie nt cl a r it y a n d ,
oth er s must b e s h o w n by d r a win g a suffi cient number of el em ent s .
In p r a cti ca l d r a fting w h er e t h e s u r f a ce is a lwa ys limited t h e out

, ,
lin es a r e u s u a ll y suffi ci ent .
2 09 L oc a tion of Po i nt s — To lo ca te a poin t on a n y w a r p ed
.
sur fa ce one p r oj ection b eing given find t h e pier cin g point of

, ,
t h e p r o j ector of t h e p oint wit h t h e su r f a ce T hi s is done b y .
p a ssin g a pl a n e t h r oug h t h e p r oj e ctor a n d finding its in t er ,
se ction wi th t h e s u rf a ce Wh e r e t h e p r oj ector inter se cts thi s

.
li ne will be t h e lo ca tion of t h e point In m a n y c a s es it will b e .
e as y to dr a w t h e el e ment t h r ou g h t h e point sim m i fyi n g t h e ,
op er a tion .
2 1 0 Development s — Str i ctly s p e a ki n g

. . a w a r ped sur f a ce ,
c a n not be developed be ca u s e no t w o cons e cutive el ements li e in

,
t h e s a me pl a n e a n d ca nnot t h er e for e b e r oll e d into a pl a n e

“ ,
, ,
wit h out wa r ping t h em ; t h a t i s destr oy in g t h e r el a tion b e

”
,
tween t h em H o w ever t h er e a re a pproxi ma te d evelopm ents

.
,
t h a t give ver y s a ti s f a cto r y r es ul ts a lmost a s good a s t h e d evel ,
O pm en t of a cone by t r i a n gul a tion T h ese w a r p ed develo p m ent s .
a lso a r e obt a ined by t r i a ng ul a tion A suffi ci ent n u mb er of .
elements a r e d r a w n di viding t h e s ur f a ce i nto minut e w a r pe d

,
qu a dr il a ter a ls in w hi ch t h e a mount of w a r p is so sligh t a s to be

,
n e gligible Di a g on a ls a re th en d r a w n a cr oss e a c h of th es e
.
qua d r il a ter a ls divi ding t h em into tr i a ngles T h ese tr i a ngl es

, .
a r e t h en me a s ured a n d pl a ced i n orde r in t h ei r ( a pp r oxim a te)

206 RA C T IC AL
P DE SC R IPT IV E GE O M E T RY
t hr oug h t h e point a n d lo ca ting t h e ot h er pr oj ection on t h e

el e ment . If t h e V
p r oj ecti on of t h e point is give n p a s s a p l a n e
-
t hrou gh t h e point p a r a ll el to H T hi s will cu t t h e el em ents in a

.
c urve on w h i ch t h e H p r oj ection wil l b e lo ca ted
V
-
.
T h e h eli coid i s t h e s u r f a ce of t h e t h r e a d t h e squ a r e t h r e a d

-
, ,
s p ir a l s p r i n gs s cr e w conve y o r s , ,
cer t a in fi r e e s ca p e s t h e t w i s t d r ill
-
, ,
t h e s p ir a l r un w a y h eli coid a l a r c h , ,
a n d num er ous ot h er su r f a ce s fr e
q u e nt in m a c hi n e a n d str uct u r a l
d es ign .
H e l icoid a l Arc h — In t h e d es i g n .
of ske w a r ch es t h a t is a r ch es with , ,
t h eir a x e s oblique to one or both

of t h e op e ni ngs w a r p e d s u r fa ces ,
a r e oft e n e n count er e d c yl ind r oid s ,
or cow s h orn s b e ing t h e u s u a l s ur

’
f a ces i n su ch a r ch es Th e a r ch .
ca ll e d t h e h eli coid a l a rc h t a kes its
n a me not fr om t h e ch a r a ct er of i t s
sur fa ce a s migh t b e sup p os e d but
,
“
fr om t h e sur f a ce of t h e co u r s i n g
,
j oint s Th e line of t h e j oint i s

.
l a id out a s a st r a igh t lin e on t h e

d e velo p e d sur fa c e of t h e a r ch a n d , ,
wh e n b r o u gh t into its a ctu a l p o s i

Hy p e b l i d f R v l t i
r o o o e o u
tion
on
it b ecom e s a h e lix
, T h e sur .
f a ce of t h e j oint is g e n er a t e d by a
.
F I G 1 50
line nor m al to t h e sur fa ce of t h e
. .
a r ch moving a lo n g t h e h eli x r a di a l to t h e a xi s of t h e h e lix

,
T h is .
s ur f a ce i s t h er e fo r e id e ntifi e d a s a h eli coid In a smu ch a s t h e .
d e velo p e d h elix is a str a ig h t lin e t h e w or k of l a ying ou t t h e

.
blo cks is ve r y sim p l e T h e se a m being h eli coid a l must b e l a id

.
, ,
out with c a r e to en s ur e good fi t t i n g blo cks

,
-
.
THE Y
H PE RB OL OID OF RE V OLUTIO N OF ON E NAPPE
2 1 2 T hi s p eculi a r s ur f a ce is t h e only w a r p e d s ur f a ce t h a t is
.
a s u rf a ce of revolution It is g e n er a t e d by M e t h od 1 Ar t 2 05
.
,
.
,
by r e volvin g a s tr a igh t lin e a bo u t a n a xi s not in t h e s a me p l a ne .
Fi g 1 50 s h ows t hi s s u r fa ce r ep r es ente d b y its elements E it h er

. .
p r oj e ction of a l l t h e elem ents co u ld b e inv er te d a n d th ere w o u ld ,

WAR PE D S UR FA C E S 2 07
be no c h a n g e in t h e sur fa ce If A B be consid er ed a n elem en t i t s

Vpr oj e ction migh t b e either of t he line s m a r ked a b a n d
.
,
v v
-
t h e s a m e sur f a ce wo u ld b e g e n er a te d by r e volving e it h e r lin e

a bout t h e a xi s T hi s m a ke s it a double ruled s u rf a ce a n d a
.
-
t a ngent p l a n e is d eter min e d a t a n y point b y two el ements t hrough

th a t point .
2 1 3 To Dra w t h e E lement s — A ll points in t h e g e ne r a t r ix move

.
in ci r cles h en ce t h er e i s a ver tex to t h e cur ve of t h e outlin e a

, ,
sm a l lest ci r cle c a lled t h e Go r g e C ircle g ene r a t e d b y t h e point

, ,
ne a r est t h e a xis All el e m e nts int er s e ct t h e gor ge cir cl e a n d t h eir

.
H p r oj ections a re a l l t a ngent to i t s H p r oj e ction

-
T w o limitin g -
.
p l a nes b a s e s a r e a l w a ys n e ces s a r y a lwa ys t a k e n p er p e ndi cul a r

, , ,
F IG . 1 5l —
Rolli ng h yp boloid ( Both
. er s . f
s u r a c es a e g n r a ted b y r e
e er
volvin g m e s t igh t lin bo t t w di ff
t he sa ra e a u o er e nt a x es d t h y t hu s h v e
,
an e a
on ee l em ent in ommon d t ng nt to
c ,
an a re a e ea ch ot h e lon g t h i s elem e nt )
r a .
to t h e a xi s a n d usu a lly a t equ a l dis t a n ce s fr om t h e gor g e cir cl e

,
.
B ein g pe r p endi cul a r to t h e a xis t h es e b a s es a r e cir cul a r W h y ? ,

.
On e b a se is usu a lly in H a n d t h e el e m e nt s t er mi n a t e in t h e b a s e s
,
.
H en ce 1 Dr a w t h e go r g e a n d b a s e ci r cl e s
, . 2 Dr a w a s m a ny . .
elements a s d e sir a ble 1 6 or 2 4 t h e H p r oj e ction s t a nge nt to t h e

, ,
-
g o r g e cir cle a n d te r min a ting in t h e b a s e ci r cles 3 Pr oj e ct t h e

V
. .
ter min a ls of t h e elements to t h e — tr a ce s of t h e r es p e ctive b a s e

p l a n es .
N ot e When t h e b a ses e s y mm t i lly pl d th e wi ll b onl y

.
-
ar e r ca a ce , er e on e
circ le p oj ected on H a s i n F i g 1 50
r , . .
2 1 4 To Pa s s a Pl a n e Ta n g ent a t a n y Po i nt on t h e S u rfa ce
. .
Dr a w t h e two e l em e nts t h r oug h t h e giv e n p oint T h ey wi ll d e .
t er min e t h e t a n ge nt pl a ne .
2 08 P R A C TIC AL DE S C RIPT I E V G E OM E T R Y
T a ng ent p l a n es to t hi s s ur f a ce a s to a l l s ur f a ce s of r e volution
, ,
a r e p e r p e ndi cul a r to t h e p l a n e of t h e a xi s a n d t h e p oint of t a n
g e n e y ca ll e d t h e M e r idia n Pla ne
,
.
T h e M e r id i a n S e ction of t h i s s u r f a ce i s a h y p er bol a a n d t h e ,
s a m e su r f a ce ca n be g e n e r a t e d by r e volvi n g a h y p e r bol a a bout
its ver ti ca l a xi s If p r oof of t hi s is d es ir ed it ca n b e found i n

.
,
C h ur ch a n d B a r tl e tt p a g e 1 50
,
.
T h e most im p o r t a nt f u n ction of t h e h y p er boloid i s fou n d

in t h e pit ch sur fa ces of sk e w g ea r s If on e line be s u cce ssively
.
r evolved a bout two a x es not in its pl a n e t h e line will b e

, ,
s imult a n e ousl y a n el e m e nt of bot h h y p e r boloids ; t h a t i s t he ,
t w o h y p er boloids g en er a t e d will b e t a ng e nt T h ese if us e d a s .

,
t h e b a s is of g e a rs fo r m a n id ea l t r a n s m i s s ion m e dium b e t w ee n
,
s h a fts not in t h e s a m e p l a ne .
THE H PEY RB OLIC PAR AB OL OID

215 .T hi s sur fa ce i s g en er a t e d by moving a str a igh t line a lo n g
t wo str a igh t lin es not in t h e s a m e pl a n e kee p ing it a l w a ys pa r
, ,
Hyper b oli c P l
a r a b o oi d , S h ow i ng Doub l e Rul in
g
F IG . 1 52 .
all el to a pl a n e di rector Th e el e m e nt s
. a re a l l p a r a ll el to t hi s
pl a ne but not to ea ch oth er
, .
2 10 P RA C TIC AL D E S C RIPT IV E GE O ME TRY
TH E WAR PE D CO NE
22 1 T hi s sur fa ce oft en found in r edu cing h ood s a n d pipe con
.
,
n ect i on s h a s t h r ee di r e c t r i ce s ; a s follo w s t w o ci r cl e s or elli p s es

, ,
( or on e of e a c h ) in p l a n es not p a r a ll el a n d t h e li n e j oinin g t h e ir ,
ce nt er s ca ll e d t h e a xis
,
.
e/fa H
E l e m e n t s Pa r a l /
Cyhn d r
Co r v i /
in e a r
Dr e C fr i ce s
W a r pe d C on e Co n o i d
‘
F IG . 1 53 — M i no r w a rp e d
. f
s u r a ce s and th ei r m et h od s of ge n e a tion
r .
222 . O th er Wa rped Su —
f ce s B es id es t h e fo r e going t h er e
r a ,
a r e m a ny fo r ms wh i ch h a ve no s p ecifi c n a mes Th e y m a y
, .
h a ve t h r e e s t r a ig h t dir ect r i ce s t h r ee cu r ve d d i r e ct r i ces

,
or ,
c ombin a tio n s of t h e s e wit h pl a n e d i r e cto r s Wh e never t h e y .
a re m et t h ey will p r e s e n t n o diffi culti es to t h e stud e nt w h o i s

, ,
f a mili a r with t h os e d e s cr ib e d .
2 2 3 Th e Development of a Specim e n Wa rpe d S u rfa ce

. .
De v elo p t h e h eli coid s h o w n in Fig 1 54 for a h a lf tur n b e twee n H .

, ,
a n d t h e h eli ca l di r e ct r ix .
1 Dr a w t h e e l em e nts A I B 2 e t c
.
, , .
2 Dr a w di a gon a ls A 2 B 3 et c of t h e qu a d r il a t er a ls
.
, , .
, .
3 M ea su r e t h e t r u e l engt h s of t h e v a r ious elem e nts a n d

.
dia go n a ls Th e const r u ction on t h e left s h ows a simple a rra n ge

.
WAR PE D SUR FA C E S 21 1
m e nt for a ccom p li s h ing t h i s La y off t h e h eig h ts of t h e v a rio u s

.
p oint s a b e t c on a v er ti ca l li n e a n d l a y off t h e l e n g t hs of
,
'
,
’
,
.
, ,
t h e v a r ious H p r oj ection s on a h o r i z ont a l lin e el em e nt s on o n e

-
sid e di a gon a l s on t h e oth er T h e ir t r u e l en gth s w ill b e t h e

, .
h ypot h enus es a 1 o r a 2 e t c
,
’ ’
, .
4 R e ctify t h e v a r iou s a r cs of t h e h elix a n d s p ir a l

. . T h e a r cs
of t h e h eli x a re e qu a l in l engt h to co rr es p onding a r cs of a cir cle
wh o s e r a dius co s 0 ( See t h e gr a p hi ca l solution giv en in Art 2 .
Th e l e ngt h s of t h e S p i r a l a r cs a r e obt a in e d by st e p ping o ff

sm a ll ch o r ds wi t h t h e divide r s .
5 Wit h t h es e m a t er i a ls const r u ct t h e t r i a ngl es in o r d er a s

.
,
-
s h o w n on t h e r igh t .
T h is m et h od wit h suc h modi fi ca tions a s m a y b e n e cess a r y

, ,
is em p loy e d in t h e d evelo p ment of a l l w a r ped s u r f a c es It i s .
l a bor io u s b u t t h er e is no s h o r te r m et h od Th e impor t a nt
,
.
o p er a tion in t h i s a s in a l l p r obl ems r el a ting to sur f a ces is to

, ,
g et t h e elements .
2 24 . E XE R CIS E S
H e l i c oid
He li coid d im e n s i on s : pi t ch of h e lix 1 in 2 i 2 % i
,
.
,
n .
,
n .
,
3 in ; . di a me te of r
he lix ,
1 ih .
, 1 54 i n ,
.
,
1% in . Angl e of el ements w it h xi s a ,
°
90
83 4 . R g i ht ha nd xis A (2 0 1 M ) B (2 3
-
h e i x, l pit h a ,
c
di m etee l em e nt a l a n gl e
a r
( ) D a w t h e p oj ecti o n s of a s m u ch of t h e h eli oid a s po ibl s h o w in g

a r r c ss e,
i t s H t a ce -
r .
( b ) Lo ca t e E ( I M x 2 ) a n d F (2 % 1 y ) on t h e s u f a ce , ,
r .
83 5 H e lic o id i n E
. 83 4 Dra w t h e t a ces of t h e pl ne t a nge nt a t E F
x . . r a or .
83 6 H eli co i d i n E x 83 4
. Lo te t h e points in w h i ch t h e s u f i pi e e d
. . ca r a ce s rc
b y line
Gr a phi c La yo t N o u . 64 .
— Pie r ci ng lin es to us e fo r all t he given f
s u r a ces in
th es e e xe rci s es .
Dim en s ion e d L yo t
a u f or t h e S a me .
( 1 ) A (2 0 1 14 ) B (4 2
— Q —
,
(m C O m @ B + 2 %l
( 3 ) E (3 + 2 56) F ( 3 1 2 5)
( )
4 G ( +
3 2 — 2 ) J (3 l )
(5) M ( 1 1 1 54 ) N ( 4 1 1 15)
2 14 P RA C TIC AL D E SC RIPTIVE G E O M E T RY
844 . y
H per bolo i d ; o r e d g g i m et l m nta l in clina tion
a erD ra w e e e
i
t h e p r oj ect on s of i t s
s u f ce ( 2 4 e l e m e nt s ) a d lo c a te C ( 2 M
r a x) , n
a n d D (3 % y 2 ) on i t s s u rf a ce
, .
84 5 . Hyp erbolo id in E x 844 D a w t h e t a ces of t h p l n e t nge nt t

. . r r e a a a
(C or D) .
84 6 . H yp boloid i E
er n x . 844 . Lo te ca t he points in w hi hc t he f
s u r a ce is
pi c d b y t h lin
er e e e
847 . H yp bolo i d i E
er n x . 844 . D ra w t he p oj ections of
r t he cu r ve cu t by
pla ne
8 48 . y
H p e r bolo id i n E x . 844 . De v e lop t h e f of t h e ts u r a ce r un ca te d port ion
b tw een t h e low er b s e a
e a nd t he s ection m d e b y pl a n e
a
H yper boli c Pa r a boloi d .
G ra p hi L yo t No
c a u . 66 .
— D i r e ct ri ce s for p a ra boloid s .
Dim e n s ion e d L a y ou t for Sa me .
(1) A (I 2 2 ) B ( 4, 0 1) and C (3 , 0 3 ) D ( 4% 2 l )
—3 ) —1 )
.
(2 ) E (4 + 1 and G(l -
1 K (3 —3
(3) M (1 + 2 1 ) N (3 + 2 1) a ndO (2 + 3 —3 ) P( 3 + 1
(4) O ( I% , 0 2 ) P( I% 0) a n d X ( 3 /
1
z 2 , 0) Y ( 3 % , 0 1)
(5) A ( I% , 0 2) B (1% O ( 4, 0, O) D (4
2 , O) and 1%
( 6) E (1% 2 F (4 2 2 ) a n d G (4 2 , O) K ( 2 , 0
( 7) M (1 % 3 1 ) N ( 1 %, 0 1 ) a n d O (4 2 , O) P( 4, 0
( 8) X (1 + 2/
1
z Y (3 + 1 —2 ) a n d A ( 3 % B (5 +
2 1
24 )
Gra ph i c La yo t N o u . 67 —P a . l ne d ire to c rs .
WAR PE D S UR FA C E S 215
H perb oli c Pa r a boloid —

y . Di t i r ec r ces No .
( a ) Dra w t h e p r oj ections of t h e s u rfa ce w it h in t h e l i mit of t h g iv n s e e
d i rect ices w it h o u t u ing a pl n e di ector

r , s a r .
( b ) Dr a w t h e t a s of i t s pl a ne d i ecto r r ce r .
( 0) Lo ca t e t h e p oj e t ions of t h e point s C ( 2 x 13 4 ) a d D (3
r 1 y) c ,
n ,
on t h e s u rf a ce .
H yp er boli c Pa a bolo i d i n E x 849 D w t h e t a c s of a pl n e t

r . . ra r e a an
gent to t h e s u rf a ce a t ( C or D) .
H yp e boli c Pa bolo id i n E x 84 9
r Lo ca te t h e poi nt o points in
ra . . r
w hi ch it i s p i e d b y t h e l in e e rc
H ype boli c Pa a boloi d in E x 849

r D a w t h e p oj e ct i on s of t h e v e
r . . r r cu r
cu t f r om t h e su rf ce b y pl n e a a
H yp e bol ic Pa bolo id i n E x 849

r D v e lop t h e s rf c in lu d d
ra . . e u a e c e
b et ween t h e giv e n d i e t i c s r c r e .
H yp e bol i c Pa a boloid in E
r 852 Dev e lop t h e s rf a ce i n clu d e d
r x. . u
b etw ee n t h e d i ect ix a n d t h e c rv e c t b y t h e giv n pl a n e

r r u u e .
H yper boli c Pa r a b oloid — Di ect i ce s N o Pl a n e Di ecto r . r r r
( ) Dra w e i gh t e lem e nt s of t h e s u f ce
a r a .
( b ) Lo ca te t h e p oj ection s of t h e po i nt s E (2 1 x ) a d F (3 yr ,
n ,
1 M ) on t h e s u rf a ce .
Hyp e boli c P boloid in E x 855 Dr w t h e t es of pl n e t ng nt

r a ra . . a ra c a a a e
to it a t (E o r F ) .
Hyp e bol ic Pa a boloi d i E x 855

r Find t h e point r points in w h i h
r n . . o c
i t i s p ie ce d b y l i e r n
Hype bol ic Pa a boloid in E x 855

r D w t h e p oj e t ions of t h e c u v
r . . ra r c r e
cu t b y t h e pl n e a
Hy p er bol ic Pa r bolo i d i n E x 85 5 De velop t h e s rf e incl d e d

a . . u ac u
b et w een t h e d ire ct i es r c .
H yp erbol ic Pa a boloi d i n E 85 5 De v lop t h e s rf ce i n cl u d e d

r x . . e u a
b e t w een d irect ri x d t h e c ttin g pl n e an u a
M I N O R WAR PE D SURF AC E S
ono i d s Dire ct ices o e a St a igh t Line s giv e n a d eit he a C i cle in
C , r ,
n r ,
a ,
n r r
H of 1 i n 1 55 i
,
2 i n or 2 % in d ia m o r a n E l lip s e in H 1 i n X 1 % i
.
,
n .
,
.
, . .
, ,
. n .
,
1 in X 2 i. o 1 % in X 2 i n n .Pl a n e d i ecto rs fo
,
r o to b e . . r r r
ch o s e n f om ( 3 ) in G a ph ic La y o u t N o 67
r r . .
C ow s H o rn ’
C i r cu l a r Di e t i ce s l i 1 54 i
. 1 % in 1 94 i n 2 i r c r ,
n .
,
n .
,
.
,
.
,
n .
,
2% i 3 in
n . 4 i n d ia m s
, ( An y c omb in a tion m a y b e u s e d ) St a igh t
.
, . .
,
. r
Di ect ix C D li es i H
r r , ,
n .
Warpe d C on e Dia m s A 1 14 i n 1 % i 1 94 in 2 i n 2 % in Dia ms. .

,
.
,
n .
, . .
, . .
B 15 i n 4
,
3 in 1 i .
,
1 34 in a . 3 754
,
n .
,
.
2 16 P RAC TIC AL D E S C RIPT IVE G E O M E T RY
Cy li n d r oi d s ; Di r e c fr i c es are E qua l Sem i fC/rc/

es
CO n 0 i d s ; R ecfi /
i n ea r Di r a c fr /x Gi ven
e in H
Cur v ed Di r ce fr ix ( i f : / , M a m e/
er g
r
Pl a n e Di m e ra n
fl am e i s H,
f or 2, 3 or 4 , Sel ec fed fi
'
om Gr a ph i c La you f 6 7, P/
“ “
a ne 3
Cow ’
s H or n ‘
Ci r cu l a r Di r ecl r /c es
-
l Wa r pe d Co n e
11 0 11 0
1
D IG /" 5, 4
Di a m s, A
5 fr a /g h f
fi l y/é
i l ,a
S g ‘
2 5 3 033 753
"
94 45
Gra ph i c L yo t N o
a u . 68 .
—M i no r w a r pe d f
s u r a ces .
2 18 RA C TIC AL DE SC RIPTIV
P E G E O M E T RY
876.Dev e lop t h e f s u r a ce of t h e a u tomob ile fe nd er s h ow n in F i g 1 55 . .
877 Dev e lop t h e

. s u rf a ce of t h e re d uci n g h ood ( w a pe d c on e ) F ig 1 55 r ,
. .
8 78
. Develop t h e s u f r a ce of E d is on h o n fo r t a lk in g m ch i n e ( c o w s h o r n )
r a
’
,
1 55 .
.d
b
l
1
3
3 23: i
.
S cr e w Co n v e yo r C ) re
.
0
l y
s
‘
Mud Gu a rd ix ( C l i n d r oi d )
C o n i ca l
l
‘
Hor n for l g Ma ch i n e
'
l S prl n g 0 in
Con o i d a l Top Pi ece He i ca
" C ow s Hor n }
. '
F IG . 1 55 .
Wh a t i s t he f
s u r a ce of on c e te fo m B Fig
c r r , . 9 5, Ar t . 12 1 ? Develop
t he f
s u r a ce .
Wh a t i s the f
s u r a ce of con cr e e t fo rm A , H g 9 5, Ar t
. . 12 1 ? Dev elop
t he f
su r a ce .
C H A PT E R V III
DOUBLE C URVE D SURFAC E S AN D SURF AC E S OF

-
RE V O LUTIO N
V
DO UB LE C UR E D S UR FA C E S
-
225 . A doubl e cu r ve d su r fa ce is g ene r a t e d by

-
cur ve follo w in g a
a cu r ve in su ch a w a y a s to g e ne ra t e a s ur f a ce t h a t i s n e it h e r
singl e curve d or w a r ped A doubl e cur ve d su rfa ce cont a ins

-
.
-
no s t ra i gh t li n e s It m a y b e eit h er double convex like a s p h er e

'
or it m a y be c onc a vo—
.
,
or e l l i p soid ,
conv ex like a to r us or like , ,
t h e tu r ned su r f a ce s of numbe r l es s a r ti cl e s .
A s a l l im p or t a nt doubl e cur ved sur fa ces a r e a l s o s u rfa ce s of

-
r e volutio n t h ey will b e con s ide r e d und er t h a t h ea d

, .
U F AC E S
S R O F RE V OLUTIO N
22 6 . A n y lin e re vol v ing a bout ‘
an a xis g en er a t es a s u r f a ce of
r evolution .
S i n g l e C urve d S urfa ce s of R evolution —If t h e g e n er a t r ix i s

-
.
a s t r a i g h t line a n d in t h e pl a n e of t h e a xi s t h e s u r f a ce w ill b e ,
single— cur v e d Th e C yli n d er of R evolution a n d t h e C one of

.
R evolutio n a r e t h e only ex a mpl e s .
Wa rpe d S u rfa ce s of R evolution — Th e only ex a m p l e in t hi s .
cl as s is t h e Hyp e r boloi d of R e volution of O n e N a ppe .
Double C u rve d S urfa ce s of R evolution

-
An y p l a n e cu r v e .
-
r e volvin g a bout a n a xis g e n er a tes t h is s u r f a ce e x ce p t in t h e ca s e ,
of t h e H y per bol a
Sph er e —G e n er a t e d b y a ci r cle r e volvi n g a bout o n e of its
.
di a meter s .
E lli p s o i d s 1 Prola te Sp h e r oi d
. . Gen er a t e d by r evolvin g a n .
-
e lli p s e a bout its m a j o r a xis It s s h a p e resembl e s a foot b a ll

. .
2 Ob l a t e Sph e r oid —G ener a ted by r e vol v ing a n e lli p s e a bout

. .
~
i t s mino r a xis It s s h a p e r e s embl e s a doo r knob

. .
Pa r a boloi d s — Ge n er a t e d b y r evolving a p a r a bol a a bout eit h er

.
a xis . Wh e n r e volve d a bout t h e t r a n s ver s e a xi s it g e n er a t es t h e ,
su r fa ce u s e d in s e a r ch ligh t r e fl ecto r s W h y ? -
.
2 19
2 20 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPTIV E GE O M E T RY
Toru s — Gen er a t e d
by r evolving a ci r cl e a bout a n a xis t h a t is
not a di a m et er usu a lly com p l e tely outs id e t h e ci r cl e In t h is
, .
ca se it i s ca ll e d a rin g or a n nu l a r toru s, A s a m a tt er of f a ct a.
,
tor us is ofte n ge n er a t e d by oth er cu r ves t h a n t h e ci r cle or by a ,
combin a tion of cu r ves Th e a r ch ite ctur a l d et a il is of t hi s

.
ch a r a cter In t h is wo r k t h e wo r d torus wi ll be used to m ea n

.
t h e a nnul a r to r us .
Hype r boloi d of R evolution of Tw o Na ppe s — G e n er a t e d by r e .
volvin g a h y p er bol a a bo u t its t r a nsve r s e a xis It is not oft e n .
e ncount e r e d in d r a fting .
M a ny su r f a ce s gen er a t e d by c ombin a tion cu r ves wi ll be found ,
s om e wit h n a mes a n d some wit h out .
2 2 7 M erid i a n a n d Rig h t S ection s

. .
—E v ery p l a n e per pendi cul a r to t h e

a xis cuts a sur f a ce of r e volution in a
ci r cl e H e n ce w e m a y even c on ceive
.
,
a sur f a ce to b e g e n er a t e d by a cir cle
moving in t h e d i r ection of t h e a xi s ,
a n d c h a nging its di a m e te r a c co r di n g
to some l a w A n y sur f a ce tur n e d in .
a l a t h e is gen er a t e d in t h is w a y ( Se e .
ve r y pl a ne thr ough t h e a xis ca lled

E ,
a M eridi a n Pla n e cuts t h e su r f a ce ,
in a M e r idia n L in e wh ich h a s t h e ,
id enti ca l for m of t h e line used to

g e n er a te t h e sur f a ce .
A ny t w o sur f a ces of r evolution h a v

F m 1 56 , . ing a common a xis w ill inter s e ct i n a
ci rcl e or ci r cles p er p e ndicul a r to t h e ,
a xis . Wh e n t h e a xis is p a r a ll el to t h e pl a n e of p r oj ection th ese

inte r se ctions a pp e a r a s str a i g h t lin es ( See Fig . .
2 2 8 R epre s ent a tion — T w o vie w s of doubl e cur v e d surf a ces of

. .
-
r e volution a r e a l l t h a t a r e neces s a r y a n d usu a lly one is suffi cient
V
, ,
a n d t h a t in outli ne A cent er line on p er p endi c ul a r to GL is

V
.
, ,
a lmost a lw a y s d r a wn a n d t h e m er idi a n s e ction p a r a llel to
V
,
c onstitut e s t h e pr oj e ction Th e H p r oj ection is m er el y t h e

-
.
-
ci r cl e of a di a m e te r e qu a l to t h e l a r gest dimension of t h e g e ne r
a t ri x wit h a s m a ny ot h er ci r cl es
, visible or invisible a s m a y b e
, ,
n ecess a r y to sh ow t h e v a r ious inte rs ections of t h e sur f a ce Fig . .
1 5 7 s h o w s a to r us w h i ch will f a i rly re p r esent a l l suc h surf a c es

,
.
22 2 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPT IV E G E O M E T R Y
23 1 . Problem 82 — To . pa ss a pl a ne ta n g ent to a S ph e r e at a
point surfa ce
on the .
An a l y sis — Pa s s a p l a n e t h r oug h t h e p oint per p endi cul a r to

.
t h e r a diu s .
L et t h e stud e nt m a k e t h e constr u ction .
232 Problem 8 . 3 — To pa s s a pla ne t a n g e n t t o a n y d oub l e

.
c u rve d s urfa ce of revolution a t a g ive n poin t on t h e s u rfa c e .
Let t h e given p oint be 0 on t h e sur fa ce of t h e to r us Fi g 1 5 7

An a ly si s —1 Dr a w a t a ngent to t h e r i gh t section th r ou gh t h e
.
,
. .
p oint .
F IG . 1 58 .
2 . t a ngent to t h e m er idia n se ction a t t h e point

Dr a w a .
3 T h es e two t a n g ents will dete r mine t h e pl a ne

. .
C onstruction 1 Dr a w t h e t a n ge nt OM to t h e cir cle t h r ou g h

V
-
. .
0 a n d lo c a te its
, pi er cin g point M -
.
2 R e volve O to so th a t t h e me r idia n pl a n e will be

V
.
p a r a ll el to .
3 Dr a w t h e t a ng e nt o l n l to t h e me r idi a n cur ve i n r evolved

v v
.
,
p o s ition a n d lo ca te its H p i er cin g point N

,
-
.
4 C ount er r e volve N to its o r igin a l position n n into t h e v n

-
.
,
t r a ce of t h e mer idia n p l a n e t h r oug h 0 .
5 Th e t w o t a n ge nts will now d e te r mine t h e t a ngent pl a n e

“ V
.
,
H T b ei n g p a r a llel to 0 m T bei n g d ra wn t h r oug h m

3 '
and ,
.
S UR F A C E S OF R E VOLU TIO N 223
233 . Problem 84 .
-
To pa s s a pl a n e ta n g ent to a sph e r e th roug h

a given stra i gh t line .
Ana l ysis — R e g a r d t h e s p h er e a s b e ing envelop e d by a c yli n d e r

.
pa ra l lel to t h e g iven l ine a n d p a s s t h e pl a n e t a n g e nt to t h e ,
c ylin d er T h e pl a ne will b e t a n g e nt a l s o to t h e s p h e r e
. .
C onstruction — Le t A B ( Fi g 1 58) be t h e g iv e n line a n d 0 b e

. .
,
t h e c e nte r of t h e s p h er e .
Pa ss a pl a n e Q t h r ough O p e r p endi cul a r to A B

, ,
.
F IG . 1 59 .
2 Fi nd t h e point P i n whi ch A B pier ce s Q

.
, , .
3 R evolv e P a n d 0 a bout t h e H t r a ce of Q into H a t p a n d

.
-
01 , a n d dr a w a cir cle a t 0 1 of t h e s a m e r a di u s a s t h a t of t h e
sp h er e .
4 Dr a w a t a ng e nt f r om p l to t hi s cir cl e
.
5 Fi nd i t s H pi er cing po i nt m ( wh er e it cr os s e s H Q
.
H
.
-
) .
6 Dr a w t h e t r a c e s of T t h e r e qui r e d t a n g e nt p l a n e t h r o u g h
.
, ,
m a n d t h e pi er cing p oints of A B
H
.
N ote 1 —Thi p obl m u ll y h a s t w o ol tion b t i f t h l i n A H

’
. s r e su a s u s, u e e
pi es t h e s ph re t h p obl m i impo s ibl e

er c e , e r e s s .
N ote 2 Th e p oj e tion of t h e cy lind we not d w n

.
-
r c sit i m l y er re ra , as s ere
a n i m g in ay i t n e t o t h a n ly is It i s not ev en n
ar a ss s a c y to im gin e
e a s . e c e ss a r a
2 24 P RA C T IC AL DE SC RIPT IV E GE O M E T R Y
it , as norm a l pla ne Q w i ll h ve to p ss th ou g h t h e center of t h e ph e re
t he , ,
a a r s ,
alt h ou gh it doe s not h a v e to b e pe pendicu l r t o A B Thi s i s conveni ent

r a .
,
h o w ev er a d w o u ld b e n e ess a ry if t h e cy lind er i d e w ere ca ie d ou t

,
n c a rr .
2 3 4 Problem 85 —To obt a i n t h e i ntersection of a pl a n e wi th

. .
an y s u rf a ce of revolution .
An a l y si s —Th e simpl est cu rv e th a t ca n be cut fr om a s u rf a ce

of r e vol u tion i s t h e cir cl e wh i ch is cu t by a pl a n e p er p e ndi cul a r
,
to t h e a xis T h e r efor e a s er i es of pl a n es p er p en di cul a r to t h e

.
will cu t str a igh t lin es fr om t h e pl a ne a n d cir cl e s fr om t h e
F IG . 1 60.
give n s u r fa c e T h e cur ve of inte r s e ction w il l p a ss through t h e

.
v a r iou s int ers ections of t h e str a igh t l in es a n d cir cl es Fig 1 59 . .
s h o w s both pr oj e ctions of t h e li ne of inters ection of t h e pl a ne

T with a tor us .
Th e ve r ti ces ( hi gh a n d low points ) of t h e cur ve m a y be ex a ctly

lo ca te d b y p r oj e ctin g t h e tor us a n d pl a ne on a pl a ne per pe n di cu
l a r to t h e H t r a ce of t h e giv e n pl a ne
-
Th e v e rti ces a lw a ys li e
.
in t h e me r idi a n pl a ne wh i ch is pe r pe ndi cul a r to t h e given pl an e .

226 P RA C T IC AL DE SC R IPT IVE G E OM E T RY
Dim e n s ion e d La y o t for Pi u er c ing Lin es .
( 1 ) A (2 , 0 1 M ) B (4 2
(2 ) C (2 , 0 2 ) D (4 2 36 )
(3) E (3 % 2 F (3 % 1
( 4) G ( 3 M 2 2 ) K ( 3 54 34 1)
( 5) M ( 1 1 1 15) N (4 1 1 36 )
( 6) E ( 1 1 Pf) F (4 1
Gr ph i c L yo t N o
a a u . 71 .
-
Cu tti ng pla n es .
Dim e n s ion e d La y ou t for C u tt ing Pl n a es .
(1 ) S(I 1) (5 2) (1 (5 3)
(2 ) T( to V
(3 ) P( 3 % 3) 3)
( 4) Q( 1 3) 3)
(5) R (5 2)
( 6) W( 3)
( 7) X( 3)
( 8) Y (2 + 3 )
88 1 . Sph er e A Dr a w i t s p oj ection s
r ,
a nd lo ca t e
~
C (2 }4 + 1 ,
x ) on (f ont or r a d D (3 } 4 y r ea r ) s u r f a ce
(u pper ,
n ,
1 ) on
or lo w e ) s u f a ce
r r .
882 . Sp h e e i n E x 88 1
r Find t h e point s i n w hi ch it i s pi erce d b y l in e
. .
883 . Sph e e i n E x 88 1
r D a w t h e p oj ect ion s a n d t ru e s i e of t h e s e ct i on
. . r r z
ma d e b y pl ne a
884 . Sph e e in E x 88 1
r D a w t h e t a ces of t h e pl a n e ta ngent a t
. . r r
(C or D) .
885 . Sph er e in E x . 881 . D ra w t he t r a ces of a t nge nt pla ne w hi ch cont in s

a a
t he lin e X (3 + 3 Y (5 1
886 S h ere
. p in E x . 88 1 . Dra w t h e t ra ces of a ta ngent pl n e w h i ch cont a in s
a
t h e li n e M ( 4 + 2 1 ) N (5 1
887 S h e re
. p in
E x 88 1 . . D v lop t h
e e f b y t h e Zon e M et h od
e s u r a ce .
888 . Sph ere in E x . 88 1 . Dev e lop t h e s u rfa ce b y t h e M eri d ia n M et h od .

S UR FA C E S OF RE V OLU TIO N 227
8 89 . Pr ola te o d; A
S ph er i B D r w i t s p roj ection s a d loc t e a , n a
x 1 ) on t h e (u pp er or lo w e ) s u fa ce a d D (3 M 1 y) r r ,
n ,
on t h e (fr ont o r r ea r ) s u rfa ce .
890 . Sph e r o i d i n E x 888 Find t h e points in w h ich it i s pie ced b y lin e

. . r
Sph er o id in E x. 888 . Dr a w t h e p oj ection

r and t ru e s ize of t h e cu r ve
cu tb y pla ne
Sph e r oi d in E x . 888 . Dr a w t h e t r a ce s of t he t a ngent pl a n e at
(C or D) .
Sph er o id i n E x . 888 Dev elop t h e s u r fa ce b y t h e Zon e M et h od

. .
Sph er o i d in E x . 888 Dev elop t h e s u rfa ce b y t h e M eri d ia n M eth od

. .
Sp h er o id i n E x . 888 Dra w t h e t ra ces of a t a nge nt pl a n e w h ich con

.
t a i n s M (3 3 1 M ) O (4 + 1
Sph e oid i n
r E x . 888 . D ra w t he t r a ces of t h e t ngent pl n e w h i
a a ch co n
t a ins X (4 + 2 1 ) Y (5 + 1
b te Sph er oid ; A
O la B D a w i t s p oj ect ion s a d lo c t e
r r ,
n a
C (2 x , 1 ) on t h e (u pp e o low e ) s u rfa ce a d D (3 M
r r M y)
r ,
n ,
on t h e (fr ont o r r ea r ) s u rf a ce .
Sph er o id in E x 897 . . Dr a w t h e t c s of t h e pl n e t n ge nt a t
ra e a a
(C or D) .
Sph er o i d in E x . 89 7 . Lo t ca e t he point s i n w hich it is pi e r ce d by t he

lin e
Sph er o i d i n E x 89 7 D a w t h e p oj ct i ons a d t ru e s i e of t h e u v e
. . r r e n z c r
cu t b y t h e pl a e n
Sph er o i d i n E x 89 7 Dev elop i t s s u rfa ce b y t h e Zon e M e th od

. . .
Sph er o id i n E x 89 7 Dev elop i t s s u rfa ce b y t h e M e idia n M et h od

. . r .
T oru s ; A C Dra w i t s p r oj ecti on s a d lo ca t e C (2 x 1) ,

n ,
on t h e (u pp er or lo w er ) a d D (3 }4 M y ) on t h e ( fr ont o n ,
r
r ea r ) s u rf a ce .
T o ru s in E x 904 D w t h e t ces of t h e pl a n e t ng nt a t
. . ra ra a e
(C D)or .
T o s in
ru E x . 90 4 . Lo c ta e t he po i nt s i n w hi ch it is pi e r ce d by t he
T o ru s i n E x. 904 . Dr a w t h e p oj e ction s
r a nd t ru e s z e i of t he cu r ve
cu t by t he pla ne
To m s in E x . f gm ent of t h e s u rf a ce
904 . Dev elop t h e
(b e low ra
or a bov e ) t h e cu tt in g pl a n e (b y Zon e M et h od ) .
T o ru s i n E x 904 Dev elop t h e f a gm ent of t h e s u rfa ce

. .
(b e lo w r
or a bov e ) t h e cu tt in g pl a n e (b y M e id ia n M eth od ) r .
O vo i d ; B C D a w t h e p oj ect ion s of t h e s u rf a ce a d lo ca t e r r ,
n
C (2 1 x ) on t h e
, (fr ont or rea r ) a n d D (3 M y 1 ) on t h e ,
(u pp e r or low er ) s u rf a ce .
Ovo id i n E x 9 1 0 D a w t h e t a c s of t h e pl a n e t nge nt t
. . r r e a a
(C or D) .
O void in E x . 9 10 . D ra w t he t r a ce s of a t a ngent pl n e w hi h c ont in s a c a
P (3 3 1 54 ) X ( 5, o
O void i n E x . 911 . Dra w t h e t ra ce s of a t ngent pl n e w h i h ont i n s
a a c c a
Y(3 Z ( 5, 0 1M) .
228 RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPTIVE GE O M E T RY
P
914 . O void in E x . 911 . Lo te

ca t he poi nt s In w hi h c t he f
s u r a ce is pier ced
b y t h e l in e
9 15 . Ovoi d i n E x 9 1 1 . D a w t h e p oj ction s a d t e s i e of t h e
. r r e rv e n ru z cu
cu t b y t h e pl a n e
9 16 . Ovo i d i n E x 9 1 1 . Dev e lop t h e f gm ent of i t s s u rf a ce

.
(a bov e
ra
o r b e low ) t h e c tt i n g pl n e
u by ( Zone or M eri d i a n ) M et h od
a .
9 17
. Fi nd t h e pl ne t ngent to th ee s ph e es a l l r es ting on H w h o s e r e
a a r r , ,
s pect i e ce nt e s a e A ( 2
v r 1 r B (3 }4 1 M ) a d C ( 3 }4 ,
n
34 )
918. Deve lop t h ef of t h e o na me nta l s h eet m eta l
s u r a ce r f
s u r a ce of rev ol u
tion s h ow n in Fig 1 61 An y conv e nient s le ca
N ot e —On e s t ri p o m e id i n w ill b e s u ffi ci nt
. . .
,
.
,
r r a ,
e .
F IG . 1 61 .
230 RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IVE G E OM E T R Y
P
f r om a cone by p a s s ing a pl a ne t h r ough t h e a p ex a n d fr om a cy l ,
ind er by p a s s ing a pl a ne p a r a ll el to t h e a xis In t h e c a s e of a .
cone inte r s e ctin g a c ylind er t h en a n a tur a l p r o ce dur e wo u ld

, ,
be to p a ss a s er ie s of pl a n e s t hr o u gh t h e a p ex of t h e con e a n d
p a r a ll e l to t h e a xi s of t h e cyli nd er T h is is one ex a mple T h e
. .
a ccomp a n ying t a bl e m a y be of u s e in d eciding w h a t so r t of pl a ne
to u s e in t h e v a rious co n tinge n ci es th a t a r i s e .
F IG .
—S h owin g s tr a igh t li n es cu t f r om int rs ecti n g con e d cy li n d
1 62 . e an er
b y p as s ing a pla n e t hr o gh t h e c on e a pex p a llel to t h e y li nd er a xi s

u ra c .
S u rfa ce I n ter s ect i o n K i nd f Pl a ne

o
C on e St ra i h t g lin e Th r ou gh t h e pe x a .
C on e C i r cl e Pa ll e l to ci cu l r b a se
ra r a .
C y lind er St ra h t ig lin e Pa a ll e l to t h e a xis

r .
C y li nd er i
C r cl e Pa ra llel to a ci cul a b a s e r r .
C onvol te u St r a i h t g lin e Ta nge nt to h e li ca l cy lind e r .
C onvol u te Involu te Perpe ndi cul a to t h e a xis

r .
H e lic oi d St i gh t li n e
ra Th r ou gh t h e a xi s .
Wa rpe d s rfa ce u St a igh t li n e

r Acco din g to i t s gene a tion
r r .
Su rf a ce of revolu tion C i cl er Pe rp end i cu l a r to t h e a xi s .
Su rf a ce of r evol tion u M e idi a n cu rv e

r Th r o u gh t h e a xi s .
It m a y be not e d t h a t pl a nes cu ttin g st r a igh t li n es fr om w a r p ed

'
sur fa ce s a re s eldom e a sy to u s e b eca u s e of t h e v a ri ety of t h eir

dir e ctions T h er e a r e ca s es of sur f a ces h a ving a pl a ne dir e cto r
.
wh er e it is conveni ent to g et s tr a igh t li ne i nters e ction s .
Fr e qu e ntl y it is not po s s ibl e to use t h e pl a n es in t h e for e go

ing list for b oth of t h e i n t ers e ctin g s u r f a ces b u t it is a l w a y s ,
pos sible to u s e th em for one In s u ch ca s es t h e s ec ond sur f a ce

.
m a y be cut in som e w h a t complic a t e d c u r v es It i s su ch ca s es .
a s t h ese t h a t m a ke it im pos s ibl e to l a y do w n r ul e s for a l l c a s e s .

I N T E R SE C T IO N S AND DE V E LOPM E N TS OF ALL S UR F A C E S 23 1
Th e d r a ftsm a n must u s e h i s j udgm ent and insti n ct for t he r igh t

a uxili a r y s ur f a ces .
C O N C E N TR I C S PH E R E S M E TH O D
240 . W h en
two sur f a c e s of r evolution h a ve int er secting a xes
t h e e a si e st met h od of obt a ining t h ei r int er s e ction is to use con
centr ic Sph ere s B y employing a sp h er e a s a n a uxili a r y surf a ce
.
, ,
wit h its center a t t h e int er s ection of t h e a x e s cir cles a re cut fr om ,
t h e two su r f a ces bec a us e t h e inte r s e ctions of two su r f a ces of

,
r evolution h a vin g a c ommon a xi s wi ll be ci r cl e s A t y pic a l con .
str u ction will be Sh own in Pr obl em 89 .
F IG . 1 63 .
R L
P OB E M S IN I NTE R SE C TIO N S
A few r e p r es e nt a tiv e p r obl em s of t h e m a ny t h a t mig h t b e giv e n
a re s ele ct e d for illust r a tion .
24 1 Problem 86 — To find t h e in tersection between t wo cone s

. . .
E ven in so s p ecifi c a p r obl em a s t h is t h e p o s ition a n d ch a r a cte r

,
of t h e t w o con es h a ve mu ch to do wit h t h e ch oi ce of a uxili a r y

p l a n e s to be u s ed We giv e two r e p r es e nt a tive ca s es a n d both
.
,
c ould b e succ es sfully w o r k e d b y usin g a not h e r sy s t e m of a ux i li a ry

pl a n es .
232 P RA C TIC AL DE SC R IPT IVE G E O M E T RY
F ir s t C a s e.
—Wh en t h e cone s a r e obli qu e a n d th e ir b a s e s a r e
circl e s i n t h e s am e pl a n e .
An a l y s i s —Pa ss a s er i es of pl a n e s p a r a llel to t h e b a s es inter

.
,
s e ct i n g t h e cones in ci rcl e s Study Fi g 1 63 for t h e solution a n d

. .
c onst r u ction . L et t h e student a lso wor k t h is by p a ssin g pl a n es

t h r oug h t h e a pi ce s of t h e con es Th e a dv a nt a g e of t h e l a tter
.
m et h od is t h a t it give s d e finitely t h e outside elem ents of t h e

cones t h a t a r e involved in t h e inte r section .
F IG . 1 64 .
242 . S eco n d C a s e —Wh e n th e cone s ar e r i gh t circul a r , an d
th eir b a se s a r e i n d iffer en t pla ne s .
An a l ys i s — l Pa ss a se r ies of pl a n es t h r ough t h e a p i ce s of t h e
.
con es cuttin g ele ments fr om e a ch

,
.
2 C onnect t h e inter s e ctions of t h e elem e nts in o r d er

. .
C o n s truct i o n — To fi n d t h e int er s e ction b e twee n t h e t w o r ig h t

.
c ir c ul a r c one s W h o s e a p i ces a r e A a n d B a n d wh ose b a s es a r e

, ,
in P a n d H r e s p e ctivel y ( Fi g .
23 4 RA C TIC AL D E SC RIPT IV E
P GE O ME TRY
3 .T h r ough M N O a n d P dr a w elements p a r al l el to t h e
, , ,
res p e ctive a x e s .
4 T h es e four el em e nts li e in t h e s a m e p l a n e a n d will i nterse ct

.
,
ea ch ot h e r in four point s on t h e c u r ve L o ca te th ese p oints

5 Dr a w a s er ies of tr a c es p ar a ll el to H Q
. .
. a n d r e p e a t O p e r a tion s ,
(4) wit h ea ch .
6 Dr a w a smoot h cur ve t h r ou gh a l l of t h e point s t a ki ng t h em

.
,
in o r der .
N ot e . —Do not di vid e e ith e ci cle into r r a ny nu mb er of e qu a l a r cs . Le t

t h e pl a n es d ete rmi n e t h e e le m ent s .
F IG . 1 65 .
244 . Problem 88 .
—To fin d t h e intersection of a co n e an d
c yli nder .
Th e following m e t h ods of p a s s ing pl a n e s m a y be em p loyed

1 T h r oug h t h e a p ex of t h e cone p a r a llel to t h e a xis of t h e
.
,
c ylind e r .
2 Pa r a llel to t h e b a s es in a n y pl a n e ( T hi s m et h od is ve r y
V
. .
c onvenient i f both sur f a ces h a ve ci r c ul a r b a ses in H or P ) , ,

.
3 Pa r al l el to t h e elements of t h e cylinde r a n d pe r pendi cul a r

.
to t h e a xis of t h e cone if it be a r i gh t cir cul a r cone if t h e condi

, ,
tions a r e ri gh t .
I N T E RS E C T IO N S AND DE V
E LO PM E N T S O F ALL S UR F A C E S 23 5
C oncentric S p h e r e M eth od — If bot h a r e sur f a ce s of r e volution

.
wit h a x es int er s ectin g t h e p r o cess in Pr obl e m 89 is usu a ll y t h e

,
b es t .
Au xi l i a r y Pl a n e M eth od — T h er e a r e cer t a in conditions wh e n

.
t h e e a siest a n d n e a test solution i s m a d e b y p r oj e ctin g bot h s u r
F IG . 1 66 .
f a ces on a pl a n e p er p endi cul a r to t h e a xi s of t h e c y lind er Th e .
s p ecim en s olution give n h e r e is for su ch a condition .
C on s truction — See Fig 1 66

.
~
. .
1 Pr oj e ct t h e c one a n d c ylind er on Q p e r p e ndi cul a r to t h e

.
,
a xis of t h e c ylind er .
2 T h e v a r ious el e m e nts 1 2 e t c of t h e co n e will int e r s e c t t h e

‘
. .
, , , ,
ci r cle in th ei r pie r ci n g point s wit h t h e s ur fa ce of t h e c ylind e r .

23 6 RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPT IVE
P ~
GE O M E T RY
3 . Pr oj e ct t h es e p oint s b a ck to t h e H and Vp oj
-
r ection s of t h e
l m ents a n d d r a w t h e cur ve t h r ough t h em
e e , .
N ot —D w l m nts of t h e con onl y

e. ra e e e e .
Hi n t — To a void co n f u s io n n u mb er yo u r p oints a n d e l em e nt s
, ,
b e ca u s e t h e following out of t h e co r r e ct o r d er of t h es e points i s

often ver y diffi cult .
2 4 5 Problem 89 — To fi n d t h e int er section of a n y t w o s u rfa c e s

. .
of revolution wh ose a xes intersect .
F IG . 1 67 .
An a ly si s — 1 A t t h e i n t er s e ction of t h e a x es
. a cente r d r a w
t h e p r oj e ctions of a numb er of c on ce nt ri c s p h er es .
2 T h e s e s p h er es will cu t ci r cl es fr om t h e two su r fa ces

. .
3 Th e i n te r s e ction s of t h e p r op er ci r cl es will y i eld points on

.
t he re quir e d int er s e ction .

23 8 P RA C T IC AL DE S C R IPT IV E G E OM E T R Y
n e ly a l l s u ch p oblem s e gi v en i n t h i s pos ition
ar r ar
,
a nd t he di ffi lt po it i ons
cu s
w ill h a rdl y ev e b e e n co u nt e d r er .
2 46 . E XE R C ISE S
Di r ecti on s .
—In m a king up t he d ta a for t h e e xe cis r es f omr t he follow ing
l y o ts
a u .
1 . S t a te w h t a ea c h s u r a ce f is to b e, w h e t he r c on e, s p h ere, p i m to
r s ,
ru s ,
e t c.
2 . Giv of t h e comb i na tions of a xes

e on e .
3 . Giv e t h e b s e o gen era to r of e ch s u rf

a e ( G p hic La y o t N o
r a ac . ra u .
4 . Sta te w h e th er t h e b a s e i s ob l i qu e o pe p ndi c l to t h e a xis if r r e u ar ,
ne c es s a r y .
5 . Giv e t he a lt i tu d e if n ,
e ces s a r y ,
2 in .
,
2M in .
,
3 in .
G ra p h i c L yo t N o a u . 73 —. Ax es fo r int ers e c ting s olid s .

(M a y b e lo ca t ed
in I or I II .
)
Da ta m e n E x er ci s e
S pe ci
W
Surfa ce A Bfl A Pr ol a te Sph e oid B Obliqu e
i
1 Ge n e
fi
.
,
.
-
r ,
-
.
2 Ax es No 3
—Z
. . . .
3 .B a s e or Gen era to r J No 10 No 2
4 Obl i q u e o r Pe eii d i c la r —
. .
, . .
L r u Pe p end icu l
r B e in H
p ar as
2—
.
5 Al tit u d e — —
, . .
.
L L
,
’Dra w t h e l in e of i nte rs ct i on b e t w ee n s olid s A

-
d B e an as s pe i fie d
c in
,
t h e d a ta .
9 2 0 De v e lop t h e s u rfa ce of s oli d A a s giv e n in E x 9 1 9

.
, . .
9 2 1 Dev e lop t h e s u rf ce o f s olid B a s g iv e n i n E x 9 1 9

. a , . .
I N TE RSE C TIO N S AND DE V
E L OPM E N T S O F ALL S UR FA C E S 23 9
P RA C TIC AL VARIOU S S URF A CE S

E XE R CISE S IN
9 22 .
D ra w t h e li n of int se tion b tw ee n t h 3 i
e er c ph nt e e -
n . s e re , ce er a t
O (3 1M 2) d l M ian i l y lind a xi A ( I 1 M
a -
n . c r cu a r c er , s 2)
B (4 U2
L oa d in
g S k i p for M ix e r l
Cy i n d r o d a l Hoo d
i
C of fee R e ce iv e r
F a n Tr a n s i tio n P ece
i
C on cr e te o H ppe r Ga S O l i n e M e a s ur e
F IG . 1 68 .
—E x er ci s es i n v a r i ou s f
s u r a ces .
2 40 PRA C T IC AL D E S C R IPT I V E G E O M E T RY
9 23 . La y ou t t h e p tte n s
a r fo r t he L ding Ski p f
oa or Mix er, No . Fi g .
1 68 .
o
'
Concr et e M i xer H pper

'
id a l Q
orne '
Su g a r Sc oop .
Oct a g o na l T ie Rod .
F IG . 1 69 —Pr a ctica l ex ercis es .
t h e p a t t e n s fo r t h e C yl i nd r o id a l H ood N o Fig 1 68
9 2 4 La y o ut
.
r . .
.
,
9 2 5 La y. ou t t he p a tt e r n s fo r t h e R ece iv e r for C o f
f ee G ind er r ,
Fig . 1 68 .
242 P RA C TIC AL D E SC R IPT IV E G E O M E T RY
9 30 . D velop t h e
e f
s u r a ce of t h e E ll i ps oida l D om e Fig , . 1 69 . Le t A
a nd B
93 1 La y ou t t h e
. pa t t e ns of t h e Su ga Scoop Fig 1 69
r r , . .
9 3 2 Dr a w t h e
. inte rs ection of s u rf ces i n t he C onn ecting R od E d
a n ,
F ig . 1 69 .
933 . D w
ra t h e lin e of i nt ers e cti on of t h e s u rf a ces i n t h e O ct gon a l a Ti e R od ,
Fig 1 69
. .
9 3 4 La y
. ou t t he p a tter ns fo r t h e Tw o w a y -
Boil er B r ee c hing Fig , . 1 70 .
Su pply t he n ecess a y d im en s ion s

r .
9 35 La y
. ou t t h e p a tt er ns for t h e Smok e C onn ecto r fo r N o Boilers Fig ,
.
1 70 .
9 36 La y
. ou t pa tter ns for t h e Oblon g Ou tl et Fig 1 70
the , . .
93 7 La y
. ou t t h e p a tt er n s fo t h e K e w a u n e e F l ue At t a ch m en t
r Fig 1 70 ,
. .
93 8 . La y ou t t h e p a t t e n s fo t h e B eech in g for Kew a u n e e Bo i l ers F i g 1 70

r r r , . .
9 39 . La y ou t t h e p a tte ns for t h e Tu do r Bo il er B ee ch ing F i g 1 70

r rSu ppl y , . .
t h e n ecess a ry d im e n s i on s .
9 40 . L y ou t t h e pa tt e ns for t h e Ov l T h ee w a y B eech ing Fig 1 70

a r a r -
r ,
. .
Su ppl y t h e n e cess a ry d im en i on s s .
941 . La y ou t t h e p a tterns for t h e Am es Boil er Sta ck C o n n ection Fig 1 70 , . .

C H A PT E R X
PIC T O RIAL PR OJE C TIO N

PE R S PE C T IVE
247 On e of t h e most im p o r t a nt a n d int er estin g a pp li ca tions

.
of Descri ptive Geometry is t h e a r t of Per s p ective , or, a s it is

sometimes ca ll e d , C onic a l Pro j ectio n As wa s pointed out in t h e .
be ginnin g of t h e wo r k Pe rs p ective Proj e ction di ff er s fr om

,
Ort h o g r a p hi c in t h a t it r e p r esents t h e obj e ct b y a n im a g e w hi ch

is pr a ctic al ly identic al wit h t h a t fo r med on t he r etin a of t h e eye
of t h e obse r ve r Th e titl e C oni ca l Pr oj e ction is a cor r ect on e
.
, , ,
sin ce t h e pictur e is m a de b y t h e pr oj ection of r a ys t h a t conve r ge

in a point .
Num er ous m et h ods a r e giv e n by v a r io u s w r ite r s of text books -
a n d edu ca tors m a ke us e of a l l of t h em Th e met h od p r esent e d .
h ere is o ff er e d for two r ea s ons : ( 1 ) its ext r eme simpli city a n d

,
r e a son a bl e n e ss ; a n d ( 2 ) b eca use it is a p u re a pp lic a tion of Des cr i p
tive Geom et r y a n d bein g su ch it ca n be given to t h e student

, , ,
°
al r e a d y grounded in t h e fu n d a m en t a l s wi t h ou t muc h det a il e d
illustr a tion a n d complic a ted di r e ctions .
Ob s e r ver
Pi c t u r e Pl a ne
F IG . 1 71 .
—H ow t he picto ria l im a ge i s m a de .
248 CO N IC AL PR O JE C TIO N
If a pla ne led t h e Pictur e Pl a n e b e so p l a c e d a s to inte r sect
,
cal ,
t h e r a ys c omin g fr om a n obj e ct to t h e ey e t h e pie r ci n g points of ,
2 43
244 P RA C T IC AL D E SC RIPTIV E G E O M E T RY
t he s will yield a per fe ct visua l im a g e of t h e obj ect T h is is
ray .
t h e ex a ct p r o ces s of t h e c a m er a so t h a t a p h otog r a p h is a n a p ,
p r oxim a t ely p er fe ct p ers p e ctive .
249 Th e C onstruction Of a Pe r spective from a W o r ki n g

.
Dra wi n g .
In Fi g 1 72 a set Of st e p s is s h own in t h i r d a ngl e p r oj e ction

.
,
som e w h a t below t h e h o r izon .
N ot —Th e h o i on s h o ld not b onf d w i th GL a s it h not t h

e. r z u e c u se
-
, as e
sa m e f u n ction .
Th e p oint of vi e w p er s p ective m a y b e t a k e n fr om a n y
for t h e
conv e ni e nt position but it is custom a ry to V
,
“
i e w t h e Obj ect fr om
Hor i z on
F IG . 1 72 .
—Obj ct i n o th og a ph ic p oj ecti on
e r r r .
ngl e so a s to Sh ow t w o sid es T hi s t a k es a w a y t h e u n com

a , .
p r omisin g a pp e a r a n ce of t h e fr ont el e v a tion a s it a pp e a rs in t h e ,
wo r king d ra w in gs a n d Off er s O pp o r tu nity to t h e d r a ftsm a n of

,
t a king t h e mo s t inte r esti n g vi e w In m a king inter io r vi e w s of .
buildings a n d in st a ge s ce n er y et c t h e point of sigh t is often

, ,
.
,
t a ken di re ctl y in fr o n t of t h e s cene .
To d r a w t h e pi ctur e of t h e s te p s pl a ce t h e pl a n a n d el e v a tion ,
( or S id e vi e w if p r eferr ed ) in a conveni ent position on t h e d r a w ing

, ,
wit h t h e h o r i z on a t its p r o p er el ev a tion ; s ee Fig 1 73 L o ca te . .
t h e point of si g h t S s a t a s u it a ble p o s ition w h er e bot h fr ont

H v
, , , ,
a n d sid e a r e ni cely vi s ibl e N ot e t h a t s is a lwa y s on t h e h oriz on v

. .
Th e p i ctu r e pl a ne H P is p l a ce d so a s to give t h e d esi r e d s ca l e

, , ,
a n d s h ould b e a bout p er p e ndi cul a r to t h e ce nt r a l lin e of sig h t .
T h e s ca l e is dete r min e d by t he r a tio of t h e dist a nces of t h e obj e ct

2 46 P RA C TIC AL D E S C RIPTIV E GE O M E T RY
F IG . 1 74 .
—Pe r s pe ctiv e of an obj ect , s h ow ing its sha de and
Pr oj e ct io n s of a Bu n g a l ow
F IG . 1 75 .
PIC TO RIAL PROJ E C TIO N PE RS PE C TIV E 24 7
As an illust r a tion of t h e a pplic a tion to mo r e com p lic a ted o h

j e ct s , a bun ga low is s h own in 1 76 d r a wn in p er sp e ctive by
,
coni ca l p r oj e ction fr om t h e wo r kin g d r a win g a s gi ve n in Fi g . 1 75 .
In Fi g 1 76 onl y a few const r uction lines a re s h own

. .
24 8 RA C T IC AL D E S C R IPTIV E
P GE O ME T R Y
251 .
Dr a w t he pers pective of t h e foll o w in g obj ects to t h e s l e d es ignated b y ca
on e h a l f t h r ee—
,
t h e i ns t r u cto r, q u a rte s fu ll o r dou ble t h e s le of t h e w o k

-
,
r , ,
ca r
ing d a wi ngs M a ke t h e w o rkin g d ra w ings a s l a ge t h e s pa ce w ill a llo w

r . r as
Co re Bo x
Be a i
r n
g B ox »
Gra ph i c L yo t N o a u . 74 .
to giv e plent y of r oom for t h e p ers pective a nd its c ons t ru c tion . l

P a ce
a l l s m a ll ob j ec ts b elow t h e h o i on
. r z .
942 1 34 i n cu b
.
-
. Sc a l e
e .
Gr ph i c L yo t N o 75
a a u . .
9 43 . F ru s t u m Of a s qu a e py m id low e b e 1 M i u ppe b a e
r ra , r as n ,. r s
a lti t u d e (b a s e t o b a s e ) 1 in Sc a l e
'
9 44 . W ood en box 2 0 in long 1 2 in wid e 6 in d e p w a lls 1 in t hick w it h

.
, .
, . e ,
.
,
ou t top Scal e
.
9 45 . Pl a ce a l M i n eq u i la te ra l t ia n g u l a p i m 1 M i n lo g on a l i n
-
. r r r s . n ,
-
.
2 50 RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IVE
P GE O M E T RY
p r oj ection run in t h re e directions a t equ a l a ngl es T h us in ,
Is om etr ic t h e 9 0 a n gl e s of t h e t hr ee s y st e ms of p a r a llels of t h e
°
,
cube ( c a lled t h e i s om etr ic a xe s ) r a dia te a t 1 2 0 fr om ea c h ot h e r °

.
F IG . 1 77.
ISO M E TRI C DRAWING
2 53 Is ometric Dra wi n g di ffers fr om isom etric p r oj e ction onl y

“
.
in t h a t t h e l a tter woul d r equire al l isometric lines to be d r a wn ”
81
to a r educed
(7 0)
1
sc a le . Since most wor ki n g dra win g s a r e t h e m
selves dra wn to a reduced sc a le a n d t h e isometr i c is c h i e fl y
,
for picto ri a l pu r poses t h is distin ction is of no import a n ce a n d

, ,
t h e isomet ric lines m a y be d r a wn t h e full l e ngt h of t h e wo r kin g

d r a w in g .
IS O M E TR IC AXE S
La y off A O, B 0 , s h own in Fi g 1 78 r a di a ting a t

and C O, as .
,
A O a n d C O bein g dr a wn a t 3 0 f r om t h e h o r izont a l T h ese

°
.
t h re e lines r epr esent t hree of t h e a dj a cent e dges of t h e cube B O ,
a vertic a l a n d A O a n d C O h o r izont a l lines a t r ig h t a ngl e s to
e a c h ot h er In isometri c a l l obj ects a r e d ra wn so t h a t t he

.
r e ct a n g ul a r lines run in t h e s e di r e ctions Ot h e r lin es ( non .
isom et ri c) a r e l a id off by j oinin g points on t h e i s ometri c lines or ,
by e r ectin g or din a te s fr om known points .

PIC TO R IAL PROJ E C TIO N PE RS PE C T IV E 25 1
254 . Is om e tr i c d r a wi n g
cu b e of a
C on s t ru cti on —
.
Given t h e cube in Fig 1 79

. . .
1 La y off t h e isomet r i c a xes a s in Fig 1 78

.
,
. .
F IG . 1 78 .
— Is om e tr i c a xe s .
2 . M a ke
e a c h edge A O B 0 C 0 e qu a l to t h e t r ue l e ngth of
, , , ,
t h e cube ed g es .
3 C omplete t h e t h ree p a r a ll e log r a ms on t h ese ed ge s

. .
Is om et ri c Dr a w i n g
f
o t he s a m e Cub e .
Ort hog ra phi c Proj ect i on ofa Cub e .
F IG . 1 79 . F IG . 1 80 .
25 5 . To l oca t e a poi n t i s o m e tric a ll y .
R efe r to Fi g s Let M
insid e t h e cub e b e t h e
1 79 a n d 1 80
“
. .
, ,
r e qui r ed p oint g iven by its p r oj e ctions m

"
, In ,
.
1 Dr a w isometric o r din a tes a s follows : ( a ) a p e r p e ndi c ul a r

.
,
M N to t h e f a ce A OB D ; ( b ) a pe r p e ndi cul a r N P to t h e e dg e DB .
252 P RA C TIC AL DE S C R IPT I E GE O ME V TRY
2 . t h es e o r din a tes in t h eir t r ue le ngt h on t h e pr o p e r

La y Off
i s ome tr i c lin es in Fig 1 80 t h us loc a tin g M in its p r o pe r pl a ce

.
,
w it h in t h e cu b e .
2 55 To dra w a n ex a ct circle
. .
C o n s truction — Re fer to Figs 1 8 1 a nd 1 8 1 a

. On t h e l e ft f a ce .
_
.
of t h e cub e ( F i g 1 8 1 ) is ins cr ib e d a ci r cle w it h s qu a r es in e a ch

.
,
c o r n e r tou ch i n g t h e ci r cl e a t E G H and K , , ,
.
1 Dr a w e a c h of t h e se squa re s in isomet r i c Fig 1 8 1 a

.
,
.
2 Dr a w a n e llips e in t h e f a ce of t h e cube Fig 1 8 1 a touch ing

.
,
.
,
G H a n d K a n d t h e ce nte r point of ea ch of t h e fou r ed g es

’ ’ ’ ’
E , , , ,
.
F IG . 1 81 . F IG . 1 81 a .
2 56 To d r a w a n a pproxi m a t e c i rcle
. .
C onstruction — R efe r to Fi g 1 81 a . . .
1 C onn e ct S a n d T wit h t h e middle points of t h e O pposit e

’ ’
.
e dg e s .
2 U sing T U a s a r a dius d r a w a r c s fr om T a n d S a s c e nt e r s
’ ’ ’ ’
.
, ,
f r om middle point to middle point

3 U sing Q a n d R a s ce nt er s a n d Q
.
U a s ra dius compl e t e
’ ’ ’ ’
.
, ,
t h e ov a l .
N ot —Thi s s ys t m of d wing t h e i l e is om et ic ll y i s lmo t x clu

e . e ra c rc r a a s e
i l y mplo y d i n omm e i l d ftin g i n e i t ca b e don e w it h t h

s ve e e c m rc a ra , s c n e co
p d i s l n u t in pp a n e
a s s es a n c ea c a e ra c .
25 7 . To d ra w li ne s ma ki n g any de s ire d an g l e with any g iven
C onstr uction .
— R e qui r e d to d r a w lin e s at and 75
°
to
LM ,
Fig . 1 81 .
1 . Dr a w L N , LO , and LP in Fig . 1 81 at t h e ir tr ue a ng l es to
LM .
2 Fr om M ( Fig 1 81 a )
.
’
. lay off t he or d ina tes M N
’ ’
an d M 0
’ ’
e qu a l to M N a n d M O .
2 54 P RA C TIC AL DE SC R IPT I E V G E OM E T R Y
bec a use one fa ce is t h e s a m e a s ot h og r a phi c p r oj ection would
m a ke it .
Ca bin et Pro j ectio n — To fur t h e r r edu ce t h e di sto r tion t h e ,
r e cedin g lines a r e s h o r tened one h a lf Ot h erwis e t h e dr a win g i s -

.
m a de like c a va lie r pr oj ection .
Ca v lie
a r Pr oj e ct i o n
F IG . 1 83 .
Fig 1 83 sh ows a box d r a wn b y t he c a va lier met h o d

.
,
1 84 s h ows t h e s a me box dra wn b y t h e c a binet a n d isometric

meth ods .
Ca b in et Pr oj e ct i o n Is om e t ric Dr a w m q
F IG . 1 84 .
E XE RC ISE S NGLE
LAN E PR OJE C TION
IN SI P
2 60 M a ke
.
(i s om et ic c a v a lier
ca b in et ) d a w in g s of t h e
r , , r
obj ect m a k in g th em to ed u ced s c l if n e ess y

, r a e, c ar .
9 52 Wood en box w i th o t cov e 1 0 i

.
, long 6 in w id e 4 in d eep
u r, n .
, .
, .
, m a de of
M i a b oa rd s St nd on e d open to t h e front
-
. . a n , .
PIC T O IA R L PR OJ E C T IO N PE RSPE C T IV E 255
P pei Te e .
Co rn e rs 7?
M is s i on B o ok R a ck .
r t r
‘
e ei -
3 1
12
1 21 l
< -
Cra n k For g i n
g .
i lo w
Pl B lo ck .
F IG . 1 85 .
2 56 P RA C T IC AL D E SC R IPT IV E GE O M E T RY
Sa m e box , i n n a t u r a l pos ition , w it a h cov ope n 1 2 0
er
°
g i h
Pe nt a on a l pl n t 2 i n di a m e t e r , M ,
-
. in t h i ck s u mou nted
.
, r
cy lind U 4 in high
er , . .
Bolt s h ow n in Fig 1 85 . .
P lley Fig 1 85
u , . .
Book ra c k F i g 1 85
, . .
1 M in -
. pipe t e e Fig ,
. 1 85 .
F IG . 1 86 .
959 . B ea ing b r ss Fig 1 85

r a , . .
9 60 C a nk fo rgin g F i g 1 85
. r , . .
9 6 1 Pi llow blo ck Fig 1 85

.
,
. .
962 F ru s t u m of p y ra mid g iv e n i n E
.
9 43 , x . .
9 63 S w h o rs e Fi g 86 C h a p III
. a , .
, . .
96 4 St a nd Fig 89 C h p III
.
, .
,
a . .
965 Pip in g l y ou t Fi g 1 86
. a Th i i inte nd d f
, l ge s h ee t d m k s
. . s s e or a ar , an a e
a fi e d a w i n g i f t a c ed
n r r
—
.
N ot Fi rs t m a k e t h l y o t of t h
e . nte lin es m ki n g n e y e a u e ce r , a cess a r
a llo w a n ces fo a l l c onn ect i on s

r .

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PR A C T I C A L

F i r s t pr int i n g , III a r ch, 1 9 1 6

Th e ﬁr st edition of t h is book publis h ed in 1 9 1 2 r e p r esent e d

t h e a ut h o r s vi e w s on t h e p r e s e nt a tion of De sc r iptiv e Ge omet r y

so as to a r ous e t h e st u d ent s int er est in t h e subj e ct wit h o u t

s a cr iﬁ cing r igo r ous tr a ining in t h e p r in cipl es .

p re se nt se cond e dition a ims to e mbod y t h e s u gg estions of m a n y

le a din g t e a c h e r s of t h e subj e ct w h o h a ve a t t h e re que st of

t h e a ut h o r a n d publis h e r s exp r e ssed t h e i r vi ew s a s to t h is

T h e m a in id e a of t h e ﬁ r st e dition t h a t of p r a cti ca lity , ha s ,

been a d h er ed to a n d a m p liﬁe d Th e most im p o r t a nt ch a nge s

" division into mo r e ch a pter s

w A mo r e logi ca l s e qu e n ce for cer t a in p o r tions of t h e t ext

6 A numbe r of new solutio n s u tili z i n g a u xili a r y p l a n e s mo r e

7 A bette r syst e m of p ers p ective d r a w ing

8 A ch a p te r on t h e int e r s e ctions of p l a n e solids

Alth ou gh y i eldin g to t h e r e q u es t of s ever a l te a ch er s for t h e

t h a t dimen s ion e d l a youts a re of gr ea t v a lue d e s p it e t h e a mo u nt

e v er i n p r a cti ca ll y u nlimit e d qu a ntity t h e inst r u cto r m a y d e cid e

t h e q u e stion for h ims elf T h e l a youts of bot h kinds h a ve b ee n

m a d e so ﬂ exibl e by int erch a nging a n d sub s tituting d a t a t h a t

t h e n u mb er of v a r i a tio n s is a lmo s t in ca l cu l a bl e T h is r emove s .

t h e O bj e ction e xp r e s s e d b y som e t ea ch er s to a d e ﬁnit e a n d

limited numb er of ex er cis e s t h e solutions of wh i ch a r e som e tim e s

p r ese r ve d b y st u d ent o r g a niz a tions N o su ch coll ection of solu.

tio n s will b e n e ﬁt futu r e cl a ss es a s t h e exe r cises ca n be m a de

e nti r e ly di ffe r e nt e a ch su cceeding y e a r .

a ut h o r re ceived a l a r g e a mount of const r uctive t h oug h con ﬂicting

a dvi ce m a inl y f r om t ea ch er s of a r ch it e c tu r e Th e w r ite r s ch oi ce

direct a ppli ca tion of t h e p r inci p les of Desc r iptive Geometr y a n d ,

It h a s been p r e viously st a ted t h a t mu ch inter est w a s m a ni

into its pre sent for m Th e wr i t e r w i s h es to convey hi s th a nks

to a l l w h o a ssiste d in t hi s wa y F or spe ci a l cr iti cisms a n d m a te

r i a l h e a cknowl e dg e s ind e btedness to Pr of e sso r T h om a s E Fr en ch .

Oh io St a t e U ni vers ity ; Pr ofes so r H owa r d M oo re C olo r a do ,

C oll e ge ; Pr ofessor Fr e de ri ck C B ig g in A l a b a m a Pol y t e ch

n i c Ins titute ; Pr ofe sso r R obe r t H M cN eil l y V a n d er b i lt

U niver sit y ; Profe ssor C h a ce N ewm a n M ic h i g a n A gr icultur a l

C ollege ; Professor H B M on ges U nive r sit y of C a liforni a ; M r

C h a r les R Swineford Armour Ins titute of Tec h nolo gy

In pr esenting a n ew t ext book on Des cr i p tive Geometr y t h e

wr iter is ful l y a w a r e of t h e ex cell e n ce of e xi s tin g t r e a tis es a n d ,

a p p r e ci a t e s wh a t t h e y h a v e cont r ibuted tow a r d a hi gh er st a nd a r d

of t e c h nic a l t r a ining Th e a u th o r s of th ese t re a tises purs uin g

t h e ir sever a l cou r s es h a ve ca r r i e d t h e d e velopment of t h e subj e ct

H o w e ver in s p ite of t h e indisput a ble excell e nce of m a n y of t h e

t ext books t h ey s ee m to h a ve f ai l e d to a r ous e t h e inter est of

t h e stud e nt p a r tl y b y igno r ing t h e p r a cti ca l a pp li ca tions a n d

p a r tl y b y m a king onl y a sligh t a tte m p t to pr esent t h e subj e ct

e ss e nti a ls ; som e a r e f a ddi s h e mp h a s i z in g cer t a in f ea tu r e s a n d

t r e a ting t h e r e st in a dequ a t el y wh il e even t h e b e st conve y to t h e

s tud e nt only a v e r y slig h t ide a of t h e p r a cti ca l v a lue of t h e sub

j ect T h is h a s give n r is e to t h e b el i ef pr ev a il i n g a lmost uni

v e r s a l l y in t h e stud e nt bod y t h a t De s cr i p tiv e G e omet r y is m e r ely

a d isciplin a r y stud y h a vin g little or no rel a tion to t h e life wo r k

subj ect to t h e stud en t in a simpl e m a nn er a s p r ogr e s s ively a s ,

possible r eminding hi m co n st a ntl y Of t h e r el a tion wh i ch e xist s

bet w ee n Des cr iptive G e omet r y a n d Pra cti ca l Dr a ftin g ; a n d to

gr ea t e st possibl e cl a r it y Th e wr ite r b elieve s th a t a th o r ough

knowledge of t h e s u bj e ct is a chi eve d not th r ough mu ch stud y of

a l a r g e numb e r of e x er cis e s s ca tt e r e d t h r ough t h e t e xt of con

s i d e r a b l e v a r i e ty a n d ca p a ble of inﬁnit e m u lti p l i ca tion b y t h e

A n e x a min a tio n of t h e subj ect will r e v e a l t h e following fea tur es