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FRANCIS D.K. CHING – ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHICS

SUMMARY NOTES

CHAPTER 1 – DRAWING TOOLS AND MATERIALS

o Drawing Pencils – relatively inexpensive, quite versatile and uniquely responsive to pressure while drawing.
o Lead Holders – use standard 2mm leads
o Mechanical Pencils – use 0.3mm, 0.5mm, 0.7mm and 0.9mm leads
o Wood-encased Pencils –
o Drawing Leads
▪ Graphite Leads – ranges from 9H (extremely hard which produces lighter and thinner lines)
to 6B (extremely soft which produce denser and wider lines)
▪ Nonphoto Blue Leads – the shade of blue not detected by photocopiers
▪ Plastic Leads – plastic polymer leads for drawing on drafting film
o Drawing Pens
o Technical Pens – produce precise, consistent ink lines without application of pressure; ranges from
0.13mm to 2mm (standard line widths by ISO are 0.27mm, 0.35mm, 0.5mm and 0.7mm).
o Fountain Pens – with stored ink feeding a metal nib by capillary action
o Other drawing pens – i.e. gel pens
o Digital Stylus – can detect and respond to hand pressure
o Drawing Guides
o T-squares – straightedges with short cross piece at one end that slides along the drawing board
edge.
o Parallel Rules – equipped with a system of cables and pulleys that allows straightedges to move
across a drawing board only in a parallel manner; more expensive and less portable than T-squares
o Triangles – drafting aids available in 90-45 degree and 30-60 degree; usually made from non-
yellowing transparent acrylic
o Adjustable Triangles – with movable legs and scales for measuring angles
o Compasses – for drawing circles
o French Curves
o Protractors
o Templates – with cutouts to guide predetermined shapes
o Digital guides – for digital drawing (i.e. digital guide lines and templates).
o Drawing Aids
o Erasers – usually vinyl or PVC; some are liquid erasing fluids
o Erasing Shields – with cutouts for confining areas to be erased
o Drafting brushes
o Drawing Scales – instruments with various precise gradations for measuring, reading or transferring
dimensions and distances in drawing.
o Architect’s Scales – gradations directly in feet and inches
o Engineer’s Scales – gradations divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 or 60 of an inch
o Metric Scales – gradations in millimeters
o Digital Scales
o Drawing Surfaces – can be opaque or transparent for copying or overlaying works
o Tracing Papers - characterized by transparency, whiteness and tooth or surface grain (fine toothed
are for inking while medium-tooth are for pencil work).
o Sketch-grade Tracing Paper
o Vellum – available in pads, rolls and individual sheets
o Drafting Film – clear polyester film that is durable, dimensionally stable and translucent
o Digital layers – used in CAD and 3D-modelling programs
o Illustration Boards – with paper facing laminated to a cardboard backing.
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CHAPTER 2 – ARCHITECTUAL DRAFTING

o Drafting – drawing with the aid of straightedges, triangles, templates, compasses and scales; done to create
architectural graphics and representation.
o Drawing lines – basic element of architectural drawing
o Types of lines
▪ Solid lines – delineate the form of objects, edges or intersection of planes
▪ Dashed lines – indicates elements hidden from the view
▪ Center lines – represent axis of a symmetrical object or composition
▪ Grid lines – used for regulating elements of a plan
▪ Property lines – indicate the legal or recorded boundaries of a land parcelland parcel
▪ Break lines – solid lines with short zigzag strokes, used to cutoff a portion of a drawing
▪ Utility lines – solid lines separated by letters indicating the type of utility
o Light weight – for readability and reproduction, primarily a matter of width or thickness.
▪ Heavy solid lines – used to delineate the profiles of plan and section cuts
▪ Medium solid lines – indicates the edges and intersections of planes
▪ Light solid lines – suggest change in materials, color or texture
▪ Very light solid lines – used to layout drawings, establish organizing grids and indicate surface
textures.
o Line quality – refers to the crispness, clarity and consistency of a drawn line
o Drafting Techniques
o General principles – proper hand positioning, pace and pressure
o Drawing parallel and perpendicular lines – can be done drafting guides (i.e. triangles)
o Subdivisions
o Angles and Shapes – using combinations of triangles
o Curved Lines – using circles and arcs (i.e. Bezier curves in digital).

CHAPTER 3 – ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SYSTEMS

o Three distinct types of drawing or pictorial systems – multiview, paraline and perspective drawings. These
systems result from projecting a 3D objects onto a 2D plane known as picture plane.
o Projection drawing – involves projectors (or sight lines in perspective projection) that transfers points from
an object to the picture plane. Types of projections include:
o Orthographic Projection – projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the picture plane.
Example is an axonometric projection.
o Oblique Projection – projectos are parallel to each other but oblique to the plane.
o Perspective Projection – projectors or sightlines radiate from a central point representing the eye
o Types of Pictorial Systems
o Multiview Drawings – consist of plans, sections and elevations; the principal face in each view is
oriented parallel to the picture plane; abstract views that the viewer must assemble in the mind to
construct an objective reality
▪ Examples – top view, side view and front view
o Paraline Drawings - combines the scalability of multiview drawings and easy-to-understand pictorial
nature of perspectives
▪ Also types of Axonometric Projections:
• Isometrics – 3 major axes make equal angles with the picture plane
• Dimetrics – 2 of 3 major axes make equal angles with the picture plane
• Trimetrics – all 3 major axes make different angles with the picture plane
▪ Also types of Oblique Projections:
• Elevation obliques – a principal vertical face is oriented parallel to the picture plane
• Plan obliques – a principal horizontal face is oriented parallel to the picture plane
▪ Paraline drawings are always aerial or worm’s eye views; parallel lines in the subject remain
parallel in the drawing;
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▪ Axonometric projection – a form of orthographic projection in which the projectors are parallel
to each other and perpendicular to the picture plane.
• Isometric projection – most commonly used in architectural drawing; all 3 axes receive
equal emphases;
• Dimetric projection
• Trimetric projection
o Perspective Drawings (also perspective projections) – depicts optical reality and considered as
experiential views
▪ Types
• 1-point perspective
• 2-point perspective
• 3-point perspective
▪ Characteristics of Perspectives
• Convegence of parallel lines (towards the vanishing point or points)
• Reduced size of objects with distance from the picture plane
o Scale and Details – the scale of a drawing determines how much detail is desirable determines how large or
small the scale of a drawing should be.
o Design drawings – focus on illustrating and clarifying the essential solid-void nature of forms and spaces,
scale and proportional relationships and other sensible qualities of space.
o Construction drawings – intended to inform the builder or fabricator about the implementation and realization
of the design; often includes dimensions, notes and specifications.
o CAD and BIM technologies – commonly used for producing construction drawings

CHAPTER 4 – MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS

o Multiview drawings comprise the drawing types we know as plans, elevations and sections (which also
considered orthographic views).
o Plans – orthogonal projections on a horizontal plane; looking down from above
o Floor Plans – basically section cut by horizontal plane with upper portion removed; line weights are
critical to interpret mass and voids.
▪ Poche – adding tonal values to contrast the objects with the spatial field and which establishes
a figure-ground relationship i.e. darkening of cut walls, columns and other solid matter
(basically hatching). Darker tones are important for smaller scale drawings. Larger salce are
used to show more details such as finishes, fittings and trim work.
o Reflected Ceiling Plans
▪ Ceiling plan – plan of room as seen from above but having its ceiling surfaces and elements
projected downward upon it (aka reflected ceiling plan); usuall same scale as the floor plan;
o Site Plans – describes the location and orientation of a building or building complex on a plot of land
and in relation to its context.
▪ Site plans describe boundaries, topography, site features, existing and proposed structures
and architectural structures in immediate setting and may include legal constraints, utilities,
pedestrian and vehicular entry points and environmental features.
▪ Site Topography – conveyed by contour lines.
• Contour lines – imaginary line joining points of equal elevation on a ground surface;
continuous and never cross one another.
• Contour interval – difference in elevation represented by any two adjacent contour
lines. The larger the area and the steeper the slopes, the greater the interval between
contours.
• The horizontal spacing of the lines indicate the slope of the ground surface; closely
spaced contours are steeper, equal spacing means constant slope.
▪ Representation of objects – buildings can be darker than the site or vice versa; can be
combined with a floor plan;
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o Roof Plans – top view describing the form, massing and material of a roof or the layout of such rooftop
features such as skylights, decks and mechanical housings; typicall included in the site plan.
o Sections – orthographic projections of an object as it would appear if cut through an intersecting plane,
revealing internal material, composition or assembly, particularly the solid-void relationship between floors,
walls and roof structure.
o Building section – reveal the shape and vertical scale of interior spaces usually with human figures to
establish scale and functional use of space; may also include the building site and environment
o Section cut – planes of cut, recommended where there are major spatial events like window
openings, doorways, changes in roof and floor levels, roof openings (not on freestanding columns);
also uses line weights and tonal values to convey a sense of depth.
o Series of section cuts – reveals changes in complex and irregular forms than a single sectional view
o Elevation – orthographic projections of an object or constructionon a vertical plane parallel to one of its
principal faces.
o Building elevation – conveys the external appearance of a building compressed onto a single plane
of projection (i.e. cladding materials, patterns, locations and types of windows). These elevations are
commonly arranged with the other elevations for better understanding of the building form (i.e. north,
south, east and west elevations). Hierarchy of line weights or tonal values also add spatia depth to
the elevation.
▪ Material Representations – different materials for walls and roof can be represented in the
elevation
▪ Three pictorial zones in an elevation drawing:
• Foreground – space between the section cut (elevation) and the façade of the building
• Middle ground – the building itself
• Background – sky, landscape and structures beyond the building
▪ Spatial Depth Cues – can be done by different line weights, continuity of outlines (complete
outlined objects means located in front), atmospheric perspectives (farther is blurred or
lighter)
o Interior Elevations – orthographic projections of significant interior walls of a building.

CHAPTER 5 – PARALINE DRAWINGS

o Include a subset of orthographic projections known as axonometric projections – the isometric, dimetric and
trimetric projections – as well as the entire class of oblique projections.
o Paraline drawings have both the precision and scalability of multiview drawings and the pictorial nature of
linear perspectives; appropriate for visualizing an idea in 3D early in the design process; capable of fusing
plan, elevation and section into a single view; can serve as a reasonable substitute for a bird’s eye
perspective; communicates the 3D nature of an object or spatial relationship in a single image.
o No vanishing point/s for parallel lines
o Linear measurement parallel to the 3 major axes can be made and drawn at consistent scale (axial
lines). Lines not parallel to 3 major axes (non-axial) cannot be drawn to scale.
o Commonly used paraline drawings in architectural drawing are isometric and oblique drawings which are
similar in the following ways:
o both have parallel lines in the subject remain parallel in the drawing
o all lines parallel to the major axes can be measured and drawn to scale
o Isometric drawings – characterized by (1) all three principal sets of planes share equal emphasis, (2) the
angle of view is slightly lower than that of plan obliques and (3) plans and elevations cannot be used as base
drawings.
o Preserves the relative proportions of the subject and are not subject to distortion inherent in oblique
views
o Can create optical illusions with multiple interpretations because of the ambiguity of linear alignments
o Oblique drawings – can be plan obliques or elevations obliques
o Plan obliques – horizontal plane (plan) is the principal plane emphasized and represented in true size
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o Elevation obliques – vertical plane (elevation) is the principal plane emphasized and represented in
true size
o Considerations for Paraline drawings
o Paraline drawings are easiest to understand if vertical lines in space are also oriented vertically in the
drawings surface.
o There are different approaches in paraline drawing including breaking down the components into
simpler forms to serve as guides for alignment.
o Circles and freeforms shapes are drawin using simple shapes (i.e. drawing circle inside an oblique
square).
o Spatial depth cues for paraline drawings include line weights, tonal values (hatching) and blurring.
o Expanded or Exploded Views – paraline drawings with shifted portions to clearly show the relationships
between the parts of the whole; used for describing the details, layering or consequence of a construction
assembly.
o Cutaway Views – a drawing having an outer section or layer removed to reveal an interior space or an internal
construction which effectively shows the relationship of an interior to the exterior environment.
o Phantom Views – a paraline drawing having one or more parts made transparent to permit the presentation
of internal information otherwise hidden from our view; uses a phantom line.
o Phantom line – a broken line consisting of relatively long segments separated by two short dashes or
dots.
o Digital Views
o Sequential Views – progression of paraline drawings displaying 3D relationships; can explain processes or
sequence of assembly

CHAPTER 6 – PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS

o Perspective – refers to any various graphic techniques for depicting volumes and spatial relationships on a
flat surface, such as size perspective and atmospheric perspective.
o Linear Perspective – technique for describing 3D volumes and spatial relationships on a 2D surface by means
of lines that converge as they recede into the depth of a drawing; offers scenes of an optical reality; valid only
for monocular vision (seeing through the single eye), but since humans have two eyes, only an approximation
of the complex vision of humans.
o Perspective Projection – represents a 3D object by projecting all its points to a picture plane by straight lines
converging at a fixed point in space representing a single eye of the observer; 60-degree cone of vision is
the normal field of vision, 90-degree cone of vision is acceptable for peripheral elements. It involves the
following:
o PP – picture plane
o SP – station point
o CAV – central axis of vision
o HL – horizontal line
o C – center of vision
o GP – ground plane
o GL – ground line
o Pictorial Effects of Perspective – produced by the nature of sight lines in linear perspective.
o Convergence (in linear perspective) – refers to the apparent movement of parallel lines toward a
common vanishing point as they recede.
o Diminution of Size (in linear perspective) – objects also appear to change in size from the distance to
the picture plane
o Foreshortenign – apparent compression in size or length when a facet of an object rotates away from
the picture plane.
o Perspective Variables – include the distance from the station point to the object, angle of the view, location
of the picture plane
o Types of Perspectives – based on the three major sets of lines:
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o 1-point Perspectives – also known as parallel perspective; lines parallel to the picture line do not
seem to converge; effective in depicting the interior of spatial volume (i.e. interior rooms, streets,
courtyars).
▪ Diagonal Point Method – can be used to draw 1-point persective grid which serves as the
guide for major architectural element
▪ Perspective Plan Views – one-point perspectives of interior spaces from above to illustrate
small, highly detailed rooms.
▪ Section Perspectives – combines the scaled attributes of a section drawing and the pictorial
depth of a perspective drawing.
o 2-point Perspectives – most widely used of the 3 types of linear perspective; tends to be neither
symmetrical nor static; effective in illustrating the three-dimensional form of objects in space ranging
in scale from a chair to the massing of a building.
▪ Point Method – using measuring points to transfer true dimensions along the measuring line
and constructing the perspective grid.
▪ Vanishing Points can be located within or outside the picture
o 3-point Perspectives
o Measurement in Perspectives
o Measuring Height and Width – easier because any line in the picture plane (PP) displays its true
direction and true length at the scale of the picture plane; can be done using the measuring lines
(ML).
o Measuring Depth – more difficult than measuring height and widths, usually done by subdividing
depth measurements which can be done in two methods:
▪ Method of Diagonals
▪ Method of Triangles
o Measuring Inclined Lines – done by first measuring the depth, height or width then computing for the
hypotenuse.
o Some considerations in perspective drawing of certain objects – Stairs, Circles, Reflections

CHAPTER 7 – RENDERING TONAL VALUES

o Lines are usually not enough to represent objects. Visual qualities of light, texture, mass and space cannot
be fully described by line alone and usually rely on tonal values to model surfaces of forms and convely light.
o Vision results from the stimulation of nerve cells in the retina of the eye, signalling patterns of light intensity
and color which enables us to extract features of the environment such as edges, contours, size, movement
and color. The patterns of light and dark (contrast in value) is essential in the perception of objects.
o Tonal values depend on the spacing, density, visual texture, grain and direction of the strokes or dots. Basic
techniques for creating tonal values:
o Hatching – series of more or less parallel lines; can have direction which may follow orientation of
surfaces or materials (i.e. grain of wood).
o Crosshatching – series of more or less intersecting parallel lines; usually combined with hatching.
o Scribbling – shading technique involving drawing a network of random, multidirectional lines; can be
very flexible in representing tonal values and textures
o Stippling – shading technique by means of very fine dots; generally slow and time-consuming
o Digital Tonal Values – usually permit various colors and tonal values
o Value Scale – white as the lightest possible value and black as the darkest
o Texture – usually used to describe the smoothness or roughness of a surface (visual texture); can also
describe the characteristic surface qualities of familiar materials (i.e. stone, wood or fabric or tactile texture);
achieved because sense of sight and touch are closely intertwined.
o Modelling – technique of rendering the illusion of volume, solidity and depth on a 2D surface by means of
shading; important consideration are the edges or boundaries (hard edges or soft edges).
o Conveying light – done by tonal values (light values oriented towards the light source).
o Highlights – luminous spots on smooth surfaces
o Shade – refers to comparatively dark values of surfaces away from light sources
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o Shadows – dark values cast by objects

o Digital Lighting – simulates ligthing of three-dimensional forms and spaces
o Ray Casting – simplest approach by analyzing the 3D geometry of forms; does not consider
reflections, refractions and natural fall off of shadows
o Ray Tracing – digital technique for tracing paths to simulate the optical effects of illumination
▪ Local illumination – basic level of ray tracing
▪ Global illumination – better predictor of how a space would be illuminated; uses complex
algorithms
o Tonal Values in Architectural Drawings –
o can be done in floor plans to emphasize shape and arrangement of cut elements
o can be done in section drawings to establish contrast between the cut elements and what is seen in
elevation beyond the plane of the cut
o can be done in elevation drawings to define layers of spatial depth
o can be done in paraline drawings to define more the 3D nature of forms and the spaces they define
o can be done in perspetive drawings to enhance spatial depth, define the drawing field and develop
focus
o Shade and Shadows – refers to the technique of determining areas in shade and casting shadows on
surfaces by means of projection drawing; used in site plans to convey the relative heights of building masses
and site topography; not usually used in elevatios and section and paraline drawings.
o Sun – assumed to be the light source (i.e. bearing, azimuth, altitude).
o Shade line or casting edge – separates an illuminated surface from one in shade.
o Shadow line – the shadow cast by a shade line on a receiving surface.
o Shadow plane – a plane of light rays that passes through adjacent points in a straight line.

CHAPTER 8 – RENDERING CONTEXT

o People – included in drawings to express the scale of a space, indicate the intended use of a space and
convey spatial depth and changes in level considering size, proportion and activity.
o Vehicles – to indicate roadways and parking areas in exterior scenes; also establish scale.
o Landscaping – to convey geographic character of a site, indicate the scale of a building, define outdoor
spaces.
o Trees – consider the scale and when placed in a floorplan, show the extent of the foliage; can be
drawn with atmospheric perspective (blurring of the farther objects).
o Reflections – water and reflective surfaces

CHAPTER 9 – ARCHITECTURAL PRESENTATIONS

o Presentation drawings or design drawings – describe a design proposal in a graphic manner intended to
persuade an audience of its value; should communicate as clearly as possible the three-dimensional qualities
of a design.
o Considerations for presentation drawings:
o Point of View – clear about the design content or the central idea or concept
o Efficiency – means utilizing only what is necessary to communicate an idea
o Clarity – articulate; should explain a design clearly and in enough detail so that viewers unfamiliar
with it will be able to understand the design proposal.
o Accuracy – avoid presenting distorted or incorrect information; shoud accurately simulate a possible
reality
o Unity – organized that all segments are consistent with the whole
o Continuity – each segment of a presentation should relate to what precedes it and what follows;
mutually self-supporting with unity
o Presentation Elements – presentations are read from left to right and top to bottom.
o Graphic Images
▪ Drawing Relationships – sequence and alignment of the drawings should reinforce their
projected relationships.
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▪ Design drawings are usually presented as a related set or group of figures.

o Graphic Symbols – help the viewer identify the various aspects and features of a drawing or
presentation (i.e. north arrows, graphic scales, section arrows); consider size, visual weight and
placement.
o Lettering (or type faces in digital) – important factor is legibility; can use guidelines to control the
height and line spacing for handlettering
▪ Drawing titles – usually directly below the drawing
▪ Text
▪ Project Title – should relate to the overall sheet or board, not to a single drawing
o Presentation Formats – can be vertical, horizontal or grid format; can be symmetrical layout, centralized or
grid-based etc.

CHAPTER 10 – FREEHAND DRAWING

o Freehand drawing – still remains the most intuitive means we have for graphically recording observations,
throughts and experiences; also helps in the development of design ideas or concepts
o Drawing from observation – done to notice, to understand and to remember; can have various subjects from
people, buildings, environment, interiors etc.
o Drawing composition – composing and framing a view to naturally communicate our perceptions with an
economy of means; can be horizontal, vertical; considerations for composition include:
o three pictorial regions: foreground, middle ground and background.
o Visual extents
o Rule of thirds
o Sizing to fit
o Contour drawing – primarily to develop visual acuity and sensitivity to qualities of a surface and form; we are
conditioned to see the shapes of things rather the shapes of the spaces between them; consider negative
and positive shapes;
o Analytical drawing – describing the outer configuration of surfaces of an object and explaining its inner
structural nature and the way its parts are arranged and joined in space; primarily depends on geometry
o Building up a drawing:
o Establish structure
o Layering tonal values and textures
o Adding significant details
o Travel Sketching
o Diagramming – explaining something without necessarily representing it in a pictorial way; simplified drawing
of a complex idea with it essential elements and relationships
o Diagrams – visual abstractions that can depict the essence of concepts and things, relationships of
objects; uses organizing lines, arrows
▪ site diagrams,
▪ programmatic diagrams,
▪ circulation diagrams,
▪ formal diagrams,
▪ system diagrams
▪ concept diagrams – utilize “parti”
• Parti – refers to the concept or primary organizing idea for an architectural design
▪ A parti diagram should be inclusive, visually descriptive, adaptable and sustainable
o Diagramming principles
▪ Keep concept diagrams concise.
▪ Remove extraneous information as needed to focus on the issue and enhance clarity
▪ Add relevant and necessary information
▪ Use modifying factors like size, proximity and simmilarity