A STUDY ON THE STEPWELLS

THE TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM OF INDIA

A DISSERTATION REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE

BATCH 2016-2021

NITTE INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE,

DERALAKATTE, MANGALORE, KARNATAKA, INDIA 575018

I
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this Dissertation report titled “A study on the Stepwells -
The traditional water harvesting system of India” is the bonafide work carried
out by Ayesha Sheikha – NU16UAR009 who carried out the work at Nitte
Institute of Architecture under the guidance of Ar. Soumya Hosamani, during the
period January 2020 – April 2020 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Architecture of Nitte (Deemed to be
University).

Soumya Hosamani

Dissertation Advisor

Kanchana Ganesan Prof. Vinod Aranha

Sreesha Bhat Director

Dissertation Coordinators Nitte Institute of Architecture

II
 DECLARATION

The dissertation report entitled “A study on the Stepwells - The traditional water

harvesting system of India” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE of NITTE (Deemed to

be University) is done by me and is not submitted to any other university. Wherever

contributions of others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this clearly, with due
reference to the literature, and acknowledgment of collaborative research and discussions. The
work was done under the guidance of Ar. Soumya Hosamani, at the Nitte Institute of
Architecture.

Ayesha Sheikha

NU16UAR009

Nitte Institute of Architecture,

Deralakatte, Mangalore,
Karnataka, India 575018

III
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I respect and thank our Director Prof. Vinod Aranha for
providing me this opportunity to carry out the research and for providing all the support and
guidance to complete the project on time.

I owe my profound gratitude to my internal guide Ar. Soumya Hosamani who

guided me all along till the completion of the project.

I would especially like to thank all the people who spent their valuable time sharing their
valuable thoughts and inputs, without whose support I would not have been able to complete my
Project. I thank all the staff members of the NITTE INSTITUTE OF

ARCHITECTURE, Mangalore.

Thanks are also due to my Parents and dear brothers‟ who were a source of constant
encouragement and support throughout the work. Finally, I thank Almighty God for His
blessings and guidance to help me conclude this project successfully.

AYESHA SHEIKHA

IV
ABSTRACT

Life and civilization have always evolved around water. India undergoes both droughts and
floods periodically and the key element to alleviate these issues is by reviving the Indian
traditional water harvesting system - Stepwells. The study is concerned with the relationship
between humans and the water, the natural resource surrounding us, and the way we interact
with them. As humans, we no longer possess the tranquility of being connected with water
which has been taken for granted and its presence has completely vanished from our
surroundings as rivers are reducing to drains and lakes to stagnant polluted bodies. Water
running through taps which suddenly run dry has made us realize that it is a precious element
given by nature to us. The study will help to mitigate present water scarcity issues and encourage
local people to revitalize the existing structures or make new structures based on the traditional
knowledge of the era.

Every drop of rainwater has to be conserved.

KEYWORDS

Stepwell – Water – Harvesting – Traditional – Architecture – Rainwater – Conservation –

Engineering – Groundwater – Construction – Wells – Relationship – Environment – Association
– Space – Structure – Significance – Historical – Hierarchy.

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GLOSSARY

Ahar pynes: Traditional floodwater harvesting systems indigenous to South Bihar and have been
the most important source of irrigation in this region.

Ardhakuta: A supporting arch, like a Kuta, but without a pavilion or landing.

Bandha, Bandhulia, Bund, Naada: A stone or earth wall that acts as a dam; an embankment.

Bavdi, Baori, Bawli, Baoli, Baodi, Baulia, Bari, Barav, Bavi, Kulam, Kuva, Kuvo, Virda, Vihar,
Vihir, Vav, Vapi: Stepwell. It is a water well structure with a series of steps leading down to the
well.

Beris/ Kuis: Deep pits dug into the earth as tanks to collect the seepage of rainwater.

Bhadra: Stepwell with two flights of steps aligned in line with the shaft in the middle.

Bhandara: This system was devised according to the peculiarities of the terrain to
divert water from swift-flowing hill streams into irrigation channels called pats.

Chajja: Cover of a roof

Cheo-ozihi: Water harvesting technique of northeastern India.

Chowk: A square found in Indian cities at the junction of multiple streets.

Dongs, Garh, and Dara: Water harvesting technique of Brahmaputra valley.

Eri: Water harvesting technique of Tamilnadu.

Ghat: A set of wide steps leading down to the water; generally, along banks of the river.

Havan: A small fire lit in a vessel around which Hindu rituals and prayer take place.

Havelis: Water harvesting technique of Jabalpur.

Jaya: Stepwell with three flights of steps perpendicular to the adjacent ones and arranged in three
directions. around the central shaft.

Jhalara: A special type of step tank with steep steps on 3 sides and a pavilion on the fourth side
generally found in Rajasthan.

Khadin: Also called a Dhora, is an ingenious construction designed to harvest surface runoff
water for agriculture.

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Khuls: A surface channel of stone made to irrigate fields found in Himachal Pradesh.

Kumbhas: Part below beams lining the well walls.

Kund, Sarovar, Theertha, Theertham, Pushkarni, Kalyani, Pokhari, Koneru, Tali: An open to the
sky water tank or pond with steps leading to the water.

Kuta: A covered landing between sets of steps in a stepwell to provide a place to stand and rest.

Nadi: A kind of a pond

Namaz: Islamic form of worship or prayer.

Nanda: Stepwell with one flight of steps leading to the shaft.

Otla: A platform used to sit on, generally at the entrance of a house or under a tree

Sagar: A large lake with an embankment.

Taanka: A water storage tank built in the basement of a house or within the compound to store
water harvested from roofs and/ or courtyards

Talav, Talab, Talavadi, Tala, Talao: A lake that may be human-made or natural with
embankments around it

Toda: A pair of ornate pillars at the entrance of a stepwell to mark its locations.

Vaju, Wazu: Method of performing Ablution in Islam.

Vijaya: Stepwell similar to Jaya but has steps in four direction.

Virdas: They are shallow holes that are made in the sands of dry riverbeds and lakes for
collecting water.

Zabo: 'Zabo', means 'impounding water', is an ingenious method of catching rainwater from
running off the mountains in Nagaland

Zing: Zings are water harvesting structures found in Ladakh. They are small tanks, which
collects melted glacier water.

VII
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
ABSTRACT V
KEYWORDS V
GLOSSARY VI

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Aim of the study 2
1.2 Research Question 2
1.3 Significance of the study 2
1.4 Hypothesis 2
1.5 Objectives of the study 2
1.6 Scope of the study 3
1.7 Limitations of the study 3
1.8 Need for the study 4
1.9 Background of the study 4
1.10 Research methodology 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Steps to Water: Stepwells in India by Sharad 8
Chandra

2.2 Bawdi: The Eloquent Example of Hydraulic 10

Engineering and Ornamental Architecture by Dr.
Anjali Pandey

2.3 Study of Ancient Stepwells in India, Aditi 13

Singh, Soma A. Mishra

2.4 Traditional water harvesting structures and 16

sustainable water management in India: A socio-
hydrological review by Sayan Bhattacharya

VIII
 2.5 The Vanishing Stepwells of India by Victoria 21
Lautman, Foreword by Divay Gupta

2.6 Value assessment towards water-related 22

architectural conservation- A qualitative study of
Bundi Rajasthan by Ar.Shubhangi Kadam and
Prof.S.A.Deshpande

2.7 Stepwell by Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 24

2.8 Stepwells of Southern Rajasthan by Dev Pratap 27

Singh Rathore and K.P. Singh Deora

2.9 Ecological Traditions of India by M. Amirthalingam 29

2.10 The Forgotten Stepwells: Thousands of 32

Masterpieces in Engineering, Architecture, and
Craftsmanship Provide a Window into India‟s Past

2.11 The Astonishing (Vanishing) Stepwells of India 33

by Victoria Lautman

2.12 Concepts of Space in Traditional Indian 36

Architecture by Yatin Pandya

Conclusion of literature reviews 37

3 CASE STUDY 40

4 DISCUSSION 48
4.1 definition followed 49
4.2 The concept of stepwells 49
4.3 The significance of stepwells 50
4.4 The association of stepwells 51

IX
 4.5 The location of stepwells 51
4.6 The ornamentation of stepwells 52
4.7 The uniqueness of the stepwells 52
4.8 Mapping of stepwells in India 53
4.9 The royal stepwells 54
4.10 The material used in construction of stepwells 54
4.11 The hierarchy of stepwells 54
4.12 The architecture and construction of stepwells 56
4.13 The difference between Hindu & Muslim style of 60
stepwell architecture
4.14 The kinesthetics of stepwells 60
4.15 The scale of the stepwells 61
4.16 The city development and the stepwells 62
4.17 The political influence on stepwells 63

4.18 The role of women associated with stepwells 64

4.19 Linguistic terminology of the stepwells 65

5 CONCLUSION 67

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.

1 Mapping of stepwells in India 53

2 Linguistic terminology of stepwells and step 65
ponds/ tanks throughout India

XI
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1AIM OF THE STUDY

Stepwells were the only source of water in the arid region during the dry seasons which has lost
its significance; the regeneration of these stepwells can be a way to mitigate the current crisis of
water and help to conserve its architecture.

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION

How have the Indian societies historically and traditionally created a sensitive response to water
by constructing stepwells even in the dry region?

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The anticipation is to enable the present and the future generation to revive the traditional water
harvesting system or make a new structure based on this knowledge to mitigate the problem of
droughts and floods we are facing today in urban infrastructure by reconstituting relationship
with water.

1.4 HYPOTHESIS

All the stepwells in India are not in use and are currently in pathetic condition. Most of the
stepwells were built for women.

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

 The main objective is that rainwater should be harvested whenever and wherever it falls,
maintain the water quality, and restore the groundwater table.
 India receives nearly 4 percent of the global precipitation and has 18 percent of the population.
As there is wide variation in precipitation and due to the changing rainfall patterns almost
every year, every region of the country has its own traditional water harvesting technique,
depending on the geographical peculiarities and cultural uniqueness of the regions and also
increase in population adds pressure on the water basins.

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 This research will trace the links, connections, and relationships that bind architecture, society,
and water.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

• The study will focus on the architecture of the traditional water harvesting system in India like
stepwells and step ponds/tanks.

• The study will focus on the interrelation between stepwells and step ponds/ tanks and their
source.

• The study will focus on mapping the different prominent water harvesting systems in India
from 500AD, the time water harvesting system started in India.

• The study will focus on geographical context (climate, topography, rain, groundwater table,
etc) of the region to understand the planning pattern of the water harvesting technique adapted.

• The study will focus on the evolution of water harvesting techniques – construction aspects
(characteristic elements, hierarchy, access, function, opening size, proportions, depth, scale,
style, layout, material, types, period, etc.).

• The scope of the study is to understand historical backgrounds, religious aspects, socio-culture,
rituals associated, gender aspects, local names, etc.

• The study will also focus on why these traditional water harvesting systems have failed.

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• The study will be limited to arid regions of India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, North Karnataka, Delhi,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Haryana) as it faces drought and has got long summers
every year.

• The study in any means will not address – Zabo of Nagaland, Zing of Ladakh, Ahar Pynes of
Bihar, Khadin of Jaisalmer, Bhandara Phad of Maharastra, Khuls of Himachal Pradesh, etc. as
they don‟t have any social association.

3
• The statistical survey will be done through literature studies and case studies as the on-site
survey cannot be conducted due to certain reasons hence will be depending upon secondary
data.

1.8 NEED OF THE STUDY

In today‟s time stepwells and step ponds/tanks have lost its importance and it is the need of the
hour to revive, restore, reuse and revitalize these architectural marvels to deal with water crises
by comprehending the ancient knowledge and applying it to the modern society.

1.9 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The practice of water conservation is deep-rooted in the science of ancient India. The concept of
stepwell was originated in India by Indus valley civilization. Stepwells are known for their
architectural perfection and water engineering. Stepwells are the oldest and sustainable water
management systems in India. Stepwells were excavated several stories into the earth to reach
the water table, the level at which the soil or rock is always saturated with water. Water
exploitation and management have been of great concern for a developing and developed urban
civilization since the Harappa times.

It is said that the first rock-cut stepwells in India appeared between the 2nd and 4th centuries
A.D., then wells at Dhank, near Rajkot, Gujarat was constructed (550-625 A.D.) and then came
the stepped ponds at Bhinmal, in the Jalore district of Rajasthan (850-950 A.D.).The scholars
believe that the stepwells were invented by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization by the
evidence of ruins found in Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira. These structures were developed for
conservation, harvesting, and storage of rainwater. These structures speak about their advanced
hydraulic engineering and technology. The stepwells are built differently in different terrains and
climatic conditions. Stepwells are mostly present in the old temples, forts, and travel routes.
Thus, tradition and technology of constructing stepwells for domestic purposes have been in use
in the Indian sub-continent from the Harappa times, which is from 2500 BCE onwards.

Indians still build structures to catch, hold, and store rainwater for the dry seasons but it has
failed due to various reasons. Stepwells were constructed in arid regions to cope up with
seasonal fluctuations in water availability during dry seasons. Stepwells have lost their
significance in the 19th century because of the introduction of water pumps and pipe-systems.

4
 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh are the
regions under the arid zone and one can find many stepwells and step ponds/tanks in these
regions.

Other than stepwells every region in India have their own traditional rainwater systems which
include bamboo pipes and Apatani systems of eastern Himalayas, Ghul of western Himalayas,
Zabo and Cheo-ozihi of northeastern India, Dongs, Garh, and Dara of Brahmaputra valley,
Kund, Khadin, Talabs, Beri, Johad, Baoli, etc. of Thar desert and Gujrat, the Havelis of Jabalpur,
bandh and bandhulia of Satna, virda of Gujarat, ahar-pynes of Bihar, Eri and Kulam of eastern
coastal plains, Jackwells of islands, which are highly efficient.

1.10 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Historical (Interpretative) + Qualitative analysis

Methodology plays an important role in the conservation of historic sites. The study is carried
out by listing the existing traditional water harvesting structures all over India along with
comprehensive research papers.

The methodology for undertaking this study is through historical and qualitative analysis of
traditional water harvesting structures throughout India and more specifically arid regions –
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi, Maharashtra, and North Karnataka.

The first step is data collection from secondary sources which include books, articles, and
research papers. This step will give a thorough understanding of stepwells. The next step is
identifying stepwells throughout India based on location which will give an understanding of the
construction period, Ruler involved, association, the material of construction, source of water,
style of construction with size, and the number of steps of the Stepwells. The study will also add
discussion on the topics mentioned below to answer the specific objectives/research questions
with a conclusion based on data collected through literature reviews and case studies.

1. Definitions‟ followed
2. The concept of stepwells
3. The significance of stepwells
4. The association of stepwells
5. The location of stepwells

5
6. The ornamentation of stepwells
7. The uniqueness of the stepwell
8. The royal stepwells
9. The material used in the construction of stepwells
10. The hierarchy of stepwells
11. The architecture and construction of stepwells
12. The difference between Hindu & Muslim style of stepwell architecture
13. The kinesthetics of stepwell
14. The scale of the stepwell
15. The city development and the stepwells
16. The political influence on stepwells
17. The role of women associated with stepwell

The chosen methods are appropriate and suitable for achieving the above objectives.

6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 STEPS TO WATER: STEPWELLS IN INDIA BY SHARAD CHANDRA1

Stepwells are an amazing subterranean water source structure with beautifully carved walls.
Stepwells are deep dug trenches or rock-cut wells, or ponds of water reached by a descending set
of stairs or steps. As western India has a hot and semi-arid climate and scanty rainfall there was
always a need to harvest the monsoon rains to utilize it in the dry months and these stepwells
came into being. Stepwells were used for drinking, washing, and bathing, and also festivals and
sacred rituals were associated with it. They also served as cool sanctuaries for caravans,
pilgrims, and common travelers to deal with the heat of the day and for overnight stay.

Stepwells consist of two parts: a vertical well shaft which is protected from direct sunlight and
the inclined subterranean passageway with steps to access the water and chambers. The
intricately carved columns have made these stepwells exceptionally rich monument of Indian
architecture. These stepwells were commissioned by royal, wealthy, or by powerful patrons as it
was considered charity, as an act of philanthropy or as a memorial to a dear one.

It is said that the first rock-cut stepwells in India appeared between the 2nd and 4th centuries
A.D., then wells at Dhank, near Rajkot, Gujarat was constructed (550-625 A.D.) and then came
the stepped ponds at Bhinmal, in the Jalore district of Rajasthan (850-950 A.D.).The scholars
believe that the stepwells were invented by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization by the
evidence of ruins found in Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira.

By the 19th century, several thousand stepwells in varying degrees of grandeur had been built
throughout India. Stepwells were called as retreat wells which were present in private gardens
and also because the travelers and pilgrims could park their animals and take shelter in a harsh
climate.

Stepwells are categorized by their scale, layout, materials, and shape: they can be rectangular,
circular, or L-shaped; using masonry, rubble, or brick as building material; and they can have got
separate entrances. None of the stepwells are identical, and each is utilitarian, simple, or
complex and ornamented which gives it a unique character. All of them have strikingly beautiful
architecture and the elegance of stepwell depends on where, when, and by whom they were
commissioned.

1
Chandra, S. “Steps to water: Stepwells in India.” Chitrolekha International Magazine on Art and Design, 2015.

8
Chand Baori of Rajasthan-. With 3500 narrow steps and 13 stories, it is one of the largest
stepwells in India and it is a fine example of architectural excellence prevalent in the past. The
town of Bundi in Rajasthan is known as the “City of stepwells” as a large number of stepwells
are found there. The architecture of stepwells matches the architectural splendor of its forts and
palaces.

Raniji ki Baori of Rajasthan- This stepwell has excellent carvings of Gajraj, with its trunk turned
inwards giving the impression of having just drunk from the baori. The arches on the columns
add to the beauty and grandeur of the total structure.

Rani ki Vav of Gujarat- This stepwell has an intricate architectural design and is considered one
of the most beautiful examples of subterranean construction. It is 64 meters long, 20 meters wide
and 27 meters deep, and has seven stories. Stepwells are highly decorated monuments with
ornamented panels of sculptures and reliefs representing the height of the Maru-Gurjara style of
architecture.

Stepwells, besides being a source of water, were also places to socialize and gather for religious
ceremonies and rituals. They functioned virtually as subterranean temples, abounding in carved
images of the male and female deities which formed a spiritual backdrop for ritual bathing,
prayers, and offerings. Despite the lack of accessible groundwater, several stepwells continue as
active temples, for example, the 11th-century Mata Bhavani Vav in Ahmedabad.

The Hindu style of architecture used post-and-lintel construction with corbel domes, Muslim
style of architecture featured arch and the true dome. Hindu artists carved sculptures and friezes
packed with deities, humans, and animals, and Islam completely forbade depictions of any
human figure. The Rudabai Vav and the Dada Harir Vav stepwells were built under Islamic
authority using Hindu artisans. Stepwells were fundamental to life and were built according to
the regions and rulers as acts of charity for the community.

Most of the stepwells have now fallen into disuse, neglected, in poor condition and dry, as
groundwater has been diverted for industrial use, and water table doesn‟t reach these wells. Few
of the stepwells have recently undergone major restoration, desilting and there are efforts made
to raise awareness to protect the disappearing masterpieces of architecture and engineering. The
current water crisis in the country has led to redeem some of these subterranean stepwells and
helped to conserve its architecture before they disappear.

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INFERENCE

Stepwells are subterranean water structures reached by descending of stairs. Stepwells are
mostly found in the arid region due to scanty rainfall and stepwells provided water during dry
seasons. Stepwells are used for domestic as well as religious purposes. Stepwells consist of two
parts, vertical shaft of well and the passage with steps and galleries. Stepwells are highly
decorated and are considered as rich monuments. Stepwells were commissioned by royals,
women, and powerful patrons as it was considered meritorious or an act of charity. Stepwells
were first invented by Indus valley civilization and hence the concept of stepwells was started in
India and mostly found in the northwestern part of India. Stepwells were considered as retreat
wells as it was part of landscape and leisure place for villagers and travelers to rest. Stepwells
are categorized by their scale, layout, materials, and shape built in a different region, during the
different periods and ruler hence no two stepwells are identical and they are unique. Chand baori
of Rajasthan is the oldest, deepest, and finest example of the stepwell in India. Rani Ki vav
Gujarat has the most intricate ornamentation with 500 sculptures. Stepwells differed even in
Hindu and Muslim styles of architecture and fusion of the styles created a masterpiece of
architecture.

Currently, the stepwells are in pathetic conditions and are fallen into disuse or misuse. We must
create awareness and restore these amazing masterpieces of architecture. Reviving stepwell can
also help us deal with the water crises our country is facing currently.

2.2 BAWDI: THE ELOQUENT EXAMPLE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING AND

ORNAMENTAL ARCHITECTURE BY DR. ANJALI PANDEY2

Stepwell is a manmade pond for water conservation. It is a significant ornamental architectural

structure. These wells are commonly found in the western region of India which is a dry region
for irrigation and storage of water to cope up with seasonal fluctuations. Water Exploitation and
water management have been of great concern for a developing and developed urban
civilization. The baths, sanitary, drainage, and public wells were the first steps to exploit
groundwater. “This kind of efficient system of Harappa‟s of Dholavira, developed for

2
Pandey, D. A. Bawdi: The Eloquent Example of Hydraulic Engineering and Ornamental Architecture.
International Journal of Research Granthaalayah, 2016.

10
conservation, harvesting, and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic
engineering, given the state of technology in the third millennium B.C." (R.S n.d.)3

The water conservation of this city was based on rainwater harvesting back then. The water drew
from seasonal streams conserved the life system and supported in agriculture. The traditional
water management system, the stepwell was designed to consume every drop of rainwater. The
stepwells were constructed under the patronage of royal, wealthy, or powerful persons. The
majority of stepwells served for domestic purpose, leisure, religious, and ceremonial purposes.

Chand Ki Baori of Rajasthan- The Chand baori is thirteen storied structure with 3500 steps. It is
the deepest one in the world and is the marvelous example of a glorious past. Another similar
kind of Baori of Rajasthan state is at Boondi which also multistoried water building with the
magnificent carving on pillars.

Rani Ki Vav of Gujrat- Situated on the bank of river Saraswati, this is the source for the
stepwell. The architectural style elaborates on the complex technique and the design form with
carved sculptures which shows the heights of craftsmanship.

Adlaj Ki Vav of Gujrat- This stepwell is a fusion of Islamic and Hindu architecture and was built
by Rani Rudabai wife for Rajput noble Vikram Shah Vaghela in1499 A.D.

Sun Temple of Modera of Gujrat–The stepwell is known as Surya Kund of this temple which is
the finest geometrically designed rectangular tank. The dazzling patterns of steps lead to the 53.6
x 36.6 m rectangular stepped tank. The kund has 108 miniature shrines which are carved in
between the stairs and the compositions of the steps are made in the shape of an inverted
pyramid.

Agrasen Ki Baoli and Rajaon Ki Baoli of Delhi -The Agrasen Baoli is three-storied has 108
steep steps with 58.52 x 13.70 m ground level area. The architecture of Agrasen baoli is a
Mughal style with thick walls on both sides with a series of the arches and false niches that were
made for design purposes. Passages and rooms are made inside it as a resting place for travelers
and pilgrims.

The Pushkarnis, Kalyani's, and Lakkundi stepwells of the 15th century Chalukya period also
attract a large number of tourists at Hampi.

3
R.S, Bisht. “Harappan Hydro-Engineering and Water Management.”

11
The concept of stepwell was originated in India and is popular for its architectural and hydraulic
engineering. Stepwells harvested water for drinking, washing, bathing, and religious purposes.
Stepwells were originated as reservoirs and storage tanks and also functioned as Hindu temples
elaborated from stylish stone carving on columns and shed pavilions. The travelers, pilgrims,
and the caravans park their animals and stayed in pavilions of stepwells overnight to counter the
heat of the day. The deep trenches were dug in the earth to get water throughout the year; blocks
of stones were used to make the wall and upside stairs were made for leading down to the water
surface.

The structure of stepwell mainly consists of two parts one is the well shaft and the other is the
galleries with chambers which was a cool and calm retreat to the travelers during hot days. The
chamber pillars were often decorated with carved or arched pillars.

The complex engineering and craftsmanship of Hindu and Islamic architecture made each
stepwell constructed stylish and unique. The Islamic style offered the arched side-niches while
the Hindu architecture was full of decorative columns with figures. The fusion of Indo-Islamic
culture brought masterpieces of the stepwell. Stepwell the unique structure of water engineering
of the historic period is identified as the mesmerizing monument of water conservation in
ancient India.

INFERENCE

Stepwells are manmade pond which is highly decorated built to conserve water. Stepwells are
mostly found in arid regions of India which was introduced by Harappa‟s. The cities of western
India depended upon rainwater harvesting mainly for domestic purposes during summers. The
construction of stepwells was commissioned by royals, wealthy and powerful patrons as it was
considered meritorious and an act of charity. Stepwells served as leisure, religious purposes
other than domestic purposes. Chand baori the stepwell of Rajasthan is the deepest and has the
marvelous architecture with steps on three sides and pavilion on the fourth side. Rani Ki vav of
Gujarat has water sourced from the Sarasvati river to keep it alive even during summers. Adlaj
Ki vav of Gujarat is a great example of the fusion of Hindu and Muslim architecture. Sun temple
of Modhera has a fascinating geometrical pattern with steps to reach the water surface. Other
well-known stepwells were Agrasen Ki baoli, Rajan Ki baoli, and pushkarnis and Kalyani's of
Hampi.

The concept of stepwells was originated in India and has importance for its marvelous
architecture. Stepwells were used for domestic purposes; they retreated to travelers, and even
functioned as subterranean Hindu temples. Stepwells mainly had two parts, the storage tank/
12
well, and the stepped galleries with chambers to rest. Hindu and Islamic architecture both were
stylish and unique and fusion of both styles created a masterpiece of architecture. Water
exploitation has been a great concern and we should consider the traditional knowledge of
hydraulic engineering, revise it and apply it in today‟s date to overcome current water crises.

2.3 STUDY OF ANCIENT STEPWELLS IN INDIA, ADITI SINGH, SOMA A. MISHRA 4

The stepwells are the beauty of the subterranean architecture of Western India. The concept of
stepwell was originated in India. It is popular for its architectural perfection and hydraulic
engineering. The architectural aspects of a stepwell consist of a long corridor of steps leading
below the ground level to the water surface. Stepwell architecture is the most unique part of the
Indian architecture, because of the beautiful carvings of walls and pillars of these water sources.
Stepwells are deep dug trenches into the earth or rock-cut wells, or ponds of water reached by a
series of steps.

The stepwells of Gujarat attained unparalleled monumentality due to its intricately beautiful
carvings and hydraulic engineering. Stepwells are monuments resembling subterranean Hindu
temples as these stepwells are highly carved and richly decorated with sculptures of deities.

The three major constituents of stepwells are the vertical well shaft with an arrangement for
hauling up water by buckets, the stepped corridor leading down into the earth to water level, and
the intermediate towers like galleries/ pavilion built as chambers.

The hydraulic structures from Mohenjo-Daro are excellent examples of engineering and Indian
architecture. Stepwells were excavated deep into the earth to reach the underground water level.
Most of the stepwells served as leisure, religious and ceremonial purposes as well as domestic
purposes.

Chand Baori of Rajasthan - It is one of the finest examples of stepwells with 13 storey and 3500
steps which makes it one of the largest stepwells in India.

Rani ki Vav of Gujarat– This stepwell is multistoried pavilions and is a fine example of an
ornamented architecture of 11th Century A.D. It‟s located on the bank of river Saraswati and
that is why the well has water throughout the year. The architectural style of this stepwell

4
Mishra, A. The Radiant Raindrops of Rajasthan. New Delhi: Research foundation for science, technology and
ecology, 2011.

13
explains the complex system and the design form with more than five hundred sculptures and
carvings which shows the excellent style of craftsmanship and the height of the artisans.

Adalaj ki Vav of Gujarat -It is the fusion of Hindu and Islamic architecture built by Rani
Rudabai. This stepwell was a five-storied cultural and religious utilitarian space. There is an
opening in the ceiling above the landing which allows the light and air to enter the well which is
shaped like an octagon. However, direct sunlight does not reach the flight of steps or landings
except for a brief period at noon. The ambiance inside this stepwell is cooler than the outside.
Out of many stepwells in Gujarat, it is the only one with three entrance stairways and all the
walls carved by ornamentation and mythological scenes. (D. Pandey 2016)5 (S. Chandra 2015)6.

Considering the recent water crises in the country, stepwells are a good source of groundwater
enriched with minerals and give life to billion. So, we must understand the necessity of
maintaining these stepwells. Stepwells are excellent water conservation system which is
sustainable; the concept of stepwells can be replicated in the rest of the country especially in
water scare rural areas.

Elements and structural systems of stepwells –

1. Toda - A pair of ornate pillars at the entrance of a stepwell to mark its locations. They can be
very heavily embellished or very plain depending on the style and scale of the stepwell. They
typically contain a small niche to place an oil lamp.

2. Kuta - A landing between sets of steps in a stepwell to provide a place to stand and rest. Kutas
is typically covered by stacked pavilions divided into levels corresponding to previous Kutas.
The number of Kutas divides the types of stepwells.

3. Ardhakuta - A supporting arch, like a Kuta, but without a pavilion or landing.

4. Well shaft -The circular shaft provided at the end of the stepwell giving access to underground
water can be claimed as the well shaft (M. Joshi 2017)7.

5
Pandey, D. A. Bawdi: The Eloquent Example of Hydraulic Engineering and Ornamental Architecture.
International Journal of Research Granthaalayah, 2016.

6
Chandra, S. “Steps to water: Stepwells in India.” Chitrolekha International Magazine on Art and Design, 2015.

7
Joshi, M. Lesser Known Stepwells - In and Around Ahmedabad Gandhinagar Region. Urban Management Centre,
2017.

14
The main function of the stepwell is to supply water for domestic purposes. In the north western
region of India, the climate is hot and dry and water is available in plenty only for a few months
during the rainy season. Manmade ponds and reservoirs cannot retain their water for a long
period and the water becomes stale after a time. Stepwells can conserve water year-round and
are sunk deep into the earth and not exposed to heat and sun too much. As the stepwells fetch
their water from underground springs, they receive a constant flow of freshwater filtered through
the earth. Stepwells not only supplied water for household use and for personal needs like
washing clothes and bathing, but also for watering animals and irrigation purpose. The location
of stepwells within the village was preferable as stepwells not only served as a water source but
also acted as a cool and fresh retreat for the villagers to deal with the heat in the summer season.

The stepwell consisted of platforms, galleries, stone benches, staircases, the passages around the
well, and the beautiful ornamentation with sculptures, niches, friezes, and designs. Another
interesting feature of the stepwell is provided by the soil ingredients. The minerals, salts, and
other substances of the earth mixed in the water (Jain-Neubauer 1981)8.

In a semi-arid region, there was a need to construct stepwells to meet the drinking needs of
people during the dry season. They also serve as a cool and refreshing meeting place for women
to meet and, in some cases, served as a place for worship. These stepwells are well-known for
their ornamentation, sculptures, and carvings which functioned as subterranean temples.

INFERENCE

Stepwells are beautiful subterranean water structures reached by descending steps, whose
concept was originated in India by Indus valley civilization. Stepwells are known for their
hydraulic architecture and carvings on walls and pillars. The Hindu stepwells also functioned as
subterranean temples. The three main parts of these stepwells were the vertical shaft of the well,
the steps, and the gallery to rest. These hydraulic stepwells originated from Mohenjo-Daro and
which served as leisure, religious and domestic purposes. Chand baori of Rajasthan is the finest
example of stepwell architecture. Rani Ki vav of Gujarat is a great example of ornamented
architecture. Adlaj Ki vav of Gujarat is a fusion of Hindu Muslim architecture. The unique
feature of the stepwells is the play of light. The 4 elements of stepwells are toda, kurta,
ardhakuta, and well shaft. As rain is available only a few months in the north western region of
India there was a need for the introduction of a structure that would store and harvest water

8
Jain-Neubauer, J. The Stepwells of Gujarat - In Art- Historical Perspective. Edited by Shakti Malik. Vol. 1. New
Delhi: Abhinav Publication, 1981.

15
throughout the year as man-made ponds could not retain the water for a longer period.
Considering the current water crisis issue faced by the country, rejuvenating stepwell would help
in mitigating the depletion of groundwater.

2.4 TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING STRUCTURES AND SUSTAINABLE WATER

MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: A SOCIO-HYDROLOGICAL REVIEW BY SAYAN
BHATTACHARYA9

Water harvesting systems are Indian traditional technologies that have met the needs of local
populations for many centuries in arid regions of India. Stepwells are systems of longevity and
sustainability. It is simply defined as a method for collecting, storing, and conserving rainwater
for year-round usage. Stepwells are one of the oldest and most commonly used water
management systems in India.

Every region in India has its own traditional rainwater systems which include bamboo pipes and
Apatani systems of eastern Himalayas, Ghul of western Himalayas, Zabo and Cheo-ozihi of
northeastern India, Dongs, Garh, and Dara of Brahmaputra valley, Kund, Khadin, Talabs, Beri,
Johad, Baoli, etc. of Thar desert and Gujrat, the Havelis of Jabalpur, bandh and bandhulia of
Satna, virda of Gujarat, ahar-pynes of Bihar, Eri and Kulam of eastern coastal plains, Jackwells
of islands, which are highly efficient.

All the forts built in India in different terrains and climatic conditions had to have arrangements
for drinking water for the livability of the people and water formed the basis for all-round
development and prosperity. The step tanks were associated with old temples in south India
which were fed by harvested rainwater or by trapping underground springs. We should learn and
comprehend the ancient knowledge of these water engineering and apply it in our modern
society to get rid of the present water-stressed condition.

Water has symbolic value because of its reflection in our mind as a symbol of life. The
hydrological cycle of the globe can be referred to as water democracy because it is a system of
distributing water for all living beings. Providing water is essential for a country‟s development
objectives – job creation, food security, GDP growth, and social goals including poverty
reduction. Global consumption of water is doubling every 20 years, more than twice the rate of

9
Bhattacharya, S. Traditional Water Harvesting Structures and Sustainable Water Management in India: A Socio-
Hydrological Review. Vol. 37, 30-38. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 2015.

16
human population growth. Mismanagement and unsustainable use of water are making the
whole situation environmentally uncomfortable for India (UNESCO 2009)10.
The rain falling on the surface of the earth tends to run off, leaving very little for the recharge of
the groundwater table. The groundwater availability in the Indian sub-continent is complex due
to diversified geological formations, climatic variations, and changing hydro-chemical
environments. Natural replenishment of the groundwater reservoir is slow and is unable to keep
pace with the excessive exploitation of groundwater resources. This has resulted in declining
groundwater. The modern water resource development projects are proved to be ecologically
damaging, socially intrusive, capital intensive, and unsustainable. Due to the depletion of
groundwater level, degrading quality and pollution of surface water bodies has reduced the
ability of urban areas to increase water supply potential. People are finding alternative sources of
water supply and water conservation. Water harvesting is a system helping in the collection and
storage of rainwater that runs off from the surface of the earth.

The amount of water harvested depends on the frequency and intensity of rainfall, catchment
characteristics, water demands, and how much runoff occurs and how quickly or how easy it is
for the water to infiltrate through the subsoil and percolate down to recharge the aquifers
(Srinivasan 2000)11.

There are various types of systems to harvest rainwater in India ranging from very simple to
complex industrial systems. Water-harvesting systems were significantly developed from ancient
times in urban areas and rural areas of some of the aridest and water-stressed regions of the
country such as Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat and Western Rajasthan (Agarwal A. 1997)12.

For the people of these regions, water harvesting was not a technique, but a part of their culture
and was deeply embedded in the socio-cultural frames. The major advantages of rainwater

10
UNESCO. World Water Assessment Programme. The United Nations World Water Development Report 3:
Water in a changing world, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2011.
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3/pdf/WWDR3_Water_in_a_Changing_World .pdf.

11
Srinivasan, R.K., Babu S.S.V. A Water Harvesting Manual for Urban Areas. New Delhi, India.: Centre for
Science and Environment, 2000.

12
Agarwal A., Narain S. “Dying Wisdom: Rise, fall, and potential of India's traditional water harvesting systems,
(State of India's Environment – A Citizens' report, No. 4), New Delhi.” Centre for Science & Environment (CSE),
1997: 11-12.

17
harvesting are that it is simple, cheap, replicable, efficient, sustainable, and adaptable (Reiz
1998)13.

It can be implemented in small-scale, can be operated easily, highly adaptive, and requires low
cost; and therefore, it is ideally suited to the socioeconomic and biophysical conditions of
semiarid rural areas. Rainwater harvesting also has been shown to improve water use efficiency,
reduce soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and increase agricultural productivity (Li 2000)14.

Kunds /Kundis: Kunds have a saucer-shaped catchment area that slopes towards the center
where the well is situated. Debris is prevented from falling into the well-pit by a wire mesh
across water-inlets. The sides of the well-pit are waterproof covered with lime and ash, the water
is protected by the lid on the top and the kunds are made by using locally available materials like
pond silt, charcoal ash, and small gravels. Water is usually drawn out with a bucket. The depth
and diameter of kunds usually depend on consumption patterns and capacity required. Kunds are
privately owned by individual households or by caste groups. It is calculated that a kund having
a 100 square meter catchments area with 100 mm effective annual rainfall could easily collect
10000 liters of water. The rainfall data collected shows that areas with 100 mm rainfall can use
the kund system very effectively (Bhalge 2007)15.

Kuis / Beris: Found in western Rajasthan, they are 10-12 m deep pits dug into the earth as tanks
to collect the seepage of rainwater. The mouth of the pit is usually made very narrow which
prevents the evaporation of the stored water. The pit gets wider as it burrows under the ground,
so that water can seep into a large surface area. The openings are covered with planks (Dhiman
S.C. 2011)16 .

13
Reiz, C., Maulder, P., Begemann, L. Water harvesting for plant production. Washington, DC, USA.: World Bank
Technical Paper 91, 1998.

14
Li, F., Cook, S., Geballe, G.T. and Burch, W.R., Jr. Rainwater harvesting agriculture: An integrated system for
water management on rain-fed land in China’s semi-arid areas. Vol. 29, 477–483. AMBIO, 2000.

15
Bhalge, P., and Bhavsar, C. “Water management in the arid and semi-arid zone: Traditional wisdom.”
International History Seminar on Irrigation and Drainage, Tehran-Iran (International History Seminar on Irrigation
and Drainage, Tehran-Iran), 2007: 423-428.

16
Dhiman S.C., Gupta S. “Rainwater Harvesting and Artificial Recharge.” Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of
Water Resources, New Delhi, 2011.

18
Khadins: It is a runoff agricultural system, in which, the runoff water from the high catchment
area is stored with the help of a bund called Khadin where it is impounded during the monsoon
season. The system is working on the principle of rainwater harvesting. The soils remain moist
for a long period because of water storage and help in maintaining soil fertility.

Nadis: Nadi is ponds used for storing rainwater from natural catchment areas. They can retain
water for 4 to 12 months. Nadis have been severely polluted because of poor maintenance and
negligence, destruction of catchment areas, and uncontrolled urbanization.

Talabs: It is a type of water harvesting structure used as a reservoir situated in valleys and water
collected in natural depressions. Beris is the wells found in the bed of the talab.

Tankas/ Tanks: Tankas (small tank) are underground structures and mostly found in the houses
of Bikaner. They are built in the main house or the courtyard. They were circular holes made in
the ground, lined with finely polished lime, in which rainwater was collected. Tankas were often
beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep the water cool. In contrast, tanks are
generally constructed with large walls on four sides and an almost impermeable floor, with
enormous water holding capacity. The tanks are provided with a large catchment area and a
system of canals. The oldest tank of Jodhpur is Fatehsagar, which was built in 1780 (Dhiman
S.C. 2011)17.

Virdas: Virdas are shallow holes that are made in the sands of dry riverbeds and lakes for
collecting water. They are found in Banni grasslands, a part of the Great Rann of Kutch in
Gujarat. In Virdas, the sweet freshwater remains in the upper layer from which the water is
collected, and the saline water remains below the freshwater zone because of its higher density.
The harvesting system depends on the grass cover of the adjacent areas which is essential for
free infiltration of groundwater (Environment n.d.)18.

Naada/ Bandha: Naada/ Bandha are found in the Mewar region of the Thar desert. It is a stone
check dam that is constructed across a stream or gully to capture monsoon runoff on a stretch of

17
Dhiman S.C., Gupta S. “Rainwater Harvesting and Artificial Recharge.” Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of
Water Resources, New Delhi, 2011.

18
Environment, Centre for Science and. Rainwater Harvesting.
http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/rural/Traditional3.html.

19
land. Because of submergence in water, the land becomes fertile as silt deposits on it and the soil
retains a substantial amount of nutrients (Agarwal A. 1997)19.

Johads: Stone and mud barriers are built across the contour of the slope to arrest rainwater. They
have high embankments on three sides while the fourth side is left open for rainwater to enter. A
Johad prevents rainwater from running off, allowing it to percolate into the ground, recharging
water aquifers, and improve the water balance of the earth. Fisheries are also developed because
of Johad (Borthakur 2008)20.

Stepwells or Baoli: These are wells or ponds in which the water is reached by descending a set
of steps. They are covered and protected structures of the water system and have architectural
significance. They are multi-storied hence they have a bullock to turn the water wheel to raise
the water in the well to higher floors. The stepwell ensures water during the drought in Gujarat
and Rajasthan. The stepwells provided water for drinking, as well as leisure purposes because
the stepwells had a lower temperature and provided relief from the harsh sun. Stepwells were
also a place for social gatherings and religious ceremonies. Women were more associated with
stepwells because they were the ones who collected the water. Stepwells consist of two parts: a
vertical well shaft from which water is drawn and the subterranean passageways with chambers,
and steps that reach the elaborately carved water level.

Jhalara: It is meant for community use and religious rites. It is rectangular and has steps on three
or four sides.

Our environment has lost its purity physically and culturally. Our ecology is degrading because
of human activities, development, and technological advancement. It is a need to save our water
resources and our environment. We need to create strategies and policies for managing our
water resources. Modern solutions should be derived from traditional knowledge developed in
the ancient age to get rid of the present water-stressed condition which was a basis for
development and prosperity. We need to respect and restore ancient water resources structures
for society and the future.

19
Agarwal A., Narain S. “Dying Wisdom: Rise, fall, and potential of India's traditional water harvesting systems,
(State of India's Environment – A Citizens' report, No. 4), New Delhi.” Centre for Science & Environment (CSE),
1997: 11-12.

20
Borthakur, S. “Traditional rainwater harvesting techniques and its applicability. .” Indian Journal of Traditional
Knowledge, 8(4) , 2008: 525-530.

20
INFERENCE

The age-old sustainable water harvesting systems of India have helped to deal during dry months
in the arid region. Every region of India has its different methods of water harvesting depending
on its geography and hydrogeology which include bamboo pipes and Apatani systems of eastern
Himalayas, Ghul of western Himalayas, Zabo and Cheo-ozihi of northeastern India, Dongs,
Garh, and Dara of Brahmaputra valley, Kund, Khadin, Talabs, Beri, Johad, Baoli, etc. of Thar
desert and Gujrat, the Havelis of Jabalpur, bandh and bandhulia of Satna, virda of Gujarat, ahar-
pynes of Bihar, Eri and Kulam of eastern coastal plains, Jackwells of islands. The stepwells of
India were as elegant as the forts and palaces which showed the wealth, position, and power of
the ruler. Temples in South India have got huge tanks associated with them used for the religious
dip of purifying the soul before entering the temple. All the step tanks and ponds have a natural
source of water.

We should gain knowledge of these stepwells and use it in today's time to get rid of the water
crises faced by the country. Every year water demand increases and rains are getting scanty, the
modern solutions are just unsustainable and are ecologically damaging. There is pressure to find
a modern solution rather than reviving the existing age-old stepwells. We need to create policies,
strategies, and guidelines for managing water resource and comprehend the ancient knowledge
of stepwells and apply to modern society.

2.5 THE VANISHING STEPWELLS OF INDIA BY VICTORIA LAUTMAN, FOREWORD

BY DIVAY GUPTA21

The word “Cistern” is a Western term for a geographical water feature that explains stepwell.
Stepwell gives access to a water source for a community which is also a social gathering space.
A Roman bath with its surrounding architecture was also a place for socializing, gives us an idea
about the Indian stepwells.

Victoria Lautman explains the historical background, cultural and social significance, and
general architectural features of the stepwells. Stepwells are located in a local natural and social
environment. Stepwells have got deep history and distinctive architectural features which makes
every stepwell unique.

21
Gupta, Divay. The Vanishing Stepwells Of India by Victoria Lautman. London, New York: Merrell Publishers -
merrellpublishers.com, 2017.

21
Stepwells invited one to spend time at them while providing access to the water source. Steps
served as seats and also were the path to the water, and also stepwells had chambers where a
person could stay parking their animals to get out of harsh heat, meditate or perform religious
ceremonies.

These stepwells are in a state of neglect and ruin, with the introduction of plumbing. Due to the
changes in the design of residential structures that changed the community demographics, the
stepwells were no longer a central part of a community and with this, no one took interest or
responsibility to safeguard stepwells. Today, with the interest in ethnic and national cultures,
stepwells are given attention for its architecture and the Indian stepwells are now among the top
level of world architectural treasures.

INFERENCE

Stepwells was a place of social gathering which was similar to the roman bath. Stepwells were
considered as resting space or place to stay overnight avoiding harsh heat during the day and was
used to perform religious ceremonies or rituals.

Currently, most of the stepwells are disuse or misused and in the neglected state due to the
introduction of the modern plumbing system, change in demographics of the community, etc
stepwells have lost its significance. Nobody took interest to upkeep the brilliant architectural
structures and was used as dumping yards or latrines. Due to attention paid by NGOs and
UNESCO stepwells are considered world topmost architectural treasures.

2.6 VALUE ASSESSMENT TOWARDS WATER-RELATED ARCHITECTURAL

CONSERVATION- A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF BUNDI RAJASTHAN BY
AR.SHUBHANGI KADAM AND PROF. S. A. DESHPANDE22

An urban area in Rajasthan called Bundi is known as „City of Stepwells‟. As the rainfall is
scarce in this semi-arid region, we see intricate, unique, and different architectural masterpieces
for storing water called stepwells. Stepwells create relationships between water and building and
they are a unique architectural contribution, having socio-cultural values. Stepwells have lost its

22
Prof.S.A.Deshpande, Ar.Shubhangi Kadam and. Value assessment towards water-related architectural
conservation- A qualitative study of Bundi Rajasthan. For the National Conference on „Emerging Trends in
Architecture and Allied Fields'.

22
significance and it is the need of the hour is to revive, restore, reuse, and revitalize them by
integrating them in the urban fabric to help reduce the burden of water shortage.

“At the same time, this deteriorated state can also accelerate the transition towards sustainability
and again proved to be a connector of societal development today as it did in the times of ancient
and traditional water management practices.”

Articulating the values for water-related architectural conservation is important for the future of
a historical asset. Recommendations, guidelines, strategies, and policies would help to enrich
these spaces and structures.

Conservation of stepwells is an approach to architectural conservation and water conservation

which helps in the understanding of environmental issues, structural issues, and visual issues.
The study and assessment involve heritage value assessment, water value assessment, people‟s
perceptions, expectations, aspirations, and attitudes to investigate the significance and suggest
intervention. Recommendations would help to form guidelines, strategies, and policies to protect
these structures. The Venice charter 1964 conveys a message that the historic assets remain to
the present day as living witnesses of their age-old traditions and it is the common responsibility
to safeguard them for future generations.

The study aims to identify the role of existing traditional water management systems, which is
worth conserving in the local context, and the application of values for assessment towards its
conservation. The stepwells have got potential to contribute to future generations and help to
value the fabric of a place. The revival and conservation of the traditional water supply system
should be made a part of the planning process and should be added to the development plan.

In the cities, sustainable landscape design such as the provision of swales, infiltration-trenches,
and bio-retention systems will help to percolate water into the ground which would help to
collect stormwater runoff at these traditional stepwells which in return would also enhance
biodiversity and maintain the historic character.

INFERENCE

An urban area in Rajasthan called Bundi is known as „City of Stepwells‟. As rainfall is scanty in
the arid region, water is given the status of a goddess and worshipped hence we can see intricate,
unique, and different architecture stepwells. Stepwells were used to store water which was
accessed via a flight of stairs. Stepwells contribute to the socio-cultural values of a community
serving the purpose of leisure and religious purposes. Stepwells are an example of sustainable
architecture and they are known for their longevity. In today's time stepwells have lost its
23
importance due to modern implications and its need of the hour to revive, restore, reuse, and
revitalize them to deal with current water crises. We have to conserve these structures for our
future generation as stepwells are the world's topmost architecture. Guidelines, strategies, and
policies would help us to protect, conserve, and change the condition of these stepwells. We
need to conserve the values of our existing traditional water harvesting system and comprehend
it in modern times. In the urban areas, the provision of swales, infiltration-trenches, bio-retention
systems induced in landscape design will help to percolate water into the ground and to direct
the stormwater runoff to the collection points which are stepwells and step tanks/ponds which
would enhance biodiversity. The modern problem need not have modern solutions; we need to
look back at our ancient traditional knowledge which is sustainable.

2.7 STEPWELL BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.23

Stepwells have a cylindrical well that extended down to the water table as a vertical shaft which
provides water for domestic purposes and the irrigation of crops. Stepwells were structures
excavated several stories underground to reach the water table. It was essential to guarantee
year-round water supply for human needs, particularly in the arid regions of northwestern hence
the concept of stepwells were discovered. They also served as cool sanctuaries for caravans,
pilgrims, and travelers protecting from the heat of the day or let them halt overnight. Stepwells
were commissioned by the royal, wealthy, or powerful patrons as it was considered meritorious
or part of a charity. Stepwells had complex engineering and were of both Hindu and Islamic
architectural styles. Over the centuries, stepwell design evolved into astoundingly complex
structures.

Hindu and Muslim architecture were unique in themselves as Hindu architecture featured
column-supported shade pavilions and elaborate stone carvings with deities whereas Islamic
versions had incorporated arched side-niches and geometric or floral patterns. Both architectural
types had cylinder vertical well shaft where pulley systems were provided.

Stepwells fell in disuse and were abandoned because of modernization and depletion in the
groundwater table. Local communities neglected their upkeep, allowing them to silt up, form
latrines, fill with garbage or crumble into ruin. Stepwells were destroyed during British rule
(1858–1947), considering them to be unhygienic breeding grounds for disease. The current water

23
Stepwell. Inc. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 04 December 2019. https://www.britannica.com/technology/stepwell
(accessed April 27, 2020).
24
crisis in India has generated interest among people to conserve these stepwells, and the
government has taken a step forward to preserve and bring them back to life by de-silting them.

In dry seasons the steps had to be negotiated to reach the water surface but during the rainy
season the trench was transformed into a large cistern and steps were submerged to the surface
of the land.

Covered pavilions provide shade while the wall buttresses the earth's pressure. Stepwells are
gradual which helps to block the sun and channelize the wind which lowers the temperature.
Stepwells are built underground rather than above, creation of reverse architecture. These
manmade subterranean structures are a sense of surprise with the play of light and shadow.

Stepwells in varying degrees of grandeur had been built throughout India depending on region
and commission. Stepwells were mainly located along important remote trade routes, where
travelers and pilgrims could park their animals and rest in the covered chambers. Stepwells were
public monuments, to both genders and every religion except for the lowest-caste Hindu.

These stepwells are believed to be commissioned by one-fourth of wealthy or powerful female

philanthropists. It was considered extremely meritorious to commission a stepwell. Considering
women would do household chores and fetching water was a task assigned to women and this
lead to the gathering of women in stepwells which was turned into social space.

Stepwells are unique as each one has its own scale, layout, materials, and shape: they can be
rectangular, circular, or L-shaped; they can be built from masonry, rubble, or brick; and they can
have as many as four separate entrances. Stepwells are not identical as it depended on where,
when, and by whom they were commissioned to be built.

Stepwells built by Hindus even functioned as subterranean temples, with carved images of the
male and female deities to whom the stepwells were dedicated which formed a spiritual
backdrop for ritual bathing, prayers, and offerings.

Rani ki Vav of Gujarat – This stepwell was commissioned by Queen Udayamati and it is 64
meters long and 20 meters wide. After Muslim rule began in India, stepwells shifted in their
design both structurally and decoratively. Whereas Hindu builders used post and lintel in
construction, Muslim style featured arches and domes. Hindu artists carved sculptures on
columns and friezes packed with deities, humans, and animals, but Islam forbade depictions of
any creatures and used floral or geometric patterns.

25
Rudabai Vav and Dada Harir Vav of Gujarat - Both are five stories deep with octagonal
subterranean well, each commissioned by a female patron. These stepwells were commissioned
under Islamic authority using Hindu artisans. Hence you notice each stepwell is elaborately
decorated but with the absence of deities and human figures.

Today these stepwells are in disuse and negligence. These stepwells had been claimed
unhygienic grounds for parasites and disease by the Britishers and were barricaded, filled in, or
otherwise destroyed. Modern technology like taps, plumbing, and water tanks, are the primary
reason for stepwells losing their significance. Stepwells were ignored by their communities;
hence they have become garbage dumps, latrines, used as storage areas, mined for their stone, or
just left to decay. Unregulated pumping has to lead to depletion of groundwater from caused
these wells to dry up when water was present; the water was fouled by garbage or with
overgrown vegetation. Hindu stepwells even functioned as subterranean temples. Stagnant water
was the least of it.

The stepwells are deteriorating and it‟s the need of the hour to de-silt, conserve and reactivate
these structures. This gives us hope that these stepwells may once again serve to collect and
store water. We need to create interest among people on these remarkable but disappearing
structures.

INFERENCE

Stepwells are cylindrical well with steps extended down to the water table. Stepwells are used
for domestic, irrigation, leisure, and religious purposes. Stepwells are commissioned by royal,
wealthy, or powerful patrons as it was considered meritorious and an act of charity. Hindu and
Islamic architecture are 2 different styles whose fusion created masterpieces. Currently,
stepwells are abandoned and misused by using it as garbage yard, latrine, etc., Britishers
destroyed and filled up a few considering it to be the breeding ground for disease. Water crises
in India have brought interest in stepwells to preserve and revive them. The design of stepwell
evolved every time it was built depending on region, ruler, and period. Stepwells were mainly
constructed to harvest water in arid regions of India for dry months. The construction of
stepwells is not easy as water is not easy to trap; the construction had to counter the earth's mass.
Stepwell not only consisted of a well shaft but it also had a pavilion that had less temperature
comparing the ground temperature used for resting purposes. Hence these stepwells were called
retreat wells and in arid regions were located on important trade routes which formed a business
center. It is said that all except the lower caste Hindu were allowed to access the stepwells. Most
of the patrons of these stepwells were female as household chores were managed by females and

26
were built for their deceased husbands or sons. Stepwells are categorized by their scale, layout,
materials, and shape. Most of the Hindu stepwells functioned as subterranean temples due to its
religious carvings on walls and pillars. The marvelous Rani Ki vav stepwell was commissioned
by Queen Udaymati, Rudabai Vav, and Dada Harir Vav was also commissioned by female
patronage and was a fusion of Hindu and Islamic style of architecture.

These stepwells were filled up or destroyed as it was considered as the grounds to spread disease
by the Britishers. Also, the introduction of taps and individual water tanks were the reason to
lose the significance of the traditional stepwells, these structures were turned into garbage
dumps, latrines, etc. and left to decay destroying them. The de-silting in Delhi and Gujarat has
raised awareness and created interest to preserve these stepwells.

2.8 STEPWELLS OF SOUTHERN RAJASTHAN BY DEV PRATAP SINGH RATHORE

AND K.P. SINGH DEORA24
Water is an essential element associated with human life. We need water not only for drinking
but for cultivating the food grains. As there was no big river in Gujarat and Rajasthan, the
problem of water supply becomes acute during the non-rainy season. Construction of various
types of artificial water harvesting structures like lakes, ponds, wells, and stepwells have helped
to overcome this problem. Among all the types of water structures, stepwell attracted the most
attention of art historians with its hydraulic engineering and intricate carving. Traditional
knowledge and technology of constructing wells have been developed during the Harappa times.
Evidence of such systems comes from Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira.

The amazing aspect of this traditional water management system is its sustainability and
longevity. They were an essential rain harvesting, groundwater recharge, and storage system.
Stepwells express what water, art, and architecture meant for simple folk. The stepwells of
Rajasthan have different ornamental decorative designs that reflect the religious attachment and
faith. Hence the stepwell is credited as an architectural monument of great beauty. As stepwells
are multi-storied a bullock turns the water wheel to raise the water in the well to different floors.
The main function of stepwells is to supply water, but because stepwells have galleries they are

24
Deora, Dev Pratap Singh Rathore and K.P. Singh. “Step-Wells of Southern Rajasthan.” Dept. of Tourism
and Dept. of History, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan.

27
also used as cool retreats from the summer for villagers and travelers making it a combined
utilitarian purpose with pleasure resort.

The stepwell is the unique construction of a well with steps either on one side, two, three, or on
all the four sides leading to the water surface. Single-faced stepwell is also known as Nanda
Baori, two-faced is Bhadra Baori, three-faced is Jaya Baori (R. K. Singh 2008)25 and four-faced
is known as Vijaya Baori (Hegewald 2002)26.

Some of the famous and unique stepwells of Udaipur are Trimukhi Baori, Bedvas ki Baori,
Sarvrituvilas ki Baori, Sunderbav, Bhuvana ki Baori and Naulakha Baori. Some of the stepwells
have inscriptions that explain the technical aspects, management, and construction of stepwells.
These stepwells were used for storing water for summers. The stepwell was a combination of a
utilitarian device and a pleasure resort as they provided water and cool resting places for
villagers and travelers. Stepwell is one of the best examples of the vernacular architecture of the
water harvesting system. The construction of these stepwells depends upon natural geographical
features, types of soil, rainfall, groundwater level, distinctive style of the respective regions,
nature of the patronage under which they were commissioned, and their religious norms.

Due to urbanization and the introduction of the tap water system, stepwells are in disuse and
disintegration. Stepwells have lost their function of water supply and storage and they are
neglected. Water harvesting was an integral part of our culture and community life. At present,
stepwells have lost their significance. Stepwells are great examples of Indian architecture. We
should protect and conserve the tradition and technology of Stepwells.

INFERENCE

Water is one of the essential elements associated with human life. As Gujarat and Rajasthan do
not have a perennial river it was important for them to come up with a water harvesting
technique that would store water for a longer period and that is how stepwells came into being.
From the evidence, it is said that Harappa civilizations started with the concept of stepwells in
India. Stepwells are known for their longevity, sustainability, aesthetic beauty, decorative
designs, and construction techniques. Stepwells were used to store water to use it during

25
Singh, Rohit Kumar. Rajasthan Sujas. Jaipur: Rajasthan Jansampark Vibhag, 2008.

26
Hegewald, Julia. A. B. Water Architecture in South Asia: A Study of Types, Development and Meaning. Leiden:
Koninklijke Brill NV, 2002.
28
summers and dry months. Stepwells are the best example of vernacular architecture. The
construction of these stepwells also reflects several influences of natural geographical features,
types of soil, rainfall, groundwater level, distinctive style concerning its regions, nature of the
patronage under which they were commissioned, and their religious significance. Stepwells are
in disuse and have been disintegrated due to negligence. We should protect our traditional
stepwells and revive this technique of water harvesting.

2.9 ECOLOGICAL TRADITIONS OF INDIA BY M. AMIRTHALINGAM27

Water wells have played a key role in the architecture of India. Excavation has proved the
existence of step wells in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Step wells can be defined as multi-storied
structures such as wells or ponds in which water may be accessed by descending a flight of
steps. These wells were constructed in arid regions of India to provide water during the drought.
Stepwells reflected the deep faith in the water god which is recounted even in the Vedas.

Stepwells fulfill the drinking water needs of the people, associated with colorful festivals and
sacred rituals. Gujarat is famous as the land of vavs or step wells since it is an area with scanty
rainfall. Stepwells go by different names in different parts of the country based on their
language. An interesting feature is that the direct sunlight cannot penetrate into the well, the
evaporation of water is thus reduced and the water gets filtered from the earth, thus remaining
pure and fresh. These stepwells are constructed such that they can withstand earthquakes to a
scale of 7.6 on the Richter scale.

Stepwells are constructed in different forms, plans, and structures, and designs according to the
region and climate. These stepwells not only fulfilled the need for water but also acted as cool
retreats by preventing direct sunlight. The walls and pillars of the stepwells were decorated with
sculptures and deities. These stepwells also acted as a subterranean temple.

The stepwell is divided into four categories based on the number of flights - Nanda, is the most
common and least complicated type, with one flight of steps leading to the shaft, Bhadra has two
flights of steps aligned in line with the shaft in the middle, Jaya has three flights of steps
perpendicular to the adjacent ones and arranged in three directions around the central shaft and
Vijaya is similar to Jaya but is stepped in four directions.

27
Amirthalingam, M. Ecological Traditions of India. Vols. Volume - Xi . Gujarat: C.P.R. Environmental
Education Centre.

29
Stepwells consist of two parts, a vertical well shaft from which water was drawn and the inclined
subterranean passageways with chambers, and steps providing access to the water level. The
pavilions and chamber walls and pillars were highly decorated by carvings which became cool
retreats during summers for villagers and travelers.

Rani ki Vav of Gujarat- It is a magnificent structure with intricately ornamented columns,

brackets, and beams. It is said that the last step of the well leads to a small gate which is the
entrance to a 30 km long tunnel which is now blocked by stones and mud which was an escape
route for the king during the war.

Adalaj Vav of Gujarat- It is a fine example of Indo-Islamic architecture, built by Queen Rudabai
in 1499 CE. It is a five-storied stepwell combining Islamic, Hindu, and Jain motifs. The well
shaft is octagonal and is built out of sandstone which is richly ornamented. Stepwell creates a
play of light and shade which makes it look different during different times of the day. The
temperature inside the well is lower than the outside temperature as direct sunlight is blocked.
Stepwells formed a social gathering space as women who came to fetch water spent time chit-
chatting and worshipping the water gods.

Mehdi talao, Vada talao, water channels, various forts, including the Atak Fort, which to date
has 83 catapult structures. The palace has a few rooms and bathtubs complete with the ancient
version of jacuzzi (M. Joshi 2017)28.

Gebanshah‟s Vav of Gujarat – This stepwell is 80 feet deep. In general, steps have got covered
landings which are called kutas. The stepwell is open to the sky supported with beams and
pillars crossing one another at angles. Ornamentation is minimal in kumbhas below beams lining
the well walls. The well is 20 meters deep and 50 meters wide with the well shaft having a
diameter of 6 meters.

Helical Stepwell of Gujarat– It has a 1.2-meter-wide staircase that spirals down along the wall of
the well shaft. The city of Champaner is known as “The city of a thousand wells”. At the well of
Gebanshah, the well is visible with a long line of beams and the flight of steps leading to the
shaft. There is also a brick parapet wall around the shaft with the flight of steps leading into the
well. These stone steps are narrower towards the center and wider at the wall made of brick.
There are several landings where people can take rest. This stepwell is unique because of its

28
Joshi, M. Lesser Known Stepwells - In and Around Ahmedabad Gandhinagar Region. Urban Management
Centre, 2017.

30
circular stairway leading down to the water. The Pavagadh hills are known as `The hills of a
hundred pools which contain many pools and ponds.

Dada Harir Vav of Gujarat- This is a Nanda type stepwell with the staircase leading to the water
level in the east-west direction with several landings and eastern side of the well, there is an
open octagonal pavilion with the circular well shaft. There is a rectangular tank for storing
water. The well is designed in five levels with finely sculptured pillars and volute capitals,
niches are finely sculptured stonework and parapets of Kumbha or geometric friezes. There are
stone ledges for people to take rest and each stair contains a square domed kiosk with an
overhanging chajja (cover of a roof). The pillars and platforms are raised vertically on top of the
other. The steps are open to the sky, whereas the kutas (landings) are closed with stone slabs.
There are passageways at all levels which connect the shaft to the octagonal space above the
tank.

Adi-Kadi Vav of Gujarat- Located at the foot of the Girnar hills, Adi-Kadi vav, and Naugham
Kuva has got a zig-zag staircase which is unique about them. Most of the Indian stepwells are
dug into the earth and the columns, floors, stairs, and walls are built in the normal way; in these
two wells, they have been hewn out of the single rock stone and is Nanda type of well.

Navghan Kuvo of Gujarat – It is built out of the soft rock, and a flight of spiral stairs leads down
52 meters to the water. The vertical well shaft is square and openings in the sidewall let the light
in. The well is surrounded by a large forecourt.

Stepwells served as subterranean temples because of beautiful carving with various pastoral
scenes, dancers, and musicians from the scenes from the Hindu epics.

Due to the modern technology of plumbing and the British rule led to the gradual decline of the
stepwells and stepwells fell into disuse or became the dumping ground for garbage and latrine.
Due to increasing awareness among the general public by NGOs and by the recognition by
UNESCO, there is a renewed interest in restoring and maintaining the stepwells to their original
state.

INFERENCE

Mohenjo-Daro is evidence of the existence of traditional stepwells. Stepwells were constructed

to store water and supply during summers in the arid regions of India. They supplied water for
drinking, festivals, and rituals. These stepwells have got different names based on different
contexts and languages throughout India. Sunlight plays a major role in this structure to make it
comfortable. Stepwells can withstand earthquakes and floods of the higher range shows the
31
study of geography and hydrogeology. Stepwells consist of two parts the well shaft and staircase
leading down to the surface of the water. Stepwells have got 4 categories depending on the
number of the staircases– Nanda, Bhadra, Jaya, and Vijaya. Rani Ki vav of Gujrat is richly
carved stepwell, Adlaj is a fine example of Indo-Islamic architecture, built by Queen Rudabai, a
stepwell in Champaner has got helical staircase, Adi Khadi vav of Gujrat has a zig-zag staircase
and other interesting stepwells are Pavagadh Vav of Gujarat, Gebanshah‟s Vav of Gujarat, Dada
Harir Vav of Gujarat and Navghan Kuvo of Gujarat. Hindu stepwells also served as subterranean
temples with spiritual carvings as its backdrop. Modern technology and British rule led to the
decline of stepwells and wells fell into disuse becoming dumping yards or latrines. Due to
increasing awareness among the general public by NGOs and by the recognition by UNESCO,
there is a renewed interest in restoring and upkeeping or maintaining the stepwells to their
original state.

2.10 THE FORGOTTEN STEPWELLS: THOUSANDS OF MASTERPIECES IN

ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND CRAFTSMANSHIP PROVIDE A WINDOW
INTO INDIA‟S PAST29

Stepwells are magnificent architectural structures found in India that provided access to the
underground water resource, which retained water throughout the year. Stepwells were initially
built for the utilitarian purpose of storing water for dry seasons but were also used as cool
retreats. In arid regions, stepwells collected water during the rainy seasons which could then be
used throughout the rest of the year which in return avoided flooding. For stepwells to function
efficiently they had to be large and deep enough according to the amount of rainfall received.

Stepwells were not only utilitarian structures but were also an artistic masterpiece.

Adalaj Vav: While this stepwell was being built, a neighboring Muslim ruler invaded the area
and disposed of the king. The conqueror fell in love with the widowed queen and wanted to
marry her. The queen demanded that her late husband‟s stepwell be completed in return for her
hand in marriage. The ruler agreed and continued the construction of the Adalaj Vav. The result
was a stepwell that blended Islamic architecture with Hindu symbolism and contained intricate
carvings of flora and fauna. The story has a tragic ending, though, as the queen, after inspecting

29
Dhwty. The Forgotten Stepwells: Thousands of Masterpieces in Engineering, Architecture, and Craftsmanship
Provide a Window into India’s Past. 12 February 2017. https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-
asia/forgotten-stepwells-thousands-masterpieces-engineering-architecture-021219 (accessed April 2020).

32
the stepwell when it was almost completed, committed suicide by throwing herself down into the
structure.

Whilst there are many stepwells in India today, a number of them have been forgotten and left to
decay. This abandonment is not an entirely new phenomenon. During the British rule, for
example, stepwells were viewed as unhygienic, as they were thought to be breeding grounds for
diseases and parasites. As a result, the authorities had many stepwells barricaded, filled in, or
simply destroyed. Today, modern water supply systems, such as taps and water tanks, have also
reduced dependency on stepwells. Consequently, some stepwells have become rubbish dumps
and latrines, whilst others have been turned into storage areas, quarried for their stone, or just
left to deteriorate. In late 2014, it was reported that officials in Delhi authorized the de-silting
and restoration of five medieval stepwells, following the successful work that was carried out on
two others. Thus, there is hope that these historical monuments will receive the care and
attention they deserve. Moreover, some Indian engineers are also reported to have drawn
inspiration from these ancient structures to design new tanks for water collection.

INFERENCE

Stepwells stored rainwater and groundwater providing water supply during summers. These
stepwells are artistic masterpieces and not only utilitarian structures. Adlaj Ki vav is a fine
example of the fusion of Hindu and Muslim architecture. Many stepwells are abandoned and left
to decay. Britishers considered it to be unhygienic grounds for the breeding of disease and
destroyed them. The modern plumbing system has disconnected us from traditional water
harvesting techniques. De-silting the stepwells in Delhi has generated interest among people to
save these ancient structures. It is also said that some Indian engineers have drawn inspiration
from these ancient structures to design new tanks for water collection.

2.11 THE ASTONISHING (VANISHING) STEPWELLS OF INDIA, WRITTEN

BY VICTORIA LAUTMAN30
“The ground fell away and was replaced by an elaborate, man-made chasm the length and depth
of which I couldn‟t fathom. It was disorienting and even transgressive; we are, after all,
conditioned to look up at architecture, not down into it, and I had no clue as to what I was
looking at. Descending into the subterranean space only augmented the disorientation, with

30
Lautman, Victoria. The Astonishing (Vanishing) Stepwells of India. 2017. https://www.archdaily.com/878527/the-
astonishing-vanishing-stepwells-of-india (accessed March 2020).

33
telescoping views and ornate, towering columns that paraded five stories into the earth. At the
bottom, above-ground noises became hushed, harsh light had dimmed, and the intense mid-day
heat cooled considerably. It was like stepping into another world.”

Thousands of stepwells are found throughout the subcontinent, predominantly in India, and the
beginning of these stepwells is dated around 600 C.E. stepwells were the first and foremost
efficient sustainable water-harvesting systems. These structures are spectacular, marvels of
architecture, engineering, and craftsmanship. Stepwells are steps hiding in plain sight. For 1500
years, stepwells were significant structures in communities by providing water for domestic use
especially in arid regions. Stepwells which have been preserved and maintained is the
incomparable Rani ki Vav in Gujarat which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
2014. Stepwells are architectural endangered species.

The main purpose of a stepwell was to provide water for drinking, washing, and irrigation
throughout the year. In dry seasons, as the water level would go down the number of steps to
reach the water surface would be the plenty and rainy season it would be vice versa, hence there
were pulley and bullock water wheel to lift water to upper levels.

Stepwells have been called with different names throughout India depending on the region and
language. Stepwells served as subterranean temples and leisure retreats during harsh summers
other than a utilitarian purpose. Stepwells were also a gathering place for the local communities,
especially for women who had a restricted life. Most f the stepwells were located on important
trade routes so that the travelers could seek refuge against the heat. Stepwells were
commissioned by royal, wealthy, or patronages as it was considered meritorious and charity,
twenty-five percent of the structures were commissioned by the women in honor of deceased
husbands or sons.

All the stepwells are unique and have their own identity as they are categorized based on a
different shape, material, scale, and ornamentation. Stepwells are linear, square, L-shaped, or
round; constructed of masonry, brick, or rubble.

Stepwells have lost their significance during British rule when they were deemed it to be
unhygienic and destroyed or filled up these structures. Modern plumbing technologies like
pumps, tanks, and taps have broken relationships between humans and water. Stepwells are
misused, neglected, deteriorated, and filled with silt, vegetation, and garbage, while bats, bees,

34
snakes, and other creatures took up residence. Stepwells have strong experience and traditional
knowledge.

Some of the stepwells still survive which are used for irrigation, while still others are favored
spots for bathing, swimming, and Hindu stepwells function as subterranean temples. Due to
preservation efforts by the Indian government and NGOs awareness have been created among
locals to safeguard and keep them. Communities have begun to clear silt and debris out of their
local stepwell, which is a step to restore these structures. Hotels have made the tourists curious
by advertising historic stepwells on their property and by offering romantic dinners.

The way to safeguard these subterranean architectural marvels is by raising awareness, creating
demand, including them on every tourist itinerary, in every guidebook, in university courses,
documentaries, and many more books.

INFERENCE

Stepwells are structure with descending steps leading to the water surface. These structures were
built for communities to overcome the scarcity of water during summers in the northwestern
region of India. Maintaining and preserving stepwells by UNESCO has helped people gain
interest in the upkeeping of these structures. The main purpose of these structures was for
domestic purposes. These structures were dearer to women as the household chores were
managed by women of the house. Hindu stepwells also functioned as subterranean temples. The
royals, rulers, and wealthy patrons commissioned the construction of stepwell as it was
considered an act of charity. Stepwells are designed of different scales, material, and style and
no two stepwells were identical. Stepwells collapsed during the British period as they considered
them to be unhygienic and breeding grounds for disease. Modern techniques like taps and water
tanks neglected the ancient stepwells and fell into disuse. Stepwells have got introverted nature
which is easily accessible by a set of stairs. Communities have begun to clear their local stepwell
of silt and debris which has helped in restoring the purpose of a stepwell.

35
2.12 CONCEPTS OF SPACE IN TRADITIONAL INDIAN ARCHITECTURE BY YATIN
PANDYA31

This book provides an understanding of the very roots of different kinds of traditional space
taking examples of Adlaj Stepwell, Kailash Temple, Modhera Sun Temple, and Sarkej Roza.

The author considers the idea of architecture is a celebration of life. This is achieved essentially
by relying on spatial experiences derived through narratives, dynamic perception of space while
in movement, its kinesthetic. The interactive process of encoding and decoding between the
space and perceiver orchestrates spatial narratives. This book is an attempt at understanding the
very roots of what constitutes the Indian context by examining its notions of time, space, and
existence. The study unravels the inherent virtues of traditional Indian architecture and interprets
them.

He further talks about the cultural and architectural tradition which transcends time and space.
The author says that “The legacies of the past and aspirations for future effectively combine with
realities of the present". Space is about the process of evolution, involution, and devolution, and
at any given time different spaces render themselves differently e.g. a physical space transforms
itself drastically through interaction with time rendering them vital, vibrant, and dynamically. A
built form is static, but it is dynamic when it interacts with nature. The sun does not remain in
the same direction/ position from morning to evening or from one season to another. Thus, the
direction, light intensity, and shadow patterns keep changing all the time. This redefines the
space constantly and makes it feel alive.

Traditional Indian architecture is about movement and pause; the layering, movement corridors,
thresholds, etc. The architecture is so flexible that activities spill into space without being
disturbed by external conditions as well as varying privacy gradients are respected with
hierarchy. Every structure has its uniformity, identity, individuality, and personalization. Every
element on earth co-exists like man and nature, light and darkness, and solid and void. These
elements encode messages and emote feelings. Architecture communicates through space,
sequence, organization, elements, sensorial, experiential, and associational aspects.

Stepwells and step ponds are also about visual coordination, perception at eye level, symbolic
representation, and narratives in particular. These subterranean structures are associated with
Patal Lok - The world and womb of mother earth. It is a journey; the process of moving through
space, which itself becomes an event. The unfolding of the space creates a sense of curiosity

31
Pandya, Yatin. Concepts of Space in Traditional Indian Architecture. Mapin, 2005.

36
within the perceiver by encoding and decoding of messages which makes the process interactive.
Visual reference change due to inclined movement as there is a change in eye level and
perspective. The destination is not an end in itself; it‟s rather an excuse says (D. A. Pandey
2016)32. It‟s the journey of mystery, fantasy, and surprise. Water is a life-giving resource and is
metaphoric to fertility in the womb of mother earth.

The concept of traditional space is explained by correlating the special attributes with the human
through diagrammatic representations (Plan, Section, Elevation, Miniature Paintings) explaining
the comparison of scale, mass, surface, texture, notion, construction, kinesthetic (the sequential
unfolding of space), thresholds, material, technology, style, and isms.

We should understand the principles of space organization in changed time and space, rather
than to replicate form, context, material, etc. as technology advances with time, materials
transform, stylization loses relevance with changed functional, social context and symbols
remain significant with the specific association so what remains universal is total spatial
experiences. This spatial construct communicates through sensory perception and experience.

INFERENCE

The architecture of traditional spaces has helped people to celebrate life. Stepwells have an
interactive process of encoding and decoding through the kinesthetic feature of architecture.
Stepwells create interaction and relationship with nature. Traditional Indian architecture is about
experiencing movement and pause; the layering of spaces, movement along the corridors,
thresholds, etc. Every structure is unique and has its own identity. Stepwells narrate stories in
sequential order which creates curiosity among people and is metaphoric to the womb of mother
earth as stepwells are excavated from the earth. We should study the principles involved in the
construction of stepwell and with that knowledge propose a structure that is sustainable and
helps to mitigate the current water crisis.

CONCLUSION OF THE LITERATURE REVIEWS

Water is one of the essential elements associated with human life. Stepwells are beautiful
subterranean manmade water structures reached by descending of stairs. Stepwells are mostly
found in the arid region due to scanty rainfall. Stepwells were first invented by Indus valley

32
Pandey, D. A. Bawdi: The Eloquent Example of Hydraulic Engineering and Ornamental Architecture.
International Journal of Research Granthaalayah, 2016.

37
civilization and hence we can say that the concept of stepwells was started in India. There was a
need for a structure that would store and harvest water throughout the year as man-made ponds
couldn‟t retain the water for a long period.

Stepwells are used for domestic, religious, and irrigation purposes. Stepwells were considered
as retreat wells as it was part of landscape and leisure place for travelers, pilgrims, and caravans
to rest. Stepwells were commissioned by royal, wealthy, or powerful patrons as it was
considered meritorious or an act of charity. Most of the powerful philanthropists were female as
household chores were managed by females. Stepwells were considered as a place of social
gathering in the urban fabric and contribute to the socio-cultural values of a community. Water is
given the status of a goddess and worshipped hence we can see the intricate, unique, and
different decoration, ornamentation, and carvings in stepwells.

Stepwells consist of two parts - vertical shaft of the well and the steps with galleries. Stepwells
are highly decorated and are considered as rich monuments of architecture. Stepwells are
categorized by their materials, scale, layout, and shape; hence no two stepwells are identical
which makes them unique. Stepwells differed even in Hindu and Muslim styles of architecture
and the fusion of both created masterpieces of architecture. The unique feature of the stepwell is
the play of light which creates different experiences at different times of the day and in different
seasons of the year. The 4 elements of this structure are toda, kurta, ardhakuta, and well shaft.
Stepwells are an example of sustainable architecture and are known for longevity, sustainability,
aesthetic beauty, decorative designs, and construction techniques. Stepwells have got 4
categories based on the number of staircases – Nanda, Bhadra, Jaya, and Vijaya. These stepwells
called by different names in different regions of India depending on context and languages.
Stepwells can withstand earthquakes and floods at a higher level. Stepwells are the best example
of vernacular architecture. The construction of these stepwells also reflects influences natural
geographical features, types of soil, rainfall, groundwater level, distinctive style of the respective
regions, nature of the patronage under which they were commissioned, and their religious
significance.

The architecture of traditional spaces has helped people to celebrate life. The interactive process
of encoding and decoding through the kinesthetic of architecture creates interaction and
relationship with nature. The architecture of stepwell is about the experience of movement and
pause; the layering of space, movement through corridors, thresholds, etc. Every structure is
unique and has its own identity. Stepwells narrate stories in sequential order through its carvings.

38
India has its own method of water harvesting depending on its geography and hydrogeology
which include bamboo pipes and Apatani systems of eastern Himalayas, Ghul of western
Himalayas, Zabo and Cheo-ozihi of northeastern India, Dongs, Garh, and Dara of Brahmaputra
valley, Kund, Khadin, Talabs, Beri, Johad, Baoli, etc. of Thar desert and Gujrat, the Havelis of
Jabalpur, Bandh and Bandhulia of Satna, Virda of Gujarat, Ahar-pynes of Bihar, Eri and Kulam
of eastern coastal plains, Jackwells of islands.

In today‟s time stepwells have lost its importance and its need of the hour to revive, restore,
reuse, and revitalize them to deal with current water crises faced in the country. The stepwells
are in pathetic conditions, fallen into disuse, and in the neglected state due to the introduction of
the plumbing system, change in demographics of the communities, etc. Stepwells are abandoned
and misused by using it as garbage yard, latrine, etc., Britishers destroyed and filled up a few
stepwells considering it to be a breeding ground for disease. Nobody took interest to upkeep the
brilliant architectural structures. We have to conserve these structures for our future generation.

Considering current water crises, rejuvenating stepwell would help to mitigate the depletion of
groundwater. We must create awareness and restore these masterpieces. Due to attention paid
from NGOs and UNESCO stepwells are considered the world‟s topmost architectural treasures.
Every year water demand increases and rains are getting scanty. The modern solutions are just
unsustainable and are ecologically damaging. We need to create policies, strategies, and
guidelines for managing water resource and use the ancient knowledge and apply to modern
society to harvest water. In urban areas, the provision of swales, infiltration-trenches, bio-
retention systems help to percolate water into the ground and to direct stormwater runoff to
collection points such as traditional stepwells, stepped ponds, lakes, temple tanks, etc designs
which would be part of our landscape and enhance biodiversity. The modern problem need not
have modern solutions rather we need to look back at our ancient traditional knowledge and
apply it to modern technologies. The de-silting in Delhi and Gujarat has raised awareness and
created interest among people to preserve these structures. It is also said that some Indian
engineers have drawn inspiration from these ancient structures to design new tanks for water
collection.

39
CHAPTER 3
CASE STUDY

40
3. CASE STUDY

There are 2937 stepwells and step ponds/ tanks identified across the world, out of which 2354
stepwells are found in India in which around 2000 stepwells are still surviving.

The case study is done by identifying stepwells in different Indian states which helped to lead to
the discussion based on location, construction period, ruler involved and commissioner,
association, the material of construction, source of water, style of construction with size, and the
number of steps of the Stepwells.

DELHI

The stepwells in Delhi were associated with mosques, temples, market areas, forts, and
communities which were built for the subjects, traders, and emperors between 13th to 19th C
mostly by Muslim rulers like Humayun, Queen Humayun, Jahangir, Ilthamish, Lodi dynasty, etc
using stones as the construction material. The stepwells found in Delhi are Agrasen Ki Baoli,
Arab Ki Sarai Baoli, Anangtal Baoli, Banjaron Ki Baoli (Matia Mahal Baoli), Dwarka Baoli
(Loharehri Baoli ), Feroz Shah Kotla Baoli, Gandhak(Sulphur) Ki Baoli, Hazrat Nizamuddin
Baoli, Hindu Rao Baolihindu Rao Hospital(Malka Ganj), Humayun's Tomb Stepwell, Jia Sarai
Baoli, Lal Qila Baoli (Red Fort Stepwell), Munirka Baoli, Muradabad Pahadi Baoli, Purana Qila
Baoli, Qutub Sahib Ki Baoli, Rajon Ki Baoli, Tughlaqabad Fort Baoli, Yagnapurush Kund,
Akshardham Temple, and Wazirpur Monument Complex Baoli.

JAMMU AND KASHMIR

Jammu and Kashmir have only 3 stepwells, they are Martand Sun Temple Kund, School
Paneshwar Sudh Mahadev Temple Bawli and Verinag Octagonal Spring which were built
between 8th to 17th C using stone by Karkota dynasty and Muslim rulers which were associated
with temples and garden having natural water body such as Jhelum river as the source of water.

ANDHRA PRADESH

Andhra Pradesh has around 44 stepwells built by Chola Kings like Kulothunga Chola, Kappa
King, King Narasimha Saluva, Second Harihara rulers, Rudra Deva, Vijayanagara kings, etc.
around 10th to 14th C which are associated with temples and forts constructed using stone.
41
ASSAM

Assam has got stepwells associated only with temples such as Nagshankar Temple Kund, Sootea
kund built in 378 AD, Devi Pukhuri Tinsukia built in 19th C, Garampani Kund, Nityananda
Than Sivasagar, Saubhagya Kund, Kamakhya Temple of 8th-17th Century.

BIHAR

Amara Talab, Eidgah Stepwell, Hariram Baba Ka Pokhra, Janaki Kund, Maner Sharif Dargah
Tank, Mohania talab, Rajgir Kund, Sasaram Baulia and Surya Kund Gaya are the stepwells
found in Bihar dating back to 16th C built with stone masonry whose source of water was
rainwater and were associated with temples, mosques, dargas, and tombs built by different rulers
such as Ibrahim Khan Kankar(Mughals), Suri Empire and Rani Ahilyabai.

CHATTISGARH

Satmahala Baoli, Lohara Baoli, Mahamaya Temple Baoli, Shiv Temple Kund, Shree Ram Janki
Mandir Kund, and Surya Kund Pond Bhilai are temple associated stepwells found in Chattisgarh
built using stone masonry by Baijnath Singh and Kalachuris of Ratnapura between 12th to 14th C.

GOA

Goa has only 4 stepwells, they are Bubble Lake (Budbuyanchi Tali), Koti Tirth Tali,
Saptakoteshwar Temple, Safa Masjid Stepwell, and Shree Kalabhairav Temple Tank built
between 12th to 16th C associated with temples and mosques whose source was rainwater built by
Kadamba Dynasty and Ibrahim Adil Shah I.

GUJARAT

Gujarat alone has around 570 stepwells built between 2nd and 19th C using sandstones and bricks
as construction materials across different reigns from Mauryas, Guptas, Maitrakas, Gurjara-
Pratihara Empire, Chaulukya Kingdom, Delhi Sultanate, Gujarat Sultanate, Mughal Empire and
Maratha Empire. Some of the notable stepwells of Gujarat are Adalaj Stepwell, Bai Harir Vav,
Jethabhai's Stepwell, Helical Stepwell, Amrutvarshini Vav, Navlakhi Stepwell, Borsad Stepwell,
42
Sevasi Vav, Ambe Mata ni Vav, Damavav step wells, Adi Kadi Vav, Khammavati Stepwell,
Gopi Stepwell, Modhera Sun Temple, Ra Khengar Vav, Madha Vav, Navghan Kuvo, Vikia
stepwell, Ambapur Ni Vaav or Ambapur Stepwell, Rani Ki Vav, Vidyadhar Vav, Uvarsad Step
Well, Ancient Stepwell, Stepwell of Uparkot Fort, Gebanshah's Vav, Heritage of Ahmedabad,
Surya kund of Sun temple of Modhera, Rudabai Vav, Dada Harir Vav, etc.

HARYANA

Haryana has around 40 stepwells built during 4th to 19th C associated with the temples, palaces,
tombs, forts, and communities built using stone, bricks, and kankar blocks which have lake and
rainwater as a source of water. These stepwells were built by Bhai Rulers, Saidu Kala (A Vassal
of Emperor Shah Jahan of the Mughal empire), Mughals, Prithviraj Chauhan, Nawab of Narnaul,
Surajpal of Tomar, Mirza Ali Jan, etc.

HIMACHAL PRADESH

Himachal Pradesh has 3 stepwells which are associated with temples, Apsara Kund Dham or
Agojer Bawadi, Dhaneta Bawdi, and Durga Mata Mandir Kund with one stepwells built by Raja
Hari Chand in his fort. All of these stepwells were constructed in stone masonry.

JHARKHAND

The Bhitargarh Stepwell of Jharkhand is 6 feet wide and was constructed by stones and bricks
which was built in 17th C and Bukru Bouli is the only other stepwell found there.

KARNATAKA

There are around 142 stepwells in Karnataka which are associated with the temples, mosques,
dargas, communities, and forts built between 2nd to 20th C using granite, laterite, bricks, red
stones, rock-cut stones, mud, lime mortar, etc. North Karnataka cities such as Hampi and
Lakkundi have got more number of stepwells due to its climatic conditions. Akama Devi, Queen
Shanthaladevi, Behmani era, Badami Chalukyan era, Queens and Kings of Hoysala,
Vijayanagara rulers, Parashurama, Chalukyas, Jayachamaraja Wodeyar, Bahmani Dynasty, Vyāsa

43
Tirtha, Bahmani Sultanate - Queen Chand Bibi Sultana, King Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala
Empire, Hoysala Narasimha, King Kundavarma of the Alupa Dynasty, Rashtrakuta Dynasty,
Western Chalukya Empire, Venkatappa Naik-Naiks of Kanakgiri, Hemadpanti rulers, Shri
Vyasaraja swami, Dravidians, Silhara dynasty rulers, Venkatappa Nayaka - Nayakas of Keladi,
Immadi Bhairarasa Vodeya of the Santara dynasty, Krishna Deva Raya-Banga King, Wodeyars,
St. Lawrence, Chennabhairav Devi, Tipu Sultan, Queen Danachintamani Attimabbe, Gond ruler
Bakht Buland, King Lingarajendra II, King Chanda, Chola, Kalyani Chalukyas, Keshav
Nayakani, Baba Farid, Adhyaksha Hoige Bazar Koragappa, Alupas, Paramara King Bhoja,
Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, etc commissioned for the construction of stepwells in Karnataka.

KERALA

Kerala has around 72 stepwells built between 5th to 20th C associated with temples, mosques, and
forts. These stepwells were built using granite stone and laterite stones by Sage Parasurama,
King Lingaraja, Maulana Yaqub Musali, Nambiar Families, Avittam thirunal Raja Varma, Tipu
Sultan, Shivappa Nayaka, Malik Deenar, Maharaja of Cochin, Kolathiri King, Mahodayapuram,
Moolam Thirunal, Nakhooda Mishkal, Aryan's Vaishya Brahmins, Namboodiri Bramhins,
Cherumi couple, Sultan Hyder Ali, Philosopher Adi Shankaracharya, V. Narasimhan Thampi,
Lord Rama, Edayaadil, Kelachaamkuttu -Chakkungal, King Kunda Alupa, King of Kollamkodu
kingdom, Thampuran (ruler) of Paravur, Sree Narayana Guru, Sreedevi Antherjanam, Mushika
(Kolathiri) dynasty kings, H.H Srimath Vibhudendra Tirtha Swamiji, Swamy Thirumulpad,
Goda Ravi Varma, etc.

MADHYA PRADESH

Madhya Pardesh has around 175 stepwells built by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh, King Agrasen,
Krishna Bai, Mandana Mishra, Ghiyas-ud-din Khilji, Feroz Shah Tughlaq I, Asa Ahir, Baaz
Bahadur, Hoshang Shah, Nawab Wazir Mohammed Khan, Rajput King Rao Jaisal,
Yadav/Yaduvanshi king Jai Narayan of (Nandvanshi), Devi Ahilya, Tughlaq, Sher Khan, Bhim
Singh Rana, Queen Udayamati, Dhai Harir, Ghaus Ali Shah, Khilji Sultan Nasir-ud-
Din, Muhammad Bin Tughluq, Sultan Ghyas Shah, Abdul Majeed, Raja Man Singh Tomar,
Mandu Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Khilji, Hari Rao Holkar, Daulat Khan, King Chanda, Alauddin
Khalji, Raja Kirtipal, Ghiyas-ud-din, Baz Bahadur, Mandu Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Khilji,
Maharaja Madho Singh, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, Iltutmish, Adi Shankara, Fatehpuri
Begum, Daulat Khan Lodi, Maharaja Shivaji Rao Holkar, Mandu Sultan Nadir Shah Khilji, Saint
44
Hazrat Musa Quadin, Yaduvanshi Ahir King, Sher Shah Suri, Bir Singh, Daulat Khan, King
Lalitaditya, King Raghubir Singh, Baz Bahadur, Jat Rana Bhim Singh, Parmar King, Prachanda
Deva, Ahilyabai Holkar, king Surajpal, Guptas, Chandela King Dhanga etc during 4th to 19th C
which are associated with temples, mosques, palaces, forts, tombs, hospitals and schools built
using red stone, sandstone, rocks and concrete.

MAHARASHTRA

There are around 120 stepwells in Maharashtra built around 6th to 19th C using basalt stone and
bricks during the rule of Ashmaka, Satavahanas, Vakatakas, Badami Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas,
Kalyani Chalukyas, Yadavas, Alla-ud-din Khilji, Shivaji, Sambhaji, Shahu I, Bajirao I, etc.
Badlapur Key Shape Step Well, Limbi Barav, Bav stepwell, Stepwell of Kachare, Bramhnath
Stepwell, Ganesh Kund- old barav, Maratha Stepwell, Ancient Stepwell Anjani Khurd, Ancient
stepwell of Ganeshgule, the stepwell of Varude, Niwali Stepwell, Pokharni Baraw, Kothimbe
Step Well, Motechi Vihir, Bamandoh step well, Baramotichi Vihir, Raigad Fort, Bibi Ka
Maqbara, Ellora Caves, Udgir Fort, Daulatabad fort, Hatti Barav (Elephant well), Vairagad fort,
Bharatgad, Panhala Fort, Amruteshwar Temple, Gad Mandir Ramtek are some of the notable
stepwells of Maharashtra.

ORISSA

Udayagiri Stepwell, Bakresvara Mahadeva Temple Stepwell, Godabari Tirth Tank, Indradyumna
Sarovar, Kapileshwar Temple Tank, Ladu Baba Temple Pond, Markandeshwar Temple Tank,
Mausima Mandir Pokhari, Narendra Pushkarini, Papanasini Temple Kund, Pathara Pokhari,
Shanti Kund, Hariharananda Gurukulam and Swetaganga Pushkarini are the stepwells found in
Orissa built between 12th to 15th C during Ganga period which are associated with temples and
constructed using rock cut stone or laterite blocks whose source of water was natural spring,
river or rainwater.

PUNJAB

Baoli near Mughal Serai, Baoli Sahib Gurudwara, Pul Kanjri, and Sarai Amant Khan Baoli are
the stepwells found in Punjab which were built around 16th C associated with forts and temples
constructed using brick masonry commissioned by Guru Amar Das and Sarai Amanat Khan.

45
RAJASTHAN

Rajasthan has the highest number of stepwell that is around 782 stepwells. These stepwells were
constructed using sandstone, limestone, and mud between 2nd and 19th C by a varied range of
rulers from Hammir Dev Chauhan, Rana Kumbha, Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, Maharana
Pratap Singh, Maharaja Suraj Mal, etc. Some of the notable stepwells of Rajasthan are Raniji Ki
Baori, Stepwells, Toorji Ka Jhalra Bavdi, Chand Baori, Neemrana Fort bawdi, Amber palace
stepwell, Rahiman Paani Rakhiye, Kala Hanuman Bawri, Old Stepwell, Panna Meena ka Kund,
Nahargarh Step Well, Majhi Ki Baodi, Bhangarh Fort, Hadi Rani Ka Kund, Nagar Sagar kund,
Chittor Fort, Nahargarh Fort, Fatehpur Bawri, Purani Baawdi, Dhabhai Kund, Geejgarh Fort,
Stepwell House, Chamnaa bawadi, Mahila Bag Ka Jhalra, Harshad Mata Temple, Sariska Tiger
Reserve, Ranisar Lake, Sukh Mahal, Ranthambore National Park, Gaumukh Kund, Patrika Gate,
etc.

TAMILNADU

There are around 51 stepwells in Tamilnadu, which are associated with the temples and were
constructed using stone, bricks, and granite between 9th and 18th C by Chola Kings - Karikala
Chola, Kochenga Chola, Kulothunga Chola I, Pandya and Jaffna Kings, Vijayanagara Rulers,
Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom, Madurai Nayak Dynasty, Pandyas, Pallava Dynasty,
Narasimhavarman II, Sri Adi Sankara, Kamban Araiyan, Mahendravarman I, Tirumala Nayaka
and Pallava Dynasty.

TELANGANA

There are around 37 stepwells in Telangana state associated with temples, tombs and forts built
using stone masonry between 11th to 18th C by Sultan Qutb-ul-Mulk, Kakatiya dynasty,
Chalukyas of Vemulavada, Peda Soma Bhupaludu (Somanadri), Mah Laqa Bai, Seth Puranmal
Ganeriwala, Chalukya King of Kalyani, Rudra Deva, etc.

UTTAR PRADESH

Uttar Pradesh has around 110 stepwells associated with temples, forts and parks built between
7th to 19th C using red sandstones and bricks commissioned by various identities such as Hindu
Jat king Jawahar Singh, Shree Ramesh Mishra Ji, Mughal Emperor Akbar, Humayun, Jahangir,

46
Tansen, Kaushalya, Swami Shri Gyananand Ji Maharaj, King Sahadeo, Sher Khan, Sher Shah
Suri, Nag dynasty, Rani Bhabani, Vinayak Raj Peshwa, Nawab Nasir-ud-din Haider, Vajranabha,
Asaf-ud-Daula, Rajiv Anchal, King of Vrishbhanupu, Ahilya Bai Holkar, Maharaja Suraj Mal,
Gohadavala dynasty, Shiva, Nawab Shahjah Begam, Patanjali, Paavan Gopa, Radharani, Guru
Govind Singh, Krishna, Raja Mansingh, Raja Chait Singh, Brothers of Chandauli, Morioka
Sonin, Shiva, Shah Quil Khan, Nawab Muhammad Ali Shah, Adi, Shankaracharya, Shah
Jahan, Nawabs of Lucknow, Lakshman, etc.

UTTARAKHAND

Uttarakhand has 3 stepwells associated with temples whose source of water is from the nearby
river, they are Rishi Kund, Bhimgoda Kund, and Gurudwara Shri Baoli Sahib.

WEST BENGAL

Bengal has only one stepwell which is associated with Palace built by Lakshmipat Singh Dugar
known as Kathgola Palace (Kathgola Bagan Bari) Stepwell.

Out of 28 states and 8 union territories in India Andaman Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Diu
Daman, Ladakh, Lakshadweep, Pondicherry, and northeastern states - Sikkim, Meghalaya,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, and Mizoram do not have any stepwells except
for Assam.

47
CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION

48
4. DISCUSSION

4.1 DEFINITION FOLLOWED

Stepwells are manmade subterranean structures in which the water is reached by descending a
set of steps that are connected to the groundwater table.

Steptanks/ ponds are man-made artificial subterranean reservoirs in which the water is reached
by descending a set of steps, which is not connected to the groundwater table.

4.2 THE CONCEPT OF STEPWELLS

Manmade ponds and reservoirs could not retain the water for a long period, and the water
becomes stale after a time and stepwells were known for its longevity. Stepwell is sunk deep into
the earth with water source from the groundwater table and is not exposed to heat and sun too
much and receive a constant flow of freshwater filtered through the earth. Stepwells are used to
conserve and store water after the rainy season for future requirements. It also helped to improve
the quality of existing groundwater and replenish and source groundwater. Stepwells were a
system where water was accessed for larger groups stored for later use and conserved by
harvesting every drop that was extracted.

Stepwells were built to provide water mainly for drinking and domestic purpose during droughts,
it also served as cool retreats to overcome heat for the villagers and travelers. As western India
has a hot and dry climate with scanty rainfall it was a need to collect the water during the
monsoons and harvest it to use it throughout the years. Stepwells also helped to manage
groundwater and regulate the flow of water.

Stepwells were commissioned by royal, wealthy, or by powerful patrons as it was considered

meritorious or charity. Some of the stepwells were built as a plain act of philanthropy or as a
memorial to a dear one. The royal people built private stepwells to adapt to a severe climate as a
leisure place. Providing water was one of the most valuable contributions to society or to gain
favor with the state leading to multiple wells and step wells spread throughout the city. Stepwells
were fundamental to life and were built by the regions‟ rulers as acts of benevolence for the
community.

Every human being requires water for survival. In the arid region due to irregular and scanty
rainfall, high-temperature variations, dry weather, and no perennial source of water a technique
was required to store and harvest every drop of the rainfall. Especially in Gujarat and Rajasthan

49
as there is no big river the problem of water supply becomes acute. Water had to be made
available to people for the liveability of the city. For the people of these regions, water
harvesting was not a technique, but a part of their culture and socio-cultural aspect. Hence
stepwells were built mostly in arid regions.

Water is a symbol of life. Stepwells created an interaction between the natural environment and
people; it creates a tangible and intangible relationship of space between land and water. The
architecture of stepwell connected people to water which in return bonded the whole society. It
was a relationship with society, cultural value, environment, and technology. Stepwells were the
relationship of harmony with the landscape, the hydrogeology, the terrain, and the climate on
architecture.

Stepwell bonded landscape nature, urban fabric, and people. The relationship of people to water
was stronger in the arid region where the emotion was of harvesting and conservation of
rainwater through traditional techniques for dry months. The connection was formed with people
through experience and architecture was the medium that expresses the importance of water.
Stepwells, the architecture for water connects both, geography environment and engineering as
well as the social-cultural. The physical presence in the water structures was part of the everyday
life of people. The design of stepwell belonged to an interconnected ecological system.

Stepwells derive patterns, designs, principles, and complexity conditions from the environment.
These elements reinforce the many intangible meanings that water has for people from life to
death. Thus, in this principle, it was understood that the steps would create the interface between
the land and the water negotiate the changing water levels and allow the individuals to touch the
water.

4.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF STEPWELLS

The stepwells provide water for drinking, washing, bathing, and irrigation of crops. They
ensured the availability of water during the droughts, especially in the arid region. They also
served as cool sanctuaries for caravans, pilgrims, and other travelers during the harsh heat of the
day or overnight. Stepwells in the arid region are frequently located in important trade routes.
They not only helped humans to overcome heat but also helped the animals survive.

Stepwells have also got social, cultural, mythological, political, spiritual, and ritualistic and
religious significance and Devi Ki jhulni is an important festival celebrated and where offerings
50
are made to the water. Rituals and religions, particularly in the context of water, have
purification values in India like the vaju in the mosque, dip in a Kund in the temple, baptism in a
church, or the sprinkling of the earth with water before a havan. Ghats in Varanasi with
riverfront steps leading to the banks of the River Ganga is used for bathing and pooja ceremony
and exclusively used as cremation sites. Today the significance of stepwells is just for Aesthetic
purposes.

4.4 THE ASSOCIATION OF STEPWELLS

Stepwells were built in forts by the king for his citizens for survival to settle in that region as
water is a valuable source of water for a large part of the settlement and serve as a consideration
to the way of life of the people. Temples constructed stepwells to purify themselves by ritual dip
before prayer. Mosque and Darga built stepwells to do ablution before performing namaz.
Community stepwells were owned by the head of the village which was a space of everyday
living and formed an urban public space creating a relationship with the community. Vegetation
supported by moisture adjoins the channels and that is an indicator of the presence of water for
the caravans on the travel route. Some of the stepwells are isolated from forts, temples, mosque,
darga, community, and trade routes as they were located in a short distance from the city; this
distance protected the city from flooding in case of damage or collapse of the water system.
Stepwells also functioned as subterranean temples, with carvings that formed a spiritual
backdrop for ritual bathing, prayers, and offerings.

In Gujarat and Maharashtra stepwells were located along the major streets providing both direct
access and visibility. They created public open spaces like chowks and larger grounds around it
which became a space for social gathering and activities. The presence of stepwells in trade
routes serves as cool retreats for pilgrims, caravans, and travelers to rest during the harsh heat of
the day. These stepwells were considered as the hub of social and economic interaction of the
region, as space was utilized for shops to conduct businesses.

4.5 THE LOCATION OF STEPWELLS

Siting and location of the stepwells were associated deeply associated with the local terrain and
geology. In the past, people had great knowledge about the contour and these stepwells were

51
located in the lowest terrain where water was able to fill the wells and tanks through gravity
without any consumption of energy.

The flood plains were studied and analyzed according to the local climatic conditions and then
these stepwells were introduced as a part of the cultural landscape. Step tanks are located in the
catchment area/ low lying area where it is less to dig the earth and to hit the earth‟s fracture
points to locate the water that would sustain life and were connected by stormwater drains. Even
within the pockets of valleys reservoirs are constructed.

Step tanks and ponds in association with religious structures were introduced depending on the
location, geographical conditions, hydrology, hydrogeology, geology, lineaments, construction
systems, and typology, etc. Stepwells limited the opportunities for creating dams. Some of the
stepwells were also located based on political territory.

4.6 THE ORNAMENTATION OF STEPWELLS

The life-giving resource water is highly valuable in the drought area where there is scanty
rainfall. They give water the place of god and respect and worship the water God. Water deficit
regions made the people of that region celebrate the water. Ornamentation was a way to
celebrate the scarce resource. Ornamentation translated stories and fables to people.
Ornamentation also helped to provide shade. Ornamentation was the invocation of the power of
the water. The impressive ornamentation of stepwells was required to match the architectural
splendor of its forts and palaces.

4.7 THE UNIQUENESS OF THE STEPWELL

Stepwells are categorized by their scale, layout, materials, and shape: they can be rectangular,
circular, or L-shaped; they can be built from masonry, rubble, or brick; and they can have a
maximum of four separate entrances. No two stepwells are identical, and each, whether it is
simple and utilitarian or complex and ornamented, has a unique character. The architecture of
stepwells depends on where, when, and by whom they were commissioned. All of the stepwells
have strikingly beautiful and unique architectural style. Over the period, stepwell design has
evolved into complex structures. Even the ornamental carvings on these stepwells are unique in
themselves.

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4.8 MAPPING OF STEPWELLS IN INDIA

Figure 1 - Mapping of stepwells in India. Source: Author

Hot and dry climate

Warm and humid climate

Composite climate

Temperate climate

Cold climate

Stepwells are mostly found in arid regions due to scanty rainfall and the man-made ponds
couldn‟t retain water for a longer period, hence there was a need for a structure to store water
and supply water during dry seasons. Other than that, they are also found in warm and humid
and composite climatic zones.

53
4.9 THE ROYAL STEPWELLS
Stepwells become a place of royal retreat in the presence of palaces, recreational facilities,
gardens, and other royal buildings. When kings or other royal men patronized water structures it
was only for the use of royal families. In the arid region, a tank was always located between the
royal complexes.

The royal complexes were provided with a water supply system that exploited the principles of
gravity and siphons were used to convey water by pipeline and open channel. The royal center
was a complex series of water features such as baths, tanks, and fountains. Earthenware pipe was
used by the Sultanate of Deccan and Northern India to transport water. The provision of the
water system at the palaces was not only for a pleasant living environment but was a sign of
wealth and status. The control tanks allowed water to be collected, and the silt removed had their
outlets arranged so that they could be regularly emptied.

4.10 THE MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION OF STEPWELLS

To build stepwells first preference was to use the regions locally available materials which are
strong to resist earth thrust, easy to mould, creates strong joinery, and which does not percolate
water. In Gujarat and Maharashtra region, sandstone was the locally available material and it
was easy to craft design on it. Other regions used materials like brimstone, kota stone, bricks,
dressed stone, rubble, stone blocks, boulders, and laterite stones are used. Constructing in stone,
creating a sense of continuity, belief, and security to the people for who water was the most
precious of all elements.

The Hampi stepwells were finished with chlorite schist slabs which were arranged in a
symmetrical formation with steps and landings descending to the water on four sides. Based on
Kannada inscriptions indicating directions and numbers cut on to the slab suggest that the
material block forming the tanks were brought from elsewhere and reassembled at the site.

4.11 THE HIERARCHY OF STEPWELLS

Water travels through a web of connections through natural and human-made channels, both
surface and subterranean drains in a hierarchy of access to reach the reservoirs. Stepwells stall
the flow of the natural streams to collect water from a localized catchment of the surrounding
hill, the water from the highest region flows into these reservoirs and are further channelized into

54
the city. The catchment reservoir was enhanced through smaller reservoirs, using the natural
channels to drain water to the main reservoir. Water which overflows in times of excessive rain
travel further to other channels, reservoirs, and tanks hence overflow of one becomes the source
of another. Some amount of rainwater seeps into the ground, connecting with the subterranean
channels and fills the wells, stepwells, and tanks. In some parts, water is collected from hills and
channelized to the talab. Drains and canals collect water from the street direct it to the catchment
tank. The flow of water links connects the seemingly isolated entities found dotting the
landscape into a system through subterranean or surface moments that create interconnectedness
between seemingly isolated entities in the landscape. To augment the catchment of the large
reservoirs, small bunds were constructed on natural channels that controlled the surge of water in
case of excessive rainfall, protecting the primary embankment from flooding, breaching,
dissipating the energy of the flow.

The natural channels would have been studied concerning their slopes size and patterns that
determining the location of the reservoir to maximize rainwater harvesting. Rapid run-off from
the hill slopes or the slow collection in flatterer areas, these channels marked by the presence of
vegetation were key sources of water to be brought to the reservoir. Through keen observation of
the physical condition of the region the artisans came to understand the flow of water from the
higher north-western regions to the lower southern plains, during the sparse monsoons the
reservoirs built captured this water. Water collected in the reservoirs during the monsoon‟s
percolates into the ground. The presence of lineaments uses water natural pathway within the
earth. The percolated water flows along the subterranean gradient. This captures all the smaller
channels and helps rainwater harvesting. In multi-storied stepwell, bullock turns the water wheel
to raise the water in the well to the upper levels. Patal water, a point of view that combines the
capacity of seeing, searching, drawings, and obtaining underground water and creates a
relationship between topography and the flows of water. Interdependent water structures harvest
every drop of water continuously recharging the groundwater. Stepwells were constructed in
harmony with nature minimal effort against the land. This web of water places is constructed in
response to the elements of the environment like climate, land, or social interaction
demonstrating the sophistication of technology. Hence most of the tanks and ponds collected
rainwater and some of the wells take supply directly from the water table.

The downstream poised to receive water trapped by water structures like beris, beras, bavdis,
and jhalaras. They puncture the aquifer to collect water from diabetes and channels, the channel
that runs down fed from a group of embankments. The overflow of these is diverted. Wells

55
supports the settlement once the water is the reservoir dries up. The increase in water level in the
larger reservoirs increases the water level in the wells.

In Nawalgarh's a small town in Rajasthan, a catch pit collects the spilled over water and take the
water back to the well. Ramps were created for the animal to pull water out a high plinth of the
stepwell. Water channels helped to direct spilled water into troughs for animals in this way even
the last drop was not wasted. Catch pits were constructed on all four sides of the water well
shaft, at harvest water falling on the plinth so that every drop was collected. As the water wheel
was hauled up and down water that spilled was diverted back to the catch pits by the slope of the
plinth and the small channels.

The tanks in North Karnataka were filled with water collected from catchments in the
surrounding hills and brought through a channel seen in the foreground. And elaborate spout was
carved out to articulate this relationship.

This demonstrates a high level of scientific thinking, which was the basis of this system.

4.12 THE ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION OF STEPWELLS

Stepwells are architecture at multiple levels and are one of the best examples of the vernacular
architecture of water bodies. Craftspeople inscribed meanings, requirements, experiences,
memories, and observations into the built expressions by carvings and transferred the knowledge
through generations. The architecture was about an understanding of the material, taking it apart
and putting together in new and different ways. The architecture of stepwell is the outcome of
wisdom developed by people over many generations for the proper utilization of their lands,
natural resources, and understanding the environment. Stepwells are layers of experience
through geography.

The stepwell was made with platforms, galleries, stone benches, and staircases with beautiful
ornamentation with sculptures of deities in niches, friezes, and designs. Another interesting
feature of the stepwell is provided by the soil ingredients, the minerals, salts, and other
substances of the earth mixed in the water. (Jain-Neubauer 1981)33. The deep trenches were dug

33
Jain-Neubauer, J. The Stepwells of Gujarat - In Art- Historical Perspective. Edited by Shakti Malik. Vol. 1. New
Delhi: Abhinav Publication, 1981.
56
in the earth to get water throughout the year and blocks of stones were used to make the wall.
Upside descending stairs were made for leading down to the water surface.

Construction of a stepwell typically involved careful placement of a wide, stone-lined, sloping

excavation that, once a long staircase and side ledges had been embedded, feasible to fluctuating
level of the water, which flowed through an opening in the well cylinder. In dry seasons as the
well would dry up and the steps which could number more than a hundred had to be negotiated
and pulley or bullock water wheel was provided to raise the water to higher levels. During the
rainy season, the trench was transformed into a large cistern that filled and submerged the steps
sometimes to the surface of the land.

Each successive level had covered pavilions, which were accessed by ledges as the water level
rose and which provided vital shade while buttressing the walls against intense pressure. Many
stepwells gradually narrowed from the surface to the lowest tier underground, where the
temperature was refreshingly cool. By building underground rather than above, a sort of reverse
architecture was created, and many stepwells had little presence above the ground surface other
than a low masonry wall, stepwells was a sense of surprise.

Crafting the water structures was carried out effectively via commonly used knowledge of
hydrology, hydrogeology, materials, structures, and social practice. Elements like retaining wall,
canals, spillways, channel, water wheel, and embankments represent the competency of dealing
with gradients, flows, volumes, and structural forces. Before building a stepwell, people had to
have a deep understanding of basin water balance and the size of canals based on runoff
volumes. Earth bunds helped to channelize rainwater to tanks.

Very fine hairline joints minimized the water loss. Initially, the dry monsoon allowed water to
seep through slowly, in time the calcification within the joints minimized leaks. Water loss from
the natural edges and bed was captured within the aquifer and tapped through the subterranean
structures. Local people knew how deep into the earth one must dig, how to deal with the slope
of a particular ground, and how certain layers of earth need to be strengthened to prevent
seepage. Seepage between an impervious gypsum layer and top sand layer stopped the water
from percolating till the salty water table.

Surface runoff rainwater is collected upstream of the bund which was riveted with boulders and
stone blocks to stabilize the earthwork and protected from the guttering. Square tank with outlets
allows water to pass through the bund so that it could be utilized in irrigation. Sluice gate work
as an overflow gauge which at the same time excludes silt from the water exiting the bath. In
addition to the network of open channels, some were provided with sealed pipelines composed
57
of spigot jointed sections fitted together and sealed with the layer of lime plaster. The heavy
casing of brick bonded with lime plaster in case the pipes thereby protecting them from damage
and increasing their capacity to work under pressure. The use of the siphon and gravity flow
enabled water to be fed into mountain reservoirs.

They worked on the principle of mass to help withstand the pressure of the water. Structural
stability is dependent on geological conditions and the resultant forms, structural systems,
architectural elements, materials, and the construction methods of the water structures to indicate
an awareness of influencing factors. Retaining walls are created to hold the earth and buttresses
at regular intervals. The land where the soil is mostly rocky does not require retaining capacity.

To build a stepwell basic understanding of the subterranean movement of water (springs) was
required. The system synthesized a deep understanding of the horizontal and vertical movement
of water within the earth according to the climate. The craftspeople are found to be evolving in
their knowledge, sharing of observations, and previous strategies in the face of new events. The
sandstone is generally hard and compact layered rocks with intermittent shale and clay layers,
but softer and friable sandstone layers and patches do occur. This leads to the formation of small
cavities in saturated zones which makes it a good aquifer. Hills with long stretches of quartz
reefs running underneath them; act as natural groundwater barrier helping to trap water between
the ridges. Water collected in the reservoirs percolates into the ground and is trapped by wells.

Wells and stepwells were built in the beds of the lakes and reservoirs, predicting adverse
conditions due to trans-evaporation, anthropogenic uses, or extreme circumstances like drought.
As the water in the lakes and reservoirs dried up the smaller structures were opened up with their
storage of clean water that had filtered through the rocks. The negative pressure created due to
loss of water from the reservoir directed movement of water in the aquifer towards the deeper,
smaller structures, to mitigate the water crises during the dry period.

Gravity dam resists the horizontal thrust of stored water and earth, and the mass and weight of
the embankment. Craftspeople reduced and minimized the earth pressure through terracing,
buttressing and stepping, carvings which make poetry to access the water. Water bodies create a
pleasant microclimate.

In step tanks/ponds the criss-cross stairs indefinite, geometric formations make a strong retaining
wall with steep sides occupying a reduced plinth area. Corners are structurally the weakest in the
form of an interlocking bonding system. Otlas, ghats, platforms, and pavilions make the land
structurally stable. The architecture of water helped in creating a layer of social meaning in a

58
visually impressive manner. Stepwells create a web of inter-relations with engineering
hydraulics, society and culture created a sophisticated layering of architectural elements.

The craftsmen had exquisite skills in chiseling stone very finely. Instead of rectangular or
wedge-shaped stone pieces arranged in a ring - a stone piece is carved as a segment of the circle
with interlocking detail to handle lateral forces. The entire construction depended on the accurate
interlocking of the pieces. The structural strength was in a circular plan. The use of beautiful
stones gives more characteristics to water, in open tanks with the reflection of surrounding on
wet stones and colour. None of the two stepwells are similar; each stepwell has its own
articulation, element, scale, etc. Carvings are a dialogue and awareness of the craftspeople
relating to all aspects of their environment.

In Gujarat, the structure of stepwells is braced with cross beams all along its length to retain the
earth mass, the structural ties double up as a resting platform for travelers. The structure beneath
the earth uses stone columns and beams essentially to counter the compressive stress of earth.
The availability of the rectilinear stone beams determined the span and thereby necessitated the
introduction of intermediate rows of column support. The lateral braces and wide platforms
become the struts to the retaining walls resisting the lateral thrust of the earth. This breaks down
the enclosed volume into several subspaces as well as sets up the successive visual frame.

Knowledge of soil mechanics, the relationship between technique and behaviour of available
material, size and quantity, and sequence of construction helps to design a successful stepwell.
Stepwell construction has evolved due to cultural-historical evolution. Construction of stepwells
allowed water to be received both as a natural element and also that could be contained by the
human-made container.

Stepwells consist of two parts: a vertical well shaft (water storage) from which the water is
drawn using pulley or water wheel and the surrounding inclined subterranean passageway with
chambers to rest, and steps leading to the water surface. Stepwells have lattice walls, intricately
carved columns, decorated towers that have made these stepwells masterpieces of Indian
architecture.

59
Elements and structural systems of stepwells –

1. Toda - A pair of ornate pillars at the entrance of stepwells to mark its locations. They can be
very heavily embellished or very plain depending on the style and scale of the stepwell. They
typically contain a small niche to place an oil lamp.

2. Kuta - A landing between sets of steps in a stepwell to provide a place to stand and rest. Kutas
is typically covered by stacked pavilions divided into levels corresponding to previous Kutas.
The number of Kutas divides the types of stepwells.

3. Ardhakuta - A supporting arch, like a Kuta, but without a pavilion or landing.

4. Well shaft -The circular shaft provided at the end of the stepwell giving access to underground
water can be claimed as the well shaft (M. Joshi 2017)34.

4.13 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HINDU & MUSLIM STYLE OF STEPWELL

ARCHITECTURE

The complex engineering of Hindu and Islamic architecture made them stylish and unique.
Hindu builders used post-and-lintel construction and corbel domes whereas Muslim style of
architecture featured the arch and the domes. Hindu artists carved sculptures and friezes packed
with deities, humans, and animals, but Islam completely forbade depictions of any human figure
hence they decorated using floral patterns or geometric shapes. Hindu temples featured column-
supported shade pavilions and elaborate stone carvings. Islamic versions had more-sedate
adornment and often incorporated arched side-niches. Both architectural types had cylinder wells
where water-gathering pulley systems were provided to draw water. The fusion of Indo-Islamic
culture creates a marvelous piece of art. For example, the Rudabai Vav and the Dada Harir Vav,
which were built under Islamic authority using Hindu artisans.

4.14 THE KINESTHETICS OF STEPWELLS

While descending into stepwells the harsh sunlight becomes increasingly murky, hot air turns
cool and humid and the noise from above the ground becomes hushed. Steps create the interface

34
Joshi, M. Lesser Known Stepwells - In and Around Ahmedabad Gandhinagar Region. Urban Management
Centre, 2017.

60
between the land and the water. The variety of experiences in connection to earth is experienced
while accessing water with space, movement, shadows, and poetry. The temperature within the
stepwells is reduced by 5 degrees celsius as it is not exposed to sunlight or direct sunlight cannot
penetrate the well the only shaft of light is let into the water well. Hence the evaporation of
water is thus reduced and the water gets filtered from the earth, thus remaining pure and fresh.
These step wells are so well constructed that they can withstand earthquakes to a scale of 7.6 on
the Richter scale.

It is the journey, the process of moving through space which in itself becomes the event with the
gradual unfolding of spaces which creates a sense of curiosity within the visitor and involves
them in the process. A dialogue is created between the subject and the perceiver through the
process of encoding and decoding of messages that makes the entire process interactive. The
only visible truth about this subterranean structure is a pair of large pilasters flanking wild flight
of steps. The plinth platform is then made the descent through a series of steps and retaining
sidewalls. The intermediate landing creates a dynamic interplay between the visual axis and the
movement path. Although there is a street linear symmetrical organization of elements along the
horizontal axis, the visual references continuously change due to incline movement through the
simultaneous displacement of the horizontal and vertical axis at every step the visual frame
constantly changes with changing eye-level perspective will alignments and the resultant visual
composition all along with its depth. The landings and beams ensure that each flight of steps
reveal only themselves and the immediate landing while the subsequent flights of steps remove
themselves from the cone of vision. As the journey comes to an end the focus is on the shaft
connecting vertically up to the sky and down into the ground.

The shoring walls along with the platforms and tribute action provide the sense of enclosure to
space essentially open to the sky. The perception of the enclosure is reinforced by the decreasing
intensity of light as one listen towards the water. The harshness of light subdues as one
progressive further and deeper into the space making the path progressively vertical more
intimate. The variation of visual frames is also due to the effects of the sunlight over time and
season.

These upturned staircases are wonders of architecture, engineering, and art, encompassing a
wide range of sizes, styles, and materials. The sense is stimulated in a sustained rhythm of
increasing abstraction, mass, form, elements, materials, treatment, light and shade, texture, and

61
final notion. The destination is not an end in itself, it‟s rather an excuse. It‟s the journey of
mystery, fantasy, and surprise says, (D. A. Pandey 2016)35.

4.15 THE SCALE OF THE STEPWELLS

The terrain of the location of the stepwell determines the number of steps required to reach the
aquifer. The container size is depended upon the capacity of the land to hold water. The
knowledge of hydrology and understanding of the context decided the design of the stepwell.
The variations in the rule and role of government reflected the differences in the scale and
complexity of the work involved in the construction of stepwells. Interlinking, interconnectivity,
multiple layering with hierarchies, interactions among elements, and interdependencies of the
parts of the whole creates a holistic concept of stepwells. The ecosystem played a major role in
deciding the scale of the structure. It took varied forms of shapes and sizes reflecting the
diversity of the context. Stepwells are infrastructure with a meaningful human dimension that
was multifunctional, connected, and integrated into its context. The scale of the stepwell
depended on seepage, percolation, water holding capacity, and movement of water in the
subsoil. The principle of harvesting and utilizing at the source was the guiding principle in the
selection of the type of construction. This is how characteristic individuality emerged from each
type.

4.16 THE CITY DEVELOPMENT AND THE STEPWELLS

At the highest point of the hill, the fort was built providing security and town developed on
either side of the slopes or at its base. Considering the summer sandstorms, the settlement
developed on the shadow side of the hill and fort. The city couldn't have survived in the hostile
of the semi-arid Deccan region. Basic water facilities were the basic duty of the king for his
kingdom to flourish. Providing water throughout the year especially during the dry season was
the basis for all-round development and prosperity of the city. Pockets of valleys within which
reservoirs were constructed stored water which flowed from the highest point of the hill and let it
further into the city. Thus, the city is developed downstream.

The catchment reservoir was enhanced through smaller reservoirs, using the natural channels to
drain water to the main reservoir. Stepwells were constructed by understanding the relationship

35
Pandey, D. A. Bawdi: The Eloquent Example of Hydraulic Engineering and Ornamental Architecture.
International Journal of Research Granthaalayah, 2016.

62
between topography and the flow of water which helped to create suitable conditions to build a
stepwell that would sustain the settlement throughout the year and summers. The places of water
have become the social heart of the city over the years. The system of reservoirs, lakes tanks,
ponds, and wells created a network of diverse open spaces in the dense compact city. Two
distinct needs of any livable city are access to water and open public spaces and stepwells were
the combinations of both.

In a community, the street widens to accommodate the well and create public chowk. To
facilitate social activity otla - a ledge seating is made under a tree extending the area of influence
to include community, elders, children‟s, and youth apart from the women who converge to
collect water for the household purposes. Small channels collect water in a small container that
serves the animals. In the hot weather, a place beside water or under a tree is the most ideal
space for social interaction of the community. The locals or the community took the
responsibility of maintaining these wells which created a strong bond with water structures. The
architecture to collect, store, and access water had the potential of inhabitation for social-cultural
activities. Folktales', songs, rituals, and social behavior explain the meaning and importance of
these water systems. They have been spaces of everyday living and social space in the lives of
women of the settlement. These various social aspects of water add another layer of meaning to
the architecture. Stepwells created a web of social and cultural interrelations by the physical and
spatial dimensions of public open spaces in the city with several layers of congregational
possibilities.

4.17 THE POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON STEPWELLS

The increase in the number of stepwells indicated a higher degree of decentralization in
managing the resource suggestive of a stable rule and an expanding settlement. The rise in the
power of the authority leads to an increase in the number and scale of the reservoirs. Extensive
resources and an increase in wealth suggested rebuilding and up-gradation of reservoirs and
stepwells multiple times. Through visual impact, scale and regulation underline the legitimacy of
political structure. It was a way for the king to strengthen his position as a benevolent ruler. The
design, inscriptions, accounts, and local traditions directly involved the king in financial backing
and supervision of these projects. Construction of the water body is an affirmation of the link
between the articulation of architecture and a political structure. It placed the king in a position
of responsibility by which the city develops an invaluable culture of patronage of architecture for
water.

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4.18 THE ROLE OF WOMEN ASSOCIATED WITH STEPWELL
Water is a practical need for day to day living, which is considered the most precious of all
elements among the Indian cosmology. In India, due to the cultural practices places the
household responsibilities on women. Most of the domestic chores required water like washing
and cooking which had to be performed by the woman on the edge of the water bodies.
Rajasthan has traditionally been conservative about women‟s access to public spaces. Strong
segregation of women from men was the norm which often limited women within the boundaries
of their homes. Often the only two activities for which women came out of the houses were to
fetch water and to visit the temple. Collecting water just became a reason for women to venture
into a public space. The day to day routine and household chores handled by the woman let them
converge at the water bodies which allowed women to move about within the city. Stepwells
occupied the public spaces in the urban context which served as social space for women.
Stepwells created an intrinsic relationship between cultural values, territory, women, and water.
Social customs, rituals, and ceremonies acted out in these domains created the conditions of the
positive integration of women in the use of urban public spaces.

The spatiality of the water spaces was designed to accommodate diverse activities and became
the social infrastructure of the city with leisurely chats', discussions, varied social interaction,
and rituals performed by the women. It became the point from which alliances and relationships
were created. The places of water also provided women a location for spending a day with their
children away from the other demands of the house. The proximity of the village to the houses
implied multiple visits during the day and the meeting with different people each time generated
greater access to the social network of urban life. The city does express a traditional cultural
paradigm for women‟s role and stepwells became a construct of spaces for women. The water
structures contributed to the more equitable access of women to public spaces.

Important evidence of this relationship and its strong connection to women was also expressed
through patronage. It is believed that twenty-five percent of those wealthy or powerful
philanthropists were females who in honor of their deceased husbands or sons built stepwells.
The window Queen used to donate her property to a Brahmin or patronized the construction of
the water body. Historically in an otherwise patriarchal society, the construction of water
structures offered an opportunity for women to create a legacy for prosperity. Women thus took
up significant roles in the construction of stepwells.

64
The social and cultural aspects of water conjure images of women collecting water in traditional
societies from a common shares source. Women had to travel long distances to collect water
from the natural source and the introduction of stepwells brought water sources closer to home
for an increase in the productive time of women. This infrastructure was created keeping in mind
the simultaneous presence of a large number of people who were likely to access the water
indicated by the presence of elaborate steps landings and platforms leading to the water. Steps
were such as to provide relief to women carrying pots of water so that they could stand on the
landing and rest the pots on the next landing without having to make efforts of bending down,
which proves stepwells had anthropometric dimensions depending on women.

The architecture to collect, store, and access water was also a space for socio-cultural activities.
Groups of people, especially women could collect and spend their time together. Stepwells
created a sense of continuity, belief, and security.

4.19 LINGUISTIC TERMINOLOGY OF THE STEPWELLS

Figure 2 - Linguistic terminology of stepwells and step ponds/ tanks throughout India. Source: Author
65
 Step Well

Step Tanks / Ponds

Stepwells are unique and two stepwells are identical as the construction depended upon
geography, region, climate, etc. in the same way, there are several distinct names given to the
step wells/tanks/ponds according to the local context, region, language, and diverse cultural
growth.

66
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

67
5. CONCLUSION
The significance of stepwells was lost in the 19th century due to the introduction of modern
technology of water pumps, tanks, and pipe-systems, and due to economic cost involved in the
construction of stepwells, they were not constructed thereafter. During the British rule (1858–
1947), many stepwells were destroyed or filled up after they had been considered as unhygienic
breeding grounds for disease. The freshwater streams that source the stepwells were depleted
and diverted. Urbanization of the city with new buildings creating concrete jungle has been the
reason for climate change affected the intensity and patterns of rainfall which impacted the
groundwater recharge and the long-term availability of groundwater. High temperatures increase
the rate of evapotranspiration leading to depletion of soil moisture. Dry soil needs more water
for irrigation, which is often met by extracting more groundwater. The construction of dams and
extensive quarrying in the catchment area has disrupted the natural streams and the capacity of
the reservoir. Today most of the stepwells are deteriorated, filled up with silt, vegetation, and
garbage, while bats, bees, snakes, and other critters took up residence.

Due to the increasing demand for domestic, industrial, and agricultural use, most river basins are
water-stressed. Unregulated groundwater extraction has led to overuse and exploitation of water
resources, causing the groundwater table to deplete, drying up of springs, and aquifers. The
effect of global warming creates variations in precipitation, melting of snow, and water
availability. Variation in rainfall means the replenishment of water resources. Resources
depletion is caused due to population growth, pollution, and the effects of climate change add
pressure on already stressed water resources. The advantages of rainwater harvesting are that it
is simple, cheap, replicable, efficient, sustainable, and adaptable which can be implemented in
small-scale. Rainwater harvesting also has been shown to improve water use efficiency, reduce
soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and increase agricultural productivity.

Stepwells were abandoned due to modernization and falling water tables and the local
communities neglected their upkeep, allowing them to silt up, misused by filling it up with
garbage, turning it into latrines, repurposed as storage areas, mined for their stone, or just left to
decay and crumble into ruin. The water of stepwells generally was fouled by garbage or was
overgrown with vegetation from lack of attention. Some stepwells are on the verge of total
collapse, with the unstable.

Gujarat shows rejuvenation of groundwater storage while Rajasthan shows severe groundwater
depletion. This is because, although both the states have a significant area irrigated with
groundwater, water is drawn using electric tube wells from deep aquifers, Gujarat has a policy in
place to restrict groundwater extraction by limiting the number of hours of electricity supplied
68
by providing a separate grid for the agriculture sector and no such restriction or policy has been
implemented in Rajasthan.

Our environment has lost its purity over time both physically and culturally. The ecological
impact in societies is caused by human activities due to development and technological
advancement. We consider water as a purifier of the spirit, but now there is a need to purify
water itself. Water bodies are highly polluted and contaminated by human and industrial waste,
but the daily prayers and rituals continue to be performed in them. The sacredness and value of
the water have been as the presence and provision of water been taken for granted.

Water has become one of the most fragile resources today. It is the most crucial aspect of life.
Due to its regular renewability on earth, affordability, ease of access, water was neglected. The
water conservation of the city was based on rainwater harvesting. The water drew from seasonal
streams conserve the life system and supports in harvesting the parched landscape. The exclusive
traditional water management system was designed to consume every drop of available water.

The earth bunds which were used to ensure that water did not rise above a safe height and helped
passing excess water into the canal as it flows through the irrigated valley have been made
impervious through converting them to concrete using modern tools. All the traditional
architectural elements have been removed and replaced with modern engineering such as
reinforcing the existing natural channels. As there has been a change in the manner of
construction, the shift from traditional materials and practices to industrial materials through
increasingly mechanized methods has led to the loss of such a traditional water harvesting
system.

Water is a resource to be carefully used and judicially distributed. Its quantity and quality are a
very important consideration and its growth was aligned to the development of the city. The
system extended beyond the requirement of a quantity of water and brought into the daily life of
the people where it profound meanings of social and cultural value. The close relationship of the
infrastructure to nature and society indicates a sensitive approach to design and development
hence stepwells are considered to be sustainable.

Before water was sourced from long distances and was made to flow below our cities in small
pipes to reach our homes it occupied large and small public spaces in the urban fabric. The pipe
water has taken away the relationship between water and people. From the spiritual, social, and
utilitarian meanings, water has flowed into a statistical container. Its multiple functions of

69
purifying, cleansing, and washing now take on the singular shape of piped infrastructure.
Modern methods are mono-functional infrastructure performing only one task to store and
transport water and whereas the traditional water systems were multi-functional. The city
administration pipes water out of these stepwells without any respect for its architecture or
sensitivity for its ecology.

The modern technology has displaced significant gender spaces that allowed women access to
urban public space. The concern of water has shifted from community to the individual. The
historic societies harvested water within its watershed and tried to use it locally. The aim was to
be able to complete the water cycle in a large part within the watershed area of a course of water.

Water exploitation and management have been of great concern for a developing and developed
urban civilization. India is a water challenge country with water stress and the diminishing of the
sources of potable water can be considered as a measure of the environmental damage that has
occurred. Considering the recent water scarcity scenarios, stepwells are a good source of
groundwater enriched with minerals and gives life to billion.

Management of the demand and pressure on groundwater becomes the challenge and we need to
understand the resource based on its possibilities, and its limitations. Understanding the water
resource completely inclusive of source availability related to the overall ecology replenishment
impact on other organisms and measured distribution water has come to be a commodity to be
supplied. Currently, large rivers have been damaged and the components that bring water to the
homes are no longer tangible visible or experience but are situated far away. There occurs a loss
of sensitivity to correlate the availability of the water.

A number of stepwells function as subterranean temples as they are highly carved and richly
decorated with sculptures. Restoration of stepwells helps increase the age of the architecture but
is limiting in its potential to be an active urban public space. The restoration of the physical built
form of architecture ignores the largest system and relations. A few stepwells that are surviving
are surviving as artifacts in the urban environment. The aspect of contributing to the public open
space can be retrieved if alternative functions can be introduced for these structures. We need to
conserve our water systems which have spiritual, cultural, and customary connections to the
landscape.

The knowledge of these traditional scenes has the potential to enrich the built form of our water
system as well as to make them socially and culturally more meaning full. Some of the

70
architectural expansions still stand awaiting reinterpretation and regeneration. The qualitative
aspects of the people's nature relationship and the various histories of the place are found to be
missing from the various discourses policies and reports. The elements of stepwells can adapt to
the changing context of time and space contributing to the resilience of the system. These
elements reinforce the main intangible meaning that water has for people from life until death
and beyond. The simplicity and directness of the response grant it the strength for continuity that
is enhanced by its relationship with the environment. It is hoped to initiate a productive dialogue
on the integration of social and environmental ecosystems with infrastructure development and
hence leading to urban regeneration. Eventually, the textile and experiential relationship between
the city and its water can be restored and reinstated.

The value of the concept of stepwells has completely been eliminated from the current practices
as in this generation citizens be expected to go to a well to draw water for everyday living. The
present ways of designing the water infrastructure don‟t consider traditional knowledge. The
valuable traditional knowledge of their methods systems and principles can contribute to
advancing the principle in contemporary times. Knowledge about these stepwells needs to be
placed in the public to make it accessible to create a dialogue on the future of these water
resources and structures. We should again learn and comprehend the ancient knowledge and
apply it in our modern times to get rid of the present water-stressed condition.

As most of the stepwells have now fallen into disuse and are dry, as groundwater has been
diverted for industrial use, we need to make effort to raise awareness to protect the disappearing
marvels of architecture and engineering. Most of the water resource development projects
implemented in India are proved to be ecologically damaging, socially intrusive, capital
intensive, and unsustainable. The ability of urban areas to increase water supply potential is
further limited due to the depletion of groundwater resources, falling groundwater levels, and
deteriorating groundwater quality and pollution of surface water bodies. People are increasingly
coming under pressure to find alternative sources of water supply. The country‟s burgeoning
water crisis is leading to redeem some of these subterranean priceless architectures before they
disappear from our landscapes.

Providing water is essential for a country‟s development objectives – job creation, food security,
GDP growth, and social goals including poverty reduction. Global consumption of water is
doubling every 20 years, more than twice the rate of human population growth. Mismanagement
and unsustainable use of water are making the whole situation environmentally uncomfortable
for India. Most of the rain falling on the surface tends to flow away rapidly, leaving very little

71
for the recharge of groundwater. Providing water is essential for a country‟s development
objectives – job creation, food security, GDP growth, and social goals including poverty
reduction (UNESCO 2009)36.

Indian stepwells are among the top level of world architectural treasures. The need of the hour is
to revive, restore, reuse, and revitalize them by integrating them in the urban fabric to help
reduce the burden of water shortage. In urban areas, the provision of swales, infiltration-
trenches, and bio-retention systems will help to percolate water into the ground and to direct
stormwater runoff to catchment points such as traditional stepwells, stepped ponds, lakes, temple
tanks, etc. These should be designed as a part of water landscaping which would enhance
biodiversity and maintain the historic character.

Water harvesting systems are Indian traditional technologies that have met the needs of local
populations for many centuries indicating the systems are sustainable. But no matter how
dilapidated, encountering a stepwell remains a powerful experience. Stepwells are an artistic
masterpiece and were not merely utilitarian structures. These historical monuments should
receive the care and attention they deserve. Indian engineers have drawn inspiration from these
ancient structures to design new tanks for water collection. We should protect and expend the
tradition and technology of this old water harvesting which is very beneficial for all. Due to
increasing awareness among the general public by NGOs and UNESCO, there is a renewed
interest in restoring and maintaining the stepwells to their original state.

The revival and conservation of the traditional water supply system should be made a part of the
planning process and incorporated in the development plan. There are efforts taken to de-silt and
reactivate the stepwells in some parts of the country and there is hope that they might once again
serve to collect and store water. We must raise awareness, create demand, include them on every
tourist itinerary, in every guidebook, in university courses, documentaries, and many more
books. Water is one of the essential elements associated with human life. The regeneration of the
stepwell can be a way to restore the tactile and experiential relationships in the city with nature
while mitigating the crisis of water.

36
UNESCO. World Water Assessment Programme. The United Nations World Water Development Report 3:
Water in a changing world, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2011.
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3/pdf/WWDR3_Water_in_a_Changing_World .pdf.

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PLAGIARISM REPORT

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